School of Design Master of Science in Design & Engineering

HOW TECHNOLOGIES AND NEEDS WILL AFFECT CAR DESIGN A research paper about the future of car design with a proposal.

Supervisor Prof. Samuel Codegoni

Master’s Degree Research Thesis of Ceren Demirci

Student ID 872741

Academic Year 2018 / 2019

Acknowledgement

This research paper is the final step for my master’s degree in who have been always a support to me during the projects, exams, Design & Engineering in Politecnico di Milano. classes, I would like to thank you; because of you and with you I enjoyed my experience in this school and my life in Italy. A sincere At first, I would like to thank my thesis supervisor Professor Samuel acknowledgement and thank you for Mattia, Andrea, Beatrice, Ekin, Codegoni for giving me this opportunity to work on this thesis topic Işıl, and Renos; each one of you have been a best friend to me, I and develop it. He has seen a person who has this great passion for appreciate every support and help from you. I consider myself as this field and desires to write a research thesis about cars. I would quite lucky to have you as my friends, thank you for everything. like to thank sincerely for giving me a chance to study these materi- als, to spend a considerable amount of time on this field, to discover My family has been always a support in my education life; I would my interests in a further level with his fund of knowledge, experi- like to thank my parents Jale and Cem, my sister Gizem and her ence, and guidance during this period. Also, I would like to thank husband Kutlu. All these years, every moment I needed you have him for being understanding for my struggling moments during this been there to support me to chase my dreams, a very sincere and thesis; I have learnt a considerable amount of information from him honest thank you to my family, without you I would not be able to and thanks to him my familiarity for the subject and the field have do anything I do. Many thanks and appreciation for all of you for been increased. being my family.

I would like to thank everyone who have been an influence in my Finally, I would like to thank Michi, for supporting me in every life, during my master’s degree, my professors and my classmates. moment I felt down, and encouraging me in difficult times to My very first friend Xu, I would like to thank you for giving me your handle. A sincere thank you for your effort and your care, and help. support and effort to help me understand this field, I really appreci- ate your contribution to my life and to my education. My friends 3 Abstract

Automobiles have been influenced by various factors throughout Results of the analysis have showed that the technology for the history. This article seeks to analyze how technology and human automobile industry going through autonomy for the driving expe- needs have affected car design, to what extend these effects will rience with the support of human needs regarding time consump- influence the future of car design, and what outcomes can be drawn tion, safety, and comfort; as from the environmental aspect, from the analyses. The paper combines a systematic review of the zero-emission has become a necessary need for vehicles to have. literature about timeline of the cars, case study examples from the On the contrary, infrastructural and legislation changes are past, human needs, autonomous drive technology, case studies required to have autonomous cars on the city roads. However, the from the present, and a scenario research. A conceptual design has scenario findings imply that in the near future plausibility of this been created to structure the outcomes of the paper. invention is likely.

The research was completed firstly with literature reviews on main As a lesson, this study suggests that there can be various probable factors that have altered car design. Museum visits have been done solutions which can be drawn from the analyses of the direction of to analyze and understand the changes within time. This has car design. The study likewise suggests to consider an autonomous allowed for an extended understanding of the flow in reference. The vehicle for up to two people with electric engine. The results indi- case studied have been examined through articles, catalogs, and cate a demand for conceptual designs that demonstrate how auton- literature. The analysis of the secondary sources was completed for omous cars for urban life will be. Given the wide range of potential each step to deepen the understanding regarding detecting the applications, the study suggests to enhance the focus on autonomy outcomes. and modes of use for the human mobility.

4 Abstract (ITA)

Le automobili sono state influenzate da vari fattori nel corso della I risultati dell'analisi hanno dimostrato che la tecnologia per l'indu- storia. Questo articolo cerca di analizzare in che modo la tecnologia stria automobilistica passa attraverso l'autonomia per l'esperienza e i bisogni umani hanno influenzato il design automobilistico, in che di guida con il supporto dei bisogni umani in termini di consumo di misura questi effetti influenzeranno il futuro del design automobil- tempo, sicurezza e comfort; dal punto di vista ambientale, l'emissi- istico e quali risultati potranno trarre dalle analisi. Il documento one zero è diventata un'esigenza necessaria per i veicoli. Al con- combina una revisione sistematica della letteratura sulla timeline trario, sono necessarie modifiche infrastrutturali e legislative per delle auto, esempi di casi studio del passato, bisogni umani, tecno- avere auto autonome sulle strade cittadine. Tuttavia, i risultati dello logia di guida autonoma, casi studio dal presente e una ricerca di scenario implicano che nel prossimo futuro sarà plausibile la diffu- scenario. È stato creato un progetto concettuale per strutturare i sione di questa invenzione. risultati dello studio svolto. Come lezione, questo studio suggerisce che ci possono essere varie La ricerca è stata completata in primo luogo con recensioni di soluzioni probabili che possono essere tratte dalle analisi della letteratura sui principali fattori che hanno alterato il design auto- direzione del design dell'auto. Allo stesso modo lo studio suggerisce mobilistico. Sono state fatte visite ai musei per analizzare e com- di considerare un veicolo autonomo per un massimo di due persone prendere i cambiamenti nel tempo. Ciò ha permesso una compren- con motore elettrico. I risultati indicano una richiesta di progetti sione estesa del flusso in riferimento. Il caso studiato è stato esami- concettuali che dimostrano come saranno le auto autonome per la nato attraverso articoli, cataloghi e letteratura. L'analisi delle fonti vita urbana. Data l'ampia gamma di potenziali applicazioni, lo studio secondarie è stata completata per ogni fase per approfondire la suggerisce di migliorare l'attenzione sull'autonomia e le modalità di comprensione per quanto riguarda la rilevazione dei risultati. utilizzo per la mobilità umana.

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Introduction

In this thesis the topic has been chosen as how technologies and a synthesis for the subject and provides a direction to highlight the needs will affect car design. The reason why these subjects have direction of the car design in the technological manner. been chosen as the main influencing factors for the car design is that a change of design or a development in car has been completed Human needs have been the main reason for the creation of this with the support of technology and to meet the needs of humans or mean of transportation. Therefore, it has been inevitable not to in other words solve the design problems. Therefore, it has been mention this factor. The lifestyles of the people have been affected analyzed to examine how these subjects affect car design, hence by various occasions, such as wars, livelihoods, and so. In this what outcome can be driven from the synthesis of these elements. chapter the external elements of the factors which are more likely This article includes a developed systematic study about timeline of independent from technological improvements have been examined the automobiles, human needs in different eras based on non-tech- and explained within the time frame. nological factors, autonomy technology in car industry, a research about legislations, urban planning and logistic scenarios, and finally Autonomous technology has been explained to understand what it a proposal of a package with a concept design. is together with its features and elements, and why its features are important. The levels of autonomy are explained to provide a deep- In the technology chapter, there is listed the various cars with ened knowledge regarding increasing the understanding for the different features highlighted based on the importance that they autonomous car concept which has been introduced afterwards. In carry for this article. Moreover, there are case studies of three cars this chapter, there have been also three case studies to understand which have been chosen as the milestones of the timeline which is the current or expected trends in such concept cars to provide a created. In the case studies, the outstanding features and most clearer image for the future of the car design. significantly the path they carried the approach towards car design to a different place. The analysis at the end of these sections creates In the following chapter, the required plausible legislations for the 7 Introduction

countries and the infrastructure for fully autonomous cars together with the initiative attempts regarding self-driven cars have been investigated and explained.

Finally, a combination to all the research topics, studies, and analy- ses is created to provide a package proposal with a concept design. In this part of the thesis, a scenario creation for a hypothetical future for car design; inspirational explanations; concept sketches, package illustrations with measurements can be found.

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Table of Contents

Table of Figures 17 Chapter 1 – Research Aims, Objectives, and Methodologies 21 Aims of the Research 22 Objectives of the Research 22 Literature Review 23 Secondary Sources Analysis 24 Methodologies of the Research 24 Case Studied and Framework 25 Summary 26 Chapter 2 – How Technological Improvements Affected Car Design 29 Timeline of Technology 30 Case Studies 43 Citroen DS – 1955 44 BMC Mini – 1959 47 Renault 5 – 1972 50 Analysis of Chapter 2 and Case Studies 52 Chapter 3 – How Needs Affected Car Design 55 1885 – 1929 56 1930 – 1949 57 1950 – 1959 58 1960 – 1969 59 11 Table of Contents

1970 – 1979 60 1980 – 1999 61 2000 – Present 62 Chapter 4 – Autonomous Drive 65 Description 66 Elements 67 Radar Sensors 67 Optics 68 LIDAR (Laser Illumination Detection and Ranging) 68 GPS (Global Positioning Software) 68 Processors 68 Background History of Autonomous Cars 69 Plausible Future Research Topics about Autonomous Cars & Scenario 70 The Levels of Autonomous Cars 71 Level 0: No Automation 71 Level 1: Driver Assistance 71 Level 2: Partial Automation 71 Level 3: Conditional Automation 71 Level 4: High Automation 72 Level 5: Full Automation 72 Features of a Level 5 Autonomous Car 72 12 Table of Contents

Connectivity 72 Modularity 73 Reprogrammable and Smart 74 Digital Traces 74 The Explanations about Why These Features are Important 74 Safety 74 Welfare 75 Traffic 75 Costs 76 Energy and Environmental Impacts 76 Parking Space 77 Elderly, Disables, and Children 77 Cyclists and Pedestrians 78 Other Effects 78 Case Studies 2 81 Renault EZ GO 82 Renault EZ Ultimo 86 Volvo 360 c 87 Chapter 5 – Scenario Research for Self-Driven Cars 91 Urban Planning 92 Legislation 93 13 Table of Contents

Legislation Status in the U.S. 93 Legislation in Europe 94 Legislation in Asia 95 Scenarios of Logistics 95 Chapter 6 – Concept and Package Proposal for the Research 99 Description of the Package/Concept 100 Scenario Description 101 Measurements 102 Concept 106 Bibliography and References 109

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Table of Figures

Figure 1. Jamais Contente Figure 30. Aprilia by Lancia Figure 2. Leonardo Da Vinci’s Spring Propelled Car Figure 31. Cisitalia 202 Figure 3. Steam Carriage by Nicholas Joseph Cugnot Figure 32. Ardea by Lancia Figure 4. The Steam Engine by Richard Trevithick Figure 33. Super Sprint 1900 by Alfa Romeo Figure 5. An Atmospheric Internal Combustion Engine by De Figure 35. Citroen Traction Avant Rivaz Figure 36. Giuletta Sprint by Alfa Romeo Figure 6. 0.5 HP Daimler, First Car Figure37. Citroen DS Figure 7. Magneto Ignito for Car Engines Figure 38. Fiat 600 Multipla Figure 8. An Automobile by Panhard Levassor Figure 39. Mini from 1960s Figure 9. The Front Engine of Panhard Levassor Automobile Figure 40. BMW Isetta 250 Figure 10. Éclair by Michelin Brothers with Pneumatic Tires Figure 41. Giulia T by Alfa Romeo Figure 11. 3.5 HP by Enrico Zeno Bernardi Figure 43. Carabo, designed by Marcello Gandini Figure 12. 3 HP Velo by Benz Figure 44. Montreal by Alfa Romeo Figure 13. A Drawing of the Gearbox Figure 45. Alfa-Sud by Alfa Romeo Figure 14. A Car of Renault with New Gearbox Figure 46. Renault 5 Figure 15. 8 HP by Benz, Twin Cylinder Engine Figure 47. Alfetta by Alfa Romeo Figure 16. Minutoli Millo 8 HP Figure 48. 33tt 12 by Alfa Romeo Figure 17. Pope c/60 V Figure 49. 179 B by Alfa Romeo Figure 18. Ford T, Cabriolet Figure 50. Ferrari 208 GTB with Turbo Engine Figure 19. SPA 23 S, Sport Car Figure 51. PHOENIX II SOLARE, Sun Light Powered Vehicle Figure 21. Lambda by Lancia Figure 52. Trabant 601 – DDR Figure 22. The Chassis of Lambda by Lancia Figure 53. EV1 by General Motors Figure 23. Om 665 Figure 54. Smart Fortwo Figure 24. Monaco Nardi Mod. Chichibio by Augusto Monaco Figure 55. Prius by Toyota, A Hybrid Car Figure 25. Citroen 11 A Figure 56. Fiat Seicento Elettra Figure 26. Fiat 1500 Figure 57. Fiat Eco Figure 27. Fiat 500 Topolino Figure 58. Bentley Continental GT Figure 28. Fiat 500 Topolino Inside View Figure 59. Parallel Parking Capability on Prius by Toyota Figure 29. Jeep Willy 4x4 Sport Utility Vehicle Figure 60. Lexus LS Sedan with Self-Parking 17 Table of Figures

Figure 61. BMW 7 Series Figure 87. October 6, 1866, the first automobile moved by a Figure 62. Tesla Roadster steam engine Figure 63. A8 by Audi Figure 88. August 2, 1932, Maybach DS8 Zeppelin Figure 64. An Advertisement Image of DS in 1955 Figure 89. Motor Racing in 1930s Figure 65. Citroen DS 21, Exterior View Figure 90. 1954 Alfa Romeo Bat 7 designed by Bertone Figure 66. Light Detail of Citroen DS Figure 91. 1963, Renault 4 in Paris Figure 67. Headlamp Detail of DS Figure 92. The U.S. Apollo Lunar Roving Vehicle from Apollo 15 Figure 68. Closed Read Wheels View on the moon in 1971 Figure 69. Hand Sketch of Citroen DS by its Designer Bertoni Figure 93. Volvo 760 Estate/Wagon 1985 – 1990 Figure 70. Dashboard and Steering Wheel View Figure 94. Toyota car in crash test for safety legislation, 2017 Figure 71. Dashboard View Figure 95. An illustration of car body work design in the auto Figure 72. Jaguar Mark 2, Compact Saloon, 1959 – 1967 mobile history Figure 73. Inside View of BMC Mini for the Engine and Interior Figure 96. Wilcoxs Stained Glass Bed Vehicle Figure 74. BMC Mini Figure 97. 2016, leddartech solid state lidar autonomous Figure 75. Headlight of BMC Mini, the Design Icon Figure 98. An image of indication of each car on the road Figure 76. Hand Sketches of BMC Mini, Sections and Inside are Figure 99. An illustration to show how self-driving cars see the Shown road Figure 77. Dashboard of Mini, Speed Indicator Figure 100. High Precision Image of an Autonomous Car Figure 78. Interior of BMC Mini; the Steering Wheel, Dashboard, Figure 101. Depth Perception of the Sensors and Front Driver Seat Figure 102. Google’s Autonomous Car, Waymo Figure 79. Backseats of Mini, Interior Space View Figure 103. Google’s Autonomous Car, Waymo, Diagram Figure 80. BMC Mini on the Streets, UK Figure 104. Levels of Autonomy Self-Driven Cars Figure 81. Renault 5 Figure 105. Chart and Comparison of Levels of Autonomy Figure 82. Michel Boué Sketching Renault 5 in the Studio Self-Driven Cars Figure 83. Renault 5 Side View Figure 106. Percentages of What People Like About Driverless Figure 84. Front View of Renault 5, Bumpers Cars Figure 85. Renault 5 with Doors Opened, Showing the Space Figure 107. An Image of How an Autonomous Car Sees Figure 86. The development of the spinning machine by Sir Figure 108. Another Image of How an Autonomous Car Sees 18 Richard Arkwright in England Figure 109. A Futuristic Vision of a Car Which is Self-Driven Table of Figures

Figure 110. A Feasible Car for People with Disabilities Figure 135. Timeline for Adoption to Autonomous Cars Figure 111. Autonomous Car Reading Traffic Signals Figure 136. Regulations and Laws Related to Autonomous Cars in Figure 112. Autonomous Car Lane the U.S. Figure 113. Renault EZ GO in a City Figure 137. Graph of Levels of Autonomy Introduced in Years Figure 114. A Designer in Renault is sketching EZ GO Figure 138. Statistics about Public Transportation Benefits with Figure 115. Interior of EZ GO Autonomous Technology Figure 116. Illustration of the use of space of EZ GO Figure 139. A Presentation of Willingness to Adopt to Autono Figure 117. The Rear View of Renault EZ GO, Indicating the Led mous Technology in Cars Screen for Commication and the Rear Lights of the Figure 140. Electric Engine, Batteries, and Suspensions Car Figure 141. The Chevrolet Bolt’s Electric Motor Figure 118. Closed Wheel and Suspansion of EZ GO Figure 142. An Illustration of Autonomous Vehicles Only Urban Figure 119. A close Look to Interior Space Life Figure 120. Users Leaving EZ GO, Door Opening Figure 143. Ride Sharing, Self-Driving Car Illustration, Autono Figure 121. EZ GO Top Door mous Bots for Delivery Figure 122. Back Light of EZ Ultimo by Renault Figure 144. Top View of Passenger Configuration Figure 123. Interior Sketch of EZ Ultimo Figure 145. Voronoi on a Planar Surface Figure 124. Illustration of the Cut View of the Interior Figure 146. Stripes, Construction’s Main Elements Figure 125. Interior of EZ Ultimo Figure 147. Concept Design Vehicle, Outstanding Aerodynamic Figure 126. Side and Top Door Openings of Renault EZ Ultimo Style Figure 127. Closed Wheel and Suspension of EZ Ultimo Figure 128. Baggage Space on EZ Ultimo Figure 129. Volvo 360 c Back Tail Figure 130. First Scenario; The Mode of Use as a Commuting Space Figure 131. The Fourth Scenario that is Designed by Volvo, Rest ing Interior Figure 132. User Communication Interface of Volvo 360 c Figure 133. Volvo 360 c Figure 134. Distant Future of Driving Predictions 19

Chapter 1 Research Aims, Objectives, and Methodologies

This chapter aims to clarify the objectives for the research, state the research question, and explain the methods and resources that have been used to collect the required information for the thesis. In addition, this part of the thesis aims to create a familiarity for the readers to explain the background of this paper. In this chapter these subjects will be explained in an order. Research Aims, Objectives, and Methodologies

Aims of the Research has been constructed to examine the path of the effects of techno- logical factors together with design considerations.

The timeline is composed of milestones in car design regarding the The aim of the thesis is to obtain paths for the future of the car thesis topic. After that there have been done a selection of a group design to understand how technology, human needs and other of automobiles as the main milestones for the thesis because of factors affect the car design. Moreover, the further aim is to devel- their coherent features regarding to aims of the research. A case op a proposal of conceptual design for the future car by proposing study for each example has been constructed for a deepened analy- with reasons and inspirations. sis.

A general analyze has been provided to seek and create a path of Objectives of the Research the technological developments for automobile industry to create a proposal for the future scenario. The important points and factors regarding to technological improvements have been explained. Car design has been under influences of various factors throughout history. As technology has evolved in time, the automobile design Later on, an analysis and research have been constructed to under- has shaped around those changes. The elements of a car have stand the effects of human needs on automobiles. To explore this developed with the new inventions. There has been a move towards section, information about human life style history, the eras and implementing these new technologies into a vehicle. changing life styles has been collected. These factors have been documented within the time frame of the human life to provide a These new inventions have been done in various fields; such as, familiar flow of understanding in path creation regarding the main materials, aerodynamics, user interface, and manufacturing meth- subject. ods. Each development has offered an improvement to the car design and solved design problems in time while meeting the needs. After understanding the future of the car design a research about autonomous cars has been conducted to analyze the autonomy in To understand the topic and achieve the research aims, various cars. The levels of autonomy, the features, and importance of information in various methods have been collected. The history of self-driving vehicles have been documented to provide a compre- car design is analyzed from the beginning of first signs of automo- hensive understanding on the thesis. Moreover, case studies of 22 biles till today’s products. Therefore, a timeline of the developments some fully autonomous recent cars have been completed to Research Aims, Objectives, and Methodologies

understand the current futuristic trends about car design with conducted research. The literature is occurred mostly of articles, autonomy. papers, magazines, research papers, catalogs, course books, and encyclopedias. To have better perspective on human side of the To understand the future of car design, a research for plausible thesis, blogs were also used to understand the perception and the future scenarios has been conducted to apperceive requirements in approach towards autonomy in transportation. urban city lives and law. The expectations for this concept have been collected to understand the approach to this matter by As it is mentioned before, this research attempts to identify the people. milestones of car design, the effects of human needs, and the trends of the near future cars. Initially, the thesis aims to create a synthesis A proposal for a concept design is composed to provide a solution of factors for each main influencing element to seek for a path to to future of car design. In this concept, the scenario has been understand the direction of car design for the future. constructed with the information gathered from various sources and analyses. Autonomy in car was not recently discovered, it was a subject that designers, engineers, and scientists have been working for a while. Nevertheless, with the creation of paths, it has been aimed to see Literature Review the way through this concept. Autonomy has not been the main point of arrival of research in the thesis. Nonetheless, it was driven from the outcomes of the analyses which were completed with literature review. In this research thesis the importance is to define the milestones of the car design in the history to understand the influencing variants To achieve a list of cars, a great number of cars since the beginning to gain a perspective for the future of car design. In this history, of the car history has been analyzed and compared. The same each car in the past or recent has been explained; however, a selec- approach has been used to analyze human needs, as well. The tion of milestones for technological improvement regarding to complication of the concept has required to search documentations understand the concept in the future scenario has not been con- of museums. ducted.

The elements that drive designers and engineers to autonomy and the use of electric engine for fuel problems and most likely for environmental issues were detected and analyzed with the help of 23 Research Aims, Objectives, and Methodologies

Since the fully autonomy is not applied into urban life, yet, a search Methodologies of the Research for legislation has been required to conduct to understand the circumstances needed for this scenario to be applicable. Besides, the resources about autonomy have been mainly taken from research papers from other universities. In this thesis, how technologies and human needs will affect car design have been investigated, to answer this question analyses and case studies have been conducted in-depth. The reason why tech- nologies and human needs were taken into main consideration on Secondary Sources Analysis this thesis is that the changing living conditions, desiring to reach longer distances in shorter time manner with comfort, the overall experience of the process of mobility, the concept of transporta- The study of secondary sources has been done to understand the tion, the feeling delivered to the people have been shaped around probable legislation and infrastructure required for fully autono- people and the technical innovations to fulfill the expectations. mous cars on the roads. Overall this has provided a better compre- hensive perspective towards creation of future scenario of the To understand the effectiveness and the way of effectiveness of the self-driven vehicles. main factors regarding this subject, a mention to the research methodologies which were used to investigate about this thesis is The primary tool for conducting this analysis to gather information required. regarding the mentioned issue has been the Internet. As for the quantitative methods, existing data has been searched to gather and select required information that is related to the factors affecting car design. To conduct this research, several books and articles in various aspects about car design have been analyzed. Detection of the information was completed based on comparison and highlighted importance of the changes.

For selection of the materials for the quantitative methods, the dates of the articles have been chosen in a narrow range of time to understand and estimate a probable vision for the near future of the 24 car design. Nevertheless, articles and books from earlier times were Research Aims, Objectives, and Methodologies

also analyzed to create a comparison of perception that has been thesis. changing regarding car design. The case studies have been examined to understand also if the Visits to the museums have been completed to create a timeline and emphasis on the technical and design features the elements of the a flow of changes in the automobiles. Moreover, visits to exhibitions outcome of the research has been. This method has provided to about concept cars and concept proposals for future car have been identify the steps of development regarding technology and design. examined to obtain a better understanding of the trends of the automobile industry. Further case studies also helped to understand in a better way the current concept proposal trends about fully autonomous cars. As for the qualitative methods, the content analysis has been com- pleted by categorizing and narrowing down the selection of Further information about the development of the results of the features in each step to deduct an outcome to create a path synthesizes, analyses, and research outcomes can be found in the towards future for car design. following chapters, in which each chapter is composed from a different aspect on the subject with various influencing elements. A summary for the methodologies throughout the study can be explained as: the understanding of literature reviews, detailed search for existing data, detailed investigations of case studies related to topics of the thesis, developing a framework to propose a conceptual case for the thesis.

Case Studies and Framework

After the synthesis of the factors that play a great role in car design, important case studies have been provided to deepen the details of the synthesis. For technological improvements part, three cars have been chosen as the milestones of the timeline analysis to highlight which sides of the technological innovations are effective on this 25 Research Aims, Objectives, and Methodologies

Summary

To summarize the research aims, objectives, literature review, secondary source analysis, and methodologies are explained to create a better understanding about this research thesis.

There are two main research questions in this thesis, and they are: How will technological improvements affect car design? How will human needs affect car design? However, there is also a research for each section in this thesis, such as autonomous drive and its features with its importance, the future scenarios for the self-driv- en cars, and for case studies. The thesis is structured around these headings.

In addition, a proposal concept design for a car is provided as an outcome to these research and analyses. The information gathering and methods to gather that information have been completed to compose one solution.

After mentioning these objectives, resources, and methodologies, in the following part of the thesis, the details of these studies and work can be found in detail.

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Chapter 2 How Needs Affected Car Design

This chapter aims to create a timeline of the cars which are chosen as the milestones of the tech- nological improvements throughout the history of car design. The selection has been done from a broad range of cars starting from the begin- ning of car industry till today’s products. The list shows the direction of the development of the technology and some design approaches, as well. Each selected example has been described by its features and the reason why it is placed in the Figure 1. Jamais Contente timeline list. Timeline of Technology

1478 1769 1878 Leonardo Da Vinci’s spring Nicholas Joseph Cugnot Charles Jeantaud invented the propelled car is considered as designed a steam carriage with a parallelogram steering linkage to the first function-wise car that pressure vessel and two cylin- obtain Ackermann conditions in is designed and made in the ders action on the front single practice. automobile history. This wheel axle. The basis of today’s 1884 machine has a spring mecha- automobiles and transportation nism design with that it is able was laid with this invention. Figure 4. The Steam Engine by Daimler company improed the to move which is similar to the Richard Trevithick first stroke single cylinder mechanism in toy cars of the 1807 internal combustion engine for vehicles with 0.5 HP. Two years early 20th century. This system François Isaac De Rivaz built a later Daimler created motor was fitted with a primitive vehicle with an atmospheric carriare which is the first motor differential, which enabled to internal combustion engine. car. steer the whole machine. This engine works with a mix- ture of hydrogen and oxygen Figure 3. Steam Carriage by Nicholas with electrical spark plug. Joseph Cugnot 1803 Richard Trevithick invented a steam engine on rails. There is a horizontal cylinder which moves Figure 6. 0.5 HP Daimler, First Car the rear axle with a rod and Figure 2. Leonardo Da Vinci’s Spring crank mechanism. Propelled Car 1887 1595 Bosh documented a parent Fausto Venanzio designed a about electrical magneto igni- machine that is suspended on Figure 5. An Atmospheric Internal tion for engines. springs which is assumed as also Combustion Engine by De Rivaz 30 the first vehicle. Timeline of Technology

duc coachwork. In this car there nism is to obtain a damping are many inventions such as effect against vibrations on the cylinder with detachable head, driving bar. overhead valves and a centrifugal inlet valve regulator, con- stant-level carburetor with float spray nozzle, incandescent igni- tion with platinum heat sponge, Figure 9. The Front Engine of Figure 7. Magneto Ignito for Car Panhard Levassor Automobile and geometrically correct steer- Engines ing. 1895 1891 Michelin Brothers developed a Figure 12. 3HP Velo by Benz Panhard Levassor placed the pneumatic tire and applied it to 1899 engine in front. This was the a car. Then they created a race first time for engine configura- car, which is called as Éclair and Renault developed a gearbox tion to be at the front. Then he it is the first car to “run on air”. with direct drive, which was for linked the engine to back wheels the the first time in the history. with a clutch and multispeed The mechanism also included a transmission. shaft transmission with univer- sal joint. Then they created the

Figure 11. 3.5 HP by Enrico Zeno first sedan car. after the first Bernardi sedan car. 1898 Benz created a 3HP Velo, which Figure 10. Eclair by Michelin Brothers was the world’s first mass pro- with Pneumatic Tires duced car. There are Pneumatic Figure 8. An Automobile by Panhard Levassor 1896 tires, single cylinder rear engine. A rotating central leaf Enrico Zeno Bernardi designed spring in the steering mecha- the three-wheeler 3.5 HP with its Figure 13. A Drawing of the Gearbox 31 Timeline of Technology

ry. Its construction is simple, rational, and sturdy. This car was able to satisfy any kind of customer, who is free to choose between very few versions and even less customizations. “Any customer can have a car painted any color that he wants, so long Figure 16. Minutoli Millo 8 HP as it is black.” (Henry Ford) Figure 14. A Car of Renault with New 1907 Gearbox This car, Pope C/60 V, has a rear Figure 15. 8 HP by Benz, Twin electric engine powered by 1899 Cylinder Engine batteries under the seats. Benz created the 8 HP which was the first twin cylinder of 1902 Benz and it was a best seller at Minutoli Millo 8HP was designed that time. In the first year they to have the intake valve that sold 572 vehicles and in the next opened by vacuum while Figure 18. Ford T, Cabriolet year 603. It was able to go 35 km exhaust valve was controlled. per hour and to provide com- There were the low-tension 1922 magneto ignition, the leather fortable journey. This car is SPA 23 S had sports body, a slim cone clutch, the 3-speed gear- assumed as a milestone in the and essential spider bodywork box plus reverse and the chain German manufacturer’s history. which emphasizes the quality of drive. The bodywork was built around Figure 17. Pope c/60 V the car. It was sporty and the horizontal engine which was attractive. a break kind of development. 1908-27 Ford T was the car of the centu- ry. Its construction is simple, Ford T was the car of the centu- 32 Timeline of Technology

1922-31 to lighten the load on the front Lancia designed Lambda which wheels, with independent sus- has a great impact on the histo- pensions, as well. The chassis ry as being the first unibody car. was designed as simple and It was a futuristic idea which light, formed of two straight would also influence the general longitudinals. The aerodynamic Figure 19. SPA 23 S, Sport Car shape of coachworks. The profiled bodywork was made Figure 23. Om 665 straight lines and required entirely of aluminum sheet 1925 surfaces provided an elegant 1932 which covered also the lower part of the car to improve drag. ITALA 11 had 1 litre with v12 evolution of the nine series. Monaco Nardi Mod. Chichibio engine which had the roots was designed by Augusto positive-displacement super- Monaco with a collabration of charger. It was one of the first Enrico Nardi, Massimo Lancia, single-seaters. The suspensions and Giulio Aymini. This car were all-independent with single seater extremeley light reinforced wooden chassis and car is a front wheel drive racer Figure 21. Lambda by Lancia integral engine, transmission with an air-cooled twin cylinder Figure 24. Monaco Nardi Mod. and differential. engine which was lubricated by Chichibio by Augusto Monaco three pumps, one sent oil to the 1934 cam shaft, one to the right-hand cylinder, and the third to the Citroen 11A was designed as a valve gears and valve guides. front wheel drive with unibody. Figure 22. The Chassis of Lambda by This car is assumed as revolu- Lancia There were five speeds plus reverse, with direct drive on all tionary because of this reason. 1931 Figure 20. ITALA 11 the gears and a dedicated lubri- There are independent suspen- Om 665 was considered one of cation system. The front wheel sions and the constant velocity the best Italian cars of its time brakes were supported by the joints on the front drive shafts. with its very light chassis. differential output drive shafts which provided an opportunity 33 Timeline of Technology

was a quadrilateral-type sus- with a small four-cylinder design icon in the automobile pension that was independent engine overhanging the wheel history. and lognitudinal and hydraulic axis, independent front wheels dampers with springs. leaf and two-seater bodywork with a springs were used at the rear low fuel consumption rate. with telescopic hydraulic damp- ers. Hydraulically controlled Figure 25. Citroen 11 A drum was there to brake on all 1935 four wheels and there was a mechanically controlled band Fiat 1500 was designed to have brake on the transmission for an advanced chassis and an Figure 29. Jeep Willy 4x4 Sport parking and emergency purpose. Figure 27. Fiat 500 Topolino aerodynamic body. This chassis Utility Vehicle was to allow for high-volume 1948 production and for that it was Lancia Aprilia created one step designed with a central beam ahead from other cars with its structure in pressed steed. The aerodynamic bodywork, all-in- hydraulically-operated brakes dependent suspensions, and were new at that time. The narrow V four-cylinder engine. covering body was designed to Figure 28. Fiat 500 Topolino Inside These solutions provided a also reduce the drag force. The View Figure 26. Fiat 1500 splendid performance and autogenous welding method was 1945 prolonged its success well used to join the deep-pressed 1936 Jeep Willy was the first purpose beyond world war two until members of the frame without Fiat 500 Topolino was designed built 4x4 SUV (Sport Utility 1950. requiring to have any other side based on the trends of 1930s Vehicle) which looks similar to members. There were the which were social, economic, army vehicles and at that time double universatl joint drive and political. It is assumed as a people used SUV to feel more in shaft and an elastic joint with milestone of car design history power by being on the higher intermediate support in the and it is called as people’s car. level. Then this car has became a 34 central tube. At the front there The mechanism was simplified Timeline of Technology

also in the coupe segment, as 1954 well. Citroën Traction Avant was designed to be the first hatch- back.

Figure 31. Cisitalia 202 Figure 30. Aprilia by Lancia 1950

1948 Lancia Ardea was designed to be Figure 33. Super Sprint 1900 by Alfa Cisitalia 202 was designed with a the first small luxury model. Romeo tublar steel chassis and the 1952 bodywork provided a futuristic Alfa Romeo Disco Volante was look which was way ahead of its Figure 35. Citroen Traction Avant designed to rewrite the laws of time. It is assumed as one of the aerodynamics with its lenticular most beautiful cars in the histo- 1955 bodywork. Because of its tubular ry with the horizontal radiator Alfa Romeo Giuletta Sprint frame, it could be also assumed grille and the bonnet set belog became a milestone and a design in the sport car category. It was the mudguards with built-in Figure 32. Ardea by Lancia icon of 1950s with its various meant to attract overseas headlights. “I was aware that the types and 177000 vehicles. It has market buyers too. It is an old shapes were obsolete. Even 1950-59 a light alloy twin-shaft, an abandoned project. the automobile needed to have Alfa Romeo Super Sprint 1900 engine with 6 cylinders, and pure, smooth, and essential was designed to be a cheaper, aluminum base. Alfa Romeo lines.” (Pinin Farina) “A sculpture easier to maintain, and mass moved from a factory to a large in movement” (Arthur Drexler) produceable car to meet the automobile industry, three demands. It was a new and more different bodyworks: sedan with modern car with unitized body strong lines, sprint, and fresh which enabled to be produced coupe. It is also called as Italy’s on an assembly line. In total Figure 34. Disco Volante by Alfa girlfriend. Romeo 18000 vehicles were produced 35 Timeline of Technology

1956 1962 Fiat 600 Multipla became a BMW (ISO) isetta 250 was symbol of design and a reflec- designed in the postwar era in tion of its era, 1950s. It was which Europeans wanted to get practical efficient, and econom- motorized, hence the microcar ic. a point of reference in the was created which was in 50s in terms of practicality, between a motorbike and a car. efficiency and economy with its Figure 38. Fiat 600 Multipla It is an only 200 HP engined car. shrinked nose, the front axle, In that era ideas, mechanics, and Figure 36. Giuletta Sprint by Alfa 1959-2006 Romeo the new rear axle ratio, and the design were being explored. different tracks (front 1.225m, Mini was a compact front drive 1955 rear 1.151m). There had been car. It is a small car icon of the Citroën DS was designed to be a made three versions: one had 1960s. Most of the interior space front drive car. The importance 4/5-seater, other had 6-seater was dedicated for passengers of this car is that its bodywork and the Taxi mode of use. The and for that the interior space is was ahead of its time and con- interior space was used assumed to be maximized. It sidered as futuristic, from space efficiently which enabled to fit 6 created a new way to approach with the support of the floating people. The exterior two tone interior. look. The car is light and aero- painting was meant to match the Figure 40. BMW Isetta 250 dynamic. Later on other body interior colour selections with configurations have been done. the updated materials that were 1962 This car was a break in the way used. There were an airbag in Giulia T had the mechanics of which people designed cars. the steering wheel and a pas- Giuletta and was compact sedan senger airbag. Also, the gear with an entirely new body. lever knob were new. Aerodynamics had been studied Figure 39. Mini from 1960s and for that it was told to be “designed by the wind” . Safety in the car was perfected. Almost Figure 37. Citroen DS 36 half of a million of vehicles were Timeline of Technology

produced. It was the first car in 1968 place in a competition of con- the world with the progressive Carabo assigned a look of a cept cars. However, to fit the V8 deformation body capable of sharp blade. The chassis of this engine the drawings and design passing the crash test which was car was revolutionary and the of the car was altered drastically. introduced years later. placement of the engine which is in the middle that graces Figure 45. Alfa-Sud by Alfa Romeo background of the 32-road version. It has became another 1972-96 design icon in the automobile Michel Boué designed Renault 5 history. which had become the best Figure 44. Montreal by Alfa Romeo seller car in France within its production years. Its greatest Figure 41. Giulia T by Alfa Romeo 1971 importance is to be the one of Alfa-sud was designed by Rudolf the first cars that have plastic 1965 Hruska and it had 4-cylinder bumpers to protect pedestrians Chaparral was the first car to boxer engine. The car was very in case of crash. include a large wing to create Figure 43. Carabo, designed by compact, though the interior down force, which was a great Marcello Gandini provides very roomy cabin for improvement for race cars in passengers.It was dressed by 1970-77 aerodynamic perspective. Ital-design It was considered as Montreal prototype was a new generation of Alfa Romeo designed to reflect the highest for the first time with the front expression of a man at that time drive. with the appearence of automo- biles. There were 2 prototypes Figure 46. Renault 5 and one was with unusual pro- Figure 42. Chapparal with Back Wing portions yet it received positive feedback from the audience. Afterwards it was in the first 37 Timeline of Technology

1972 1982 Alfetta had a new chassis based Ferrari 208 GTB was a success on entirely revolutionary con- with the turbo engine, the cepts that was to establish the horsepower was increased supremacy, performance and together with the performance. driving pleasure. There were a It was a true icon of the 1980s. Figure 48. 33tt 12 by Alfa Romeo traditional twin shaft, the four in-line cylinders, light alloy, 1981 double overhead cam shaft Figure 47. Alfetta by Alfa Romeo Alfa Romeo 179 B was designed maintained. However, there had and made of a composite chassis been done some organization of 1973-75 and an innovative V12 engine. It the placements of the elements Alfa Romeo 33tt 12 was com- was created in a few months to Figure 50. Ferrari 208 GTB with in the car to obtain the weight pletely new, with a tubular fully exploit the ground effect. Turbo Engine distribution as balanced. Engine chassis and a 12-cylinder boxer The cylinder block and heads was at the front while gear engine with 3L capacity and are made of aluminum and 1987 clutch in board disk brakes were over 500 HP. Its boxer engine magnesium alloy. The chassis PHOENIX II SOLARE became a all on the back. This car was also was flat, opposed twelve-cylin- was composed of aluminum and representation of ecology and called as mailino (little pig). The der 3L boxer, which was power- honeycomb panels, while the sustainability. It had a reticular front suspensions were wish- ful and fully reliable, and charac- Kevlar bodywork was one of the steel frame with semi-support- bone shaped and had torsion teristic on account of its most aerodynamically efficient ing bodywork made of carbon bars. This was the first car of super-square measurements. at the time. fiber. The 18 high efficiency Alfa Romeo to present the new These solutions provided the monocrystalline solar panels chassis. maximum engine power at mounted on the wings provide 11,000 rpm. A spoiler and aero- energy to the batteries, accord- dynamic bodywork were placed. ing to the availability of sun’s energy. The mechanism for Figure 49. 179 B by Alfa Romeo electronics controls boths recharging of the batteries and 38 the powering of the motor. Its Timeline of Technology

body shell also had frame’s 1998 stiffening function. The chassis was done as a chrome steel Smart Fortwo was designed to mesh structure. The maximum be a safe inexpensive, easy to speed it could reach to was park, commuter transportation for two with its single row seat. 80km per hour. Figure 52. Trabant 601 - DDR

1992 Figure 55. Prius by Toyota, A Hybrid High tech headlamps were Car designed. 1998 Airbags had become mandatory 1995 to be included in all the vehicles Figure 51. PHOENIX II SOLARE, Sun Stability control, electronic that are yet fully reliable. Light Powered Vehicle stability control (also as called as Figure 54. Smart Fortwo 1998 1987 ESC) with yaw sensor was started to be placed in cars. 1998 Bluetooth integration had been Trabant 601 – DDR designed Toyota created Prius, a hybrid done. with the chassis that was con- 1996 sisted of a sheet steel platform car. It was the first in the market General Motors created EV1 1999 which supports a very simple with mass produced. It had which was the first highway Fiat designed Seicento elettra plastic body. Duroplast with 1.5-liter engine and electric capable mass-produced electric which was the only rear wheel vegetal fibers, which were later motor with nickel & metal vehicle. drive fiat. Power was obtained calld as pressed cardboard, were hybrid battery pack. from a three-phase alternating used to obtain the plastic body- current asynchronous electric work. Though its steel frame motor. It is mechanically and was not an actual example of electrically simplier and there- indelibility. fore more reliable than a direct Figure 53. EV1 by General Motors current motor, which was a very compact and light solution. This 39 Timeline of Technology

enabled to place the motor itself 2000 2003 at the rear of the car under the It became mandatory to include Toyota started to sell Prius floor pan. Main components Tire Pressure Monitoring in hybrid vehicle with an automat- were: energy storage system cars. ic parallel parking capability (traction batteries), battery offered as an option named as monitor, electric motor, inverter 2000 Intelligent Parking Assist. with vehicle management unit, Fiat Eco basic was designed to power socket and cable for achieve the brand-new Common charging from mains, dc/dc Figure 57. Fiat Eco Rail system, which had just start- converter, electrical power ed to revolutionize the world of system. 2002 diesel fueling. It introduced the automated gear, another one of Bentley Continental GT was the most promising solutions of named the most beautiful car of Figure 59. Parallel Parking Capability on Prius by Toyota the time. Designers were working the year in the world. to create young looks and adapt- 2006 able modular interiors. Thus, its Lexus has added a self-parking shape had a rounded front and it system to the redesigned Lexus Figure 56. Fiat Seicento Elettra was a long two-volume vehicle. LS sedan. In that way the car The interior of the car was parks parallel as well as angle 1999 extremely adjustable, and the Figure 58. Bentley Continental GT parks on its own. Radar Based Cruise Control was instruments were placed around started to place in cars to avoid a central structure. 2002 collison. First it appeared in Mercedes Benz S Class. Rear View backup camera were begun to be installed on cars. 2000 Figure 60. Lexus LS Sedan with Global Positioning System (aka Self-Parking GPS) was used in vehicles. 40 Timeline of Technology

2007 2018 BMW designed 7 Series with a Audi developed A8 with Exit gesture reading with some basic Warning Aims to save cyclists. It controls in the car such as; was aimed reduce the risk to changing the volume with a passing cyclists. This system “circular motion and answer or scans the area behind a parked dismiss phone calls by swiping vehicle and will lock the doors to the left or right with sensors until it is clear for passersby. on the roof.

Figure 63. A8 by Audi

Figure 61. BMW 7 Series 2008-present Tesla created Roadster which is the first highway capable all-electric vehicle in serial production for sale in the modern era.

Figure 62. Tesla Roadster 41

Case Studies Citroen DS 1955, BMC Mini 1959, and Renault 5

This chapter includes case studies of the main mile- stones of the technical improvements together with the design icon aspect, thus they are the milestones for this research paper. These case study cars have outstanding features that carry a great importance to understand the direction of the attention in car designing has been going. They have had a great impact on the way which people design cars. One of their biggest features is being a design icon in the car history. Spaciousness, aerodynamics, styling, material selection, comfort, uniqueness, and safety are their main attributes. Case Study - Citroën DS 1955

This car is a front-engine with front-wheel-drive that is manufac- tured and marketed by a French company called as Citroën. A French engineer André Lefèbvre and an Italian sculptor Flaminio Bertoni designed, engineered the style and made the car and Paul Magès improved the hydropneu- matics self-levelling suspensions. This car had been produced from 1955 in many configurations such as Figure 65. Citroen DS 21, Exterior View sedan, wagon, and convertible. The last car was designed and made in Figure 64. An Advertisement Image of 1975. It is assumed as a French DS in 1955 goddess Represented a new future “All the joys of restful motoring are yours”. In total of 1.3 million vehicles have been sold.

The Citroen DS’s important trick was its hydropneumatics, self-lev- elling suspension which enables to control the ride height from the inside of the car. This meant that Citroën DS could provide the passengers inside to feel that they were riding in air.

Even though its general shape is rounded, its dove tailing of its sections attracted the most interest from the public. The edges of the windows, the wide rubber grooves that link the back window to its metal surrounding were highlighted features that gained main Figure 67. Headlamp Detail of DS interest from the audience. The aerodynamic styling of the car was Figure 66. Light Detail of Citroen DS 44 something ahead of its time and quite futuristic for its era. People Case Study - Citroën DS 1955

perceived this car as something from the space, like a mysterious object seen in the sky. The motorists were also surprised by the frameless doors and a car without radiator grilles. The theme of the car was taken from the nature in a very pure way of Figure 69. Hand Sketch of Citroen DS by its Designer Bertoni water or tear drop. This resulted with a streamlined egg shape Figure 68. Closed Rear Wheels View with a flattened base with its outstanding windscreen, headlamps, and wheel opening. Not to distract people from the floating look, there have not been added eyebrow around the simple front wheel cut-out, while the rear wheels were already covered.With the exterior design of the car, there is a return to a certain degree of streamlining; however, it was less bulky, less incisive and more relaxed, quite new when it is compared with the original examples of the streamlining design. Figure 70. Dashboard and Steering Figure 71. Dashboard View Wheel View and separation of nickel work. All these features emphasize a sort of Flaminio Bertoni had done the interior design of the Citroen DS in control implemented over motion than performance. The single an outstanding way. The highlighted signature of Flaminio Bertoni spoke steering wheel solved many design problems that were raised was the single-spoke steering wheel, which sat in front of a revolu- till that time. The traditional dashboard was occurred of futuristic tionary thermoplastic dashboard. To produce this dashboard, a sweeping, padded, and plastic shelf placed instrument module vacuum forming process had been used in United Kingdom, while behind the steering and its column. for France production, the dashboard has been manufactured with an injection moulding method. The designer gave the dashboard a For the interior modern fabrics and bright colors were used as the familiar modern kitchen looks than a control room of a machine or styling and technology part. The type of the seats was soft, very a factory. To obtain this feeling he had used the slim panes of matt domestic furnishing that provides a friendly ambient for the pas- fluted metal, and small levers topped by a white ball, simple dials, sengers. 45 Case Study - Citroën DS 1955

Citroën DS had ample glass area to deliver a light and airy interior to the passengers. The materials used promoted a sense of lightness in its attractive sense.

Besides importantly, the Citroën DS was a starting point for pend- ing pedestrian impact safety legislation thanks to its exterior design. In the following years, as it was mentioned before commer- cial and family versions of the car have been designed to make it more accessible for people. The commercial configuration was meant more likely for business while the one for families had three row seats inside of the car. ~ Figure 72. Jaguar Mark 2, Compact Saloon, 1959-1967

During that time other important designs were Boeing 747 Jumbo jet, Apple Macintosh computer, wind-up radio, lunar landing module.

Other cars at its time were as following: Jaguar compact saloon, MGA sports cars, Rolls Royce silver cloud, Sunbeam Rapier coupe with its exuberant whitewall tires, and Daimler Golden zebra.ID arrived in 1956 to make the design basic and accessible to more people.

46 Case Study - BMC Mini 1959

The Mini is a front wheel drive with an efficiently space saving transverse engine. It is a small econo- my car produced by the English-based British Motor Corporation (BMC) in 1959 and till 2006 it had been produced, today there is still mini though with different versions. Howev- er, this is the heritage car for the brand. The first generation of Mini is Figure 73. Inside View of BMC Mini for the Figure 74. BMC Mini assumed as a true design Engine and Interior icon of British popular culture in 1960s, as well as in the automobile history. With its per- spective towards car design has influenced many car designers to alter their approach to car design. At that time there was an oil crisis and fuel-efficient cars had been on demand to meet the needs of people. Therefore, it was needed a car that can fit four people in comfort and consumes less fuel. Hence this microcar had been designed, which allowed 80% of its space to be meant only for passengers. Cars that are at this engine capacity and size was called Figure 75. Headlight of BMC Mini, the as microcars, also called as bubble cars. In 1999 Mini was voted as Design Icon Figure 76. (on top the second most influential car of the 20th century after Ford and on the left) Hand sketches of Model T and ahead of the Citroën DS and Volkswagen Beetle. BMC Mini, Sections and Inside are The 1956 Suez Crisis lead the Mini to be born. Also, the Fiat 500 was Shown 47 Case Study - BMC Mini 1959

launched in 1957 because of the similar reasons and it became also hugely success- ful in Italy.

This small car is a design icon of the 1960s and it was created by Sir Alec Issigonis. Mini name comes from minimus which means the smallest. The engine is Figure 77. Dashboard of Mini, Speed Indicator across the car and it has a compact front drive. Most of the interior space was dedicated to the passengers and their comfort in the car, it is designed based on the three archetypes of human body: muscular man, children, and soft forms of a woman. The floor pan of the car was there to be used for passengers and their luggage. To obtain such a place the designer moved the wheels to outside corners. The placement of the radiator Figure 78. Interior is at the left side of the car so that the engine. The mounted fan is of BMC Mini; the Steering Wheel, reversed pitch to blow air into the natural low-pressure area under Dashboard, and the front wing. Sliding windows in the doors allowed storage pock- Front Driver Seat ets to be fitted in space where a winding window mechanism would have been. Boot lid, hinges at the bottom to increase the baggage space and be able to be driven open.

The bodywork of Mini was two-door, four-seater sedan and station wagon. Its maximum power was 76bhp. The new hydrolastic sus- pension design provides softer ride. It became a symbol of freedom Figure 79. Backseats and fun. this suspension system, designed by Issigonis's friend Dr. of Mini, Interior 48 Space View Case Study - BMC Mini 1959

Alex Moulton at Moulton Developments Limited, used compact rubber cones instead of conventional springs. This space-saving design also featured rising progressive-rate springing of the cones, and provided some natural damping, in addition to the normal damp- ers. Built into the subframes, the rubber cone system gave a raw and bumpy ride accentuated by the woven-webbing seats, but the rigidity of the rubber cones, together with the wheels' positioning at the corners of the car, gave the Mini go kart-like handling.

Compact suspensions that used rubber cones instead of springs and dampers with lack of rear drive mechanicals. Dunlop developed special tires for this. The total weight of the car is 600 kg. In this car form follows the function. The dynamic orientation of the car gener- ates a forward thrust with the window contours opening out towards the front. Figure 80. BMC Mini on the Streets, UK

Mini design is based on a clear formal language that is defined by the play of lines, seams, circles, and ellipses. Its look had hexagonal radiator grille and round headlights recessed into the bonnet that give friendly and gives an open appearance to the car. Its proportions and appealing expression accentuating this positive impression. The broad stance and strong shoulders reflect safety feeling to the people. The iconic parts are the hexagonal radiator, elliptical door handles and chrome surrounds, and front headlights.

Overall this car was easy to park and looked chic as well. There have been done many improvements within the following 41 years from the first car, thought the iconic parts of the first generation have been kept in the modern designs. 49 Case Study - Renault 5 1972

The Renault 5 was designed to be a four seater, three or five-door, front-engine, front-wheel drive hatch- back car. It was manu- factured and marketed by a French company called as Renault. It was on the market over two generations from 1972 to 1985. This car has been Figure 81. Renault 5 also called as R5 (or Super 5, Super cinq). This car became the best-selling car in France in between 1972 and 1986. In total there were 5.5 million vehicles produced and it was on the market over 14 years which makes this car special in French car history.

The R5 was a car that was developed by Michel Boué in his free Figure 82. Michel Boué Sketching Renault 5 in the Studio time, which was an experiment for him. It was inspired from R4 though it had distinctive differences from it as well. This car created a new segment in the automobile industry, even though Fiat 127 had opened the doors of this new segment one year before. However, Renault became the default car in the new configuration of super- mini class. This car even had been sold in United States which was a great accomplishment for a European company to achieve.

In early R5s there had been used an idiosyncratic dash- board-mounted gearshift in a French style; however, this was later dropped in favor of a floor mounted shifter. The other highlighted 50 Figure 83. Renault 5 Side View Case Study - Renault 5 1972

feature of the car was the door handles that had been formed from a simple cut-out in the door panel and B-pillar. The engine of the car is in-line with four-cylinder that is placed in the fore-and-aft plane with the transmission and the final drive in its nose. The engine size is adequately small not to cause a problem in the passenger compartment. This lead the interior of the car to be spa- Figure 85. Renault 5 with Doors Opened, Showing the Space cious. Renault had built rear-engine cars from 1949 to cialist in the company had developed this. These new bumpers had 1972; however, since 1958 they covered a great area that were potentially contact zones for pedes- also built cars with front-en- trians. In traditional cars the bumpers were not matching this new gine which provided engineers safety criteria. With this new bumper the survival rate of the low to have a greater freedom to speed impact had been increased. Hence, the car had gained a design the displacement of the reputation as an outstanding city car. Later, this feature had Figure 84. Front View of Renault 5, become an industry standard for all other automobiles. Bumpers elements in the car. Thus, most small car engineers prefer to have front-drive car to handle weight distribution freely and balance the total mass. Besides for rear-drive cars the universal joints that had been used were making the cost of the car higher and this was not efficient to create a car for people.

The most important feature of R5 was to be the one of the first cars produced with plastic (polyester and glass fiber) bumpers. A spe- 51 Analysis

Everything was started with an idea of Leonardo Da Vinci. He improvement, the chassis had been invested with some work like sketched a mechanism that acts like a sort of car with springs and lightening it. When the chassis and other inner parts of the car had wheels in 1468. Afterwards, steam carriage was invented for trans- been becoming lighter, speed had gained a new value. To create an portation, which transferred the pressure of steam to have enough extremely light car, inner mechanisms altered to reduce weight on power to move. The invention of the internal combustion engine the wheels with the help of aerodynamic profiles of the exterior had changed the automobile history. The vehicles had become more designs. The gap in between underneath the car, and the road is powerful to go faster. In 1884 Daimler developed an engine to invent reduced with this sort of profile to obtain higher efficiency against a motor vehicle. The following improvements had been made in the dragforce of the air. Aluminum metal sheets were used for the configuration of the engine in the car and that resulted with a profiles of the cars, which was not only a performance aspect front-engine vehicle. Then pneumatic tires had been developed and development; however, also emphasized the ongoing inventions in used in automobiles, which provided a great performance. In 1898 machining, manufacturing, and materials science. Later a combina- Benz had created a car that was mass produced, the importance of tion of front wheel-drive with unibody had been done. In time the mass production was highlighted with the technological smaller and more economical cars started to appear which had improvements that enabled the ways to manufacture car parts in a simpler mechanism, low fuel consumption, and cost efficient. serial way. In 1945 a new segment had been introduced, SUV, as called as Gear box with direct drive was the next following technological Sportage Utility Vehicle which was a bulky design in the sense of improvement in the car history which was followed with horizontal aerodynamics; however, it had enlarged the approach to automobile placed engine. In 1907 an electric engine car was developed, and the design. While the perception of transportation was changing with batteries were placed under the seats. This improvement is another an SUV, also luxury cars began to appear, which changed the image big step to discover other sources of power for the engines. In 1908 of the car. Nevertheless, Alfa Romeo introduced a cheaper, easy to Ford T created a great impact in the automobile history with its maintain, and mass producible car which was the demand of its simplified, rational car that was enormously meant for mass pro- time. duction in its era. The first hatchback car was designed in 1954, a new segment for the Meanwhile the sportiness in cars was started to rise, and it was car history. Besides, the different bodywork configurations of the assumed to evoke elegancy in cars. Another significant development same car had begun to be done. In the material sense, light alloy was the unibody design of Lancia for Lambda in 1922. The unibody twin shaft affected the history with its raise in the performance. 52 chassis design enabled cars to be high volume produced. After this Within time the interior space had gained more value and more Analysis

colorful, elegant material selection had been started to appear. produced and the size of the automobile kept getting smaller in While interior space was becoming more important the size of the time. In 1998 a hybrid car with Nickel and metal hybrid battery car was oppositely reducing. Hence the microcars were developed packs were introduced. Later, for the safety issue, airbags had which were a middle segment of motorbikes and cars. become mandatory to include in a standard car.

The safety for passengers and pedestrians gained more attention. In The Bluetooth also took place in the car. Radar based cruise control, 1962 Alfa Romeo designed a car that had safety standards way ahead GPS, and tire pressure monitoring were also appeared, which lead of its time, because of its progressively deformable body design. the car to have an intelligence, as well. Diesel fueling with automat- After the wings were added to gain more advantage in the sense of ed gear were the next improvements. Designers wanted to create a aerodynamics by creating a down force. young look in the cars. Thus, the design of the automobile became to be in this path. There have been placed rear camera to monitor The unusual proportions appeared to attract people’s attention in the outside of the back part of the car. the design sense. Then again, the significance of the interior space had raised again in very compact yet roomy cars. Aluminum and In 2006 Lexus developed a system that allowed its car to park magnesium alloys were used in chassis that made the weight of the parallel and as well as angled. In the manner of development of car lighter, while other cars were mostly using Kevlar bodywork. smart cars, a gesture reading for simple tasks like change in volume Together with these developments, turbo engine had been devel- answering a call had been installed. Moreover, an exit warning oped to increase HP and the performance of the car. Because of the system for cyclists for protection had been developed. raising ecological reasons a solar car was designed with solar panels, electronic control unit, and carbon fiber body. Moreover, a When the path of the developments is sought the cars are getting search for different and lighter materials kept going on; in 1987 a smarter and fulfilling more tasks than it used to. The environmental plastic body made of duroplast with a vegetal fiber was developed. reasons also pave a way to change the sort of fuel of the cars. Tech- nology is continuously improving together with its electronics, Technical developments had followed with the electronic stability mechanics, and material science. The methodologies to produce control mechanism in the cars. In 1996 an electrical car that was some parts are evolving and traditional ways are still on going capable of highway was mass produced which highlights the trials because of cost reason to change the whole system. However, it is and efforts in electric engine cars. observed that the industry is going through a period in which cost is a secondary perspective when it is compared with social, techno- Small cars never lost the attention and two row seat cars were logical and environmental impacts. 53

Chapter 3 How Needs Affected Car Design

The factors have affected the development of car design are not only about technology and scien- tific inventions. Even technology has been under the effect of the frame of changing human needs. Therefore, it is important to analyze evolving exigences of environment and humans together with their demands. In this part of the chapter, the changing needs in the history are examined by approaching eras, the altering of life styles, and the perception of automobile within time. How Needs Affected Car Design

1885-1929 The origin of the word transportation comes from the Neolithic revolution: the need for mobility greatly raised while taming animals In the early 18th century there were the fire engines which were created a new view. The agriculture paved a way to transport plant powered by burning coal, soon they have been called as a steam seeds to the fields and to crop them back to the home. The amount engine that lead a realization of obtaining bigger force to work of equipment and objects that people needed to carry were scaled more efficiently by controlling the steam itself. One of the inventors up as the result of development of agriculture. Also, in different of this was James Watt. Later, James Watt redesigned Newcomen’s weather conditions like on snow and ice, or ground conditions like engine to increase its power with its size. These large engines have grassland, deserts, or rock an apparatus like sleighs and sledges been started to be used in the factories, and then they have become were used. the source of power of the industrial revolution while people were still using horses for operating other sub machines. The use of coal seemed as the future of the fuel. Although gas was a cleaner option, yet impractical due to the fact of its high tendency In the 19th century the concept of personal transportation had been to explode and thus cause fatalities. Then, gasoline which is the invented and lighter locomotives lead the perception of mobility to liquid fuel was proved to be a better option by Nikolaus Otto. Nev- smaller size versions of the immobile engines which revolutionized ertheless, the search for fueling options for better performance, manufacturing industries. affordable, and cleaner for the world had been started in the early history of automobile design.

Figure 86. The development of the spinning machine by Sir Richard Figure 87. October 6, 1866, the first automobile moved by a steam engine 56 Arkwright in England How Needs Affected Car Design

The concept of car was a symbol of a horseless carriage that 1930-1949 changed the lifestyle of the people in a way that mobility was pro- vided with an invention that required reliability standards for people In the 1930s, the cars were separated among different levels of to trust their well-being to engines. From the beginning of automo- mode of use. One of them was meant for public use, also called as bile industry history, the reliability and hence the design problems people’s cars that were designed to motor economically and to be were raised and solved slowly in time. The increase of business and affordable yet adequate to attract low-income-people’s attentions. the new needs of private mobility, an innovative confidence in Other level was for middle class people who sought to use a brand progress and in the possibilities of technology prompted to have an that suited for their status in public. Thus, the streamlined cars attempt on new experiments and to fine existing machine. were getting trendy in the manner of design aesthetics.

At first the car industry was dependent on an immense infrastruc- In the pre-WW II the car bodies were designed to have fully closed ture which included the investments regarding into roads, creating bodies. The new saloon or as also called as sedan body style were a network of fuel supplies. With the development of these require- introduced. The closure of passenger area is another factor that ments the range of mobility and making use of personal time were carries the features of safety concept. increased and a car with typical front engine, ability to rear drive and the bodywork started to change the landscape.

Moreover, cars that were carrying the image of luxury, high refine- ment of the workmanship, and quality of the materials were moving from for expensive status to become a consumer product for public favor by 1910. The profitable automobiles and large luxury cars started to be inefficient which were also greatly dependent on fuel prices.

Figure 88. August 2, 1932, Maybach DS8 Zeppelin

57 How Needs Affected Car Design

The world war II changed the picture of automobile industry; the 1950-1959 contribution of internal combustion engine had become efficient and useful for air forces. Moreover, the manufacturing and produc- Regardless of post-war privations and fuel emergencies, the car tion of technical products were started to be meant for the causes turned into the focal point of consideration all through the entire of of war. However, after this era, the conflict years had brought new the 1950s. The automobile ownership was yet not all inclusive, and approaches to automobile design with new models and created streets around the globe were moderately without traffic. Never- different expectations from car. Racing with cars had become a theless, by the end of the decade, exuberant motoring opportunity thing among people’s joy and car design was evolving around inge- would be headed out. niousness of cars’ features.

Figure 90. 1954 Alfa Romeo Bat 7 designed by Bertone Figure 89. Motor racing in 1930s Carmakers featured the speed, extravagance, and intensity of their Later, sports and luxury cars were occurred to be on higher items by combining aerospace symbolism and chromium-plated demand to supply final level of craftmanship in their fields. The beautification in about equivalent measure. The outcomes were speed records were obtained with the innovations through racing shocking people and it changed the approach on designing a car for car design. people. The accentuation of people’s attention was on appealing economy automobiles, or else stirring sports and racing vehicles from Italy, Germany, and the Great Britain. There was likewise the 58 possibility of a rising Japanese automobile industry. How Needs Affected Car Design

Moreover, vehicles were getting easier to understand, as well, because as multi-path roadways covered whole landscapes and it was requested to include new dimensions of mechanical versatility for supported high-speed driving for long distances.

1960-1969

The 1960s included many different social occasions such as the liberation of youth, the innovation of white heat, the beginning the classless social culture have affected the automobile design. Hence, the bodywork and color choice together with the styling became like for youth.

When the new segments like mini cars or micro cars occurred, the need for transportation was also altered within the concept of Figure 91. 1963,Renault 4 in Paris mobility in the city with few storages and few people in a single In addition, the elements on the televisions or in the movies had vehicle. appeared on the automobiles, and the popular culture in car config- uration had at long last arrived. For the first time new sorts of clever engines were appeared. These included developments, for example, the revolving and the gas turbine motors. There were advancements in vehicle body work and layout as well, with sport utility vehicles and hatchbacks changing the mode in which autos were driven and utilized. Additionally, the change in approaching to drivelines brought four wheels with high-technology front drive setups which paved a way to blossom everything from small city cars to sport cars. Furthermore, for the first time there was a convenient logical spotlight on making vehi- cles more secure, to the enduring advantage of all users. 59 How Needs Affected Car Design

1970-1979

The fuel crisis was dominating the 1970s in the manner of automo- bile industry which negatively affected the first part of the decade in a way the future of motoring was sought unclear.

In spite of the fact that there were some iconic level high perfor- mance super cars that came into life in the mid-1970s. Meanwhile there was a drawback for the large engine mass production cars, because of their harmful impact on the environment with their high-level fuel consumption rate.

The alternative fuel sources and electric engines gained an impor- tance and a genuine advancement in the Japan automobile industry and those cars were efficient and with reasonable cost. At first those cars were not obtaining adequate attention from other coun- Figure 92. The U.S. Apollo Lunar Roving Vehicle from Apollo 15 on the Moon in 1971 tries; however, its well-made quality provided the attraction needed.

New models were progressively appealing and well equipped while on the race tracks aerodynamics had gained a lateral perspective. Later, the inventors created an automobile that could be driven on the Moon.

60 How Needs Affected Car Design

1980-1999 that by reducing the cost of labor and production by international supply chains, although these created other sorts of costs like The cars of 1980s are unmistakably similar to today’s automobiles. global shipping afterwards. In its general idea, the design of the normal family car has scarcely changed by any means, regardless of the advancement of new practical body styles, for example, the multi-passenger car or the excessively compact suburban runabout. The more broadly the automobiles were used, the more effective it became on people’s daily lives. The cars played an important role to spread suburban life styles and influenced the concept of family life with a greater mobility freedom.

Thus, the improvement of suburb, vehicles provided an easier way to travel for people in the world, which then became as a new and fastest way to move, they eased the possibility of travel around this world, which was spread quickly. In the 1990's, the SUV were spa- cious thus for more individuals and things to be driven in a same Figure 93. Volvo 760 Estate/Wagon 1985 - 1990 vehicle in comfort. Big families purchase bigger size vans or SUV's due to the fact that they have more room for children and their In any case, the frameworks of the systems inside the present belongings. vehicles have profited by the continuous refinement by designers and engineers for more than thirty years. Autos are extraordinarily Despite its advantages, larger cars consume more fuel. That is why, more efficient than in earlier decades, just as flaunting broadly it becomes more expensive to fill up the fuel tank of an SUV than raised the active and passive safety to ensure the protection of the regular standard car. Hence, the damage it causes because of this people inside of the car. Moreover, they release a small portion of reason is increased as respectively. harmful chemicals which were once approved a secondary product of mass automobile possession. Within time thanks to changes and developments in the manufac- turing and industry, a car became a product that almost any average Well-known vehicles were standardized with similar models which person could have owned. The car companies have accomplished were developed and created by manufacturers around the world. 61 How Needs Affected Car Design

However, there has not been a limit to creative or imaginative thinking. The continuous decades of search for alternative fueling to oil is pushed automobile design further into the future by invest- ing on the advantages of electric engine with hydrogen batteries and even use of solar power.

2000 - Present

There are various factors that influence the advancement of vehi- cles during the decades such as user requests in regard to raised power, comfort and the spaciousness, and environmental aspects like noise proof or reduction, carbonmonoxy emission and con- Figure 94. A Toyoto car in crash test for safety legislations, 2017 sumption of fuel, production costs, durability and maintenance services, and visibly the safety of vehicle, which are mostly applied The engineers of today’s world are appeared to concentrate more by legislation today. For instance, such legislations started to occur on the safety part of the vehicle than its highlights. As automobiles around 1950s and developed and strengthened within time. That is are become more developed, the methods to keep humans secured why, today’s cars are safer than a luxury car from the past. are needed to be improved, as well. In addition, inventions like airbag, in-car sensors ensure the passengers, yet also the people The physical parameters for car design are strongly structure by the who are on the surrounding of the car on the outside. These devel- passive safety regulations. The test scenarios of pre-scribed crash opments exist, because they are requested by current automobile from the legislative point of view just as from non-legislative market. While the world becomes to be progressively populated systems affect the body work of a car. place for humans, the parents desire safe vehicles to provide mobil- ity for their children. That is why, car produces have started to The explicit measures to fulfill crash test related necessities require understand that their products need to include invention methods space within the vehicle body, hence affect the definition of the to shield passengers from the possible danger. Thus, new safety exterior design and shape of the vehicles, such as bumpers which features are expected to be found to lead the market and the indus- was explained before. try. 62 How Needs Affected Car Design

Because of the safety regulations within all time, the bodywork of a car has followed, this order: Functional center of a car; car with a cabin; car with a roof; car with a windshield; full expensed car; car with a light, a roof, and windshield trimmed into cabin; trimmed cabin.

Moreover, the global warming has become a real problem that requires to be handled in a short time. The pollution that is created by the harmful emissions of the vehicles, the materials, and meth- ods to manufacture enlarges the issue, and the emission people are starting to realize that Global Warming is a real issue that needs to be dealt with.

Nowadays, to reduce the damages of the cars new kinds of eco-friendly cars have been developed in the urban areas. These vehicles are using electricity, fuel cell, and/or solar power as fuel course rather than gasoline. At the moment, the hybrid automobiles are getting attention in this manner. In addition, people have been understanding the use of eco-friendly cars are more affordable and help to protect the nature more. All these factors affect the auto- mobile industry in a strong way with deficient resources, pollution, and changing its industry image.

Figure 95. An illustration of car body work design in the automobile history

63

Chapter 4 Autonomous Drive

In this chapter it has been explained what autonomy and autonomous mean, the elements of the autonomous drive; the technology such as radar sensors, optics, Lidar, GPS, and proces- sors; the background history of autonomous cars as in when the research has started, what kind of experimentation has been done; the levels of autonomy, from no automation to fully autono- mous cars; and finally the features and the importance of those features of Level 5, self-driven, car have been explained from vari- ous aspects like for environment, cost, traffic, Figure 96. Wilcoxs Stained Glass Bed Vehicle welfare and for all people. Autonomous Drive

Description These systems are gener- ally conditional that infers the computerization The word autonomous implies the self-governing concept. Many framework can operate projects from the history identified with this concept have been the automated driving; subjected to a strong dependence on the artificial aids like magnetic however, not for all condi- strips in the environment. The autonomous control emphasizes the tions experienced over the acceptable performance under noteworthy indistinctness in the span of ordinary tasks. In nature or environment and the ability to recover for system mis- this manner, a human takes without having any outside intervention. Most of the com- driver is practically mercial concept projects concentrated on automated vehicles that required to start the did not have a communication way with other cars or with covering automated driving and management routine. could possibly do as such when the condition for driving is included in the Figure 98. An image of indication of each car on capacity of the system. At the road the point when the vehicle automation system has included every driving functions and situations, the human will not be practically required except for assuming the responsibility of car.

A self-driving vehicle, otherwise called a robot vehicle, autonomous vehicle, or driverless car is a vehicle that is fit for detecting its Figure 97. 2016, leddartech solid state lidar autonomous condition and moving without any human input. The automated driving framework is commonly a coordinated package of individually operating systems working in simultaneous- A combination of various sensors is used in an autonomous car to ly. This emphasizes that the ability of the driver of the vehicle to see the environment. These systems are called as radar, Lidar (light drive is removed and given to the car automation system. Despite detection ranging), sonar, GPS, odometry and inertial measure- the fact that the drive can take precautions and actions in any ments. Hence, the systems provide an appropriate navigation path 66 moment, the system still has the ability of driving. just as the complications like obstacles and important signage. Autonomous Drive

Elements Radar Sensors

In an autonomous car there are systems that are the core elements The autonomous vehicles have mounted radar sensor units mainly of this sort of vehicles to be autonomous and perform without on the bumpers; two at front and another pair of sensors at the causing any harm to the living beings and provide a satisfactory back. These sensors are used to detect the dynamics of the highway performance and experience to the users, and these elements are like changing the route, traffic blockage, car accidents, obstacles; as following: they work in a way that signal is sent to on-board processors to apply brakes or change the lane by moving around. The processing unit of the car is assumed as the brain of the autonomous vehicles, and to this unit gyroscopes, wheel encoders and inertial measure- ment units send signals to make this technological system function properly.

Figure 100. High Precision Image of an Autonomous Car Figure 99. An illustration to show how self-driving cars see the road 67 Autonomous Drive

Optics starts and finishes the duty of transportation. It works together with other mentioned systems and also with Deep Learning HD These are high power cameras to detect the markings of the roads Mapping Software for providing a secure maneuver for the vehicle like traffic signage. The purpose of these cameras to create an till the end point. overlapping picture of the environment for the autonomous car’s computer to prevent any casualties. The decision-making system Processors works when the image of the surrounding is created. For peripheral movements and dimensionality of the things on the road, and the The information that is created by all the systems mentioned is understanding the depth of the land are gathered. processed in the real-time and while this data is coded into the car, other reactions can be improved based on the history of driving LIDAR also called as Laser Illuminating Detection and Rang- experiences with the machine learning. The actions like guiding, ing accelerating, or slowing down the speed are managed by this system. This system appears to be like siren light and its working principal is also scanning surrounding continuously to create a three-dimen- sional omni-directional image of the environment to provide the autonomous car’s brain to detect possible hazards. It uses a laser that jumps of from surfaces and determined the distances of the objects, obstacles. Usually this system is mounted on the car, to obtain a 360-degree view of the ambient. In addition, this system creates sort of information which is similar to how a driver would perceive the outside of the car.

GPS also called as Global Positioning Software

This system has a great importance for autonomous cars in the manner of navigating the vehicle while people are not there to navigate it. This system searches and finds all the roads and makes a decision about the best route. With this system the autonomous car 68 Figure 101. Depth Perception of the Sensors Autonomous Drive

Background History of Autonomous Cars investing in this new way of transportation. Meanwhile govern- ments endeavor to establish the legal systems and their economies to provide the circumstances required for autonomous cars to In 1977 the very first automated car was designed and created by obtain maximum benefit in the near future. Tsukuba Mechanical Engineering Laboratory in Japan. The vehicle followed white road markers, which were translated by two camer- When autonomous cars will become a part of human life, a revolu- as on the vehicles, utilizing a simple computer for processing the tion in the life styles is expected for the manner in which the indi- signals. The car has achieved the speed of 30 kilometers per hour by viduals move and altogether enhance the quality of the life. Also, for getting the help of an elevated rail. businesses like car sharing, the organizations can give autonomous cars to a cost to provide a new sort for public transportation, while In Carnegie Mellon University in the 1980s the prototypes for serving to an individual an experience of comfortable mobility. autonomous cars have been appeared. This shows that the research and ongoing efforts for this concept had been on progress. The Moreover, autonomous cars gather this and create a chance to work projects in this university and in other laboratories were funded by in privacy and/or provide a kind of entertainment during the travel. DARPA and Mercedes These cars can act like a personal machine or a robot for the owner Benz beginning from to run errands for basic needs like picking things up and while the 1984. owner is at work or having a leisure time. Hence, autonomous cars create a wider opportunity for disabled people, elders, or children. It was expected to see the jump of autono- mous cars from research and develop- ment departments in to the automobile industry and then the buyers in couple of Figure 102. Google’s Autonomous Car, Waymo years. The interest for this topic has been increasing constantly. Many automobile manu- facturers and other sorts of companies like Google have been Figure 103. Google’s Autonomous Car, Waymo, Diagram 69 Autonomous Drive

Reasons such as requiring a massive adaptation to the ambient, definition of the expected impact of autonomous cars to the total of fences to clear from any sudden objects, conceivable obstructs, and car fleet size meanwhile serving robots seem to grow together with more have prevented for autonomous cars to accomplish a note- car sharing and expected to have a decrease in the number of worthy breakthrough. vehicles for personal use;

All things considered, the autonomous cars are a settles concept in the productivity of the car is relied upon to the increment with the characterized conditions, Personal Rapid Transit (PRT) systems. The autonomous drive cars together with the amount of the increment, current IT and sensor innovation create the means in the technical the price of the drive per kilometer, and plausible cost of services of aspect to provide autonomous cars. Thus, this innovation is a great transportation such as trucks without having any drivers; jump from the personal rapid transit systems. the road capacity, which autonomous cars are assumed to be better In today’s world, the autonomous cars are seemed to be in the focal drivers than people without having any distraction, relevantly point of the different specialized foundations and well financed shorter response time, and more secure driving style, is expected to research and development departments. These vehicles are consid- be grown and the size of this growth and whether possible invest- ered as a new conceivable key for the automobile industry. ments are needed to be done;

As opposed to the developments in technical, political, and eco- the commuting behavior and congestion are expected to be affect- nomic fields, the autonomous cars are currently still at the research ed by the decline in the traffic with uniformly circulated and and concept level for the transportation. Nevertheless, this is an distributed traffic condition, and whether creating this ambient is important change in people’s lives in a way that back in the history confirmable; people were moving with the animals, yet then with the machines with horse power engines, and now autonomous vehicles. the policy reviews for traffic and law, what the future legislation for autonomous driven vehicles is expected to be created with the Plausible Future Research Topics about Autonomous Cars consideration of the possible feasibility of removing all other sorts and the Scenario of cars that are driven manually;

There are many unknown research materials about autonomous the logistics that is expected to have an impact due to the robotized cars to be examined with various point of views. These factors to be guided vehicles’ use when autonomous driven vehicles are on the 70 defined can be summarized as the car’s fleet size meaning the streets; Autonomous Drive

the space use is expected to be altered by the possible parking be included in this level as adaptive cruise control and lane keep scenario of autonomous cars with various options of newly created assist. waiting or stopping arenas. Level 2: Partial Automation The Levels of Autonomous Cars The driver is required to be in the control of the car and if adjust- ments are required; however, the driver is not responsible for the speed and guiding of the vehicle. The parking assistance is an instance for this category together with Tesla’s autopilot feature, and Distronic Plus which was designed by Mercedes Benz.

Level 3: Conditional Automation

The systems in the vehicles are in the control of the car functions like for example, speed, steering, controlling and monitoring the ambient under explicit conditions. These explicit conditions can be done with the highway with fences without any convergences, Figure 104. Levels of Autonomy Self-Driven Cars constrained driving speed, enclosed driving circumstance and so Level 0: No Automation forth. A human driver is needed to be prepared to mediate when mentioned by the system to perform so. The driver is in the full control of the car and any system is not designed to meddle with the process of driving. The vehicles and Moreover, if the driver does not react within the range of pre- systems that are in this category are forward collision warning defined time period, the system is required to make a secure stop in system and lane departure warning systems. the side lane without changing the lanes. In this category of auto- mation, the driver is allowed to be distracted only partially, while in Level 1: Driver Assistance other levels 0,1, and 2 the driver is required not to be distracted at all. Nevertheless, this level does not provide a possibility to com- The driver is responsible for the vehicle; however, the system is able pletely lose the control or give the control to the system. to adjust the speed and guiding of the vehicle. The systems that can 71 Autonomous Drive

Level 4: High Automation

The system is under the control of the vehicle; thus, the presence of a person or driver is not required; however, the applications are constrained to some explicit conditions. An instance for this cate- gory would be the self-driving taxi service, Waymo. When the conditions surpass the performance limits, the system still does not require a human to intrude; however, it may still need for decision making for parking the car in example.

Level 5: Full Automation

The system is able to provide similar aspects of the previous level; however, the system this time can work in all the driving conditions by itself. The driver is equal to passengers, or in other words to cargo in this level. This level cars do not need any dashboard for guiding the car or checking the data of the process. The interior elements are there to inform the passengers and provide a commu- nication mean to people inside.

Features of A Level 5 Autonomous Car Figure 105. Chart and Comparison of Levels of Autonomy Self-Driven Cars basic for them to interface with other gadgets so as to work most successfully. The communication system in these cars allow the vehicles to communicate with other vehicles and roadside units to Connectivity give them the information required about road to function. More- over, the researchers assume that in the future there will be com- This implies that users of a specific computerized innovation can puter programs that interface and handle with every autonomous interface effectively with other different users, to different applica- car as it explores through a crossing point. This kind of network tions or interferences. On the account of autonomous cars, it is 72 must supplant traffic lights and stop signs and these sorts of quali Autonomous Drive

ties are assumed to increase the capacity of the autonomous cars to The primary layer is the device layer which is occurred from two comprehend and coordinate with various items and services in the parts; physical machinery and logical ability. The physical side market. This could prompt a system of self-driving cars utilizing a means the vehicles itself with regards to computerized advance- similar system and data accessible on that system. In the long run, ments, the physical part is joined by a logical ability through work- these can be used also in other sorts of autonomous vehicles. These ing systems that handle the car itself and make it autonomous. The logical ability gives the command over the vehicle and associates it with different layers.

This system layer is occurred also from two parts: physical trans- portation and logical transmission. The physical part is about the radars, sensors, and cables of the car that provides the possibility of transmission of the digital information. The logical part is about communication rules and standard system to discuss the comput- erized data with different systems and stages or between the layers. Figure 106. Percentages of what people like about driverless cars This builds the possibility of the autonomous cars and empowers developments are seemed to reinforce the importance and the computational intensity of a system. value of the system and its externality. The service layer is about the applications and the functionalities Modularity that serve the autonomous cars as they separate, make, store, and devour content with respect to the driving history of theirs, traffic Conventional cars and their associated innovations are made as a clogs, streets, or parking capacities. product that will be completed, oppose to autonomous cars, these cars need to be improved when they are recreated or reproduced. The contents layer is about the sounds, pictures, and recordings. As stated, some autonomous cars are done; however, not complet- The cars store and use to follow up on and improve their driving ed. That is why, the autonomous cars are modular because of they and comprehension of the nature. In addition, this layer gives are made of some modules which is about joining a coupled layer of metadata, and directory data about contents starting point, propri- gadgets, networks, services and substance into the autonomous etorship, copyright, encoding strategies, content labels, geographic cars and these layers can communicate through consistent inter- time stamps and so. faces. These layers are the device, network, service, and content. 73 Autonomous Drive

Reprogrammable and Smart The Explanations about Why These Features are Important Safety The main product has a more significant accentuation on the soft- ware and potentials instead of the traditionally known parts like It has been predicted by driving safety specialists that once chassis and the engine and this emphasizes the other feature of self-driving cars are completely created, the car accidents that autonomous cars. Meaning, the software systems in the car can be results in deaths, injuries and, expenses, human error, postponed possibly updated or edited based on the advantages of the owner or response time, closely following the car in front, rubbernecking, and user; such as a different program for disabled people. other sorts of diverted or violent driving are expected to be reduced. It has been estimated that a large-scale use of autonomous This feature of the autonomous cars highlights the smart side of the cars can eliminate 90% of the car collisions which can save a large transportation mean. The programmable feature provides manufac- number of lives. turers a possibility to differentiate one car to another with the software quality and its characteristics. In addition, this opens a Confounding elements that could diminish the net impact on secu- future for autonomous cars not to be completed and there is always rity may involve unanticipated contacts among people and incom room for improvement.

Digital traces

The autonomous cars are furnished with various types of sensors and radars. As stated, this enables the cars to associate and interop- erate with computers from different self-driving cars as well as the roadside units. This suggests that these cars leave some digital marks when they associate or interoperate. The information that originates from these marks might be utilized to improve or create new products or update to upgrade the autonomous cars’ driving capacity and security.

74 Figure 107. An Image of How an Autonomous Car Sees Autonomous Drive

pletely or completely autonomous cars, or between various kinds of Traffic vehicle systems; problems at the limits of functionality at each level; the influence of bugs in the software or the mistakes that may be The further potentials could maintain higher speed limits, much happened in the software systems, sensor weaknesses or lack of more smoother travels, and expanded roadway limit; hence the flow of information; and by malevolent interfering people. To decreased traffic blockage because of diminishing the requirement decrease the probability of these, some organizations have started for security holes and higher speeds. to open-source portions of their self-driving car systems. In addition, one study evaluated that autonomous cars could Welfare expand the limit of available road space that is taken up by cars by 273%. This is assessed that with the 100% use of autonomous cars The autonomous cars could lessen the labor costs as in leave the with vehicle-to-vehicle correspondence, the limit can be even travelers from driving and route chores, consequently supplanting raised up to 545%. At this time, at the highways the drivers keep 40 in the driver’s seat hours into more opportunity for spare time to 50 meters in between the cars, with autonomous cars, this can activities or for work.

Furthermore, it would lift the limitations on inhabitant capacity to drive, occupied and messaging while driving, inebriated, and so. An autonomous car for the youth people, elder people, individuals with some disabilities, low-salary residents could provide upgraded mobility. Alongside dashboard eliminating the steering wheel and removing the obligation to sit forward-facing position the interior of the car gains a great importance about flexibility in ergonomics and also, increases the modes of uses. Expansive vehicles like RVs is abled to achieve apparently improved simplicity of use in this way.

Figure 108. Another Image of How an Autonomous Car Sees the Ambient 75 Autonomous Drive

be reduced. These increments in road capacity can have a great portation. effect on traffic blockage and all the other time-consuming traffic related problems. There will be also less requirement for traffic Costs police and street signages. The safer driving, extra time on the road, shorter travel distances As per the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, also with optimized driving experience, and reduced car accidents are called as NHTSA, under ten percent of the deadly accidents are expected to decrease the costs of a car insurance for people to pay. because of a vehicle breakdown or as the aftereffect of ecological factors, like different weather conditions. In the other percentage Energy and Environmental Impacts amount, which is more than 90 the accidents happen because of human error such as: Autonomous cars can advance the fuel economy by enhancing the drive cycle. The reduced traffic blockage and the upgrades in rush Recognition errors: the driver’s distraction, 41 percent. hour gridlock stream because of large-scale of utilizing autonomous Decision-related errors: speeding or dismissing the traffic vehicles can lead into higher efficiency in fuel consumption. signals, 33 percent. Performance errors: losing the control of the car and fast In addition, autonomous cars will most likely quicken and brake all turns, 11 percent. much more efficiently, which means higher economy from lessen- Non-Performance errors: falling asleep in the driver’s seat ing wasted energy consumption by preventing unnecessary waste- and similar situations, 8 percent. ful changes in the car speed. In any case, the improvement in car energy efficient does not mean net decrease in the consumption In the United States of America, it was stated that more than 30,000 and positive impact for the natural outcomes. However, in time this individuals lose their lives because of traffic reasons. Nevertheless, will create a balance in between the eco-friendliness and the car. the autonomous cars could radically decrease the quantity of these Overall, the outcomes of the autonomous vehicles when it is used accidents and could save a huge number of lives. world-wide will create a greater positive impact for the future.

If about 90% of vehicles on American streets were self-driven, the decrease for the accidents would drop from 6 million every year to 1.3 million. Thus, the dead lives would drop one third of the current 76 situation as it is indicated in the study of the Eno Centre for Trans- Autonomous Drive

Parking Space als need another person to drive them to somewhere an autono- mous car would be an important solution to their problems. More- Manual cars that belong to other levels but 5, were found to be used over, the apparent opportunity for elders of the future, the interest for 4-5% of the time, and in the rest of the time they are not used. for human aid will be eliminated or reduced for the transportation Autonomous cars could be utilized persistently after it has achieved and simple errands. Furthermore, the disabled people can benefit its goal. This could significantly decrease the requirement for from the advantages of autonomous cars. Since there is to a lesser parking spot. This together with the potential diminished require- degree of dependence, people can spare money for other things. ment for street space because of improved traffic stream, could free Young people and adolescents are also getting a benefit from this up enormous measures of land in urban regions, which could then situation, as well. The degree to which human activities are import- be utilized for different purposes like parks, structures, and so. ant for driving will be eliminated. In the current situation, parents send their kids to school with busses and they need to obey for the time schedule of it, while with an autonomous car, the parameters will be less depended on other causes. It is conceivable that in the farther future driving experience will be assumed as a luxury, which emphasizes that the industry will be based on the new participants and possibly to a new market.

Figure 109. A Futuristic Vision of a Car which is Self-driven Elderly, disabled, and children

Autonomous cars are assumed to affect the transportation choices for those that are not able to drive a car by themselves. Running basic needs, being socially engaged, and for cases in which individu- Figure 110. A Feasible Car for People with Disabilities 77 Autonomous Drive

Cyclists and Pedestrians the individuals would drive less. As per the national highway traffic safety administration, the 30% of the driving in business regions is By decreasing the work and other expanses of the transportation as spent to find a place for parking and they have stated that nearly 1.6 a service, autonomous vehicles can lessen the quantity of vehicles billion kilometers of driving is squandered consistently in this way. that are exclusively claimed, supplanted by taxi and pooling and other sharing services. This would likewise drastically diminish the Harvard University scientists have noted that as much as 33% of the measure of the car manufacturing industry by comparing ecological land in certain urban communities is dedicated to parking spaces. and financial impacts. Increasingly productive traffic stream could Some city organizers expect that the expense of apartments will fall free roadway space for different uses to help for people on bicycles as more space will end up accessible in urban communities. With or on foot. the decrease of such areas on roadways become littler, homes and workplaces will occupy that space. The shopping centers require Other effects huge territories for cars, yet without those necessities, they could move further into urban areas. Autonomous cars can also help the police by providing details about passenger behavior with potential crimes and so. Also, autonomous cars might not be use as an escaping method for criminals in some situations unlike today’s world’s cases.

The traffic lights could be less basic on the streets and so because of the hidden sensors in the cars. The city in the future could have smaller boulevards since parking spaces would not be required. Furthermore, the air would be cleaner since Figure 111. Autonomous Car Reading Traffic Signals 78 Figure 112. Autonomous Car Lane

Case Studies 2 Renault EZ GO, Renault EZ Ultimo, and Volvo 360 c

This chapter aims to examine three examples of today’s concept autonomous cars to understand the current and expected trends for the car design with the technicality of the future. The examples have been selected based on their release time, their approach to car design with the recent innovations, the user experience that they deliver, and their outstanding features. Case Study2 - Renault EZ GO

The Renault EZ GO is an electric autonomous con- cept vehicle. The engine is placed on the rear axle and it has maximum speed of 48 kilometers per hour, it has four-wheels. The vehicle allows six passen- gers at a time with the U-shaped seating design. The door is the glass roof that opens.

According to Laurens van den Acker, who is the head Figure 113. Renault EZ GO in a City of the design, this concept vehicle was designed to look different than other cars of the brand Figure 114. A Designer in Renault is sketching EZ GO to make it seem closer to taxis of the iconic cities like New York and Texture of the interior is brushed aluminum which looks like house London to create an iconic car with modern features. The produc- hold furniture. In addition, this car looks like a tram that doesn’t tion of this car is expected to be launched in the near future. need rails, or like a micro train. The transparent areas in the car are maximized to create a spacious look. Young people who do not want This vehicle is a minibus that is able to be controlled by smart to own cars; nevertheless, they want to use the car, the elder people phones. It can be considered as a transportation module rather than also because people want to live longer, and they still would like to an automobile, and it is an urban centric car. It started as a living maintain their life styles, and for disabled people this car provides a space as it moves in the city. Moreover, it provides a relaxing space solution for mobility to be remained as elegant and comfortable and and gives time that was used to drive or spent in the traffic back to gives more value to the time. Hence, it becomes a sort of social the driver. Therefore, this could be used as an office; people can place for many people. Furthermore, the wheelchair can easily have a meeting in the car. enter in the car to provide a comfortable experience for the 82 disabled people. Case Study2 - Renault EZ GO

The entire front of the car lifts and acts like door and moves with the cantilever hinges. At first the bottom Figure 117. The Rear View of Renault EZ GO, Indicating part closes and then the top part of the Led Screen for Commu- the door closes. The batteries for the nication and the Rear Lights of the car

Figure 115. Interior of EZ GO electric engine are in the floor and it has a very low floor form the ground. The car is very long; however, it is not Figure 116. Illustration of the use of space of EZ GO Figure 118. Closed Wheel and Suspan- Figure 119. A Close Look to Interior tall. It can carry up to six people at a time. There are led information sion of EZ GO Space screens on the exterior to provide a sort of communication with the Autonomous electric vehicles are more invested in nowadays; this outside of the car. The design of the front part of the car is similar to concept car creates an image which you can imagine it in the near the design of the rear, which could mean in the next models this car future on the streets, design is something people embrace. Hence, can go in both directions based on the efficiency of the drive. Also, the aesthetics of the car carried a functionality; the trapeze-shape this feature creates a resemblance with trams and trams and this enhances the view of the environment, which makes it useful for concept car is a design in between those sorts of public transporta- the autonomous technology of the car. The sensors are placed on tions with taxis and personal cars. the rear roof spoiler, which positions when the car is started. The closed wheels and suspensions provide a reduction in the mainte- In the exterior there is for example an area for induction charging nance and cleaning. for phones. There are many possible seating options, and no limita- It is called as a mobility service, also as a robo-vehicle. It was tions for the direction of the faces unlike the traditional today’s cars. 83 Renault EZ GO

to be similar to a car to This concept car was designed to deliver a sort of privacy and be more appealing to extend the freedom of the concept of personal cars with the ease of people. Elegant, com- autonomy. It was also designed to be affordable by many with a fortable, efficient, clean price-per-mile. resourced, and so. An iconic vehicle, a business The main mode of use of this car is to be used as a shared car and car of the city, like yellow users can act based on their own demands through their smart cab in New York. phones or the interface on the stations that are located in the various places in the city. There is an interface, with many selec- It feels natural, people Figure 120. Users Leaving EZ GO, Door Opening tions that a person can choose to go to a food place before arriving can walk in the space in the car creates an idea of living area. The to the destination, it could be used for entertainment, gender way the door opens, and closes is making the parking more efficient selection if the user would like to go with other people like com- in the city. The experience of the car was designed to be very muting, and many other. natural. This concept car offers an access to the Internet of things, smart The safety has a great importance in this car for the brand because electric grids, and connects the surrounding to the environment by it delivers to its passengers an autonomous drive, reduced traffic utilizing the most recent technology to provide an upstanding mistakes, limited maximum speed, and its enhanced technology. experience while moving from a point to another. Pedestrians nearby the car are warned with the AD light signature Finally, this car provides a customizable mode of use for various on the car and EZ GO messages them some arrays of light strips configurations for the purpose of the use, such as a tour car for with sound signal warnings. In other words, the car communicates tourists. It could be assumed to be a calm replacement to mass and with the pedestrians and indicate them from where they can cross public transportation. the road and so. Furthermore, there are notifications for cyclists to warn the people about the arrival of the car. The maximum speed of the car means that it is a city machine for quick transportation. Besides, with zero-emission it contributes to the environment Figure 121. EZ GO positively for the future. The designed pick up points are integrated Top Door into the urban life style of people and they deliver a comfort and 84 greenery to the city. Renault EZ GO

The EZ-Ultimo by Renault is an electric engine autono- mous four-wheel luxury car. The engine powers the front axel and the batteries last for around 510 kilometers with full charge. It is a long car Figure 123. Interior Sketch of EZ Ultimo Figure 124. Illustration and its length is 5.8 meters. of the Cut View of the The doors are on the side Interior and also the top of the car Figure 122. Back Light of EZ Ultimo by Renault acts as a sort of door to facilitate the opening of the side door. In the inside there are arm- chairs and the materials used in the interior are like marble and wood parquetry. Its design was inspired by pre world war two Renault cars.

This concept car is an idea of how autonomous cars can function in the luxury segment in the future. Hence, this car is meant for busi- ness purposes for a hotel or some high-class taxi companies. This car can be used for such people to transport them from airports to their destination or to work. EZ Ultimo can be also used as an application in the smartphone-controlled vehicle.

The French design of the body work highlights the functionality, as Figure 125. Interior of EZ Ultimo well. The interior is designed to be comfortable at a higher scale and it allows up to three passengers who can watch the view the passengers with a premium experience. There are on board through windows during the trip. The materials were chosen to be services in the car to enhance this experience. meant for high-class ambient, therefore the use of rich wood and leather is done along with marble to create a calm environment for 85 Renault EZ Ultimo

A wide armchair and a couch for two people are in velvet and the flooring is also luxurious. The light and the sound are controlled with the knobs with classy surface finish are located on the side and they are released when they are meant to be used.

Inside of the car there is a wi-fi connection which is permanent and there are charging areas for smart devices which were offered to be used to charge those gadgets.

This car’s batteries are lithium-ion which powers the new electric platform through the wheels at the front. The proportions of the car affected the number of wheels, and because of this reason four-wheels were implemented into this concept car to avoid an Figure 127. Closed Wheel and Suspension of EZ Ultimo increase in the turning circle of the car.

This concept car is also another example of robo-vehicles because of its autonomy. It was meant to be comfortable and charming for the users. The interior space is meant to be private, therefore, the transparency is fewer when it is compared with Renault EZ GO.

Figure 128. Baggage Space on EZ Ultimo

86 Figure 126. Side and Top Door Openings of Renault EZ Ultimo Volvo 360 c

The Volvo 360 cis an autonomous concept car with electric engine with four-wheel drive. The design of the car with the autonomy with safety among the car and creates also an interaction with humans and human-driv- en cars which are not at this level of autonomy. Figure 130. First Scenario; The Mode of Use As a Commuting Place The distance with the full Figure 129. Volvo 360 c Back Tail battery charge is around 300 kilometers for this concept car. Because of its autonomy, it relies on an existing infrastructure for self-driven cars in the city, which is assumed to be achieve in the near future.

The signaling system of the car is required to be included for the other traditional cars to communicate with this concept car during being on the roads, since a fully autonomous car does not react like a human to human way. In addition, for this purpose Volvo 360 c has sound alerts to support the communication and replace the human driver. Furthermore, this sound system is useful for pedes- trians and cyclists, as well, since they are also a part of the traffic.

Even though it can be used while there are traditional cars on the Figure 131. The Fourth Scenario that is Designed by Volvo, Resting Interior road, as well, it was in fact designed to assume in an environment in which there are only autonomous cars, cyclists, and pedestrians. In cation with outside of the car is done with the sounds and lights. addition, because of considering such a surrounding, the communi- 87 Volvo 360 c

This concept car was meant to move from selling cars to provide mobility to customers. It has a next step when it is about safety and the users can do something else in the car rather than sitting inside and driving the car. It is a concept to discover the possibilities in the sense of technicality about autonomous cars and the modes of uses.

This human centric concept car is based on a single platform and a single exterior design. Four different interior scenarios: commuting to the work; office space, picking a client having a meeting; enter- taining; air-travel taking to the destination in the next day while the user rests. The time waste of using the airplane method for trans- portation. This car is meant to be an airline on wheels. Figure 132. User Communication Interface of Volvo 360 c The interior of the car enables a great flexibility for customizing the mode of use in way that it can be even used as a bedroom. The company mentions that this car has a restraint system for laying down with the inclusiveness of special designed safety blanket.

In addition, the 360 c symbolizes a new approach into the automo- bile industry in a way that it can act like sleeping cabins that pro- vide a comfortable experience through the travel in the car till the user reaches to the destination. Thus, this concept can create a competitional market for cars with aircraft makers.

Figure 133. Volvo 360 c

88

Chapter 5 Urban Planning, Legislation, and Logistic Scenarios

This chapter aims to explain the required urban planning for the autonomous cars to be accessi- ble in the market and to be applicable; legislation which needs to be done and also the legislation that has been done up to now in three different parts of the world; and three logistic scenarios regarding the use of autonomous cars on the public roads. In each time, the situation for now and for the future has been examined and explained. Urban Planning, Legislation, and Logistic Scenarios

Urban Planning car-sharing and hence this may decrease the use of cars and the ownership, which may lead to an efficient solution for mobility.The infrastructure is required to be changed; the likelihood of reduction Once fully autonomous cars will become commercially accessible, of traffic signals with the smart roads, decrease of the dependency there is a potential to create a complication for society. The estima- on oil fuel because of at least the reduction of the expected time tions about its likelihood of spreading the use of it is uncertain; spent on the roads, which can also have an influence on energy however, once they will be started to be used at a great scale, it is policy. expected to come across to some unresolved raising questions about the effects of self-driven cars. Nevertheless, autonomous vehicles could raise the total number of autos and about which could prompt a more noteworthy reliance A principal question is related to their impact on transportation on oil imports if smart frameworks are insufficient to diminish the behavior. It has been found that a portion of people assume this effect of more vehicles. In any case, because of the unclarity of innovation will expand the vehicle possession and the use of it, self-driven vehicles, it might be useful for human drivers and because this innovation provides a simpler solution to mobility and autonomous vehicles if the policy can be effective regarding the hence, this may support urban spread and change the use of auto- application of the improved infrastructures. Precautions are needed mobiles only for private use. Nevertheless, another portion of to be taken while considering the public transportation means people state that self-driven cars can create a better possibility for which may be needed fewer with the increase of use of autonomous vehicles, hence oppositely an increase in the unemployment might occur.

The other complications can originate from the utilization of self-driven cars to convey products. Self-driving vans can possibly make home conveyances fundamentally less expensive, changing retail business and potentially making hypermarkets and general stores excess. In the present law, producers accept all the responsi- bility to self-affirm vehicles for use on puclib streets. This implies at present as long as the vehicle is consistent inside the governing structure, there are no particular government lawful hindrances to a fully autonomous vehicle being offered available to be purchased. 92 Figure 134. Distant Future of Driving Predictions Furthermore, industry guidelines and best practice are as yet Urban Planning, Legislation, and Logistic Scenarios

required in frameworks before they can be viewed as sensibly safe Legal Status in the U.S. under true conditions. In the U.S. there is a permit for testing of driverless autos on open streets, which is not a participant nation to the Vienna Convention. To clear up the lawful status of and generally direct such vehicles, a few states have sanctioned or are thinking about explicit laws. In 2016, 7 states (Nevada, California, Florida, Michigan, Hawaii, Wash- ington, and Tennessee), alongside the District of Columbia, have established laws for self-driven vehicles. Occurrences, for example, the principal lethal mishap by Tesla's Autopilot framework have prompted talk about reexamining laws and models for computer- ized vehicles.

Figure 135. Timeline for Adoption to Autonomous Cars Legislation

The principles of the govern traffic laws are established by the 1968 Vienna Convention on Road Traffic which is followed by over 70 countries. One of the central standards of the Convention has been the idea that a driver is in every case completely in charge and in charge of the conduct of a vehicle in rush hour gridlock. The new innovation that helps and assumes control over the moves of the Figure 136. Regulations and Laws Related to Autono- driver is undermining this standard, suggesting that a significant mous Cars in the U.S. part of the foundation must be revised. 93 Urban Planning, Legislation, and Logistic Scenarios

The US National Economic Council and Department of Transporta- Florida has turned into the second state to permit the testing of tion provided government guidelines that portray how autonomous computerized vehicles on open streets, and California as the third. vehicles ought to respond if the innovation does not work, how to In December 2013, Michigan turned into the fourth state to permit ensure traveler security, and how riders ought to be secured in case testing of driverless vehicles on open streets. In July 2014, the city of a traffic accident in September 2016. The new government rules of Coeur d'Alene, Idaho embraced an apply autonomy law that are intended to maintain a strategic distance from a linked state incorporates arrangements to take into consideration self-driving law. autos.

In June 2011, the Nevada Legislature passed a law to approve the A Toyota Prius changed by Google to work as a driverless vehicle. utilization of autonomous vehicles. In this way Nevada has turned Later on, in 2016, this changed car was presented in California that into the primary purview on the planet where self-driven vehicles would enable autonomous vehicles to work on the roads. may be lawfully worked on open streets. As per the law, the Nevada In September 2016, the U.S. Department of Transportation released Department of Motor Vehicles (NDMV) is in charge of setting well- its Federal Automated Vehicles Policy, and California published being and execution benchmarks and the organization is in charge discussions on the subject in October 2016. of assigning zones where autonomous autos might be tried. This legislation was upheld by Google with an end goal to lawfully lead Legislation in Europe further testing of its Google driverless vehicle. The Nevada law characterizes these vehicles to be "an engine vehicle that utilizes In 2013, the administration of the United Kingdom allowed the artificial intelligence, sensors and gps directions to drive itself testing of self-drive cars on open streets. At first all testing of without the active intervention of a human driver. "The law further- mechanical vehicles in the UK had been led on private property. more identifies that the driver will not be required to focus during the vehicle is working itself. " Google had additionally campaigned The Government of France reported that testing of autonomous for an exception from a prohibition on occupied heading to allow cars on public streets would be permitted in 2015. It was promised tenants to send instant messages while sitting in the driver's seat; to open 2000 km of street through the national domain. Later on, a however, this has not become a law. Moreover, Nevada's guidelines meeting at the 2015 ITS World Congress committed to smart trans- it is required in the guidelines of Nevada that an individual in the port systems, the first exhibit of autonomous vehicles on open driver's seat and one passenger in the back seat to test. street in France was completed in Bordeaux.

In 2015, the Federal Department of Environment, Transport, Energy 94 and Communications in Switzerland (UVEK) permitted Swisscom to Urban Planning, Legislation, and Logistic Scenarios

test an autonomous Volkswagen Passat in Zurich. autonomous, will be on the roads in the following two years. In In Hungary, public road testing for improvement of the cars was addition, the Japanese company Toyota has made a similar promise allowed. for 2020 instead.

Legislation in Asia The beginning of autonomous vehicle will be an exciting develop- ment for mankind with its many developing torments as the innova- In 2016, the Singapore Land Transit Authority in organization with tion substantiates itself while likewise managing the eccentrics of UK car provider Delphi Automotive Plc launched some preparations offering the way to human drivers. The forthcoming actions will be for the testing of automated taxis which was regarding to take governmental attempt to provide an efficient transition progress. precautions for the following year about taxi services. Scenarios of Logistics

There are plausible outcomes to a development for logistics in a way that autonomous cars can be used for human mobility as well as the transportation of the goods from the warehouses to delivery points. This situation can be examined in three different scenarios; the extreme scenario for growth, sharing, and a moderate scenario for balance.

Figure 137. Graph of Levels of Autonomy Introducted in Years

The companies which have been working on designing a fully autonomous cars are at the different stages on the process and approach. However, the concept designs of such companies have similar features as it was observed. The company of Elon Musk, Tesla, has promised that their level 5 autonomous vehicles, fully Figure 138. Statistics about Public Transportation 95 Benefits With Autonomous Technology Urban Planning, Legislation, and Logistic Scenarios

Growth: In the event that the idea of private possession for vehicles endures the beginning of self-driven cars and even multi plies with autos utilized as private conveyance robots, the quantity of vehicles and driven kilometers per area are relied upon to radically increment later on. By means of young people, elders, and disabled people are permitted individual ly empowered to drive alone, the quantity of autos is required to have an increment. By way of utilization of vehi cles as private delivery robots, the distance is expected to increase, as well.

Sharing: Autonomous cars carry a probability to convey the idea of vehicle sharing to a significant leap forward. Also with these cars acting as cab services while excluding the cost of the driver, car sharing may turn out to be a lot less expensive and more advantageous than any type of private cars. This Figure 139. A Presentation of Willingness to Adopt to Autonomous Technology in Cars prompts to economic, ecologic and social advantages much of the time credited to vehicle sharing, for example, decreased vehicle fleet, special autos and expanded vehicle efficiency.

Balance: The car sharing that is mentioned above and eco sensitive ness with cost might create a green life style for people. However, traditional less cost and ecology sensitive buyers might afford to own an autonomous car privately for their own deliveries only and for their mobility. 96

Chapter 6 Concept and Package Proposal for the Research

In this chapter, it is aimed to create a package proposal with a concept design regarding the outcomes of all the research which has been conducted till this chapter. To explain the study, a scenario and the inspirations have been explained and the concept is demonstrated by sketches and images. Concept and Package Proposal

Description of the Package / Concept

The outcomes of the analyses have shown that the technology is going towards autonomy for automobiles with electric engine. The artificial intelligence, machine learning capability (together they are in the predictive vehicle technology), personalization of the driving experience, interactive and remote control capability, zero CO emission, light weightiness thanks to high-tech materials, safety in the sense of reducing traffic accidents, time efficiency, less noise pollution and spaciousness in the car thanks to electric engine, modularity, and active window displays have created a concept for Figure 140. Electric Engine, Batteries, and Suspensions the future of the car design in the technical approach.

The reconfigurability of the interior up to a limit can provide a better experience for disabled people. People who are not able to drive a car themselves can get a benefit from an autonomous car. In the environmental sense, the CO emission has increasing the prob- lems for global warming, hence a change in the engine has been required for a while.

The cars with features that have been just mentioned can connect with other cars to provide an improved decision making and a higher efficiency from the drive-in time. This concept creates an in-car experience for the passengers who are not obliged to pay attention to the road. Figure 141 The Chevrolet Bolt's electric motor

100 Concept and Package Proposal

The challenge in these cars are that the traffic conditions, pedestri- Scenario Description an conditions, and weather conditions for extreme cases like heavy snow. Nevertheless, scientists, designers, and engineers have been working on this innovation and the infrastructure of the cities are To create a concept design and a new package it has been needed not adequate for introduction to only self-driven cars on the streets. to create or adopt a scenario case for the car to be used. For this purpose, a research has been completed to understand in which Moreover, there are sensing, detection, perception, and decision places it has begun to make investments into autonomous car systems in a fully autonomous car. With the use of the technology, testing in public areas. There are several cities who have initiated the decision-making system can avoid obstacles, plan the path and the process of the transition. trajectory, predict, plan the behavior of the car. The cities such as Massachusetts is a town which can be also The display (infotainment), body and chassis, aerodynamics and assumed as a place for testing self-driven cars, and there are thermal management, connectivity and communication, battery and already two companies (nuTonomy and Optimus Ride) which invest- power systems are highly improved in autonomous cars. ed into testing autonomous cars; Stockholm is a city in which there is already a functioning self-driven bus, public transportation; For the environment less pollution, recycling technology, zero or California has announced the legislations and regulations which low CO emission are important for the environmental concern. allow fully autonomous car companies to transport people without Therefore, like in other industries, automobile industry has been having any driver in the vehicle, in other words, level 5 autonomous seeking for a solution, thus the autonomous cars. cars.

There are other important factors to determine a package for the future case in this thesis; and they are about the number of passen- Figure 142. An Illustration of Autonomous Vehicles Only gers in a single car. The statistics have shown that the majority of Urban Life car users occupy either one or two seats in a car. Therefore, it becomes less cost efficient hence, it occupies larger spaces in the roads and also in the parking spaces, in the crowded cities. That is why for the package proposal the concept has been considered as a vehicle for one or two with four-wheel electric engine. 101 Concept and Package Proposal

Measurements

In this part of the chapter the dimensions of the car, the segment have been defined. The references have been taken from the course books and from the existing car examples. Since this package is designed to have passen- gers facing towards each other, there is a great advantage of gaining space in the width to increase the probability of the number of vehicles on a single lane; the configuration of the passengers can be also seen in the figure.

The elements for a traditional car have been Figure 143. Ride Sharing, Self-Driving Car Illustration, eliminated since this concept do not require Autonomous Bots for Deliveries any of those elements except for the electric motor, batteries. The scenario which is assumed for the concept case of the paper is assumed to be happened in 2040, when there will be only fully The design criteria for drivers are not manda- autonomous cars and other sorts of vehicles on the roads and no tory in this case which provides a great range other hybrid or oil fueled vehicles. Also, as for the example city, of freedom in creating a concept. Hence, this Stockholm has been chosen due to its location and existence of the package proposal can be an example to many autonomous bus in public. other options which are needed to be discov- ered. Figure 144. Top View of Passenger Configura- tion in the Package 102 Concept and Package Proposal

In this image the measurements can be seen; these are the determined measurements for the package design. The human body measures have been meant for the 95% of the humans. The overall sizes of the proposal of the concept car have been given, as well. All measurements given are in [mm] unless it is told otherwise 103 Concept and Package Proposal

Back Passengers Angle Seat Luggage Height of Luggage Area Effective Head Area the Car Room

H-Point to Ground Electric Electric Engine Engine Tire Tire Wheel Diameter Batteries for the Electric Engine All measurements given are in [mm] 104 Length of the Car unless it is told otherwise Concept and Package Proposal

Width of the 95% Size of a Human Inspiration

Passenger When the future of the car design is considered, it was needed to Passenger look for some inspirations to create something new. Therefore, in Seat this part of the chapter there are some example pictures which carry an idea of a new concept.

Batteries

Figure 145. Voronoi on a Planar Surface

Seat Width Figure 146. Stripes, All measurements Construction’s Main Tires given are in [mm] elements unless it is told Width of the otherwise Car 105 Concept and Package Proposal

Concept

In this part of the thesis it has been tried to express the new pack- age with a style. It is not yet fully developed; however, it carries the idea of the inspirations, two people vehicles, and an unusual expression of style.

This car does not need to communicate to the drivers; therefore, the exterior does not carry the features of a traditional car. In the scenario it has been defined that there will be only fully (level 5) autonomous cars on the roads, hence the design is meant for vehicle to vehicle, vehicle to pedestrians, vehicle to passengers communication. Figure 147. A Concept Design Vehicle, The Voronoi pattern has been inspired for the chassis of the car to Outstanding Aerody- namic Style carry the technological innovations at a visible way to express the future.

In addition, in the concept sketches it has been considered to have asymmetry as a core feature to describe the transition from strict mandatory legislations for car design to freedom of expression with the autonomy.

106 Concept and Package Proposal

107

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