Discourses of Poverty in Literature: Assessing representations of indigence in post-colonial texts from Botswana, Namibia and Zimbabwe By PHENYO BUTALE Thesis presented in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences at Stellenbosch University Supervisor: Prof. Tina Steiner Co-supervisor: Prof. Annie Gagiano March 2015 Stellenbosch University https://scholar.sun.ac.za DECLARATION I, the undersigned, hereby declare that the work contained in this thesis is my original work and that I have not previously in its entirety or in part submitted it at any other university for a degree. Signature............................................... Date: 10th October 2014 Copyright © 2015 Stellenbosch University All rights reserved i Stellenbosch University https://scholar.sun.ac.za ABSTRACT This thesis undertakes a comparative reading of post-colonial literature written in English in Botswana, Namibia and Zimbabwe to bring into focus the similarities and differences between fictional representations of poverty in these three countries. The thesis explores the unique way in which literature may contribute to the better understanding of poverty, a field that has hitherto been largely dominated by scholarship that relies on quantitative analysis as opposed to qualitative approaches. The thesis seeks to use examples from selected texts to illustrate that (as many social scientists have argued before) literature provides insights into the ‘lived realities’ of the poor and that with its vividly imagined specificities it illuminates the broad generalisations about poverty established in other (data-gathering) disciplines. Selected texts from the three countries destabilise the usual categories of gender, race and class which are often utilised in quantitative studies of poverty and by so doing show that experiences of poverty cut across and intersect all of these spheres and the experiences differ from one person to another regardless of which category they may fall within. The three main chapters focus primarily on local indigence as depicted by texts from the three countries. The selection of texts in the chapters follows a thematic approach and texts are discussed by means of selective focus on the ways in which they address the theme of poverty. Using three main theorists – Maria Pia Lara, Njabulo Ndebele and Amartya Sen – the thesis focuses centrally on how writers use varying literary devices and techniques to provide moving depictions of poverty that show rather than tell the reader of the unique experiences that different characters and different communities have of deprivation and shortage of basic needs. ii Stellenbosch University https://scholar.sun.ac.za OPSOMMING Hierdie tesis onderneem ‘n vergelykende studie van post-koloniale letterkunde in Engels uit Botswana, Namibië en Zimbabwe, om sodoende die ooreenstemmings en verskille tussen letterkundige uitbeeldings van armoede in hierdie drie lande aan die lig te bring. Die tesis ondersoek die unieke manier waarop letterkunde kan bydra tot ‘n beter begrip van armoede, ‘n studieveld wat tot huidiglik grotendeels op kwantitatiewe analises berus, in teenstelling met kwalitatiewe benaderings. Die tesis se werkswyse gebruik voorbeelde uit gelekteerde tekste met die doel om te illustreer (soos verskeie sosiaal-wetenskaplikes reeds aangevoer het) dat letterkunde insig voorsien in die lewenservarings van armoediges en dat dit die breë veralgemenings aangaande armoede in ander (data-gebaseerde) wetenskappe kan illumineer. Geselekteerde tekste uit die drie lande destabiliseer die gewone kategorieë van gender, ras en klas wat normaaalweg gebruik word in kwantitatiewe studies van armoede, om sodoende aan te toon dat die ervaring van armoede dwarsdeur hierdie klassifikasies sny en dat hierdie tipe lewenservaring verskil van persoon tot persoon ongeag in watter kategorie hulle geplaas word. Die drie sentrale hoofstukke fokus primêr op lokale armoede soos uitgebeeld in tekste vanuit die drie lande. Die seleksie van tekste in die hoofstukke volg ‘n tematiese patroon en tekste word geanaliseer na aanleiding van ‘n selektiewe fokus op die maniere waarop hulle armoede uitbeeld. Deur gebruik te maak van ‘ die teorieë van Maria Pia Lara, Njabulo Ndebele en Amartya Sen, fokus hierdie tesis sentraal op hoe skrywers verskeie literêre metodes en tegnieke aanwend ten einde ontroerende uitbeeldings van armoede te skep wat die leser wys liewer as om hom/haar slegs te vertel aangaande die unieke ervarings wat verskillende karakters en gemeenskappe het van ontbering en die tekort aan basiese behoefte-voorsiening. iii Stellenbosch University https://scholar.sun.ac.za ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to most heartily thank my supervisors Professors Tina Steiner and Annie Gagiano for their invaluable support and commitment to this project even when I faltered. You are amazing! I wish to also extend my gratitude to my mother, Florence Butale, and Sister Tsogo Butale. Your belief in me and in my ability to complete this race indeed carried me during the many lonely nights at the study table. Lastly to my family, son Pako, daughters Latoya & Dahlia and my lifetime partner Mmoni. You have been a pillar of strength for me. This project is for you. iv Stellenbosch University https://scholar.sun.ac.za Table of Contents DECLARATION: i Abstracts: ii Acknowledgement: iv Introduction: Literary Depictions of Poverty - A Source of Authoritative Knowledge on Indigence 1 Defining Poverty 3 Theoretical Perspectives on Poverty and Theories Adapted to the Study 14 Maria Pia Lara 18 Amartya Sen’s Capability Approach 20 Njabulo Ndebele’s Rediscovery of the Ordinary 23 Writing Poverty in Namibia, Botswana and Zimbabwe 30 Chapter One: Poverty Articulated in Literary Voices from Namibia 37 Representations of poverty in the wake of colonial disruption and dispossessions in Born of the Sun (1988) 44 “A life of poverty has its good moments too” Examples from Born of the Sun 53 Rethinking the role of Christianity in Colonial Dispossession: Representations of Poverty in the Church 57 Poverty in the midst of Political Transition in Diescho’s Troubled Waters (1992) 60 Meekulu’s Children- The ‘Ordinary’ in the ‘Spectacular’ 65 Gendered Gradations of Poverty - The Namibian Story 68 The Purple Violet of Oshaantu (2001) 72 Concluding Remarks 79 Chapter Two: Unconscious Dignity in Poverty - Stories from Botswana 82 Bessie Head and Poverty: The story of migration, adaptation and discrimination 88 The Triumphant Rise of the Poor 103 Maru (1971) 110 A Question of Power (1974) 115 The Collector of Treasures and other Botswana Village Tales (1977) 119 Unity Dow, the Law, Poverty and Economic Disparities in Rural Botswana 124 The Screaming of the Innocent (2002) 130 Juggling Truths (2004) 135 Melamu; Dedication to Survival 137 Conclusion 150 Chapter Three: Urban Poverty in Selected Zimbabwean Texts 152 The Second Generation Writers: Disillusionment on the Eve of Independence 159 Charles Mungoshi’s Waiting for the Rain (1975) 160 v Stellenbosch University https://scholar.sun.ac.za Chenjerai Hove’s Bones (1988) 166 Dambudzo Marechera’s House of Hunger: A metaphor for Zimbabwe’s poverty 171 Tsitsi Dangarembga’s Nervous Conditions (1988) 178 Third Generation Writers in Zimbabwe- writing poverty amidst the crisis Yvonne Vera’s Butterfly Burning (1998) 190 Gendered poverty in Butterfly Burning 202 Writing Crisis – Post-Independence Writing in Zimbabwe 205 Stories of life in the post-Independence economic meltdown An Elegy for Easterly (2009) 207 “The Mupandawana Dancing Champion” 212 “Queues” – Shimmer Chinodya 216 “Pay Day Hell”- Christopher Mlalazi 221 “In Memory of the Nossi Brigade” by Zvisinei Sandi 225 The HIV/AIDS Scourge in a Hungry Nation 227 Valerie Tagwira’s The Uncertainty of Hope (2008) 228 “These are the Days of our Lives”- Edward Chinhanhu 233 “A land of Starving Millionaires” by Erasmus R. Chinyani 235 Conclusion 237 Conclusion: Literary Depictions of Poverty as a Significant Resource 239 Works Cited 246 vi Stellenbosch University https://scholar.sun.ac.za Introduction: Literary Depictions of Poverty – A Source of Complementary Knowledge on Indigence? The scope of current interest in the status of poverty in Africa is indicated by the three questions: who are the poor? Why are they poor? And what can be done about it? At each of these levels of enquiry – the profile of poverty, its causes and the implications for policy and practice – there is growing recognition of the value of a multidisciplinary approach…and the need to integrate this with more ‘qualitative’ evidence reflecting poor people’s own experience. (World Bank Development Report 1999-2000) This is a study of literary depictions of poverty and their possible contribution to the understanding of the broad subject of indigence that, as the epigraph above shows, has preoccupied researchers from many fields of study. The thesis undertakes a comparative reading of post-colonial literature written in English in Botswana, Namibia and Zimbabwe to bring into view the similarities and differences between fictional representations of poverty in these three countries. The central focus is on local indigence in literary depictions of poverty and the way in which writers attempt in their representations to give the poor a voice through narrative devices that allow the characters to speak and claim agency over the narrative of poverty. Such devices are, for example, point of view, dialogues and interior reflections, multi-layered