87

BAB IV

KESIMPULAN

Berdasarkan pertanyaan penelitian yakni “Bagaimana strategi Amerika

Serikat untuk mengeliminasi kelompok teroris Al-Shabaab pada tahun 2008 hingga 2014 melalui kebijakan kontra terorisme di ?”, penelitian ini membahas mengenai beberapa strategi AS dalam mengeliminasi kelompok Al-

Shabaab. Pembatasan dari penelitian ini dimulai dari tahun 2008 hingga 2014 pada masa pemerintahan Presiden Obama.

Terdapat tiga strategi yang dilakukan AS sebagai upaya kontra terorisme di Somalia. Pertama, AS menerapkan strategi “jejak cahaya” sebagai upaya kontra terorisme di bidang militer. Strategi “jejak cahaya” merupakan upaya kontra terorisme AS yang memanfaatkan teknologi seperti pesawat tanpa awak dan peluru kendali untuk melakukan pengitaian sekaligus penyerangan terhadap target operasi yakni Al-Shabaab. Selain itu, AS juga melibatkan beberapa operasi khusus untuk melawan Al-Shabaab di Somalia. Badan intelijen milik AS yakni

Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) bekerjasama dengan Badan Intelijen Nasional

Somalia (NISA) untuk membantu mendapatkan informasi mengenai lokasi keberadaan Al-Shabaab.

Kedua, AS melakukan strategi kontra terorisme untuk melawan Al-

Shabaab dengan memperkuat kerjasama dengan mitra dan aliansinya di Afrika.

Di dalam dokumen strategi nasional AS, Presiden Obama memberikan mandat untuk memperkuat kerjasama dengan mitra dan aliansi agar mempermudah untuk mengeliminasi kelompok Al Shabaab. AS membentuk Komando Afrika

88

(AFRICOM) sebagai sebuah komando militer di Afrika untuk memperkuat kerjasama keamanan dalam meningkatkan kapabilitas negara-negara Afrika. AS juga membentuk Mintra Kontra Terorisme di Regional Afrika Timur (PREACT) untuk membangun kapasitas 12 negara di Afrika Timur dalam bidang militer, penegakan hukum, serta sumber daya pembangunan. Selain itu, AS juga mendukung Misi Perdamaian Uni Afrika (AMISOM) di Somalia dalam upaya mengeliminasi Al-Shabaab di Somalia.

Ketiga, AS juga menerapkan strategi dalam bantuan pembangunan

Somalia. Presiden Obama menyadari bahwa konflik yang terjadi di Somalia berasal dari faktor rendahnya tingkat kapabilitas pemerintahan Somalia untuk mengatasi ketidakstabilan di negara tersebut. Oleh karena itu, AS mulai membantu penguatan institusi keamanan lembaga pemerintahan di Somalia.

Selain itu, AS juga membantu penerapan nilai demokrasi kepada Pemerintahan

Federal Somalia (FGS) sebagai upaya meminimalisir adanya konflik akibat dari perbedaan ideologi di kalangan masyarakat Somalia. Terakhir, AS juga memberikan bantuan dana melalui Badan Pengembangan Internasional AS

(USAID) untuk upaya pembangunan pemerintahan Somalia.

Strategi militer yang dilakukan oleh AS terhadap Al-Shabaab merupakan implementasi dari konsep kontra terorisme model perang. Penerapan konsep kontra terorisme model perang dinilai tidak berhasil karena AS tidak berhasil mengeliminasi Al-Shabaab dari seluruh wilayah Somalia namun hanya berhasil mengeliminasi dari kota dan kota saja. Pengintaian yang dilakukan oleh badan intelijen AS dan Somalia juga merupakan bagian dari

89

konsep kontra terorisme proaktif model intelijen. Hasil pengumpulan informasi tersebut digunakan sebagai alat pendukung untuk melakukan aksi militer AS.

Terakhir, pendekatan jangka panjang dalam upaya kontra terorisme model pembangunan dilakukan oleh AS dengan memberikan bantuan pelatihan kepada tentara TFG, penerapan nilai demokrasi terhadap FGS dan bantuan dana dari

USAID.

Jika melihat implementasi ketiga strategi AS tersebut dari konsep kontra terorisme model perang, AS belum dapat memenangkan perang melawan Al-

Shabaab. Konsep kontra terorisme model perang menilai bahwa parameter keberhasilan melawan terorisme hanya dapat dinilai dengan kekalahan dan kemenangan saja. Keberhasilan AS dalam menewaskan Ahmed Godane pada tahun 2014 tidak membuat Al-Shabaab kalah dan berhenti melakukan aksi teror.

Namun, dukungan AS terhadap AMISOM dan tentara TFG dapat dikatakan lebih efektif. Upaya AMISOM dan tentara TFG dalam mengeliminasi kelompok Al-

Shabaab dari kota Mogadishu dan kota Kismayo berhasil sehingga mengurangi pergerakan sekaligus sumber daya dari Al-Shabaab di Somalia.

90

DAFTAR PUSTAKA

Buku

Thomas R. Eldridge, Susan Ginsburg, Walter T. Hempel II, Janice L. Kephart, Kelly Moore dan Joanne M. Accolla, (2004), The 9/11 Commission Report: Complete Edition. Musaicum Books

James J.F. Forest (Ed.), (2006) The Making of a Terrorist: Recruitment, Training and Root Causes. Volume III: Root Causes, Westport, Conn: Praeger Security International

John W. Creswell, (2004), Research Design: Qualitative, Quantitative, and Mixed Method Approaches 4th Ed, California: Sage Publication

Major Fernando, (2013), Light Footprints: The Future of American Military Intervention, Center for A New American Security

Seth G. Jones, Andrew M. Liepman, Nathan C (2016), Counterterrorism and Counterinsurgency in Somalia, Assesing the Campaign Against Al Shabaab. RAND Cooperation,

Stig Jarle Hansen. (2013) “Al-Shabaab in Somalia; The History of a Militant Islamist Group, 2005-2012,” New York: Oxford University Press

Stokes D, Cox M, (2018) “US Foreign Policy 3rd Edition”, Oxford University Press

Jurnal

Afyar Abdi Elmi, Barise. “The Somali Conflict: Root causes, obstacles, and peace-building strategies”, African Security Review 15.1, Institue for Security Studies, (2006)

Barnes, Cedrif dan Hassan, Harun. “The Rise and Fall of Mogadishu’s Islamic Courts,” Journal of Eastern African Studies, Vol 1, No. 2(2007).

Bartell, Dawn L. dan Gray, David H. “Hezbollah and Al Shabaab in Mexico and the Terrorist Threat to the ”, Global Security Studies, Vol 3, Issue 4 (2012),

Blanchard, Lauren Ploch . “The September 2013 Terrorist Attack in : In Brief”, Congressional Research Service, https://fas.org/sgp/crs/row/R43245.pdf,

91

Congressional Research Service, “Africa Command: U.S. Strategic Interests and the role of th U.S. Military in Africa”, https://fas.org/sgp/crs/natsec/RL34003.pdf

Congressional Research Service, “Somalia”, https://fas.org/sgp/crs/row/IF10155.pdf,

Crelinsten, Ronald. “Perspective on Counterterrorism: From Stovepipes to a Comprehensive Approach”, Research Initiative, http://www.terrorismanalysts.com/pt/index.php/pot/article/view/321/645

Dagne. T. “Somalia: Current Conditions and Prospects for a Lasting Peace”, Congressional Research Service, https://www.refworld.org/pdfid/4d2d99562.pdf,

Hinnebush, Raymond. “The US Invasion of : Explanations and Implications, Critical Middle Eastern Studies, vol. 16, No. 3, 209-228, (2007), https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/10669920701616443?need Access=true

Kondrasuk, Jack N. “Disaster Prevention and Management”, Bradford, Vol. 14, Iss 5, (2005)

Le Sage, Andre. “Prospects for Al-Ittihad and Islamist Radicalism in Somalia,” Review of African Political Economy 27, no. 89 (2001).

Meservey, Josh. “Al Shabaab’s Somalia Safe Havens: A Springboard for Terror”, Perspective on Terrorism Vol 7 Issue 6 (2013)

Napoleon, A. Bamfo, “’s invasion of Somalia in 2006: Motives and lesson learned,” African Journal of Political Science and International Relations, Vol. 4(2), pp. 055-065, (2010)

Refworld, “USCIRF Annual Report 2011- The Commission’s Watch List: Somalia”, https://www.refworld.org/docid/4dbe90b73c.html,

Rollins, John. “Al Qaeda and Affiliates: Historical Perspective, Global Presence, and Implications for U.S. Policy”, Congressional Research Service, https://fas.org/sgp/crs/terror/R41070.pdf,

Ruan van der Walt, Solomon. H, “Histories and Spaces of Terrorism in Africa: The Post-9/11 Strategic Challenge of Somalia’s al Shabaab”, Afro Eurasian Studies Journal, Vol. 3 Issue 1 (2014)

Saltman, Samuel. “The Global Jihad Network: Why and How Al-Qaeda Change and Governance” Vol 1, no.3 (2008)

92

Sjah, Adlini Ilma Ghaisany. “Tracing Al-Shaabab’s Decission to Cooperate with Al-Qaeda in Somalia (2008),” Journal of Terrorism Reseacrh, Vol. 5 Issue 1 (2014).

Stephen, “The United States in the Horn of Africa”, ASPJ Africa Vol. 6

Wise, Rob. “Al Shaabab”, Centre for Strategic & International Studies, http://www.operationspaix.net/DATA/DOCUMENT/4039~v~Al_Shabaab .pdf

Wright, Joanne. “The Importance of Europe in the Global Campaign Againts Terrorism”, Terrorism and Political Violance, (2006)

Dokumen

Central Intelligence Agency, “National Strategy for Combating Terrorism”, 2003, https://www.cia.gov/news-information/cia-the-war-on- terrorism/Counter_Terrorism_Strategy.pdf

Department of Defense, “The National Military Strategy of the United States America 2011”, https://archive.defense.gov/pubs/2011-National-Military- Strategy.pdf

Department of Defense, “Sustaining U.S. Global Leadership: Priorities for 21st Century Defense https://archive.defense.gov/news/Defense_Strategic_Guidance.pdf

Department of Justice, “Building Community Resilience Minneapolis-ST.Paul Pilot Program-Fact Sheet,” https://www.justice.gov/usao- mn/file/642136/download

The Federal Republic of Somalia, “Provisional Constitution, Mogadishu (2012)”, http://hrlibrary.umn.edu/research/Somalia-Constitution2012.pdf

GAO, https://www.gao.gov/assets/320/319141.html

The White House, “National Security Strategy of the United States of America, 2002” https://2009-2017.state.gov/documents/organization/63562.pdf

The White House, “National Strategy for Combating Terrorism 2006”, https://georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov/nsc/nsct/2006/

The White House, “National Strategy for Counterterrorism”,

93

https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/sites/default/files/counterterrorism_ strategy.pdf

The White House, “National Strategy for Counterterrorism, 2011” https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/sites/default/files/counterterrorism_ strategy.pdf

US Department of Defense, “What is the Combined Joint Task Force Horn of Africa?”, https://www.defense.gov/explore/story/Article/1819068/what-is- the-combined-joint-task-force-horn-of-africa/

U.S. Department of State, “Amandements to the Terrorist Designated of al- shabaab”, https://www.state.gov/amendments-to-the-terrorist- designations-of-al-shabaab/

U.S. Department of States, “U.S Foreign Policy in Somalia”, https://2009-2017.state.gov/p/us/rm/2014/227079.htm

U.S. Department of State, “U.S. Relations With Somalia”, https://www.state.gov/u-s-relations-with-somalia/,

U.S. National Security Council, “National Strategy for Combating Terrorism”, 2006, https://georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov/nsc/nsct/2006/

Laporan

African Union Common Repository, “Top AS Al Shabaab figure killed in airstrike”,https://archives.au.int/bitstream/handle/123456789/2021/Top%2 0AS%20commander%20killed%20my%20tracks%20in%20drone%20stri ke_E.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y

Bertelsmann Stiftung’s Transformation Index, Somalia Country Report, 2014. https://www.bti- project.org/fileadmin/files/BTI/Downloads/Reports/2014/pdf/BTI_2014_S omalia.pdf

Bruton, Bronwyn E. “Somalia A New Approach,” Council Special Report No.52 (2010): 15

Bureau of African Affairs, “U.S. Relations with Somalia”, https://www.state.gov/u-s-relations-with-somalia/,

Bureau of counterterrorism, “Pertnership for Regional East Africa Counterterrorism” https://www.state.gov/bureau-of-counterterrorism- programs-and-initiatives/

94

Committee on Foreign Relations, “Hearing Before the Subcommittee on Africa and Global Health Policy of The Committee on Foreign Relations United States Senate”, https://www.foreign.senate.gov/imo/media/doc/06%2004%2015%20Secur ity%20Assistance%20in%20Africa2.pdf,

IGAD, “Al-Shabaab as a Transnational Security Threat”, https://www.igadssp.org/index.php/documentation/4-igad-report-al- shabaab-as-a-transnational-security-threat/file,

National Counterterrorism Center, Al-Shabaab, https://www.dni.gov/nctc/groups/al_shabaab.html

Security Council Report, “UN Documents s/2009/503,” https://www.securitycouncilreport.org/un- documents/document/Somalia-S-2009-503.php,

The Bureau of Investigative Journalism, “Is the secret war in Yemen and Somalia secret no longer?”, https://www.thebureauinvestigates.com/stories/2012- 06-16/is-the-secret-war-in-yemen-and-somalia-secret-no-longer,

The Bureau of Investigative Journalism, “Podcast: US Drone Strike in Somalia considered a badge of honour by Al Shabaab”, https://www.thebureauinvestigates.com/stories/2015-02-06/us-drone- strikes-in-somalia-considered-a-badge-of-honour-by-al-shabaab-says-bbc- africa-boss

The Bureau of Investigative Journalism, “Somalia: Reported US Covert Actions 2001-2016”, https://www.thebureauinvestigates.com/drone- war/data/somalia-reported-us-covert-actions-2001-2017

The CAN Cooperation, “Al-Shebab: An Al-Qaeda Affiliate Case Study”, https://www.cna.org/CNA_files/PDF/DIM-2017-U-016115-2Rev.pdf

USA government, “Fact Sheet: U.S. Support for Peacekeeping in Africa,” https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/the-press-office/2014/08/06/fact- sheet-us-support-peacekeeping-africa,

U.S. Department of Justice, Measures to Control Transnational Organized Crime, Summary, No. 184733, 2000, https://www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles1/nij/grants/184773.pdf

U.S. Government Accountability Office, “Combating Terrorism: State Department Can Improve management of East Africa Program”, https://www.gao.gov/products/GAO-14-502

95

United States Department of State and USAID , “FY 2010 Joint Summary of Performance and Financial Information”, https://www.usaid.gov/sites/default/files/documents/1868/StateUSAIDJoi nt2012SummaryReport_030513.pdf,

United States Government Accountability Office, “State Department Can Improve Management of East Africa Program”, https://www.gao.gov/assets/670/664126.pdf

United Nations Meetings Coverage and Press Release, “Security Council Authorities Somalia Mission for Further Six Months, unanimously Adopting Resolution 1772 (2007)”, https://www.un.org/press/en/2007/sc9101.doc.htm

USAID, “Somalia-Complex Emergency Fact Sheet #1, Fiscal Year 2013,” https://www.usaid.gov/sites/default/files/documents/1866/somalia_fact_sh eet01.pdf,

Thesis

Hassan, Abdinasir Roble. “The Effectiveness of IGAD in promoting Regional Diplomacy: A Case Study of the Somalia Peace Process”, Institute of Diplomacy and International Studies, University of (2017)

J. Callie, Burke.” The Culture of Terrorist Propaganda in Sub-Saharan Africa, A Case Study on Al Shabaab’s Use of Communication Technologies in Somalia and Kenya”, Tufts University (2018)

Pollock, Toivo. “The Global War on Terrorism in the Horn of Africa”, National Defence University (2008)

Westcott, Stephen. “The Impact of Foreign Elements Over Somalia’s Al Shabaab”, Murdoch University (2011).

Artikel

All Africa, “Why Al Shabaab is Eyeing Ethiopia”, https://allafrica.com/stories/201910170251.html

A. Jama, “The 4.5 Formula”, The Medium, https://medium.com/@ajRabi_67780/the-4-5-formula-6f0820646cc5

Al Jazeera News , “Full Transcript of bin Ladin’s Speech”, https://www.aljazeera.com/archive/2004/11/200849163336457223.html

96

Al Jazeera News, “Why is Kenya an Al-Shabaab target?,” https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2019/01/kenya-al-shabab-target- 190117054949463.html,

Amnesty International, “Somalia: International Military and Policing Assistance Should be Reviewed” http://www.operationspaix.net/DATA/DOCUMENT/4910~v~Somalia__I nternational_Military_and_Policing_Assistance_Should_Be_Reviewed.pd f,

Amnesty International, “Will I Be Next? US Drones Strikes in ”, https://www.amnestyusa.org/reports/will-i-be-next-us-drone-strikes-in- pakistan/

BBC News, “Somalia’s al-shabaab join al qaeda,” https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-16979440,

BBC News, “Somalia’s al shabaab rebels leave Mogadishu,” https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-14430283

Center on Public Diplomacy, “AFRICOM’s Impressive Public Diplomacy Product”,https://www.uscpublicdiplomacy.org/blog/africom%E2%80%99 s-impressive-public-diplomacy-product

Chris Harnish, “Al Shabaab’s First International Strike: Analysis of the 11 July Uganda Bombings,” https://www.criticalthreats.org/analysis/al-shabaabs- first-international-strike-analysis-of-the-july-11-uganda-bombings

CNN, “What is Al Shabaab dan what does it want?,” https://edition.cnn.com/2015/07/23/world/africa/what-is-al- shabaab/index.html

Fox News, “US drone strike kills 4 in Somalia”, https://www.foxnews.com/world/us-drone-strike-kills-4-in-somalia

Fox News Network, “Important Announcement from the General Headquarters of the Al Shabaab al Movement: Declaration of the New ‘Praiseworthy Terrorism’”, https://www.foxnews.com/projects/pdf/somaliashabaab0408.pdf,

Global Security , “Somalia-US Relations”, https://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/somalia/forrel-us.htm,

History. “, History, https://www.history.com/topics/21st-century/9-11-attacks,

97

Humanitarian Policy Group, “Talking to the other Side: humanitarian negotiations with Al Shabaab in Somalia,” https://www.refworld.org/pdfid/5346928c4.pdf,

Ken Menkhaus, “Violent Islamic Extremism: Al Shabaab recruitment in America”, https://www.hsgac.senate.gov/imo/media/doc/031109Menkhaus031109.pd f,

Marc Lacey. “In Somalia, Islamic Militias Fight Culture Wars,” The New York Times, https://www.nytimes.com/2006/06/19/world/africa/19somalia.html

Mary Harper, “Profile: Somalia’s Islamist Lads,” BBC News, http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/7307521.stm

Michael Gordon, Mark Mazzetti, “U.S. Used Base in Ethiopia to Hunt Al Qaeda,” New York Times, http://www.nytimes.com/2007/02/23/world/africa/23somalia .html?ref=aden_hashi_ayro

Mike Plfanz, Scott Baldauf, “Somalia’s Al Shabaab: Doses Suicide Attack Mark the Launch of a New Offensive?” Christian Science Monitor, https://www.csmonitor.com/World/Africa/2010/0824/Somalia-s-Al- Shabab-Does-suicide-attack-mark-the-launch-of-a-new-offensive

New America, https://www.newamerica.org/international-security/blog/al-shabaab- strikes-us-drone-airstrip-and-italian-military-vehicles/

Rift Valley Institute, “Stabilization, Extraversion and Political Settlements in Somalia”, https://www.refworld.org/pdfid/5747e53d4.pdf

Stars and Stripes, “Rumsfeld supports Africa Command Idea”, https://www.stripes.com/news/rumsfeld-supports-africa-command-idea- 1.54546

The Drive, “The U.S. Army’s Newest Spy Plan Is in Action in Africa and Latin America, https://www.thedrive.com/the-war-zone/8443/the-u-s-armys- newest-spy-plane-is-in-action-in-africa-and-latin-america,

The Free Information Society. “Al Qaeda: A History; 9/11’ and Today”, 28 Januari 2004, http://www.freeinfosociety.com/media/pdf/4436.pdf

The Guardian, “British ‘al-qaeda member’ killed in US drone attack in Somalia”, https://www.theguardian.com/world/2012/jan/22/british-al-qaida-suspect- drone-somalia,

98

The Guardian, “US drone strikes more deadly to civilians than manned aircraft”, https://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/jul/02/us- drone-strikes-afghan-civilians,

The Nation ,“The CIA’s Secret Sites in Somalia”, https://www.thenation.com/article/cias-secret-sites-somalia/,

The National, “Ethiopia arrest millitans suspected of planning hotel attacks”, https://www.thenational.ae/world/africa/ethiopia-arrests-militants- suspected-of-planning-hotel-attacks-1.913164

The New York Times, “Global Crises Put Obama’s Strategy of Caution to the Test”, http://www.nytimes.com/2014/03/17/world/obamas-policy-is-put- to-the-test-as-crises-challenge-caution.html?_r=0,

The New York Times, “Remembering Those Lost 18 Years Ago,” https://www.nytimes.com/2019/09/11/nyregion/september-11-tribute- ceremony.html

The Telegraph, “US confirms death of al-shabaab leader in drones”, https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/africaandindianocean/somal ia/11078304/US-confirms-death-of-al-Shabaab-leader-in-drone- strike.html,

The Washington Post, “How Drones are Controlled”, , http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/special/national/drone- crashes/how-drones-work/,

The Washington Post, “U.S. drone targets two leaders of Somalia group allied with Al-Qaeda”, https://www.washingtonpost.com/national/national- security/us-drones-target-two-leaders-of-somali-group-allied-with-al- qaeda/2011/06/29/AGJFxZrH_story.html,

United Nations, “Security Council Authorizes Six-Month African Union Mission in Somalia, Unanismously Adopting Resolution 1744 (2007”, https://www.un.org/press/en/2007/sc8960.doc.htm, (diakses pada 17 September 2019)

United States Africa Command .“President Bush Creates a Department of Defense Unified Combatant Command for Africa”, https://www.africom.mil/media-room/article/6713/president-bush-creates- a-department-of-defense-uni

Wall Street Journal, “Somalia’s Al Shabaab to Ally with Al Qaeda,”

99

https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB100014240527487041072045750386741 23215854

WSJ Opinion, “Al Qaeda’s African Surge Threatens the US,” https://www.wsj.com/articles/al-qaedas-african-surge-threatens-the-us- 1380064564

Website

AMISOM, “Backgorund” http://amisom-au.org/amisom-background/

AMISOM, “Mandate: 2006-2007” http://amisom-au.org/mandate-2006-2007/

Christopher Harnish dan Katherine Zommerman, “The Terror Threat from Somalia: The Internationalization of Al Shabaab,” American Enterorise Institute Critical Threats, http://www.criticalthreats.org/sites/default/ les /pdf_upload/analysis/CTP_Terror_ reat_From_Somalia _Shabaab_Internationalization.pdf

Council on Foreign Relations, “Al Shabaab 2009-2014”, https://www.cfr.org/timeline/al-shabab

Council on Foreign Relations,”Al-Shaabab in Somalia”, https://www.cfr.org/backgrounder/al-shabab,

Council on Foreign Relations, “State of the Union Defends Target Killings”, https://www.cfr.org/blog/state-union-defends-targeted-killings,

Council on Foreign Relations, “The U.S. War in Afghanistan,” https://www.cfr.org/timeline/us-war-afghanistan

Counter Extremism Project , “Al Shabaab”, https://www.counterextremism.com/threat/al-shabab

Crisis Group, “Tracking Conflict Worldwide”, https://www.crisisgroup.org/index.php?q=crisiswatch/database&page=9&l ocation[0]=9

Critical Threats, “Profile: Sheikh (Abu Mansur), https://www.criticalthreats.org/analysis/profile-sheikh-mukhtar-robow- abu-mansur

Critical Threats, “Timeline: Operation Linda Nchi”, https://www.criticalthreats.org/analysis/timeline-operation-linda-nchi,

100

Foreign Policy Association, “Thoughts on the Light Footprint Strategy”, https://foreignpolicyblogs.com/2012/12/17/thoughts-on-the-light- footprint-strategy/,

Institute for Security Studies, “Afrcian Solutions to African Problems: In Search of the African Renaissance”, https://issafrica.org/iss-today/african- solutions-to-african-problems-in-search-of-the-african-renaissance,

International Crisis Group, “Somalia’s Al Shabaab Down but Far from Out,” https://www.crisisgroup.org/africa/horn-africa/somalia/somalia-s-al- shabaab-down-far-out,

Norwegian Institute of International Affairs, “Assessing the Effectiveness of the AMISOM” https://effectivepeaceops.net/amisom/,

Stephanie Hanson dan Eben Kaplan. “Somalia’s Transitional Government”, Council on Foreign Relations, https://www.cfr.org/backgrounder/somalias-transitional-government

United States Africa Command, “About the Command”, https://www.africom.mil/about-the-command

United States Africa Command, “What We Do”, https://www.africom.mil/what-we-do

United States Africa Command, “Why the U.S. Military is in Somalia”, https://www.africom.mil/media-room/article/30125/why-the-u-s-military- is-in-somalia,

United States House of Representatives, “President George W. Bush Addressed a Joint Session of Congress on the Subject of the War on Terrorism,” https://history.house.gov/Historical-Highlights/2000-/President-George- W--Bush-addressed-a-Joint-Session-of-Congress-on-the-subject-of-the- war-on-terrorism/

USAID from the American People, “Somalia”, https://www.usaid.gov/somalia,

101

102