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Epistemological Problems of Ecology

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Epistemological Problems of Ecology BTU Chair of General Ecology Epistemological Problems V 1 Epistemological Problems of Ecology: Philosophy of Nature in the 19th and 20th Century Udo Bröring Chair of General Ecology Lecture Manuscript Table of Contents Introduction The 19th century: Selected topics Romanticism, Hegel, Schopenhauer, Schelling, Engels History of science and ecology The 20th century: Selected topics Preliminaries Philosophy of Alfred North Whitehead Consequence of the doctrine of evolution: Constitution of modern biology Holism and reductionism Some remarks on scientific ecology and nature conservation Outlook References and some further readings Introduction We describe a changing of views in the philosophy of nature and general attitudes towards nature up to the beginning of the new age in the course of the 18th century. – At first, a pro- cess of de-mythologizing of world and nature (Hesiod) can be observed, followed by a second process of de-sacralization (secularization) of world and nature by the ionic philosophy of nature (Anaximandros, Anaximenes). Science was established by the prae-Socratics (Parmen- ides, Heraklitos) and the Socratics (Sokrates, Platon, Aristoteles). The Parmenides/Heraklitos- dichotomy was solved by Demokritos and Platon: disjunctive, discursive, analytical forming of terms, suppressing sensation and holistic perception: The concept of logos that is reason is advanced. The integration and synthesis on Indo-European and Jewish views and ideas, and the establishment of a specific Christian philosophy of nature (Augustinus, Boethius), which was close together with Platon´s ontology and (later) Aristoteles´ empiricism lead to the end of the era of the antique. In the medieval era syncretism is advanced by combining aspects of Platon’s and Aristoteles’ philosophy. Basic and central scientific concepts are developed. BTU Chair of General Ecology Epistemological Problems V 2 During the renaissance we observe a progression of emancipation of the human individuum from guiding and overruling by institutions till the age of enlightenment. With the Critique of Pure Reason (1781) the philosopher Immanuel Kant reached a new stage, the transcendental idealism. In the course of the 19th century we observe a process of disintegration of different traditions of world views towards nature: The foundation of different approaches (romanti- cism, Hegel, Schopenhauer, Schelling, and Engels) and the establishment of science in a modern sense. – Philosophy of science, mainly represented by the philosophy of Schelling, is discredited in the course of time. The world has changed: Revolutions in Europe The political, social, cultural, scientific situation in Europe at the end of the 18th century has completely changed. Epoch-making changes in a small time window („beginning of the mod- ern age as a historical formation”, „Beginn der Neuzeit”) were the publication of „Critique of pure reason” (1781) by Kant for the field of philosophy and human mind in general; the French revolution (1789) for the field of the socio-political and socio-economic situation; and the Napoleonic realignment (since 1800) for the political map of Europe. Johann Sebastian Bach and Georg Friedrich Händel do not compose music any longer (they died 1750 and 1756, respectively), but Joseph Haydn and Ludwig van Beethoven. People did not wear peri- wigs any longer. The most significant historical reason for this development is the ongoing process of secularization and the emancipation of human reason. At the end of the 18th century various political and social developments (which started already at the times of the renaissance) and a synthesis of different patterns of thought lead to the end of the age of enlightenment („Aufklärung”). A new scientific world view is provided which became the basis of our today’s scientific and philosophical thinking. One side-effect of this development is the final divergence of the philosophy of nature and science („Naturphiloso- phie” in the sense of Schelling versus „Naturwissenschaft”) in the course of the 19th century. The 19th Century: Selected Topics After overcoming the age of enlightenment the age of classicism and romanticism followed; especially the romanticism was of significant importance for the further development of na- ture concepts. During the 19th century some comprehensive philosophical drafts were elabo- rated. All-embracing conceptions were presented with which all the important questions in philosophy should be answered (consciousness of totality in the 19th century). All post-Kantian approaches are concerned with the overcoming of the difference between ontological substance theory and transcendental epistemology which was opened by Kant with the Copernican change in philosophy (so Schelling), or with the elaboration of concep- tions under inclusion of the discrepancy between being and cognition (so Fichte, Hegel, Schopenhauer). Later, various programs of neo-Kantianism were advanced: Criticism (Joseph Vaihinger), “Marburger Schule” School (Hermann Cohen, Paul Natorp, Ernst Cassierer) and “Südwestdeutsche Schule” (“Badener Schule”: Wilhelm Windelband, Heinrich Rickert). Subsequently, different scientific fields (chemistry, physics, and geography and others) were established, later ecology and biology as well. BTU Chair of General Ecology Epistemological Problems V 3 Romanticism, Hegel, Schopenhauer, Schelling, Engels Romantic conception on nature Romanticism is a reaction to the one-sided glorification of reason in the age of enlightenment. It is both a reaction to the mechanistic world view and Kant’s mechanistic conception of na- ture-objectifying; Kant wanted to extort nature to give answers to scientific questions (in the manner of a judge). In the romantic period we see a revival of the old holistic approach (Em- pedokles). The Rousseau „Retour à la nature!” (Back to Nature!) is now gaining substance and it is the program for scientific research, nature interpretation, and nature experience. For romanticism, nature is a unity, there is no separation between subject and nature „in it- self” (as assumed by Descartes, Hume, and Kant). This is a throwback to renaissance philoso- phy: Nature is a divine ego („world spirit” or „world-soul”). The romantic view of nature is thereby more or less consciously irrational („sentimental”). A characteristic attitude is the longing for naturalness, nature and nature mysticism. The focus is directed at transfiguration („Verklärung”). Mood, emotion and imagination play an important role. Romantic trends had strong influences on the contemporary and also recent consciousness, particularly in Central Europe and Germany. The irrational nature led to serious problems (see for example the fas- cist nature mysticism). In connection with romantic tendencies different modes of experience of nature are dominant. Important is the difference between the „sentimentalistic and naive attitude towards nature”. Sentimentalistic attitude towards nature: As a result of a cognitive process (reason) it is claimed that a direct, uninhibited, emotional, just romantic attitude of nature is preferable (note the contradiction!). Scientific analysis, experimentation, and systematic observation of nature are seen rather skeptically, it is better to devote moods and have emotions. Naive attitude towards nature: This attitude that is characterized by a simple, direct relation- ship to nature, not in a disjunctive, separating, but in a conjunctive manner. This view of na- ture stresses feeling and phantasy, without previously justified rationally. It is more open for scientific analysis, experimentation, and systematic observation, although it also devotes moods. „Great approaches” of the 19th century The main „great approaches” with important implications to the philosophy of nature are: Phenomenology and attitude towards history of human thought by Hegel „The World as Intension and Representation” (1819) by Schopenhauer. Philosophy of nature by Schelling Philosophy based on the historical und dialectical materialism; Engels advanced a spe- cial philosophy of nature in the framework of the dialectical materialism. All the advanced „great approaches” are faced with the philosophy of Kant (transcendental idealism), and all approaches have a certain relation to the Critique of Pure Reason, either rejecting certain parts, or agree, but there is never ignorance. BTU Chair of General Ecology Epistemological Problems V 4 Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel: Phaenomenology, dialectics and historization of science and knowledge The philosophy of nature advanced by Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel (1770-1831) is com- posed of different components: Phaenomenology, dialectics and historization of science. Phaenomenology: Human consciousness is absolutely free for itself, this term represents the key concept in Hegel‘s philosophy. Outside the human sphere nature is only present as ob- served nature. The consciousness itself has come to the certainty of being the entire reality. Dialectics: For the philosophy of nature there is a specific form of the dialectic that shows an inner nature of nature. Nature permanently produces theses and antitheses, but the emerged units do not remain stable, but immediately produces new antitheses and remains undeveloped (Schelling adds some further aspects which lead to the concept of substance). Human mind can figure out somewhat stable units (later, Engels will replace mind in this context with so- cial practice). Historization: With Hegel the development of historization of science and
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