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FROM POLITICAL VIOLENCE TO CRIMINAL VIOLENCE - THE CASE OF SOUTH AFRICA by Sydney M. Mitchell Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts at Dalhousie University Halifax, Nova Scotia April 2006 © Copyright by Sydney M. Mitchell, 2006 Library and Bibliotheque et 1*1 Archives Canada Archives Canada Published Heritage Direction du Branch Patrimoine de I'edition 395 Wellington Street 395, rue Wellington Ottawa ON K1A0N4 Ottawa ON K1A0N4 Canada Canada Your file Votre reference ISBN: 978-0-494-44089-6 Our file Notre reference ISBN: 978-0-494-44089-6 NOTICE: AVIS: The author has granted a non­ L'auteur a accorde une licence non exclusive exclusive license allowing Library permettant a la Bibliotheque et Archives and Archives Canada to reproduce, Canada de reproduire, publier, archiver, publish, archive, preserve, conserve, sauvegarder, conserver, transmettre au public communicate to the public by par telecommunication ou par Plntemet, prefer, telecommunication or on the Internet, distribuer et vendre des theses partout dans loan, distribute and sell theses le monde, a des fins commerciales ou autres, worldwide, for commercial or non­ sur support microforme, papier, electronique commercial purposes, in microform, et/ou autres formats. paper, electronic and/or any other formats. The author retains copyright L'auteur conserve la propriete du droit d'auteur ownership and moral rights in et des droits moraux qui protege cette these. this thesis. Neither the thesis Ni la these ni des extraits substantiels de nor substantial extracts from it celle-ci ne doivent etre imprimes ou autrement may be printed or otherwise reproduits sans son autorisation. reproduced without the author's permission. In compliance with the Canadian Conformement a la loi canadienne Privacy Act some supporting sur la protection de la vie privee, forms may have been removed quelques formulaires secondaires from this thesis. ont ete enleves de cette these. While these forms may be included Bien que ces formulaires in the document page count, aient inclus dans la pagination, their removal does not represent il n'y aura aucun contenu manquant. any loss of content from the thesis. Canada DALHOUSIE UNIVERSITY To comply with the Canadian Privacy Act the National Library of Canada has requested that the following pages be removed from this copy of the thesis: Preliminary Pages Examiners Signature Page (pii) Dalhousie Library Copyright Agreement (piii) Appendices Copyright Releases (if applicable) Table of Contents Abstract vii List Of Abbreviations And Symbols Used viii Chapter 1: Introduction 1 1.1. Introduction 1 1.2. Methodology 3 1.3. Thesis Outline 3 1.4. Changing Identities 4 1.5. South Africa: From A 'Deeply Divided Society' To A Multicultural Society.... 11 1.6. Conclusion 13 Chapter 2: Identity Politics - Race And Ethnicity 15 2.1. Introduction 15 2.2. Rwanda And Political Violence 16 2.2.1. Collective Identities 18 2.2.2. The Debate: Individual Rights, Collective Rights And Group 'Survivance' 19 2.2.3. Liberal Theories Of Minority Rights 22 2.2.4. Limits To The Debate: The Complexities Of Identity Formation 24 2.3. Identities In South Africa 27 2.4. Conclusion 32 Chapter 3: The Construction Of An Identity From Without 35 3.1. Introduction 35 3.2. Critique Of Collective Crime 37 3.3. Specific Theories On Crime In South Africa 39 iv 3.3.1. Social Capital And Identity 40 3.3.2. Civil Society, Underclass Institutions/'Uncivil Society' 42 3.4. Building Exclusive Identity From Above 44 3.5. Conclusion 45 Chapter 4: The End Of Political Violence Base On Race/Ethnicity In South Africa 1990 -1994 47 4.1. Introduction 47 4.2. Historical Context: Pre-1990 50 4.2.1. Spatial Segregation 50 4.2.2. The Apartheid System 52 4.2.3. Development Of The Bantustans/Homeland System 53 4.3. Afrikaners And Afrikaner Nationalism - 1948 56 4.3.1. Afrikaner Split: - 1969 & 1982 57 4.3.2. Afrikaner Social Integration 58 4.4. Inkatha Freedom Party (Ifp) And The Zulu Identity 62 4.4.1. Buthelezi's Alternative To The Violence 63 4.4.2. The Question Of Traditional Leadership In Kwazulu-Natal 64 4.4.3. Instrumental Use Of Ethnicity 66 4.4.4. Hostel Violence 67 4.5. Right Wing Groups And Other Movements 69 4.5.1. Kleurling Weerstands Beweging (Coloured Resistance Movement) 70 4.6. South African Constitution - 1996 71 4.7. Reflecting On The Voting Pattern - 1994-2004 72 4.8. So What Happened Between 1994 And 2004? 74 v 4.9. Conclusion 77 Chapter 5: Discussion 80 5.1. Introduction: The New Elite And Post-Apartheid South Africa Political Economy 80 5.2. A Nation-State Incapable Of Challenging Global Processes? 82 5.3. Globalization And The South African Political Economy 85 5.4. The Reconstruction And Development Program (Rdp) 86 5.5. South Africa And Its Macro-Economic Policy: Growth, Employment And Redistribution (Gear) 89 5.6. South Africa's New Political Elite 96 5.7. The South African Poor/Underclass 101 5.8. Identity Construction Amongst The Poor/From Below 102 5.9. Conclusion 104 Bibliography 107 Appendix A Map Of South Africa Indicating Nine (9) Provinces 115 Appendix B Map Of Western Cape Province Indicating Five (5) District Municipalities 116 Appendix C Map Of City Of Cape Town Metropolitan Municipality (Cpt) 117 VI Abstract From Political Violence to Criminal Violence - The Case of South Africa When apartheid ended, everybody expected political and ethnic conflict to erupt, all the more so that political violence between the Inkatha Freedom Party (IFP) which built its political mobilization at least partly on Zulu ethnic identity and the African National Congress (ANC) was at the highest during this period (1990 - 1994) in KwaZulu Natal and that the transition to democracy was negotiated between parties which were demanding strong group protection (i.e. in terms of language, political veto, etc.). Some were even threatening war (i.e. the Afrikaner Volksfront, the PAC, and AZAPO) should their claims not be accommodated. However, after pervasive political violence during the late apartheid years which were deeply marked by racial and ethnic cleavages (most notably in KwaZulu-Natal), violence along ethnic and racial lines appears to have diminished, virtually to have disappeared in South Africa since its democratic self- governing transition in the early 1990s while criminal violence has reached very high levels, amongst the highest in the world in fact. This thesis will explores the relative decrease in political and ethnic violence in a global context dominated by the rise of identity politics and identity based conflict. Secondly, it will look at the passage from political violence to criminal violence, which, while being both infra and supra ethnic, is very much organized and collective, e.g. gangsterism and vigilantism. Isn't such violence in fact political and expressing discontentment towards state policies by those excluded from such policies, i.e. the poor? Furthermore, aren't such non-civil organizations or institutions providing meaning and identity to their members, and therefore expressing an atypical form of identity politics? vii List of Abbreviations and Symbols Used ANC (African National Congress) APLA (Azanian People's Liberation Army) AVF (Afrikaner Volksfront) AWB (Afrikaner Weerstands Beweging)(Afrikaner Resistance Movement) CP (Conservative Party) COSATU (Congress of South African Trade Unions) DA (Democratic Alliance) FF (Freedom Front) GEAR (Growth, Employment and Redistribution) HSRC (Human Sciences Research Council) IDASA (Institute for a Democratic South Africa) IFP (Inkatha Freedom Party) IMF (International Monetary Fund) KWB (Kleurling Weerstands Beweging)(Coloured Resistance Movement) MADAM (Movement Against Domination of African Minority) NGO (Non-Governmental Organization) NP (National Party) NNP (New National Party) NUM (National Union of Mineworkers) PAC (Pan African Congress) PAGAD (People Against Gangsterism and Drugs) PANSALB (Pan South African Language Board) RDP (Reconstruction and Development Program) SACP (South African Communist Party) TRC (Truth and Reconciliation Commission) UP (United Party) WTO (World Trade Organization) Vlll Chapter 1: Introduction 1.1. Introduction The last two or three decades, which embody the passage from modernity to postmodernity or 'late modernity' (Anthony Giddens), have been signified as an era of accelerated processes of social change. It is a period marked by the (re) construction of identities and the rise of 'identity polities'. Movements based on identity are very diverse in nature and range from ethnic nationalism, regionalism, separatism, calls for multicultural policies, the rise of religious fundamentalism, anti-immigrant movements, to the ghettoization and spatial fragmentation of big metropoles around the world. While being very diverse in form, identity politics occurs everywhere around the world. In this way it could be argued that people on the margins of society construct for themselves new identities - resistant identities - formed in opposition to the dominant culture and the uncertainties of an unstable modernity (Castells, 1997). These identities are formed from below in organizations or institutions, which are considered uncivil by the state and civil society. Moreover, the growth of organize crime in South Africa provides services which the state no longer provide through gangs or vigilante groups, ranging from security to welfare needs. These are what some have referred to as "phantom-States" or instances of governance from below (Comaroff quoting Derrida, 2004: 803). Increasingly the state seems inadequate to provide the most basic, elementary needs to its citizens. Moreover, many analysts believe that the 'market' has replaced the 'state'. In other words, the idea of the nation-state has almost become superfluous since it no longer l controls the movement of capital, which moves from one country to the next in search of exploitable markets and cheap labor (Pillay, 2002: 40). As a result of the impact of globalization on nation-states, it is important to look at some of the effects and changes it has brought about, and more importantly how it has shaped identities on an international scale as well as locally, particularly in the context of South Africa.
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