Tourism Review International, Vol. 15, pp. 123–133 1544-2721/11 $60.00 + .00 Printed in the USA. All rights reserved. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.3727/154427211X13139345020453 Copyright © 2011 Cognizant Comm. Corp. www.cognizantcommunication.com

YOUTH IN : THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE TRAVEL SECTOR

MAISA CORREIA

Department of Tourism Management, School of Tourism and Hospitality, University of , Johannesburg, South Africa

Language travel has gone largely unnoticed as a key contributor of youth tourism. The global lan- guage travel market is dominated by the UK and the US, with , , Ireland, Malta, and New Zealand also recognizing the importance of language travel for tourism. Little attention has been paid to language travel in research, including in South Africa. This article reviews the organiza- tion and development of the language travel industry in South Africa as an important aspect of the country’s youth tourism economy. South Africa’s language travel industry is explored in terms of its global position, development, size, key role players, structure, operation, and significance for the broader tourism industry. It is shown significant differences exist in the operation and source markets between inland and coastal language schools.

Key words: Language travel; Youth tourism; South Africa

Introduction national arrivals and valued at approximately US$136–139 billion. The number of youth travel- Until recently youth tourism has been acknowl- ers is expected to more than double to 300 million edged as the “poor relation of international tour- arrivals by 2020 (Jones, 2008; United National ism” (Richards & Wilson, 2005, p. 39). It has World Tourism Organization [UNWTO], 2008). emerged as a recognized contributor to the global Richards (2008) acknowledges that young people tourism economy, largely due to the growing desire are increasingly traveling more often, to more des- for travel among the youth as well as their increas- tinations and spending more than any other group ing spending power. Studies have shifted focus to on international travel. This phenomenon is the re- include “youth and student travel as a mass global sult of “increased participation levels in tertiary phenomenon, which is an increasingly attractive education, labour mobility and overseas study pro- market” (Richards & Wilson, 2003, p. 8). Globally, grammes . . . and changing concepts of youthful- the youth travel market represents 20% of inter­ ness” (Richards & King, 2003, p. 1).

Address correspondence to Maisa Correia, Department of Tourism Management, School of Tourism and Hospitality, University of Jo- hannesburg, Johannesburg, South Africa. E-mail: [email protected] 123 124 CORREIA

Although student travel and activities add con- search of the international context of language siderable economic value to the tourism economies travel, the establishment of a data base of all lan- of destinations the student market is one of the guage schools in South Africa, and most important- most underestimated youth markets globally. The ly the findings from 33 interviews conducted dur- global demand for international student places is ing 2010 with directors of language schools as well estimated to “increase from about 2.1 million in as 75 questionnaires completed by language stu- 2003 to approximately 5.8 million by 2020” and dents at five separate schools in , Johan- the demand for places in the main English-speaking nesburg, and Pretoria (Correia, 2011). destinations is forecast to increase from “about 1 million to 2.6 million places” (Böhm et al., 2004, p. International Context 4). In the US alone, international students contrib- uted US$17.6 billion in the academic year of 2008– Studies on language travel are spread across the 2009 and nearly $20 billion in the ensuing academ- scholarship of both educational tourism and youth ic year (Institute of International Education, 2010; tourism. Learning a foreign language in combina- Ketterer, 2009). Key contributions made by inter- tion with travel originates in the Grand Tour days national students to destinations relate to tuition, of the 1500–1600s and more recently in the late living expenses, and travel costs. Students also gen- 19th century where leisure tourism formally emerged erate a significant Visiting Friends and Relatives as a means of education (Brodsky-Porges, 1981, p. (VFR) market. In one Australian study, approxi- 177; Ritchie, 2003, p. 10; Benson, 2005, p. 135). mately 70% of students surveyed expected two or Modern educational tourism has progressed to in- more friends and two or more family members to clude an array of different activities and interest visit them in Australia (Davidson et al., 2010). The groups. More people are looking for holidays in additional spend by VFR provides added economic which they can actively participate in something value to the student and youth market. educational, which can include anything from Recently, language travel has become a rising “wine tasting to environmental field studies, but in- sector of the global youth travel market. Language creasingly it is learning a new language, particu- learning, particularly the English language, has be- larly English” (Boekstein, 2010, p. 91). The lan- come essential in the context of globalization pro- guage travel market has become a niche tourism cesses and opportunities for cultural exchange. market in recent years, particularly for destinations Many countries are “actively developing language with national languages that include English, Span- tourism as a major incoming market” (UNWTO, ish, and French. The economic impact of language 2008, p. 67). This is evident in the UK, US, Cana- students on tourism spending and in the broader da, and Australia, where tourism planners and poli- economies of language learning destinations has cy makers have acknowledged the importance of gained considerable recognition of late. Many lan- the language travel market. It is against this back- guage students often stay in local communities, drop of international recognition of the significance particularly in “home stays,” and “spend money di- of language travel that the article analyzes the de- rectly with local suppliers, increasing the economic velopment, size, structure, operation, and signifi- impact of their stay” (Richards, 2009, p. 6). This cance of the South African language travel industry. trend is supported by Son (2002, p. 235), who ar- Over the past decade several studies have been gues that language students are also likely to stay undertaken highlighting the importance of youth for longer periods of time, effectively spending tourism in South Africa, in particular of the seg- more in total than other more “traditional” tourist ments of backpacker tourism and volunteer tourism types. (see Rogerson, 2007, 2010, 2011; Visser, 2003). According to Richards (2009), the “total value of Nevertheless, with the exception of Boekstein’s the (global) language travel market can be conser- (2010) work on language travelers to the Western vatively estimated at US $8 billion a year (or al- Cape, there has been no previous investigation of most 7% of the global youth travel market) (p. 1). the South African language travel industry. Meth- For 2009, the Language Travel Magazine released odologically, the article draws from desktop re- statistics valuing the global language travel market YOUTH ENGLISH LANGUAGE TRAVEL SECTOR 125 at over US$11.7 billion (Norris, 2010, p. 50). Such approximately £1400 million (Richards, 2009). As figures are difficult to confirm, however, due to the the world’s largest destination for English language lack of accurate records in language travel destina- learning travel, the UK has sought to support the tions where the language travel industry is not ad- growth of this sector of youth tourism. equately recognized or monitored. Likewise, the US also recognizes the educational Figure 1 depicts the geographic distribution of industry as a crucial contributor to the country’s the global language travel market based on the sta- economy. In the academic year of 2009/2010, the tistics published by the Language Travel Magazine country generated a total of US$18.8 billion from (Norris, 2010, p. 51). It is evident that the largest the international student market. The US recogniz- share of the global market is dominated by the UK es that Intensive English Programs (IEPs) are “the (41.9%). The second largest share of the market is gateway to US higher education,” feeding into larg- represented by the US (17.8%). These market shares er economic opportunities (American Association are followed in descending order by Canada (13%), of Intensive English Programs, 2003). As a conse- Australia (10.5%), Ireland (7.4%), Malta (5.2%), quence of the 2001 terrorist attacks and 2003 SARS and New Zealand (2.8%). South Africa is a new outbreak, however, the national government tight- destination in the global language industry and ened visa restrictions and lengthened process times, ranks eighth, with an estimated market share of making it more difficult for students to enter the 1.4%. Internationally, the core source markets for country. In this regard, the US higher education in- English language learning include , Japan, dustry lobbied the administration to improve visa Korea, Taiwan, Brazil, Mexico, , Spain, and processing by allowing embassies more discretion Saudi Arabia. to waive visa interviews and issue visitor visas for The local importance of the language travel in- short-term language students (Indecon Internation- dustry is evident in the UK, which in 2004 earned al Economic Consultants, 2007).

Figure 1. Global English language market share by student numbers, 2009 (adapted from Norris, 2010, p. 51). 126 CORREIA

Australia is another popular destination for edu- growth. Although these barriers to growth vary be- cational travel as a whole and acknowledges the tween destinations, Richards (2009, pp. 7–9) iden- promotion of English language learning as impor- tifies certain common challenges that tend to occur tant within the context of the international educa- across the industry. These include strict and lengthy tion sector (Pearce & Son, 2004). Of all kinds of visa regulations and processes that may result in educational tourists to Australia the English lan- learners opting for an alternative destination and guage students are of particular interest because concerns about quality of accreditation. Associa- “they are the most like pleasure travellers” (Pearce tions of language schools have been established in & Son 2004, p. 342). This is confirmed by Blundell order to legitimize the industry. The expansion and (2009, p. 8), who points to language students “for consolidation of ownership of schools has resulted whom tourism activities are an integral aspect of in franchising and the development of internation- their program” within Australia. Tourism planners ally recognizable brands, which assisted to address in Australia recognize the significance of educa- issues of quality and resulted in increased competi- tional tourism as a form of tourism that has expand- tion, particularly for smaller language schools. ed especially since 2000. One report reveals that Overall, the language learning industries of several over 45% of the growth in expenditure from all in- countries struggle with lack of recognition and sup- ternational visitors to the country is as a result of port from government, the need for diversification international education visitors (Jackson, 2009, p. in product offerings due to increased global compe- 18). Australian Education International (2006) high- tition, and the imperative for innovation in market- lights that ELICOS (English Language Intensive ing with the rise of social media. Courses for Overseas Students) is important for the study pathways of potential international students Language Travel in South Africa that are likely to return in order to pursue tertiary qualifications, thus further increasing the potential South Africa’s participation in the global lan- long-term economic value of the education tourism guage travel industry is relatively recent. It was market. Although New Zealand is overshadowed only after the 1994 democratic transition that the by Australia’s student numbers, it is also a growing country began to receive youth travelers and be- English language learning destination with a 2.8% come a competitor in the language travel market in share of the global market. One recent study by Sta- particular. The country is considered a favorable tistics New Zealand (2010) recorded a total of language learning destination due to it being per- 41,798 international students enrolled in English ceived as “cheaper than other countries” and hav- language courses in New Zealand for the year end- ing “fantastic wildlife, awesome scenery and wel- ed March 2010, a 13% increase from the previous coming people” (Evans, 2008, p. 68). In South year. Other significant language travel destinations Africa, the language travel market is seen as a com- for English language learners include Canada, Ire- ponent of youth travel where language learners rep- land, and Malta. The latter is distinguished by the resent part of the “independent travel sector.” The fact that in 1996 it became the first country to regu- country is fast becoming a favorable destination for late its language learning industry (Federation of English as a Foreign Language (EFL) learners English Language Teaching Organisations Malta (Baker, 2004, 2008; Smith, 2009). South Africa’s [FELTOM], 2008). competitive advantages relate in particular to it be- The recent global economic crisis revealed that ing more affordable than other more established the global language travel industry performed language learning destinations. In addition, the slightly better than the general international tour- country has become more recognizable due to the ism market in 2009. This is the result of the proac- activities of the national association, EduSA (Edu- tive responses by language travel destinations and cation South Africa, formerly Eltasa). This particu- governments in an effort to secure and increase lar association serves as a platform for associated their market share (Richards, 2009, p. 2). Interna- language schools in the country and aims to guide tionally, the language travel industry, like any other and grow the country’s language travel industry. industry, faces certain challenges that threaten its The need to understand the significance of the lan- YOUTH ENGLISH LANGUAGE TRAVEL SECTOR 127 guage travel industry in South Africa has become (26 schools), Pretoria (10 schools), and Johannes- more urgent with the recognition of educational burg (6 schools). The remainder of the language tourism as a niche market by the national govern- schools are scattered along the western and eastern ment. coasts of South Africa in Port Elizabeth, Jeffrey’s This study was based on an initial compilation of Bay, Stellenbosch, Grahamstown, Plettenberg Bay, a database of existing language schools. An Inter- , and Pietermaritzburg. net search revealed the existence of a larger popula- Overall, Cape Town is the leading destination tion of language schools than simply the 17 schools for youth tourism in South Africa and the leading that were associated with EduSA (the national as- destination for language travelers. The city is a fa- sociation for educational tourism). In total, it was vorable language learning destination due to its revealed that in 2010 there were 52 different lan- “breathtaking beauty,” “so many diverse activi- guage schools in operation throughout the country. ties,” and a melting pot of different cultures (Evans, These language schools are highly geographically 2008, p. 67). The ability of learners in Cape Town concentrated with major clusters around the inland to combine language courses with other leisure ac- cities of Johannesburg and Pretoria but with the tivities such as visits to the winelands, cage diving, majority of language schools concentrated in the whale watching in Hermanus, visiting world- . Figure 2 indicates the spatial distri- renowned attractions such and bution and highlights the concentration of language , or going on a Cape-based safari schools across South Africa. It is evident that the makes the Western Cape highly appealing to lan- industry is urban based and focused in Cape Town guage learners, particularly from Europe but also

Figure 2. Geographic distribution of South African language schools. 128 CORREIA increasingly so from Brazil and . Other viewed had changed ownership since their estab- coastal destinations offer activities such as surfing lishment. By contrast, coastal schools tended to be lessons in Jeffrey’s Bay as well as a year-round more variable with a small proportion (5% of the good climate in Durban, allowing for activities schools interviewed) changing ownership since such as surfing, whale, dolphin, and shark watch- their foundation. The employment of staff was con- ing, and “authentic” Zulu cultural experiences (Ev- ducted in the same manner by all the schools inter- ans, 2008, p. 67). By contrast to the coastal schools viewed. Permanent staff included management, are the group of inland schools in ’s two administrative staff, and some teachers. The largest major centers, Pretoria and Johannesburg. The re- share of teachers was generally hired on a tempo- search showed that inland schools have a different rary or “as needed” basis, often working for more focus, particularly in targeting students from other than one school at a time. Teachers were mostly countries in sub-Saharan Africa due to the proxim- recruited by word of mouth or through the schools ity of major cities such as Johannesburg and Preto- on teacher training courses. It was revealed that ria and being accessible through the country’s ma- coastal schools have a higher ratio of students to jor international airport (Correia, 2011). staff (66:1) than inland schools (38:1), but that in- As a whole the research reveals the important land schools tended to have a larger pool of tempo- finding of the dualistic character of the South Afri- rary staff members and approximately double the can language learning economy. Major contrasts number of total staff members than coastal schools. exist between inland and coastal language schools, All language schools offered varying degrees of which offer different products and attract different beginner and intermediate language courses, with markets. Inland schools around Pretoria and Johan- only a few offering advanced courses. Despite nesburg offer a range of “diplomatic” and “busi- “diplomatic English” being advertised on numer- ness English” courses that may not necessarily in- ous Internet pages, particularly for the Pretoria- volve participation in tourism-related activities based schools, none of the schools interviewed of- such as visits to local attractions, and largely are fered such a course; interviewees reported that the targeted at the market of learners from other coun- course was not popular and was ineffective. Busi- tries in sub-Saharan Africa. By contrast, coastal ness English was prominent in both coastal and in- schools emphasize the combination of language land schools, catering mainly for older students studies with added leisure components, which at- who had been sent by their employers to improve tracts students from a range of source markets in their language skills and particularly popular addition to African countries. among Brazilian and Angolan students. University Nationally, there were two different types of preparation courses for entrance into international ownership that surfaced: those schools that operate tertiary institutions and teacher training courses independently and those that operate as part of a was more common among coastal language schools. larger international organization—(usually) a fran- By contrast, the student questionnaires revealed chise. The majority (85%) of language schools are that university entrance as the reason for studying independently owned and have only one branch or English in South Africa was more prominent campus; one exception was of a language school in among inland students. “Aviation English” was an- Cape Town, which operates at two campuses. The other course offering and only mentioned by coast- language travel industry in South Africa is a rela- al schools and mainly attracting students from Sau- tively new phenomenon. Although the oldest school di Arabia. Other courses on “English for specific in the survey had been functioning since 1983, the purposes” courses largely were offered by coastal overwhelming majority of language schools were schools and included courses designed specifically established only in the postapartheid era. The aver- for the energy, oil, and health/medical industries. age length of time that schools had been operating On average, coastal schools offered a wider was 8.1 years. For the most part, South African lan- range of course offerings and of course durations, guage schools began operations only after 2000. from less than 1 week and up to a year, than inland Ownership patterns tended to be stable particularly schools. Both coastal and inland schools reported with inland schools as none of the schools inter- that the maximum duration tended to be a year but YOUTH ENGLISH LANGUAGE TRAVEL SECTOR 129 there were occasions where students would stay on including Angola and Gabon. Inland schools, by longer than a year depending on their language contrast, attracted the majority of their students needs. Inland schools tended to offer courses of a from Africa, particularly from DRC, Angola, Lib- longer duration overall and the most popular course ya, Gabon, Rwanda, and . Other sig- duration for both coastal and inland schools was nificant source markets included China and Korea, 3–6 months on average. This length would allow particularly for coastal schools. Saudi Arabia (for students to stay on after their course and combine aviation English) and Colombia were identified as their studies with travel. The student questionnaires emerging markets with considerable growth poten- indicated that a stay of 7 months to a year was the tial. The results of the student questionnaire con- most popular choice of students, particularly at in- firmed the findings of interviews with directors of land schools. Coastal students did, however, tend to language schools that coastal schools attract mostly stay for shorter periods of time, opting for stays of European and South American students and inland 1 or 2 months. Students were asked to stipulate how schools attract the majority of their students from long they would remain in South Africa after they Africa. had completed their course. Coastal students re- Language schools interviewed revealed that ported an average of an 8-month extension to their there is an overall year-round seasonality about lan- stay, while inland schools reported an average of a guage travel. Coastal schools tended to be more 31-month extended stay. The significant difference variable with important peak periods during the is largely due to the common trend of inland stu- year end summer holidays of November and De- dents returning to pursue their studies at a South cember and a slight peak during the months of July African tertiary institution. and August. These patterns coincide with the inter- Overall, language schools in Cape Town, fol- national student holidays, particularly with Euro- lowed by Johannesburg and Pretoria, reported the pean students. January and February are identified largest number of language students. On average, as particularly quiet months across the country. In- coastal schools had more language students than land schools experienced a more consistent pattern inland schools. Cape Town records the largest of students with a constant influx of African stu- schools, with just under 1,000 students per school dents, particularly from Gabon. The influx of Saudi on average. Inland schools tended to be smaller in Arabian and Asian (China/Korea) students, partic- size, ranging between 400 and 600 students per ularly at coastal schools, tended to be around the school on average. Based upon the interviews the July/August period. There was an overall concern estimated national total of language learners in from all schools for the need to diversify into other South Africa for 2010 was 30,500 in total. The markets in order to combat the variations in sea- largest age cohort of students was between 19 and sonal arrivals. 25 years, a finding that confirms the role of lan- A striking finding was that coastal schools were guage learning as part of the youth travel industry. more likely than inland schools to include tourism- As a whole, it was revealed that the coastal schools related activities in combination with their course attracted a generally older group of students. In the offerings. For the most part, schools organized language student questionnaires the average age for tours themselves and seldom made use of local tour coastal students in the sample was 28 years com- operators and agents as they found it difficult to pared to 26 years for inland students. Gender distri- ­establish a relationship with such providers and bution was fairly evenly spread across the country, ­obtain group or student discounts from local attrac- with a slightly greater representation of male stu- tions. Such activities were typically charged sepa- dents at coastal schools and female students at in- rately from the course offerings and the itineraries land schools. were generally flexible, based on the student de- Source countries for students included Brazil, sires. Some of the most common forms of extracur- Angola, and the Democratic Republic of Congo ricular activities at coastal schools were informal (DRC). Coastal schools tended to attract more Eu- outings and in-house activities organized by the ropean and South American students (especially school staff such as pizza evenings, visits to local from Brazil), as well as from key African markets restaurants, pubs, and cinemas. Tourism-related ac- 130 CORREIA tivities include trips to local attractions such as mu- working or studying in the country. Backpacker ac- seums, theme parks, nature reserves, and wine tast- commodation was rarely used by language travel- ing, and popular local attractions such as Table ers and was only mentioned by coastal schools and Mountain and Robben Island. Coastal schools in students. the Eastern Cape, at Jeffrey’s Bay and Port Eliza- Language schools reported that the Internet was beth, combined surfing lessons with morning and the most important tool for the purpose of advertis- afternoon language classes. Nevertheless, the “trav- ing and information sharing. The use of language eling classroom” concept, which involves traveling school agents in origin countries was more com- around the country or within a province while mon with coastal schools. The establishment of re- learning English, was not popular as schools oper- lationships with such agents was identified as a key ated mainly from fixed premises. The group of in- step in sourcing international students, particularly land schools was least likely to include or organize from Europe and South America. More traditional tourism-related activities in combination with forms of marketing, such as word of mouth, were course offerings. If activities were offered, they highlighted as particularly important for inland would generally include local tourist attractions schools. Local newspapers and radio were rarely such as visits to the Johannesburg and Pretoria used because of high costs. International trade zoos, Gold Reef City, the Museum, shows, held frequently in Europe and the Americas, , the Union Buildings, or Newtown. The were seen as crucial marketing opportunities but student questionnaires revealed language learners also viewed as expensive forms of marketing. Lack mostly stayed within the province where their of government support for the language travel in- school was situated and if they did travel outside of dustry was a common theme with the majority of the province where language learning was taking schools arguing that it was very difficult to obtain place, it was mainly to surrounding provinces. support from local and national tourism organiza- There was no evidence of students engaging in ex- tions for assistance with marketing efforts. In com- tended national tours as is common in Australia mon with the language school interview respon- (Pearce & Son, 2004). dents, language students indicated that the Internet Many of the coastal schools had invested in pro- was the most common choice when searching for viding their own accommodation, which would information on language courses and destinations. typically either be on campus or within walking The student questionnaires confirmed that word of distance from the school. This allowed the school mouth was particularly important among inland to include accommodation in their offerings and language students. Most African students at inland provided a supplementary source of business in- schools stated that they had friends or relatives al- come. By contrast, this was not the case with inland ready working or studying in South Africa. Coastal schools where learners would most likely be placed students were more likely to make use of travel in home stays or in student communes, which were agents or operators when planning their trip. Few common around nearby universities. These com- students made use of international language school munes were, however, not popular in the results agents or magazines. revealed by the student questionnaires. The use of Figure 3 represents an attempt to capture overall host families was the most common type of accom- spending per trip of South African language travel- modation and largely organized by language school ers. It was revealed that the average language trav- agents in the student’s country of origin. Guest- eler spends an amount of R37,314 during their stay houses and hotels were most common among older in South Africa. This figure significantly exceeds students or those who had been sent by their em- the reported average spending of traditional inter- ployer. Self-catering apartments were used by stu- national tourists of R8,900 in the third quarter of dents who stayed for extended periods of time, par- 2010 (, 2010, p. 1). It is ticularly those that were in South Africa for up to a therefore clear that the language travel sector is a year and mostly by inland students. Stays with potentially high value earning segment for the South friends or relatives were common among inland African tourism economy. If the estimated national students who relied on friends or relatives already language student numbers of 30,500 are taken into YOUTH ENGLISH LANGUAGE TRAVEL SECTOR 131

Figure 3. Average language student spending per trip.

consideration, the total value of the South African lish connections with international agents who language travel industry is estimated at over R1.1 were skeptical of the quality of language schools in billion annually. Accommodation and course fees South Africa. Many of the schools avoided being represent the two most important individual items involved in the visa issuing processes other than for expenditure followed by food purchases. The providing a letter of acceptance for evidence of in- high level of expenditure that is recorded as “oth- tent to study. Nevertheless, there were concerns er,” which included transport, trips, and entertain- raised about fraud in which visas were obtained by ment, provides a significant proportion of language students who did not attend the course as they were student spending. Coastal students were most likely simply looking for a means to enter the country. to spend money on “other,” as they were more like- African students, particularly those from Angola, ly to be encouraged by their school to take part in were identified as the most problematic when it such activities. Overall, however, inland students came to visa processes. Schools were concerned spend the most money during their stay in South that the visa processes were “getting really sticky Africa, averaging almost R10,000 more than coast- and fussy.” Corrupt bureaucratic procedures, par- al students. ticularly at Home Affairs departments, were also Significant challenges to the growth and devel- raised as a concern that could pose a “very real opment of the language learning industry in South threat and challenge.” The issues of crime and safe- Africa were identified by language school inter- ty were of concern for language schools, especially viewees. Of major concern was the existence of an those in Johannesburg and Pretoria. The safety of unknown number of “fly-by-night schools,” which students provides a challenge for the marketing ef- tarnished the reputation of the industry as these es- forts of schools, especially when dealing with inter- tablishments were simply “jumping on the band- national agents. One Pretoria school reported in- wagon” and to “make a quick buck.” This situation stances in which they would have to assist students resulted in poor quality offerings that often failed, who had been arrested over the weekends for “un- creating a phenomenon of short-lived schools. The founded” reasons because of police looking for reputations of more established schools were tar- bribes and targeting people who spoke in their na- nished and it was difficult for such schools to estab- tive languages, which made them vulnerable. Ac- 132 CORREIA cordingly, students were encouraged to speak Eng- Acknowledgments lish wherever possible. Finally, the directors of the Thanks to Wendy Job for preparing the accom- language schools affirmed the need for greater sup- panying maps and to Chris Rogerson of the Univer- port and recognition by government as well as na- sity of Johannesburg for his support and supervi- tional and local tourism organizations. A typical sion. An earlier version of this paper was presented complaint was that the language travel industry was at the International Geographical Union Commis- “not taken very seriously.” Nevertheless, most sion on Tourism conference in Stellenbosch, Sep- schools felt it necessary to “team up with tourism” tember 2010. and felt discouraged as it was particularly difficult to establish relationships with local tourism compa- References nies and organizations to assist them in their tour- American Association of Intensive English Programs. ism-related offerings that complemented their (2003). Impact assessment: US IEP industry. Retrieved products and services. November 20, 2010, from http://www.aaiep.org/news/ policy_impact Australian Education International. (2006). Study pathways Conclusion of international students in Australia through the ELI- COS sector, 2002 to 2005. Retrieved October 19, 2010, Youth tourism is gaining increasing attention from http://www.aei.gov.au/AEIPublicationsAndResearch/ from international scholarship as it is fast becoming ResearchPapers/2006_2_Pathway_pdf.pdf one of the most important sectors of international Baker, A. (2004, February). South Africa steps up. Lan- tourism. Student travel, particularly language trav- guage Travel Magazine, 17. el, represents a subsector of youth tourism. This Baker, A. (2008, March). South Africa fizzles. Language Travel Magazine, 23. article provided the first detailed profile of the lan- Benson, A. (2005). Research tourism. In M. Novelli (Ed.), guage travel industry in South Africa, which is a Niche tourism: Contemporary issues, trends and cases new entrant to the global industry of language trav- (pp. 133–144). Oxford: Elsevier. el. It was shown that the language travel economy Blundell, S. (2009). Language travel—education tourism. of South Africa is urban based and highly concen- Paper presented at the 2009 ATEC Backpacker Confer- ence, Darwin, Australia, April 28–29 April. Retrieved trated in the cities of Cape Town, Johannesburg, December 16, 2010, from http://www.atec.net.au/sue_ and Pretoria. In common with the youth tourism blundell___presentation.pdf more generally, Cape Boekstein, M. (2010). Students as tourists: A profile of Eng- Town emerges as the “capital” for the subsector of lish language learners in Cape Town. Tourism Recre- language travel. As a whole, the industry exhibits a ation Research, 35(1), 91–95. Böhm, A., Follari, M., Hewett, A., Jones, S., Kemp, N., dualistic character with sharp divides occurring be- Meares, D., Pearce, D., & Van Cauter, K. (2004). Vision tween the nature of coastal and inland schools. Dif- 2020: Forecasting international student mobility: A UK ferences were evident variously in course offerings, perspective. London: British Council. source markets for language learners, and linkages Brodsky-Porges, E. (1981). The grand tour travel as an edu- to other tourism products. A critical finding related cational device 1600–1800. Annals of Tourism Research, 8(2), 171–186. to the spending patterns of language travel students Correia, M. (2011). Youth travel in South Africa: The case of who are in South Africa often for periods of up to 1 language travel. Unpublished M.A. (Tourism) research year. It was revealed that overall expenditure by report, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg. language travelers per trip is more than of the long- Davidson, M., Wilkins, H., King, B., Hobson, P., Craig- haul international tourist. This finding points to the Smith, S., & Gardiner, S. (2010). International educa- tion visitation—tourism opportunities. Brisbane: Centre language travel sector as a potentially valuable con- for Tourism, Sport and Service Innovation. Retrieved tributor to the South African tourism economy. Ac- December 14, 2010, from http://www.destinationmel cordingly, it is recommended that national govern- bourne.com.au/files/ ment needs to reexamine its neglect of the language Evans, G. (2008, November). South African adventure. Lan- travel sector and include support for language guage Travel Magazine, 66–68. Federation of English Language Teaching Organisations learning in South Africa as part of wider initiatives Malta. (2008). Industry information: EFL in Malta. Re- for promoting both youth tourism and educational trieved June 10, 2010, from http://www.feltom.com/fel tourism as a whole. tom/content.aspx?id= YOUTH ENGLISH LANGUAGE TRAVEL SECTOR 133

Indecon International Economic Consultants. (2007). Inter- Richards, G., & Wilson, J. (2005). Youth tourism—finally national competitor analysis and benchmarking of Ire- coming of age? In M. Novelli (Ed.), Niche tourism: Con- land’s English language learning sector. Dublin: Au- temporary issues, trends and cases (pp. 39–46). Amster- thor. dam: Elsevier. Institute of International Education. (2010). International Ritchie, B. W. (2003). Managing educational tourism. Cle- students enrolments rose modestly in 2009/10, led by vedon, UK: Channel View. strong increase in students from China. Retrieved Au- Rogerson, C. M. (2007). The challenges of developing back- gust 18, 2010, from http://www.iie.org/en/Who-We-Are/ packer tourism in South Africa: An enterprise perspec- News-and-Events/Press-Center/Press-Releases/2010/ tive. Development Southern Africa, 24, 425–444. 2010-11-15-Open-Doors-International-Students-In-The- Rogerson, C. M. (2010). Towards strategic planning for an US emerging backpacker tourism destination: The South Af- Jackson, M. (2009). The Jackson report on behalf of the rican experience. In K. Hannam & A. Diekmann (Eds.), steering committee: Informing the national long-term Beyond backpacker tourism: Mobilities and experiences tourism strategy. Canberra: Commonwealth of Austra- (pp.203–220). Bristol, UK: Channel View. lia. Rogerson, C. M. (2011). Youth : Evidence Jones, D. (2008). The young independent traveller 2008. from South Africa. Tourism Analysis, 16(2), 105–120. Amsterdam: World Youth, Student & Educational (WYSE) Smith, J. V. (2009, March). Brightness in South Africa. Lan- Travel Confederation. guage Travel Magazine, 29. Ketterer, J. (2009). Economic impact of international stu- Son, A. (2002). International students in English language dents—finding a balance. Retrieved January 11, 2011, programmes: Their images of Australia and travel be- from http://globalengagement.foreignpolicyblogs.com/ haviour. International Journal of Tourism Research, 5, tag/international-student-attraction/ 235–238. Norris, B. (2010, November). The global market. Language South African Tourism. (2010). South African Tourism In- Travel Magazine, 46–50. dex July to September 2010. Retrieved March 3, 2011, Pearce, P., & Son, A. (2004). Youth tourism markets in Aus- from http://www.southafrica.net/sat/action/media/down tralia: Comparing the travel behaviours of international loadFile?media_fileid=36812 English language students and backpackers. Tourism, Statistics New Zealand. (2010). Survey of English language 52(4), 341–350. providers: Year ended March 2010. Retrieved December Richards, G. (2008). The young independent traveller 13, 2010, from http://img.scoop.co.nz/media/pdfs/1008/ trends. Amsterdam: WYSE Travel Confederation. SurveyOfEnglishLanguageProvidersYeMar10HOTP. Richards, G. (2009). ALTO’s global directions in language pdf travel, 2009. Amsterdam: WYSE Travel Confederation. United Nations World Tourism Organization. (2008). Youth Richards, G., & King, B. (2003). Youth travel and back- travel matters: Understanding the global phenomenon of packing. Travel and Tourism Analyst, 6, 1–23. youth travel. Madrid: Author. Richards, G., & Wilson, J. (2003). Today’s youth travellers: Visser, G. (2003). The local development impacts of back- Tomorrow’s global nomads. Amsterdam: International packer tourism: Evidence from the South African experi- Student Travel Confederation (ISTC). ence. Urban Forum, 14, 264–293.