Routledge Handbook of Political Management

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Routledge Handbook of Political Management

Dennis W. Johnson

Political Consulting Worldwide

Publication details https://www.routledgehandbooks.com/doi/10.4324/9780203892138.ch3 Fritz Plasser Published online on: 22 Aug 2008

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Dennis W. y, 208. Routledge’s .” Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 02:49 03 Oct 2021; For: 9780203892138, chapter3, 10.4324/9780203892138.ch3 ging democracies often funded by international democracyassistanceprograms. democracies oftenfundedby international ging providedadvice andservices by ateamoftopUSconsultants. theSocialDemocratsspentconsiderableeven money on suchasAustria inasmallcountry 2006 by Forza ItaliaandUlivo overseas adviceby American onstrategic consultants. In2006 $2 milliononoutsideconsultantsin2005. AboutthesameamounthasbeenspentinItaly politicalconsultants.for external IntheUnitedKingdomLabourandTories spentmore than paigns are plannedanddirected by professional managers, party there are business opportunities where expensive paidpoliticaltelevision advertising campaignsare rare exceptionsandcam- $1 billionisspentoncampaigncommunication every electioncycle. Even inWestern Europe the graymarket inelectionsisatleast$1billionayear. IntheAsia-Paci tion ofvivid television spots craftedby topmediaconsultantsandadvertising agencies. InRussia million. About60%ofthatamounthasbeenspentoncampaigncommunication andtheproduc- Total expenditures fortherecent BrazilianandMexicanpresidential campaignsexceeded$600 adviceisnotcon spending oncampaigncommunication andstrategic $1.85 billionaccording toareview conductedby theCenterofPublic Integrity. Abundant 2004 federalelections. About600professional consultantswere paidmore thanacombined billion-dollar market. IntheUnitedStatesnearly$2billion The worldwide market forpoliticalconsultancyandcampaigncommunication isamulti- Fritz Plasser Political ConsultingWorldwide 3 24 $200 million. and covering ofpoliticalconsultants—would theexpenditures fortheservices beapproximately aidworldwide—often annual totalparty mate ofcurrent concentratingoncampaign-related aid are numerous ofprofessional political studiesdealingwiththeongoinginternationalization from outapart anecdotalevidence.United Stateshadbeencarried Inthemeantimethere sionals, pollsters, marketing andadvertising agencies. experts market of123electoral democraciesworldwide isa the totalexpenditures isdirect incometopolitical consultants andtheir spots, advertising, print posters, organizationofmassrallies andlogistics, andonly a fractionof of campaignspendingcovers expenses forpaidmedia, buying airtime, production oftelevision 8 billiondependingontherespective electioncalendarandcycles. isalmostsurreal.Africa Theannual worldwide electionmarket canberoughly estimatedat$6to Extensive spendingoncampaignconsultancy canalsobeobserved indeveloping andemer- Until recently nosystematicresearch onthepracticesofpolitical consultantsoutsidethe 2 The fl ow ofcampaignmoney insomeofthe leastdeveloped inAsiaand countries fl ourishing business forcampaignprofes-ourishing fl owed through consultantsin2003– fi ned totheUnitedStates. fi 3 c region morec region than Althoughthebulk fi rms, thepolitical 1 Arough esti- Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 02:49 03 Oct 2021; For: 9780203892138, chapter3, 10.4324/9780203892138.ch3 sequently increasing campaignexpenditures. undecided voters withcarefully de on television. topresent Thecontestantsare theirtopicsinafavorable trying way andtoreach are fought an intensive won orlostduring encounterbetween primarily candidatesandparties munication. Television nowadays source ofnews inalmostallcountries. istheprimary Campaigns presumably trend istheexclusive mostimportant television-centeredness ofcampaigncom- a new baseduponthecommunicative medialogic abilitiesofthe candidates, theircompetenceof requirements ofavisualandscenicmedium, hadtoacceptthestandards of candidates andparties as thedominantmediumof politicalcommunication. Inorder tocopewiththestructural electorate. Thesecond phase, inthe1960s, starting by was thespread characterized oftelevision sages, programmatic di styleofcampaigningbasedon substantialmes- asaparty-dominated phase couldbedescribed professionalized andculture-speci according tocountry- thelastdecades,During thestyleandpracticeof electioncampaignshave and beenmodernized Professionalization ofCampaigningWorldwide consulting. three consultants orwell-educated andquali Both observations pointtospecialists, whoare from eitherrecruited political acircle ofexternal ity oftopcandidates. election systemsandstrong organizations, party campaignsincreasingly focusuponthepersonal- trend: theincreasedofelectioncampaigns. personalization withparty-centered Even incountries based ontheGlobalPolitical ConsultancyProject. before ofrole discussingthevariety de activities ofoverseas consultants, Iwillconcentrate oncountry-speci party-centered electioncampaignstomedia-centeredcampaigns. party-centered personality for aparty, speakofatrend toward presidentialization inthesenseofmoving the prevailing isproportional representation electionformula andthedecisive vote isthevote of thetelevision cameras. Attentive ofcampaignpracticesinWestern observers Europe, where take leaders overdemocracies thismeansthatparty thecentralcommunication tasksinfront attheendof1970s. compared toonlytencountries politicians. Suchdebatesrepresent theculminationofelectioncampaignsinatleast the countries. ofcampaigningsuchasposters,traditional mediaandforums adsandmassralliesinmostof print television advertising withconsiderable limitations, paidtelevision campaigning replaced the the exceptionofWestern European allow democracieswhere paidpolitical onlysixcountries to buy attheendof1990s. television timeforpoliticaladvertising insixtycountries With thepurchase oftelevision candidatesandparties time,in the1970spermitting itwas alsopossible democracies aswell asindemocraciesofeconomicallylessdeveloped countries. changes incampaignpracticesshows several macro-trends, whichcanbeobserved inindustrial formed electioncampaigningfrom an activityintoahighlyprofessionalformed ofamateurs enterprise. the progressive professionalization ofleadingsta politicalconsultants.external Theworldwide di The secondmacro-trend isthegrowing ofpaidtelevision advertising importance withcon- The transformation of political campaign practices during thepastdecadescanbedivided into ofpoliticalcampaignpracticesduring The transformation The The third macro-trend isthegrowing oftelevision debatesbetween importance leading consecutive phases, whichinpractice, ofcourse, are overlapping (seeTable 3.1). fi fth macro-trend isthegrowing ofprofessional and importance campaignmanagers 4 Starting withtheworldwide andthe Starting campaignexpertise proliferation ofmodern 10 Thecommunication of messagesrequires amessenger. Inmedia-centered ff erences, press andtheloyalties ofcore aparty-oriented groupsofthe fi ned messagesandplanned, camera-ready events. fi fi nitions ofaworldwide sampleofcampaignprofessionals ed party sta ed party 8 Whilethere were worldwide onlyfourcountries ff ff members within the party headquarters trans- headquarters withintheparty members usion of American campaigntechniquesand usion ofAmerican 5 ff members. 9 This in turn leads to the fourth macro- leadstothefourth Thisinturn fi POLITICAL CONSULTING WORLDWIDE c variations. 6 fi A comparison ofactual Acomparison c consultancypractices 11 7 fi The fty countries, 13 away from away The fi rst and rst fi 25 rst 12 Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 02:49 03 Oct 2021; For: 9780203892138, chapter3, 10.4324/9780203892138.ch3 apinEpniue o ugtIcesn Spiralingup Permanent campaign campaign Cleavage- Long-term andgroup-based Increasing Short-term, adhoc Low budget Electorate Campaign Expenditures Preparations Paradigm Postmodern Dominant Campaign andleading Party leaders Campaign Coordination Partisan press, posters, Modern advertisments, Print posters, Dominant Advertising Media Traditional Media Communication Dominant StyleofPolitical Communication Systems Mode ofPolitical Phase 3.1. Table FRITZ PLASSER 26 professional isde competenceofpublic andmediaadvisors relations experts more intensive andreacts uponadvanced techniquesofnews management. Theincreasing targeted tocarefully de process oflarge-scalecampaign messagesintomicro-messages aswell asthetransformation of television channelsandtargetgroups, andbloggers intothecampaign ofInternet theintrusion self-presentation, impression managementandthecreation ofcamera-ready events. Conn.: Praeger, 2002), 6. Source: Plasser, approach. mobility thepracticeofselling politicshasbeenreplaced stepby stepby apoliticalmarketing the marketing-revolution ofcampaigns. thepracticeofelectioneering: changing spinning campaignnews andthisleadstoanother factor ful segmentationoftheelectoral market, positioningtoward strategic thepoliticalopponent, extensive opinionresearch. communication,specialized onstrategic image-building, theproduction oftelevision spotsand changes anew profession entrepreneurial entered thepoliticalmarket place: politicalconsultants and managementtasks. they advisors, hired external planning especiallyadvertising andmarketing forstrategic experts electioncampaigns;party-centered didnothave andsincetheparties inthat any experts The third, still developing by afragmentation phaseofpoliticalcampaigningischaracterized In confrontation with theprogressive erosion loyalties ofparty andthegrowth ofvoter 17 Modeling ChangingCampaignPracticesWorldwide Standardized campaign operations characterized by Standardized politicalmarketing campaignoperationscharacterized contain: care- Global PoliticalCampaigning: AWorldwide Analysis ofCampaignProfessionalsandTheirPractices fi 16 ned voter segments. Thenegative becomes toneofmassmediareporting stable voting behavior logic Organization andparty sta party mass rallies lea Multiplechannelsand broadcasts newspaper adverts, radio Television-centered Soundbites, imageand lines Messages alongparty Party-dominated 15 fl Anew style ofcandidate-centered politicsreplaced theoldstyleof ets, radiospeechesand ff volatility attachments andrising Erosion ofparty- logic Television-focused media experts advertising andsurvey media, and external Party campaignmanagers adverts, massdirect mailings andmagazine posters advertisements, colorful Nationwide television through mainevening news Television broadcasts impression management volatile voting behavior Issue-based andhighly marketing logic Data bank-based consultants specialized political units andmore campaign Special party blogs videos, YouTube and telemarketing, web-based campaigns and advertisements, e-mail Targeted television campaigns mail ande-mail casting, targeteddirect Television narrow- micro-messages Narrow-casted, targeted multi-media fi ning, shapingand 14 With these (Westport, fi eld, Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 02:49 03 Oct 2021; For: 9780203892138, chapter3, 10.4324/9780203892138.ch3 exclusively role model. ontheAmerican campaign stylewhich,media- andmarketing-oriented however, innoway needstobeoriented andculture-speci plementation ofcountry- of electioncampaigning. direction of “global reproduction politics.” ofAmerican oftheworldwideIn theendthiswould campaignstylesinthe actuallyleadtoatransformation campaigns. presidential campaignstotheir nationalparliamentary of competitioninAmerican campaignactivists andtransferthepoliticallogic axiomsofAmerican toacceptthestrategic try American electioncampaignsisthe American baskets. Themostwidespread modelforthetransferofselecttechniquesandinnovations of and campaigninnovations, whichthey leave aftertheirselective with shopping tours mall forforeign campaignmanagers, fornew politicalsupermarket campaigntechniques avirtual In comparison, professional campaignpracticesare basedon: selected groupsoftargetvoters, messagedisciplineandintensive useoffocusgroups. rigid research-supported development ofmicro-messages appealingtotheneedsandemotionsof same timetheConservatives software imported from databankmaintainedby the thestrategic campaigns, whotookover theplanningandmanagementofConservatives’ campaign. Atthe mobilizationoftargetgroupsinhighlycompetitive(regional districts), aswell asnegative attack campaign experts, Lynton Crosby and MarkTextor, campaigns specialists inmarginal-seat ofEuropeanhybridization electioncampaigns. The Conservative Party hired two Australian evidence exists untilnow), the role modelofcampaigns inmedia-centeredAmerican democracies(forwhichnoempirical acceptance. managers. developed intheUnitedStatesfoundworldwide Campaigntechniquesoriginally be arole modelofcampaigningintheview ofEuropean, andAsiancampaign LatinAmerican consequences inthecaseoftakingover the imported toEurope,imported orAsiainmodi LatinAmerica electioncampaignssuitable forunproblematicAmerican useinthenationalcontextare professional politicalconsultants, pollsters, media, marketing andpoliticalmanagement • but offree equallyuponpoliticaltelevision airtimeoraspaid advertising intheform • theavailable ofpoliticaltelevision andprofessional mediaformats techniquesofnews • andorganization-centered approach aparty- toplanningandwagingelection campaigns. • press, oftheparty theimportance thewidespread useofposters, stickers, brochures and • ofcanvassing, communication withvoters theirconcentrationuponthepersonal inform • Core features oftraditionalcampaignpracticeswere: The British campaign forthegeneralelectionof2005represents animpressiveThe British example of While the Regarding theprofessionalization ofelectioncampaigns, theUnitedStatesisconsidered to experts responsible for primarily candidate-centered andmedia-driven campaigns. responsibleexperts forprimarily ads andmassralliesby web-based videos, e-mails, direct mail-campaigns; aswell as television advertising campaignsreplacing traditionalcampaignmediasuchasposters, print viral marketing activities; management, impression management, camera-ready events arranged andthepotentialof well as politiciansand candidatestomobilizethecore voters; adsorradiospeechesofparty print as door-to-door contacts, meetingsandmassrallies; party 20 Infact, presidential electioncampaignshave American becomeapolitical shopping adoption model Hybridization results in a gradual standardization results of electionpracticesfollowing inagradual the shopping model shopping model ofcampaignpracticesstandsinthiscontextforasup- 23 adoption model leads to a hybridization of the international practice oftheinternational leadstoahybridization fi c campaigntraditionsby selectcomponentsofa fi , where concrete practices andmethodsof ed form. 22 , where foreignalso campaign managers POLITICAL CONSULTING WORLDWIDE 21 There would be, however, more 19 18 fi lled 27 Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 02:49 03 Oct 2021; For: 9780203892138, chapter3, 10.4324/9780203892138.ch3 shaped campaignpracticesworldwide toaconsiderable degree. Africa, where French topconsultantsdominatetheelectoralmarkets, consultants American Republican Institute(IRI), NationalDemocratic Institute (NDI)ortheUSAgencyfor programs ofsuchorganizationsastheNational Endowment forDemocracy (NED), International the worldwide di School ofPolitical Management (GSPM)attheGeorgeWashington University, to contributed oftheGraduate inars, andacademicprograms suchasthehigh-quality curriculum tradejournals Chapter 26by LouisPerron; Scha onAsianelectionsseeChapter27by Christian consulting andpublic a ancy business causedleading representatives the1980seither toswitch tocorporate during cost ofoverheads atthefullservice-companies, andthecyclicdynamicsofpoliticalconsult- fi professional electioncampaigntechniques. Theextremely highnumber ofpoliticalconsultancy overseasAmerican consultants have played aleadingrole intheworldwide proliferation of Worldwide ActivitiesofPoliticalConsultants election campaignsthanthemisleadingideaofaglobalstandardization ofcampaignpractices. competitive system, betterwiththemanifoldreality corresponds ofEuropean orLatinAmerican takeover offoreign expertise, ofthenational withtheinstitutionalandculturalrules whichagrees inthepastyears.election campaignsasforeign experts exampleofaselective TheBritish whothemselvescampaign strategists hadbeeninvolved presidential intheplanningofAmerican elections in2000and2004. Directing thecampaignofLabourParty, however, were British presidential theAmerican advertising advicetotheDemocraticpresidential candidatesduring team ofhighrankingpoliticalconsultantsfrom theUnitedStates, whohadgivenand strategic Party ontheotherhandrelied, previous justlike generalelections, during ofa ontheexpertise thepresidential campaignof2004.Republican Party intheUnitedStatesduring TheLabour FRITZ PLASSER 28 consultants inaround eightycountries. toppoliticalconsultantshadworkedend ofthe1990smore than50%ofallAmerican asoverseas straints represent a barrier thatisonlyrarely overcomestraints represent abarrier by USconsultants suchasJapan,countries Taiwan, IndonesiaandIndia, where severe con- culturalandregulatory alsoinRussianpresidential campaigns.their footprints With thenotable exceptionofAsian worked inAustralian campaigns, traveled tothePhilippinesandSouthKorea left and temporarily expertise. consultantsfrequently have American beeninvolved countries, inLatinAmerican activities ofdemocracy assistanceprograms, have ledtoasustainable in where market-driven overseas activities ofAmerican consultants, combinedwithdonor-driven European countries. Thesituationissimilarinthenew democraciesinEast-CentralEurope, Napolitan madetheir the UnitedStates. Joseph ofthepoliticalconsultingbusiness such asthelegendary Pioneers ant during thelastyears. ant during andconsultantsoutsidetheUnitedStateshavemanagers consult- cooperatedwithanAmerican buting totheworldwide di work overseas, politicalconsultantshasevolved, aglobalelectoralmarket forAmerican contri- overseas consultantscanbeclassi mercial basisbyconsultantssofar. few American Europe,Eastern have whiletheelectoralmarkets ofAsiaandAfrica onlybeenentered onacom- overseasAmerican consultantsisLatinAmerica, followed by Western Europe, East-Centraland rms withintheUnitedStates,rms theintensifyingcompetitionforlucrative contracts, theincreasing In additiontomarket-driven activities ofprominent USconsultants, campaigntrainingsem- According toourGlobalPolitical ConsultancySurvey, one-third oftheinterviewed party ff usion of American campaignexpertise.usion ofAmerican Inaddition, democracy assistance fi rst experiences as American overseas the1960s. asAmerican consultantsduring experiences rst Atthe ff 27 airs management airs Inthelate1990s, consultantsworked American inalmostallWestern ff usion of American campaigntechniquesandexpertise. usion ofAmerican fi ed assuperconsultants, more than50%from earning their 25 Clearly the most important market of Clearlythemostimportant fortheservices 24 ormotivated themtolookfornew markets outside 26 AlthoughonlyasmallfractionofAmerican 29 (OnPhilippineelections, see fl ux of American campaign ux ofAmerican 28 andfrancophone ff erer.) Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 02:49 03 Oct 2021; For: 9780203892138, chapter3, 10.4324/9780203892138.ch3 related aid to emerging democracies. related aidtoemerging DevelopmentInternational (USAID)invested hundredsincampaign- ofmillionsdollars ltomFuddMembers(approx.) 20 70 50 Founded 40 75 2007 2002 1999 60 100 35 forconsulting membership Onlycorporate 1,100 b Additionallythere members. are about600corporate 120 a 2000 Notes: 1996 Asociacion EspanoladeConsultores Politicos (AESCOP) 1991 1996 Asia Paci 1969 1994 AssociationofPoliticalGerman Consulting(degepol) 1968 Association of(Russian)Political (ACPK) ConsultingCenters Associazione ItalianaConsulentiPolitici (AICP) deConsultores PoliticosAssociacion Latinoamericana (ALACOP) European AssociationofPolitical Consultants(EAPC) Association ofProfessional Political Consultants(APPC)(UK) Associacao BrasileiradeConsultores Politices (ABCOP) AssociationofPoliticalAmerican Consultants(AAPC) AssociationofPoliticalInternational Consultants(IAPC) Platform 3.2. Table presidential candidatesorleading ofAmerican advisors former ofconsultancybusiness.consultants actuallyconcentratesonafew superstars Largelythey are political campaignmanagerseminars,ences andparty demandforAmerican theinternational campaign advisors, mediaexperts, pollsters, webmasters orguestspeakers atprofessional confer- sultancy business. associations emerging, indicatingtheglobalizationandprofessionalization ofthepoliticalcon- electioncampaigns.international Inthemeantimethere isaworldwide network ofprofessional anddiscussingthelatesttrends andinnovations experience forexchanging in are platforms worldwide disseminationofprofessional campaignknow-how (seeTable 3.2). Thesenetworks addition, politicalconsultancyassociationshave transnationalandregional akey functioninthe domestic campaignsta ment, messagedevelopment, polling, andtrainingofsta recruitment increasingly from othercountries, aidcovers donor-driven party fundraising, develop- platform get-out-the-vote campaigns. door outreach, mediarelations, andplacement, adwriting public speakingforcandidates, and Rosner Researchpoliticalconsultancy isalsoapre-eminent international political consultancyandstrategycompany Shrum. Greenberg Carville Greenberg Quinlan and transnationalconsultingorganizationGGC/NOP; intheglobal isalsopartner Carville Philip GouldandStanley Greenberg foundedin1997theLondon-basedopinionpollinggroup to theYushenko presidential campaignintheUkraine. Alsothere isJames Carville, whowith dozens ofWestern European campaignsandrecently andEastern acted ascampaignconsultant in Mexico, Argentina, Honduras, Venezuela, Uruguay andGuyana, worked asconsultantin advisor DickMorris, who hasbeeninvolved presidential campaigns indozensofLatinAmerican consultancy business. consultancymarket Clinton are intheinternational theformer Celebrities also involved innumerous West Europeancampaigns. parliamentary Mandela inSouthAfrica, ThaboMbeki, several presidential candidatesandwere LatinAmerican (Israel). In2006they advisedtheLabourcandidateAmirPeretz inIsrael, thesuccessortoNelson campaign ofGerhard Schröder(Germany), andthe19992001campaigns ofEhudBarak inthreeing amongothers campaignsofTony Blair(UnitedKingdom), the1998election Stanley Greenberg hasbeen involved incampaignsover andwas sofar consult- sixtycountries Although every yearmore thanahundred USconsultantsspendconsiderable timeoverseas as fi soito fPltclCnutns(PP)20 50 2005 c AssociationofPolitical Consultants(APAPC) Transnational andRegionalPoliticalConsultancyAssociations ff ers interested in state of the art techniquesofpoliticalmanagement. interesteders instateoftheart In 31 Theseprograms alsoprovide instructive for trainingopportunities fi 30 rms. Using the expertise and services ofUSconsultants, andservices Usingtheexpertise but POLITICAL CONSULTING WORLDWIDE fi gures of the American political gures oftheAmerican ff andvolunteers, door-to- fi rm. Theteamaround a b b 29 Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 02:49 03 Oct 2021; For: 9780203892138, chapter3, 10.4324/9780203892138.ch3 consultants. poll-driven, focus-group-testeddemocraticrevolution ofAmerican basedontheexpertise overthrow intheSerbianpresidential electionof2000, whichmay godown asthe inhistory America, Western Europe, andUkraine. Georgia PSBalsowas involved inSlobodanMilosevic’s States. PSBo of Russian spin doctors suchasGlebPavlovsky,of Russianspindoctors theHeadofFoundation forE election group, whichwas preferredby theKremlin, foritscampaignfrom gotsupport theelite Inc.), International consultants(amongthemPSBandAristotle American whiletheYanukovych pro-Western coalition 2004 Ukrainepresidential campaignstoodforaclashbetween two cultures ofconsultants: The exclusivelycandidates andparties ofWestern usedtheexpertise political consultants, whilethe Chapter 24by Derek S. Hutcheson.) see Chapter23by DahliaScheindlinandIsraelWaismel-Manor; onRussianelections, see consultants andrelied ontheadviceofprominent European consultants. (OntheIsraelielections, of Regions. Thethird candidate, Yulia Tymoshenko, overseas refrained American from hiring manager ofRonaldReaganandGeorgeH.W. Bush, Paul Manafort, advisedYanukovych’s Party advisedYushenkov’s MichaelMcCurry Secretary OurUkrainebloc, campaign while theformer Ukraine 2006, Clinton’sChiefofSta where former Luntz versus Stanley Greenberg), versus James andthe Carville) Mexico2006(DickMorris Carville, Finkelstein), versus Stanley Arthur Shrum Greenberg andRobert Italy2006(Frank electioninIsrael2006(James consultantsarecompetitions between theparliamentary American eachotherascampaignopponents. consultantsfacing American Examplesofsuchparadox o worldwide. Similarlyimpressive isthelistofclientsPenn, SchoenandBerland(PSB), which have beeninvolved inmore than500presidential, electioncampaigns ministerandparty prime anddemocracymovementsparties worldwide. Top ofthesethree consulting strategists fi is VOX GlobalMandateSM, aworldwide operatingcooperationofthree leadingconsulting FRITZ PLASSER 30 Fouks (EURO RSGGWorldwide) have Saussez(ImageetStrategie) beeninvolved and Thierry electoral market.American French with increasing frequency alsotopFrench consultants, togetaholdonthe Latin whoare trying consultants, colleaguesanddomesticLatinAmerican arecompetitors notonlyAmerican but andhaveAmerica beeninvolved campaigns. indozens ofpresidential andgubernatorial Their Nordlinger—just tomention afew—spendDouglas SchoenandGary considerable timein Latin and mayoral campaigns. SuperconsultantssuchasDickMorris, James Carville, Stanley Greenberg, Nordlinger focusedonthesubpresidentialsuch asGary level andspecializedongubernatorial Ralph D. have Murphine beeninvolved presidential campaigns; insixteenLatinAmerican others business have beenspecializingon Latin American during electioncampaigns. during market, where oftentwo teamsofUSconsultantshave foundthemselves inopposingcamps and economicmotives.on strategic States (CIS)countries, toin where theKremlin tried andinotherCommonwealthing consultancybattlesalsotookplaceinGeorgia ofIndependent business corporations investedbusiness corporations about$300millioninYanukovych’s campaign. Similarlycon Russian toppublic relations consultantshadbeenhired onrequest oftheKremlin andRussian and dozensofotherleadingRussianpoliticaltechnologists. Pavlovsky, Markov andother ff rms headquartered inWashington headquartered rms D.C. andLondon. Ito In the2006Ukrainepresidential electionaswell elections, asinthe2007parliamentary overseasThe heavy engagementofAmerican consultantsleadsincreasingly totheparadox of An impressive exampleoftheincreasingly globalmarket topconsultants activities ofAmerican A ered polling operations and strategic adviceinoverered pollingoperationsandstrategic seventy campaignsoutsidetheUnited fi erce guerra deasesores guerra 32 ff ered its services tomoreered thantwenty itsservices presidential campaignsintheFarEast, Latin Nasha Ukraine is also fought on the heatedly contested Latin American consultancy isalsofoughtontheheatedlycontestedLatinAmerican 33 Sincethe1980s, leading conseils politiques (OurUkraine)was by supported ateamofhighranking suchasJacques Seguela (Havas), Stephane ff campanas electorales fl John Podesta Clinton’sPress andformer uence theoutcomeofelectionsbased fi ff gures of the American consultancy gures ofthe American ers its services tocandidates, itsservices ers political . Top consultantssuchas ff ective Politics, fi fl fi rms ict- rst Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 02:49 03 Oct 2021; For: 9780203892138, chapter3, 10.4324/9780203892138.ch3 African electoral market is primarily anarea ofbusiness forFrench politicalconsultants. electoralmarket isprimarily African andWest Democratic AllianceengagesBritish and theoppositionparty European advisors, the consultantsalongwithdomesticexperts (ANC)uses American National Congress the African Congo, thepastyears. and Somaliaduring With Nigeria theexceptionofSouth Africa, where top consultantssuchasPaul involved Manafort also American inAngola, advisors asstrategic Madagascar, Nigeria, SenegalandTogo amongothers. BesidesFrench along withothers, aspoliticalconsultantsinBurkinaFaso, Gabun, GuineaBissau, Cameroon, Rideauare andBernard alsoFrenchoverseas superstar Marti consultants, andhave beenactive, consultant Mendoncain2002. Prominent Cardoso in1994and1998managedtheelectioncampaignofJose Serra, goingupagainst consultant is escandalo domensalao asetbackin2005followingcampaigns untilhiscareer hisinvolvement experienced inthe presidency election andappeared asahighlypaidandvisible advisorindozensofLatinAmerican consultancy business, DudaMendonca, are legendary; hehelpedLuizLuladeSilva winthe countries. ofBrazilian superstar Brazil andotherLatinAmerican Theactivities oftheformer the Brazilianprofessional associationABCOP, has beenengagedinmore than200campaignsin themselves andcompeteforattractive consultancycontracts. CarlosManhanelli, thefounderof and Venezuelan consultancymarket politicalconsultantsdivide upbetween theLatinAmerican campaignconsulting.who specializedoninterregional Two tothree dozenBrazilian, Argentine consultants from theUnitedStatesandEurope, but between LatinAmerican Latin America, French inearliercampaigns. consultants asdomesticjuniorpartners Party, was exclusively advisedby youngerIsraeliconsultantswhohadcooperatedwithAmerican J. Finkelstein from New York City. Butthewinner, and hisnewly foundedKadima EhudOlmert Benjamin Netanyahu, thecandidateofLikudBloc, usedthehard-hitting adviceofArthur Party, relied ontheknow-how ofStanley Greenberg andMarkPenn and DougSchoen, while election campaigninIsrael2006. AsinpastelectionsAmirPeretz, the candidateoftheLabour own companies. Oneexample showing thespino Russiancampaignknow-howexported toBolivia, Chile, NicaraguaandVenezuela. Russian consultantssuchasIgorMintusov (NiccoloM.)andAlexei P. Sitnikov (ImageKontakt) thepastyears, during in several but countries alsotop presidential campaignsinLatinAmerican fi tion by anew generationofhighlyprofessional consultants, regional many ofwhommadetheir oral market andsincethe1990s, they have seenthemselves confronted withincreasing competi- money-driven campaignsinLatinAmerica. communicionales ytechnologias Brazilian, Argentine, andRussianconsultancystyles, American resulting ina Mexico, CubaandtheUSengagedincampaign. Inothercampaignsthere was amixof ment. In2006inVenezuela there were, besidesthedomesticadvisors, alsoconsultantsfrom electioncampaignshaveLatin American becomemultinational operationsinpoliticalmanage- involved campaignsacross LatinAmerica. inpresidential andgubernatorial Haime, Felipe Noguera andPessoa, tonameonlyafew leading numerous suchastheIvory Coast, countries Cameroon, Togo andCongo-Brazaville. candidates, andhasbeeninvolved inlarge-scaleandhighlyexpensive presidential campaignsin Balladur andin2007NicolasSarkoszy inFrance, presidential specializedonconsultingAfrican Saussez(Imageet Strategie),of Africa. Thierry whoadvisedJacques Chirac, Alain Juppe, Edouard rst professional experiences assta professionalrst experiences While American overseasWhile American consultantsoperateonthehighlycompetitive electoralmarkets in However, the As mentionedbefore, USpoliticalconsultantshave elect- nomonopolyonthe international publicitario fi ercest competition in Latin America doesnottakeercest placebetween competitioninLatinAmerica overseas (political corruption and illegal party andillegalparty (politicalcorruption conseils politiques NizanGuanaes(DM9, SãoPaulo), whowas thetopadvisorofFernando , asattentive thereality ofconsultant-and described observers ff members of American consultantsbefore they foundedtheir ofAmerican members control thelucrative market inthefrancophonecountries consultores politicos 35 ff of American consultants’ expertise isthe consultants’expertise ofAmerican POLITICAL CONSULTING WORLDWIDE suchasCarballido, Chavarria, Hugo fi nancing). AnotherBraziliansuper fi gures, have frequently been conseils politiques 34 Inthemeantime consultores politicos hibridez deestilos hibridez there were 36 Claude 31 , Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 02:49 03 Oct 2021; For: 9780203892138, chapter3, 10.4324/9780203892138.ch3 tures expertise in expertise consultancy, hard-hitting attacks, preferring technologies, usingdirty “black PR,”andtheir in campaignsColombia, Mexico, NicaraguaandVenezuela. Obviously theRussianstyleof several East-CentralEuropean countries, sometopRussianconsultants have alsobeenengaged Mongolia, Poland, Serbia, Slovakia andUkraine. and BesidetheiroperationsinCIScountries sultants have beeninvolved inelectioncampaignsBelarus, Bulgaria, Georgia, Kazakhstan, fi leading Australianconsultants, o group, andMalcolmMcGregor, IanKortlang, John UttingandNickStraves, tonameonlyafew ants. Sydney-based democracies intheLatinAmerican, regions. AsianandAfrican fi attentive oftheRussianconsultancymarket. expectadramaticcurtailment observers Inorder to list-voting system, andthe nominationofprovincial governors insteadoftheirdirect election, of thedirect electionofhalftheDumarepresentatives, theintroduction ofaparty-centered controlled administrative resources are preconditions ofsuccessfulcampaigns. ofpower andtostate- In VladimirPutin’smanageddemocracytheaccesstocorridors FRITZ PLASSER 32 Technologies. Politics (GlebPavlosky), Image-Kontakt (Alexei P. Sitnikov), Novkom andtheCenterofPolitical Research Nikkolo M. Egorova), (IgorMintusov andEkaterina theFoundation forE suchastheCenterofPoliticaldominated by afew corporations largemulti-disciplinary technologists, whichcan mean aspoliticalconsultants,Russian eliteconsultantsdonotseethemselves primarily but aspolitical ical consultancy consultants. marketsents anemerging for international Atpresent onlyafew professional polit- the British Conservatives.the British electoral market, SimilartotheAfrican theAsia-Paci top consultants, Lynton Crosby andMarkTextor, have of beeninchargeascampaignmanagers candidates but alsotoclientsinIndonesia, Malaysia andSouthKorea. Recentlytwo Australian national politicalconsultancymarket sincethemiddle ofthe1990s. They French fi bying market aprocess hasbeencharacterized ofconcentrationinthedirection oflarge-scale within thedomesticconsultingsceneaswell. SinceafewagotheRussianpoliticalconsult- years activity isareactionincreased ofleadingRussianspindoctors toincisive international changes but inthemeantimealsohave CIScountries invadedthe neighboring overseas markets. The been accessible in exceptional cases for selected American overseasbeen accessible inexceptionalcasesforselectedAmerican consultants, are in Japan. move aswell. (OnAustralianelections, see Chapter25by IanWard.) Association ofPolitical Consultants isasignthattheAsianconsultancymarket to hasstarted rms willappearevenrms more outsideofRussia. oftenasadvisors Already Russianpoliticalcon- nance theirsta rms with links to the Kremlin parties ofpower. withlinkstotheKremlin parties rms In theAsia-Paci Following therecent incisive oftheRussianelectoralprocess reforms such astheabolishment overseasNext totheAmerican consultants, leadingLatinAmerican Apart fromApart freelancing Prominent representatives oftheAsianpoliticalconsultancybusiness, hasonly whichsofar their direct orindirect connectiontotheKremlin. adi political technologists political environment; but itcanalsomeanaKremlin insiderorapoliticalprovocateur. Whatmakes a policyanalystorpoliticalconsultant; in“black PR”orincontainingthe itcanmeananexpert 40 seems to correspond toaThird seemstocorrespond World-style ofcampaigning prevalent electoral infragile conseils politiques fl uencing theelectoralprocess through administrative resources andmediastruc- ff fi andoverheads between theelectioncycles, theremaining Russianconsulting fi rms are operatinginthemarket,rms but the recent founding ofanAsia-Paci fi c region mainlyAustraliancampaignprofessionalsc region appearasoverseas consult- rms such as Anderson &Company, suchasAnderson rms theHawker-Britten politicalconsulting , have alsoRussianspindoctors established themselves ontheinter- prshchiks ff erent speciesfromorPRconsultantsis theotherelectionstrategists ff , apejorative forsuper Russianterm er their services notonlytoAustralianandNew Zealand er theirservices 38 37 Today theconsultancymarket isalready fi cial image-handlers, the consultores politicos fi rst concentratedon rst 39 fi c region repre-c region ff ective and fi c Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 02:49 03 Oct 2021; For: 9780203892138, chapter3, 10.4324/9780203892138.ch3 expertise. suchasJapan,in countries IndiaandTaiwan are almostexclusively by supported domestic consultingnetworks inAsiaareonlylooselytiedandelectioncampaigns interregional currently areown KimHak-Ryangfrom countries SouthKorea andWu Hsiang-huifrom Taiwan. The a professional campaignadvisorinTokyo. Political consultantswhoare known outsidetheir consulting Takayoshi Miyagawa (CenterforPolitical RelationsInc.), Hiroshi Miura(AskCo.), apolitical past years. Anew generationofambitiousandquali of politicalmanagement, theEuropean consultancymarket tomove hasstarted the during decisionsofleadingo the strategic work sta inateamwithinternal communication andcampaignconsultantsare contractedbyIf external European parties, they quite informal. in Austria, Germany, France, Italy, Spain, Greece andSweden, and media, public a parliamentary electioncampaignsthatare ful parliamentary tasksin meetmore orlessthosepoliticalmanagementandstrategic headquarters at theparty Europe whoo advisors external than intheUnitedStatesorLatinAmerica. professionalization ofpoliticalmanagementinEurope hastaken acompletelydi consultants, loyaltiesparty backgroundofexternal andthe ideological ontheotherside causes. strongly Ontheonesideismarketconsultancyservices segmentedby forstrategic their own country. fragmentationoftheEuropean Theregional consultancymarkets hasseveral consultants whohave beeninvolved infourof been engagedinmostWest European countries, there existsonlyahandfulofEuropean political themutual exchangeofexperiences.and serving overseas WhileAmerican consultantshave organizedthroughmanager seminars thenetworks ofconservative orsocialdemocraticparties politicalconsultinginWesternInterregional Europe islimitedtoregular meetingsandcampaign market. ofagenuine Europeantion ofnationalelectioncampaigns andtheformation consultancy European alliances develop party withinthenextfew years, thiscouldalsoleadtoaEuropeaniza- practices ofEuropean lobbying inBrussels. Shouldanincreased coordination andcooperationof consultantsinWashington, withthetechniquesof American familiar D.C., asthey are withthe these programs represent thesecond generationofEuropean politicaladvisors, whoare equally political management, politicalconsultancyandpublic a In themeantimeseveral European universities o a de networkscontacts andpersonal from theirprevious activities. thelastfew has years Onlyduring public relations, mediatrainingand coaching, usestheadvantages ofprofessional andprimarily advisors. ofthesenewly foundedconsulting Themajority asecondprofessional whostart career asself-employed orpoliticaljournalists managers party distant,party exclusively candidate-centered electioncampaigns. totheircandidates,candidates are obliged primarily whichconsequently leadstoautonomous, business stilldi of European consulting intoagrowth consultinginEurope hasturned industry.corporate Butinspiteofthemultitude In spite of the regional fragmentation and internal professionalization oftheEuropean fragmentation andinternal In spiteoftheregional practice The politicalconsultingnetworks inWestern Europe are comparatively alsolooselytiedand External fi nite professional development politicalconsultingtaken inthedirection ofstrategic place. internal 41 professionalization is characteristic fortheUnitedStates. professionalization ischaracteristic Candidateshire professional, fi rm that so far advisedalready more thatsofar than200Japaneserm candidates, andKazuoMaeda, professionalization dominates. ff 42 ers signi ers Few European are politicaladvisors working outsidetheirown countries. ff fi er theirspeci fi cantly from thatintheUS. politicians, Itispredominantly former rms the degree ofprofessionalization thedegree ofthepoliticalconsultancy rms ff experts andare linesaswell tiedtotheprogrammatic experts party as ffi cial party managers.cial party Onthecontrary, ofAmerican advisors fi c expertise toacandidateagainstpayment.c expertise However, in fi 43 lled by external consultantsintheUnitedStates. lled by external Quali fi ve European campaignsoutside parliamentary ff fi er special programs and MA curricula for er specialprograms andMAcurricula ed entrepreneurs foundedconsulting fi ed sta ff POLITICAL CONSULTING WORLDWIDE fi airs management.airs of Thegraduates rms specializesinmediaconsulting, rms ff members whoare members fullyemployed 45 ff erent direction ff airs and airs fi rms 33 44 Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 02:49 03 Oct 2021; For: 9780203892138, chapter3, 10.4324/9780203892138.ch3 practices worldwide. fessionalization ofcampaignmanagers, putting severe constraintsoncampaignandconsultancy laws, pro- versus candidate-centered internal versus campaignstylesandexternal party-centered by country-speci determined wteln oN oPses rn-d Party sta Party sta Posters, Print-ads, Print-ads Posters No No Party sta Party sta No No Party sta TV-ads, Posters Posters, MassRallies Party sta TV-ads, Posters No Yes Yes Print-ads, Posters No Switzerland No No Sweden Consultants No No Yes Yes TV-ads, Posters Yes Yes Party sta Party sta Party sta Yes No MassRallies, Posters Yes Russia MassRallies, Posters Yes No Romania Party sta Consultants TV-ads, Posters Yes Portugal Yes Party sta Posters, Print-ads Yes Poland Posters, TV-ads Yes Norway No TV-ads, Print-ads Party sta Yes Party sta No No Yes Yes Yes Posters, Print-ads Posters, Print-ads No No Party sta Italy No Yes TV-ads, Direct Mail No Party sta Yes Israel No Posters, Yes Yes MassRallies Indonesia No Party sta India Yes Yes Yes Greece Print-ads, Posters No No No Party sta No Germany TV-ads, Direct Mail France Yes Yes Finland No No Yes Yes Czech Rep. No Yes Columbia Yes Chile No Yes Canada No Yes Bulgaria Yes Brazil Bolivia Yes Austria Yes Australia Argentina Public Countries 3.3. Table transfer we have todi media-centered democracies. AsseeninTable 3.3, one-way ratherthananAmerican-dominated andcampaignpracticesin ofelectioneering of professionalization andinternationalization The worldwide campaign techniqueshasresulted proliferation inanongoingprocess ofmodern Professional OrientationsofPoliticalConsultantsWorldwide FRITZ PLASSER pi e oN otr,Ms ale Party sta Posters, MassRallies No Radio-ads, Mass No 34 Yes Yes Party sta No Print-ads, Posters Spain Yes South Korea Yes No South Africa No Yes Yes Yes Netherlands Mexico Japan Campaign RegulationsandPracticesinThirty-SevenCountries Campaigns Funding of a a a a a a a a a ff erentiate between several pathsofdi oYsT-d,Ms ale oslat No Yes Consultants TV-ads, MassRallies Consultants TV-ads, MassRallies s Ye Yes No No No s Ye Expenditures Campaign Ceiling on e oT-es rn-d oslat No Consultants TV-news, Print-ads No s Ye Yes s Ye s Ye s Ye c c c c c c fi c institutionalarrangements, frameworks, regulatory electoral oT-d,Ms ale oslat Yes Consultants TV-ads, MassRallies No Yes Consultants TV-ads, MassRallies No Practices Advertising on Political Restrictions e Vas otr oslat No Consultants TV-ads, Posters Yes Yes Consultants Party sta Party sta TV-ads, MassRallies Posters, Print-ads TV-ads, Posters Yes Yes No Political Advertising Dominant Mediumof Rallies ff usion of modern campaignexpertise usion ofmodern Strategies General Campaign Development of Party sta ff ff ff ff ff ff ff ff ff ff ff ff ff ff ff ff ff ff ff ff ff ff No No s Ye No s Ye No No No s Ye s Ye No No No s Ye No s Ye s Ye Consultants US Overseas Cooperation with Frequent No No es Ye No s Ye Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 02:49 03 Oct 2021; For: 9780203892138, chapter3, 10.4324/9780203892138.ch3 styles represent only Frequently circumvented. c Public b Covers proportion oftotalcampaignexpenditures. onlymarginal a Notes: Professionals andTheirPractices Finance (Thousand Oaks, Calif.: Sage, 2006); Karl-HeinzNassmacher, IDEA,International 2003); Holtz-Bacha, Lynda LeeKaidandChristina Sources: AustinandMajaTjernström, Reginald Yes Taiwan autonomously managementandmarketing operations. candidate-centered, strongly in Yes United Statesonlyo Europe andAsiawiththeinstitutionalcontextinwhichpoliticalconsultantsoperate Consultants TV-ads, Massrallies No No No Yes Venezuela Uruguay States United Yes Kingdom United Ukraine by sta party receive free airtimeontelevision, plannedandcoordinated are andprimarily publicly supported States campaignsfollow thetraditionalmodel: they are andlabor-intensive, party-centered they consultancy practiceinclude: campaign themediasystem (e.g. public versus dual versus private mediasystems, di • ofprofessionalization thedegree ofelectioncampaigning(professional sophisticationof • thelegalregulations ofelectioncampaigns(e.g. public versus private campaign • competition(e.g. thesystemofparty activists, number ofparty dominantcleavages within • theelectoralsystem(e.g. orpluralityvote systemversus majority proportional election • ofinstitutionalbackgroundstheelectoralprocess inAustralia,A comparison LatinAmerica, • the degree of modernization insociety(e.g. ofmodernization thedegree ofsocietaldi degree • thepoliticalcommunication culture (e.g. professional self-imageof politicaljournalism, • thenationalpolitical culture (e.g. homogeneous versus fragmentedcultures, hierarchical • campaign management, anduseofpoliticalconsultants); expertise candidate nomination, primaries); limits onexpenditures, accesstotelevision advertising, timelimitsforo parties); electorate, followers, abilityoftheorganizationtomobilizeparty memberversus voter system, densityoftheelectioncycle, elections); candidateversus party tion, society, versus information industrialized socioeconomicmobility). dependencies); and closeness versus distanceoftherelationship between politicsandmedia, ofmutual degree involvement, highversus lowcultures); turnout versus competitive politicalcultures, inthepoliticalprocess, oftrust degree political media, ofmediacompetition); degree media system, level ofmodernization, professional roles ofjournalists, autonomy ofmass (Baden-Baden: Nomos, 2001); Plasser, Fritz fi nance isoptionalforpresidential candidatesonly, candidatesdon’thave congressional accesstopublic fi nance. ff oYsN rn-d,PsesCnutnsYes Consultants Print-ads, Posters No Yes s Ye No members. a b a a one ff (Westport, Conn.: Praeger, 2002). ers fewforsimilarities.ers indicators Political campaignsintheUSare essentialdi oN Vas asrlisCnutnsYes Consultants TV-ads, Massrallies No No s Ye s Ye s Ye 47 Yet, candidate-centered campaignstylescompared toparty-centered d c c 48 fl uenced by capitalandmediaaswell ashighlyprofessional, largely ff oT-d,Drc alCnutnsN/a Consultants Yes TV-ads, Direct Mail No Consultants TV-ads,No MassRallies Consultants TV-ads, MassRallies Yes No erentiation. ofthepolitical contextfactors Otherimportant Funding ofPoliticalParties andElectionCampaigns Global PoliticalCampaigning: AWorldwide Analysis ofCampaign Foundations forDemocracy: toComparative Approaches Political 46 In most countries outsidetheUnited Inmostcountries POLITICAL CONSULTING WORLDWIDE The SageHandbookofPoliticalAdvertising ff erentiation andsegmenta- ff erentiation of the ffi cial campaigns, (Stockholm: fi nancing, 35 Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 02:49 03 Oct 2021; For: 9780203892138, chapter3, 10.4324/9780203892138.ch3 advocates, representing arguments. positionsandpartisan andcommunicating party concentrating onthecommunicative role oftheirtopcandidates, whoare regarded asparty the product factors. ofparty-related even tosellthepolicyagenda of theirparty They try when party-focused. ofacampaignis Forseem tobeprimarily Party-Driventhecenterpiece Sellers respective and, parties ofthecandidates’personalities, whilealsostressing theimportance they suchasastrong ande cess factors groups. Apparently, Message-Driven Marketers are more inclinedtode as characterized important thanParty-Driven Sellers.important Thesetwo typesofprofessional role de morefunds andtendtoevaluate andcampaign consultantsasfar advisors therole ofexternal seen asessentialprerequisites ofprofessional politics. of politicalmarketing operations, where segmentation, positioning andtargetingare strategic of theircandidatesanddeveloping messagesthatappealtotheexpectationsofspeci to the ing di orientations. andallowants andcampaignmanagers di atypological between 1998and2000, allow insightsintothe professional role de andpoliticalconsultantsfromcampaign managers forty- ants. ThedataoftheGlobalPolitical ConsultancySurvey, aworldwide survey amongover 600 consequentially isre ofelectoraldemocraciesworldwide frommajority theoneinUnitedStates, that afact FRITZ PLASSER usa4 59 85 50 33 23 3 27 2840 16 21 41 15 50 67 77 73 60 72 97 84 36 Source: GlobalPolitical Consultancy Survey (1998–2000). 79 Political ConsultantsWorldwide United States Russia Latin America Other CISCountries East-Central Europe Western Europe South Africa Australia, New Zealand East Asia India Campaign ProfessionalsClassi 3.4. Table fi these two di the politicalmarketing ofMessage-Driven logic Marketers. Table 3.4 reveals of thedistribution forty- within theoverall campaignoperations. Marketers distant, seemtobemore party doubtingtherelevance ofastrong organization party substantially regarding campaignfactors. their estimationsofparty-related Message-Driven rst typeofprofessionalrst role de Message-Driven Marketers concentratemore onresources suchastheavailability ofcampaign In contrast, positioning Message-Driven Marketers areaboutthestrategic more concerned A typology oftheevaluations ofacampaignresulted intwo ofsuccessfactors groupsrepresent- thesituationofpoliticalcompetitiondi In thelightofthesecriteria A majority ofcampaignprofessionals fromA majority seven outoftenareas worldwide are following the ff fi erent types of strategic approacheserent typesofstrategic toward aprofessional campaign. Consultantsbelonging ve countries operate as party-centered Party-Driven operateasparty-centered ve Sellers, countries more 40%correspond with fi rst typehaverst beenclassi Professional CampaignStylesbyAreas (1)(percentage) ff 49 erent stylesofprofessional role de Message-Driven Marketers Message-Driven fl ected inthedi fi d a ..Par ed as... fi nition andcanbeclassi ff fi ective organization, party theprogrammatic policiesoftheir ed as ff erent professional role-interpretation ofpoliticalconsult- 52 . suc- Party-Drivenconcentrateonparty-related Sellers Sixtypercent ofthepoliticalconsultantsinterviewed in Party-Driven Sellers ty-Driven Sellers Message-Driven Marketers Message-Driven Sellers ty-Driven fi nitions withinselectareas. 51 fi ff ed asParty-Driven Sellers. Operatingin erentiation ofdi fi ve countries, whichwas conducted whilethesecondtypecouldbe fi nitions ofpoliticalconsult- fi ff ne campaignsinterms ff ers substantiallyinthe ers erent approaches and fi nitions di 50 fi ff c target er also Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 02:49 03 Oct 2021; For: 9780203892138, chapter3, 10.4324/9780203892138.ch3 largely detachedvoters. and adi political market approach. Weak organizations, party concentrationonstrong leaderpersonalities di Respondents belonging tothe Respondents belonging of several resulted massmediaforadvertising in strategies campaign (airwar). Presidential candidates, andcongressional anda politicalparties intensive mobilizationcampaign(ground war) aswell mostexpensive asthesofar television phone banks. Finally, represented presidential campaign2004 sofar the most theAmerican consultantsprefer targetedadvertising campaignsontelevision,while external direct mailand voter chooselarge-scalemobilizationcampaignsandpersonal contacts, primarily managers tion andtheexpectationsemotionsoftargetvoter groups. party Inthiscase internal on available acentralizedandcoordinated approach.ring concentrate Message-Driven Marketers primarily organizationandonthemobilizingforce ofstrongthe nationalparty organizations, party prefer- and Message-Driven Marketers. Party-Driventendtofocustheircampaignstrategyon Sellers ponents ofcampaignstrategies, we founddivergent perspectives between Party-Driven Sellers stylesofcampaigning. toparty-centered seems tobecontradictory Contrastingselectcore com- campaign experts, we can assumethattheongoingprofessionalization of campaignmanagement fi of LatinAmerican ofsellingversus marketingfound atleastabalanceddistribution approaches. Apparently, one-half approach toward campaignstrategy. there from was Amongcampaignmanagers LatinAmerica traditions, thesecampaignprofessionals share acommonpointofreference: theirparty-focused when party managers,when party for bothsides, frequently tensionscanbeobserved inWest European campaignheadquarters consultants,emerged adivision oflaborbetween andexternal politicalparties withadvantages advanced professionalism asrepresented styleofcampaigning. by theAmerican WhileintheUS focused approaches toward canberegarded campaignstrategies asconstantandresistant to among politicalconsultantswithstrong a classi campaigning. Austria, Germany, ItalyorSweden. from amongpoliticaladvisors cultures traditionallyparty-centered centered suchas factors alsoshiftstoward campaignstrategies ations thatthefocusofmodern candidate- andmessage- are from theUnitedStates. Datafrom theGlobalPolitical ConsultancySurvey o Driven politicalconsultants, Marketers are American whereas only5% ofParty-Driven Sellers thecompositionofthesetypes,paring more than40%ofrespondents classi messagedevelopmentstrategic basedonmarket segmentationandtargetingoperations. Com- while theotherhalfseemtobein presidential campaignseason. andcongressional phone callsandorganized30 million householdvisitsbythe 2004 campaignvolunteers during households, e-mailmessagestotargetvoters, mailed1.3billion personal made120million tele- cacy groupscombinedaired 1.1million30-secondspots, sent5.5billionmailingstotarget mendations of party-external marketing consultants. mendations ofparty-external essential factors ofacampaign. essential factors ve out of 100 American campaignconsultantsinterviewedve couldbeclassi outof100American ff A secondclusteranalysisbased onevaluations regarding ofcampaignexperts theimportance andparty-external ofparty-internal Looking atthedistinctionbetween orientations strategic politicalconsultantscomeclosesttothe typeofMessage-Driven Marketers.American Eighty- Although only a minority ofcampaignprofessionals outsidetheUnitedStatescouldbe Although onlyaminority erent mediaenvironments andshapedby di fi ed asMessage-Driven Marketers, we shouldbecareful aboutconcludingthatparty- ff use voter market favor atechnocraticapproach atthemobilizationofdisillusioned, fi nancial resources andonthecentralcampaignmessagebasedmarket segmenta- consultores politicos fi 54 xed upontheirorganizations, are confrontedrecom- withthestrategic fi 53 rst cluster could be characterized as clustercouldbe characterized rst Also a majority of Russian campaign experts prefers already a ofRussiancampaignexperts Alsoamajority fl uenced by of thelogic 55 are following approach, amore traditionalparty-focused This transformation seemstobeespeciallypronounced Thistransformation ffi nity to the US role model of modern election nity totheUSrole modelofmodern 57 ff erent institutional arrangements andcultural erent institutionalarrangements 56 marketing politico POLITICAL CONSULTING WORLDWIDE three distincttypesoforientations. Mobilizers whenre . Whileestimating fi fi ed asdriven by ed asMessage- ffi fl ecting about liated advo- ff er indic- 37 Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 02:49 03 Oct 2021; For: 9780203892138, chapter3, 10.4324/9780203892138.ch3 communication studied. inmost oftheregions West European politicalconsultantsdi approaches toe waste ofmoney andenergy. Table 3.5shows thearea-speci ing, large-scalestreet postercampaignsandmassrallies, seemtoberegarded asoutdatedanda campaign toolby Narrowcasters. Traditional advertising channels, mediaadvertis- suchasprint connected voters viae-mail, banneradsandweb-based videos, powerful isseenasanenormously aspects fortheiradvertising strategies. TheInternet, asanew mediumtocommunicate with also evaluate suchasdirect mailasexceptionallyimportant targetedcommunication forms television advertising campaignsasthemoste as tothisgroupcanbedescribed consultants belonging the in FRITZ PLASSER ntdSae 977 3 11 28 5 0 4 5 19 0 20 73 74 11 64 45 50 4 43 47 45 32 24 15 39 8 50 50 53 48 35 68 38 50 Source: GlobalPolitical Consultancy Survey (1998–2000). Political ConsultantsWorldwide United States Australia, New Zealand Western Europe East Asia East CentralEurope Latin America South Africa Other CISCountries Russia India Campaign ProfessionalsClassi 3.5. Table direct marketing andYouTube. activities andonthepotentialofInternet focused uponsegmentedadvertising campaignsinlocalcable channels, targetgroup-oriented clutter” andthedeclininge everywhere thedominantmedium. We campaign shouldtherefore expectthatLatinAmerican where themediarevolution recently, ofelectioncampaignsonlystarted television isnow almost countries, regions. ofAfrican andthemajority Butwiththeexception ofIndiaandSouthAfrica classi communication logic.strategic Three outoffourinterviewed USpoliticalconsultantscouldbe campaign messages. Onthecontrary, prefer politicaladvisors arather American as television-concentrated, tooptimizethereach appealingtoamasspublic oftheir andtrying street andmassrallies. posters Generally, Broadcasters tendtoevaluate direct mailcampaignsasslightlymore e but ofpoliticaladvertising toasigni strategies itional forms communicate centralcampaignmessagestotargetvoter groups. Broadcasters alsorely ontrad- In addition, radioandadvertisement indailynewspapersare regarded ase television centered, obviously highlyattracted by thepossibilityofreaching amassaudience. ofpoliticaladvertising suchasstreetandmassrallies. posters traditional forms consultants seemstore politicalconsultants.cantly from themodusoperandiofAmerican Two-thirds couldbeclassi These datao The third clusterseemstorepresent anadvanced styleofcampaigncommunication. Political On The second type can be described as The secondtypecanbedescribed fi fl ed asMessage-Driven Marketers. Confronted withamultitude ofnews channels, “media fi uential power oftelevision, focusalsoonradioand theircommunication strategies rst sight the distribution ofdi sightthedistribution rst Professional CampaignStylesbyAreas (2)(percentage) ff ff ective campaigncommunication. er indicators for a combination of traditional and modern stylesofpolitical foracombinationoftraditionalandmodern er indicators fi fl ed as... ect the degree of modernization ofthemediasystemsinrespective ofmodernization ect thedegree ff 58 ect oflarge-scaleadvertising campaignsinnationalnetworks, they Broadcasters ff erent politicalcommunication stylesamongpolitical oiiesBodatr Narrowcasters Broadcasters Mobilizers ff ective ofcampaigncommunication, form they . more isfar Thisgroupofcampaignmanagers 59 Narrowcasters fi fi cantly lesser degree thanMobilizers. cantly lesserdegree c distribution ofthesethree distinct c distribution . Whilecentered onpaid ff 60 ective channelsto ff ective than ff postmodern er signi fi fi ed - Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 02:49 03 Oct 2021; For: 9780203892138, chapter3, 10.4324/9780203892138.ch3 characteristic for the American electoraldemocracy. fortheAmerican characteristic is unparalleledandseemstorepresent auniquestyledriven by institutionalandmediafactors United Statesandtheprofessional politicalconsultants. role modelsofAmerican Theirapproach between ofcampaignprofessionals consultancystyles andprofessional outsidethe orientations democracies. party-centered ofthegame of parliamentary ontheinstitutionalrules oriented thepastyears, politicalconsultantsduring theirprofessionalcontacts toAmerican self-imageis are recognizably in television self-presentation asthecore andcommunication. mediumofstrategic Althoughthey ontheotherhandseethemselvescampaign managers mostlyasParty-Drivenandregard Sellers ofcampaigncommunication andvoterforms mobilization. Western European politicaland In spiteofobservable tendenciestoward there remains asubstantialdi Americanization outsidetheUnitedStatesrepresentsity ofcampaignexperts “sellingapproach.” aparty-centered consultantsprefer amarketing-oriented,American campaignstylewhilethemajor- party-distant pronounced politicalconsultants. thantheirdistancetotheprofessional styleofAmerican interviewedmanagers hasbeenclassi toward primarily television.cation strategies Yet, campaign one-halfofallLatinAmerican managers, justlike theirWest European andEastAsiancolleagues, willdirect theircommuni- Notes the di outsidetheUnitedStateshavecampaign managers more incommonthanexpected. Generally ThomasCarothers, 2 GeraldSussman, 1 3 Reginald AustinandMajaTjernstrom, Reginald eds, 3 ShaunBowler andDavid M. 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