Alexander the Great in his World Carol G. Thomas Alexander the Great in his World Blackwell Ancient Lives At a time when much scholarly writing on the ancient world is abstract and analytical, this series presents engaging, accessible accounts of the most influential figures of antiquity. It re-peoples the ancient landscape; and while never losing sight of the vast gulf that separates antiquity from our own world, it seeks to communicate the delight of reading historical narratives to discover “what happened next.” Published Alexander the Great in his World Carol G. Thomas Nero Jürgen Malitz Tiberius Robin Seager King Hammurabi of Babylon Marc Van De Mieroop Pompey the Great Robin Seager Age of Augustus Werner Eck Hannibal Serge Lancel In Preparation Cleopatra Sally Ann-Ashton Constantine the Great Timothy Barnes Pericles Charles Hamilton Julius Caesar W. Jeffrey Tatum Alexander the Great in his World Carol G. Thomas © 2007 by Carol G. Thomas BLACKWELL PUBLISHING 350 Main Street, Malden, MA 02148-5020, USA 9600 Garsington Road, Oxford OX4 2DQ, UK 550 Swanston Street, Carlton,Victoria 3053, Australia The right of Carol G. Thomas to be identified as the Author of this Work has been asserted in accordance with the UK Copyright, Designs, and Patents Act 1988. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, except as permitted by the UK Copyright, Designs, and Patents Act 1988, without the prior permission of the publisher. First published 2007 by Blackwell Publishing Ltd 1 2007 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Thomas, Carol G., 1938– Alexander the Great in his world / Carol G. Thomas. p. cm. — (Blackwell ancient lives) Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN-13: 978-0-631-23245-2 (hardback : alk. paper) ISBN-10: 0-631-23245-1 (hardback : alk. paper) ISBN-13: 978-0-631-23246-9 (pbk. : alk. paper) ISBN-10: 0-631-23246-X (pbk. : alk. paper) 1. Alexander, the Great, 356–323 b.c. 2. Greece—History—Macedonian Expansion, 359–323 b.c. 3. Greece—Kings and rulers—Biography. 4. Generals—Greece—Biography. I. Title. II. Series. DF234.T47 2007 938′.07092—dc22 2006006914 A catalogue record for this title is available from the British Library. Set in 11.5 on 13.5 pt Bembo by SNP Best-set Typesetter Ltd, Hong Kong Printed and bound in Singapore by Markono Print Media Pte Ltd The publisher’s policy is to use permanent paper from mills that operate a sustainable forestry policy, and which has been manufactured from pulp processed using acid-free and elementary chlorine-free practices. Furthermore, the publisher ensures that the text paper and cover board used have met acceptable environmental accreditation standards. For further information on Blackwell Publishing, visit our website: www.blackwellpublishing.com Contents List of Figures vi List of Maps viii Preface ix Introduction 1 1 Basic Facts, Generally Uncontested, of Alexander’s Life 9 2 Being Macedonian 22 3 Being an Argead 55 4 Being a Neighbor of Greece 98 5 Surviving by Might 132 6 Meeting the Distant Threat 159 7 Reconstructing Alexander 191 Bibliography 224 Index 237 Figures 1.1 Ivory head, thought to be Alexander III 14 2.1 Upper reaches of the Haliakmon River 25 2.2 Upper Macedonia 26 2.3 Deer still haunting upper Macedonia 27 2.4 Looking west across the Pindos Range 29 2.5 The Pydna coast along the Thermaic Gulf 30 2.6 Throne of Zeus atop Olympos 31 2.7 Herding is a continuing occupation 49 2.8 Mineral wealth: gold ivy wreath from a male burial 51 3.1 Argead genealogy 58 3.2 Herakles, paternal ancestor of the Argeads 63 3.3 Achilles, Alexander’s ancestor in his mother’s line 64 3.4 Ivory head, believed to be Amyntas III 69 3.5 Ivory head, believed to be Philip II 73 3.6 Ivory head, believed to be Olympias 89 4.1 Coin of Alexander I 105 4.2 Northern Thessaly 114 4.3 Plan of the theater at Vergina 122 Figures vii 4.4 Modern statue of Aristotle 125 4.5 Site of the Nymphaion at Mieza 128 6.1 Cylinder seal of Dareios 166 7.1 Reconstruction of the Hunt Fresco 196 7.2 The Petra Pass 206 7.3 Battle of the Granikos 210 7.4 Battle of Issos 210 7.5 Indos River at the junction of Indos and Gilgit rivers 211 Maps 2.1 Regions, Natural Features and Sites of Macedonia 37 4.1 Major Regions and Sites in the Greek Sphere 100 5.1 Expansion of the Macedonian Core under Philip II 151 6.1 Achaemenid Persia 162 7.1 Alexander’s empire 219 Preface Teachers and writers of ancient Mediterranean history are drawn, if not willingly then by the interests of their students and readers, to the subject of Alexander III of Macedon. People have an ardent desire to know as much as possible about this man who altered the course of history in his brief lifetime. He has held a prominent place in courses of mine and I admit to two minor publications examin- ing particular aspects of his career. However, I do not belong to the cadre of Alexander specialists nor was it my intent to write an account of his career and nature. That is, it was not even a latent plan until serendipity intervened. A few years ago,I made the acquaintance of Al Bertrand,now senior commissioning editor at Blackwell Publishing, in the course of appraising several proposals for possible publications. Some dealt with Macedonian matters, which eventually provoked a question from Al to me. Might I think of an interesting new approach for a biography of Alexander for the Blackwell biography series? His question asked for suggestions not authors. A fascinating orientation would be the examination of Alexander’s career from the Persian perspective, but since sources for this approach were even more limited than Greek and Roman sources for Alexander, that avenue was not pursued. Having exhausted more traditional possibilities, I mentioned a direction that I regularly follow in my own area of research, x Preface pre- and proto-historical Greece, where the nature of evidence makes an understanding of the larger context essential. Would an examination of the world into which Alexander was born and raised provide insight into the nature of the person himself? I had followed this path in my seminars titled “Alexander’s Conquests: Why?” in which students investigated a variety of “explanations” for Alexan- der’s success: his Macedonian identity,the nature of Macedonia itself, membership in the royal line, the parentage of Philip and Olympias, relations with neighboring peoples, the condition of the Persian Empire during his lifetime. Perhaps, I suggested to Al, someone might employ such an approach for a Blackwell biography. About two weeks later, Al invited me to write a concise biogra- phy of Alexander for us around the theme of my course. While the invitation was flattering I demurred on the grounds that I am not an “Alexander-specialist.”Al’s rebuttal was that it might be an advan- tage to come to the subject without a fixed idea of Alexander’s motives, character, wishes, and dreams. This study, therefore, comes with an apologia to all who are “Alexander-specialists,” whose research and publications are essen- tial to any understanding of Alexander III of Macedon. It seeks to look deeply into the circumstances of his world in the belief that we cannot understand individuals apart from the cultures that con- dition their lives. It does not engage in source criticism nor is it an attempt to solve specific issues of fact or interpretation. Conforming to other books in this series, there are no footnotes but all the works mentioned are given in the bibliography. Cita- tions such as VII.56 from Herodotos refer to classical authors for whom no edition need be cited, since the citation provides infor- mation for readers to find the source of quotations in any edition. References to scholarly collections of evidence, such as IG II2,are cited in fuller form parenthetically in the text. It has been an exciting adventure both to read the evidence with a different aim and to explore the land of Alexander’s birth from the Pindos mountain range in the west to the Thermaic Bay and beyond in the east. Travel under the expert guidance of Theo Preface xi Antikas and Laura Wynn Antikas yielded essential new insights about how the land of Macedonia was at once a subject and a source for conquest. Their knowledge of the region and of scholars working to enhance evidence of Macedonia’s past opened many doors, intel- lectual as well as physical. The illustrations owe much to their friendships with present-day inhabitants of the land of Alexander, as the credits will reveal. The assistance of many people has been essential. Theo Antikas read the manuscript three times, providing welcome suggestions and corrections. My husband and colleague, Richard Rigby Johnson, was the photographer of our Macedonian adventure. Lance Jenott, currently a doctoral student at Princeton University, created the maps. Ryan Boehler, a doctoral student in ancient history, made some changes to those maps and prepared many of the illustrations. My colleague and friend Daniel Waugh donated his considerable expertise and time to editing a majority of the illustrations. A grant from the Royalty Research Fund of the University of Washington provided a quarter of release from teaching in which to investigate the land of Macedonia and to devote time to research and writing.