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The LDP and the Maintenance of Gender Inequality in Japanese Politics

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The LDP and the Maintenance of Gender Inequality in Japanese Politics University of Wollongong Research Online University of Wollongong Thesis Collection University of Wollongong Thesis Collections 2011 The DPL and the Maintenance of Gender Inequality in Japanese Politics Emma Dalton University of Wollongong, [email protected] Recommended Citation Dalton, Emma, The LDP nda the Maintenance of Gender Inequality in Japanese Politics, thesis, , University of Wollongong, 2011. http://ro.uow.edu.au/theses/3352 Research Online is the open access institutional repository for the University of Wollongong. For further information contact the UOW Library: [email protected] The LDP and the Maintenance of Gender Inequality in Japanese Politics A thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the award of the degree Doctor of Philosophy from UNIVERSITY OF WOLLONGONG by Emma Dalton BA (Hons), Masters in Japanese Interpreting and Translation Institute for Social Transformation Research School of Social Sciences, Media and Communication 2011 THESIS CERTIFICATION I, Emma Dalton, declare that this thesis, submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the award of Doctor of Philosophy, in the School of Social Sciences, Media and Communication, University of Wollongong, is wholly my own work unless otherwise referenced or acknowledged. The document has not been submitted for qualifications at any other academic institution. Emma Dalton ii ABSTRACT The Japanese political system is dominated by men. From local to national level, from the legislature through to the bureaucracy, men outnumber women significantly. Dominant discourses of gender that shape Japanese womanhood as being connected to the home and family have gently steered women away from choosing a career in politics. Gender-role socialisation and gender stereotypes form the cultural barriers to women’s participation in mainstream representative politics. In addition to cultural barriers, institutional barriers, such as the political and electoral systems, have made access to politics difficult for women. In this thesis, I examine the Liberal Democratic Party’s role in contributing to the obstacles that hinder women from entering politics at the national level in Japan. Having been in power from 1955 until 2009, apart from a nine-month hiatus from July 1993 until April 1994, the LDP has had a strong influence on the content of post-war policies and legislation as well as on the workings of the political system. In this thesis, I consider the ways in which social welfare, employment and gender equity policies have shaped dominant discourses of gender. These discourses, in turn, discourage women from entering politics. I argue that for LDP governments, gender equality has been of marginal concern. Gender equity policies created under LDP governments have been inadequate, primarily because the LDP does not regard gender equality as an important issue. I also examine whether or not the LDP, as a political party, has maintained the institutional barriers that women face. I argue that the very structures that assisted successive LDP victories also made politics difficult to access for women. I explore the masculinised party culture of the LDP to shed light on the ways that women are made to feel unwelcome. My examination of party culture draws on interviews with LDP women and explores the ways in which LDP women experience the culture and how they negotiate it. In exploring LDP women’s discussions about motivations and their thoughts on the under-representation of women in politics, I also draw attention to the fact that LDP women themselves perpetuate the same discourses of gender that construct women as political outsiders. iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I must firstly thank my parents, Ann and Hugh, for their selfless investment in my education, without which I would not have pursued an interest in Japan, let alone a higher degree. I thank the Japan Foundation and the Endeavour Award for enabling me to conduct fieldwork in Tokyo. While I was in Tokyo, I benefited from the tutelage of Professor Igarashi Akio of Rikkyō University. His seminars, which he kindly allowed me to attend, were a wealth of resources and interesting conversations. Professor Igarashi was generous with his advice and put me in touch with several key people, including Yamaguchi Mitsuko, whose kindness and wisdom I also enjoyed whilst in Tokyo. The hard work and determination of Yamaguchi Mitsuko and Kubo Kimiko at the Fusae Ichikawa Center for Women and Governance continues to be an inspiration to me. While in Tokyo, my partner Andy and I were taken under the wing of ‘Mrs Iwagami’, as we came to call her, whose generosity I will never be able to repay. From buying us slippers and tea to kindly agreeing to ‘practise’ interviews with me in cafés scattered around Tokyo, Mrs Iwagami’s energy and generosity reminded me that I had a true friend. My partner Andy graciously accompanied me to Japan. He reminded me, when I became despondent, that my project was possible, and worthwhile. I will be eternally grateful to him for this, and for the love, companionship, humour and encouragement he has given me over the years. I am very grateful to the University of Wollongong for providing me with an APA scholarship. Thanks also to the university for providing me with a space in which to work. This has been important not only for the process of writing my thesis, but for social reasons. I have received fantastic support from other postgraduate students and staff, with whom I have forged a strong community of friends. Special thanks to Jenn Phillips, Charlotte Frew, Yumiko Mizusawa, Nichole Georgiou, Kabita Chakraborty, Yoko Harada, Scott Burrows, Ritsuko Saito and Matt Zingel. Thanks also to my tennis buddies Frances Steel, Rob Carr, Becky Walker and Susan Engel. My supervisors have provided me with great support. I was very fortunate to have Lenore Lyons as primary supervisor at the beginning of my candidature, and am grateful for her continued support and friendship. A big thanks to Christine de Matos whose editing skills have to be seen to be believed. Helen Kilpatrick was the first person I met at Wollongong and I have appreciated our conversations and her excellent teaching tips. Finally, I am extremely indebted to Vera Mackie for helping me to finish my thesis. The final word must go to the women and men I interviewed. If it were not for their interest in my project, and their generosity to take time out of their busy schedules to talk to me, this thesis would not have been written. iv Contents GLOSSARY ............................................................................................................................... viii AUTHOR’S NOTE ....................................................................................................................... ix INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................................ 1 CHAPTER 1: FEMINIST INVESTIGATIONS OF FEMALE POLITICAL UNDER- REPRESENTATION .................................................................................................................. 21 1.1 Literature from outside Japan on Female Politicians and Barriers to Participation .......... 21 1.1.1 Cultural obstacles ....................................................................................................... 22 1.1.2 Institutional barriers ................................................................................................... 30 1.1.3 Gaps in literature on women in politics outside Japan ............................................... 35 1.2 Literature on Female Politicians and Barriers to Participation in Japan ........................... 35 1.2.1 Women-centric politics in Japan ................................................................................ 36 1.2.2 The LDP and women ................................................................................................. 40 1.3 Conclusion ............................................................................................................................ 47 CHAPTER 2: GENDERING THE LDP AS MASCULINE ...................................................... 49 2.1 Gender Theories ................................................................................................................ 49 2.1.1 Gendering politics as masculine ................................................................................ 50 2.2 Discourse, Politics and Gender ......................................................................................... 53 2.3 Feminist Criticisms of ‘Equal Opportunity’ for Political Representation......................... 55 2.3.1 Gender quotas represent a shift in discourses of equality .......................................... 58 2.4 Methodology ..................................................................................................................... 63 2.4.1 Data sampling and gaining access.............................................................................. 65 2.5 Conclusion ........................................................................................................................ 67 CHAPTER 3: THE GENDERING OF THE PUBLIC SPHERE AND WOMEN’S POLITICAL ACTIVISM TO 1955 .................................................................................................................. 69 3.1 State-Sanctioned Discourses of Gender ............................................................................ 69 3.1.1 The gendered public sphere ......................................................................................
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