Beyond Energy: The Integration of Energy Infrastructure to Support Community Goals
A thesis submitted to the: Graduate School of the University of Cincinnati
In Partial Complettion of the Requirements for the degree of: Master of Architecture
In The School of Architecture and Interior Design
Of The College of Design, Architecture, Art, and Planning
June 2011
by Andrew J. Ellis B.S. Arch. University of Cincinnati, 2009
Committee Chairs: George Thomas Bible, MCiv.Eng Michael McInturf, MARCH Abstract
Rising energy costs and concerns over human impact on the environment will likely cause changes to America’s energy infrastructure. Distributed generation methods, including combined heat and power (CHP) plants, are a likely to be key components of these infrastructure changes. Distributed generation shifts the major generation facilities closer to the energy users rather than relying on large power plants that are located out of sight and far from users. The close proximity that is created between energy generation equipment and the equipment’s users due to distributed generation systems provides power plants with new opportunities to go beyond simply meeting a community’s energy needs to contribute to a community’s goals and represent its values through its planning and design. This thesis will show planning and design strategies that show how the integration of a distributed energy system, including power plants, into a community can be used to address that community’s energy needs and its core, non-energy related goals. This thesis will address strategies and goals related to three community scales: the regional or national scale, the local community scale, and the building community scale. Table of Contents
Abstract i 3.4 Imprint on Perception or Knowledge 68 3.4.1 Staging Scenery 68 List of Illustrations and Illustration Credits iv 3.4.2 Community Hub - Program Amalgamation 68 3.4.3 Technological Snap-shot 72 Beyond Energy Introduction 02 3.4.4 Dispaly-Transparency-Intermixing 72 3.4.5 Architecture as Pedagogy 72 Chapter One a Case for New Power Plants 06 Conclusion 78 1.1 Increasing Energy Demand 06 1.1.1 Projected Energy Demand 08 Bibliography 80 1.1.2 Shift to Electric Vehicles 08 1.2 Why Conventional Power Plants are Still Needed 10 1.2.1 Projected Energy Demand Equivalents 12 1.2.2 Capability and Challenges to Renewalbe Energy Sources 14 1.2.4 Upgrade and Replacement of Existing Capacity 14
Chapter Two Achieving a Community’s Energy Goals 18 2.1 Regional Community and Grid-Scale Technology 19 2.1.1 Regional Community Goals 19 2.1.2 Distributed Generation Grid 21 2.2 Local Community and District Engery Technology 27 2.2.1 Local Community Goals 27 2.2.2 Energy District Technologies 31 2.3. Building Community and Building Integrated Technology 40 2.3.1 Technical Goals 40 2.3.2 Building Technologies 40
Chapter Three Community Imprint - Beyond Energy and Economics 42 3.1 Minimize Visual Impact 43 3.1.1 Hiding 43 3.1.2 Camouflage 46 3.2 Community Symbol (Psychological Imprint) 50 3.2.1 Means of Local Identity 50 3.2.2 Gateway or Landmark 56 3.3 Physical Imprint 60 3.3.1 Program Grafting 60 List of Illustrations and Credits
figure 1. increase in energy consumption by fuel type to 2035 figure 21. Central Utility Plant. University of Cincinnati, Ohio. by author by author figure 2. generation capacity by fuel type to 2035 figure 22. interstate highway signs for Ohio and Kentucky by author http://www.flickr.com/photos/28042007@N07/4446189632/ by Bruce Leibowitz figure 3. energy demand equivalents for projected energy demand increases by 2035 figure 23. Bornholm bus station, The Netherlands by author Shannon, Kelly, and Marcel Smets. The Landscape of Contemporary Infrastructure. Rotterdam: NAi, 2010. p.25 figure 4. centralized generation grid simplified diagram figure 24. Florence water tower, Kentucky. by author http://tackytraveller.blogspot.com/2010/03/florence-yall.html figure 5. current energy grid system overview diagram figure 25. Norreport Station. Copenhagen, Denmark. by author by author figure 6. distributed energy system simplified diagram figure 26. Gaffney water tower, South Carolina. by author http://www.geetarz.org/blog/ figure 7. distributed energy system diagram figure 27. highway sound barrier. Los Angeles, California. by author by author figure 8. centralized, energy district, distributed energy systems simplified diagrams figure 28. Siem Reap-Angkor International Airport, Cambodia. by author Shannon, Kelly, and Marcel Smets. The Landscape of Contemporary Infrastructure. Rotterdam: NAi, 2010. p.38 figure 9. district energy/CHP system simplified diagram figure 29. Denver International Airport, Colorado. by author Shannon, Kelly, and Marcel Smets. The Landscape of Contemporary Infrastructure. Rotterdam: NAi, 2010. p.41 figure 10. CHP system diagram figure 30. Roombeek power plant, The Netherlands. by author http://www.arch-times.com/tag/hugo-kaagman/ figure 11. Jardins Wilson project. Paris, France. figure 31. Manassas water tower, Virginia. Shannon, Kelly, and Marcel Smets. The Landscape of Contemporary Infrastructure. http://www.eber.se Rotterdam: NAi, 2010. p.61 figure 12. Google headquarters. Mountain View, California figure 32. metro system enterance. Bilbao, Spain. Shannon, Kelly, and Marcel Smets. The Landscape of Contemporary Infrastructure. Shannon, Kelly, and Marcel Smets. The Landscape of Contemporary Infrastructure. Rotterdam: NAi, 2010. p.67 Rotterdam: NAi, 2010. p.29 figure 13. Kastrup Peak-Load Plant. Copenhagen, Denmark. figure 33. Warren County water tower, Kentucky http://www.gottliebpaludan.com http://www.ohiobarns.com/othersites/watertowers/ky/17-114flag.html figure 14. Greenpoint-Williamsburg Power Plant proposal. New York, New York. figure 34. Los Angeles International Airport entrance, California. http://www.transgasenergysystems.com Shannon, Kelly, and Marcel Smets. The Landscape of Contemporary Infrastructure. Rotterdam: NAi, 2010. p.37 figure 15. Ballet Valet parking garage. Miami, Florida. figure 35. Rijeka Memorial Bridge, Croatia. Shannon, Kelly, and Marcel Smets. The Landscape of Contemporary Infrastructure. Shannon, Kelly, and Marcel Smets. The Landscape of Contemporary Infrastructure. Rotterdam: NAi, 2010. p.79 Rotterdam: NAi, 2010. p.145 figure 16. Henderson-Atwater parking garage. Indiana University. Bloomington, Indiana. figure 36. University of Pennsylvania chiller plant. Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. by author http://www.lwa-architects.com/ figure 17. Thorpeness water tower. Suffolk, England. figure 37. Aruse River bridge, Switzerland. by author Shannon, Kelly, and Marcel Smets. The Landscape of Contemporary Infrastructure. Rotterdam: NAi, 2010. p.140 figure 18. Mannheim water tower. Mannheim, Germany. figure 38. University of Pennsylvania chiller plant. Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. http://www.eber.se http://www.lwa-architects.com/ figure 19. Louisville water tower. Louisville, Kentucky. figure 39. city beacon for Le Courneuve, France. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Louisville_water_tower.jpg Shannon, Kelly, and Marcel Smets. The Landscape of Contemporary Infrastructure. Rotterdam: NAi, 2010. p.141 figure 20. Mechanical Laboratory and Power House. Rice University. Houston, Texas. figure 40. Kuwait City water towers, Kuwait. http://maps.google.com by Jane Puthaaroon http://www.flickr.com/photos/lexrex/401699042/ by radiant guy List of Illustrations and Credits
figure 41. Interchange Park. Barcelona, Spain. figure 60. Craigieburn Bypass. Melbourne, Australia. Shannon, Kelly, and Marcel Smets. The Landscape of Contemporary Infrastructure. Shannon, Kelly, and Marcel Smets. The Landscape of Contemporary Infrastructure. Rotterdam: NAi, 2010. p.80 Rotterdam: NAi, 2010. p.148 figure 42. highway control for the Nanterre A4. Paris, France. figure 61. Dortmund Train Station, Germany. Shannon, Kelly, and Marcel Smets. The Landscape of Contemporary Infrastructure. Shannon, Kelly, and Marcel Smets. The Landscape of Contemporary Infrastructure. Rotterdam: NAi, 2010. p.96 Rotterdam: NAi, 2010. p.202 figure 43. Kyoto Station, Japan. figure 62. Dortmund Station, Germany. Shannon, Kelly, and Marcel Smets. The Landscape of Contemporary Infrastructure. Shannon, Kelly, and Marcel Smets. The Landscape of Contemporary Infrastructure. Rotterdam: NAi, 2010. p.209 Rotterdam: NAi, 2010. p.202 figure 44. Val-de-Seine tramway parking garage. Issy-les-Moulineaux, France. figure 63. Berlin Central Station, Germany. Shannon, Kelly, and Marcel Smets. The Landscape of Contemporary Infrastructure. Shannon, Kelly, and Marcel Smets. The Landscape of Contemporary Infrastructure. Rotterdam: NAi, 2010. p.75 Rotterdam: NAi, 2010. p.229 figure 45. Val-de-Seine tramway parking garage. Issy-les-Moulineaux, France. figure 64. footbridge. Paris, France. Shannon, Kelly, and Marcel Smets. The Landscape of Contemporary Infrastructure. Shannon, Kelly, and Marcel Smets. The Landscape of Contemporary Infrastructure. Rotterdam: NAi, 2010. p.75 Rotterdam: NAi, 2010. p.170 figure 46. Teesside Biomass Power Plant, United Kingdom. figure 65. greenhouse, transit station, power plant colage. http://www.heatherwick.com/teesside-power-station/ colage by author from various sources. figure 47. Teesside Biomass Power Plant, United Kingdom. figure 66. Greenpoint-Williamsburg power plant proposal. New York, New York. http://www.heatherwick.com/teesside-power-station/ http://www.transgasenergysystems.com/ figure 48. L’illustration newspaper water tower. Paris, France. figure 67. Central Heating Plant. University of Northern British Columbia, Canada. http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fichier:Bobigny_-_Tour_de_L_Illustration_01.jpg by http://www.nexterra.ca/industry/unbc.cfm Clicsouris figure 49. Amagerforbraending ski slop and power plant proposal. Copenhagen, Denmark. figure 68. Teesside Biomass Power Plant, United Kingdom. http://www.big.dk/projects/amf/ http://www.heatherwick.com/teesside-power-station/ figure 50. Greenpoint-Williamsburg power plant proposal. New York, New York. figure 69. Teesside Biomass Power Plant, United Kingdom. http://www.transgasenergysystems.com/ http://www.heatherwick.com/teesside-power-station/ figure 51. Millau Viaduct, France. figure 70. Millenium Bridge. London, United Kingdom. Shannon, Kelly, and Marcel Smets. The Landscape of Contemporary Infrastructure. Shannon, Kelly, and Marcel Smets. The Landscape of Contemporary Infrastructure. Rotterdam: NAi, 2010. p.110 Rotterdam: NAi, 2010. p.214 figure 52. Casar de Caceres Subregional Bus Station, Spain. figure 71. Trans World Airlines terminal. New York, New York. Shannon, Kelly, and Marcel Smets. The Landscape of Contemporary Infrastructure. http://www.archdaily.com/66828/ad-classics-twa-terminal-eero-saarinen/ Rotterdam: NAi, 2010. p.114 nycarchitecture3/ figure 53. Oriente Station. Lisbon, Portugal. figure 72. Lausanne bus and train station, Switzerland. Shannon, Kelly, and Marcel Smets. The Landscape of Contemporary Infrastructure. Shannon, Kelly, and Marcel Smets. The Landscape of Contemporary Infrastructure. Rotterdam: NAi, 2010. p.113 Rotterdam: NAi, 2010. p.224 figure 54. Santa Monica Civic Center parking garage, California. figure 73. Nice Airport Terminal 2 parking garage, France. http://www.topboxdesign.com/greenway-self-park-in-chicago-united-states/greenway- Shannon, Kelly, and Marcel Smets. The Landscape of Contemporary Infrastructure. self-park-design-by-hok-international/ Rotterdam: NAi, 2010. p.224 figure 55. Haderslev water tower, Denmark. figure 74. Greenway Self Park. Chicago, Illinois. http://www.eber.se Shannon, Kelly, and Marcel Smets. The Landscape of Contemporary Infrastructure. Rotterdam: NAi, 2010. p.238 figure 56. Tienan water tower, Belgium figure 75. University of Pennsylvania Chilled-water Plant. Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. http://www.eber.se http://www.lwa-architects.com/ figure 57. University of Pennsylvania Chilled-water Plant. Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. figure 76. University of Chicago South Chiller Plant, Illinois. http://www.lwa-architects.com/ http://www.murphyjahn.com/UCP1.html figure 58. Soro CHP plant. Soro Kommune, Denmark. figure 77. New Jersey Aquarium shark tunnel. Camden, New Jersey. http://www.gottliebpaludan.com http://www.ci.camden.nj.us/attractions/aquariumtest.html figure 59. Norwegian Public Roads Administration rest stop viewing platforms. figure 78. Boeing factory tour. Mukilteo, Washington. Shannon, Kelly, and Marcel Smets. The Landscape of Contemporary Infrastructure. http://www.airlinereporter.com/2011/03/boeing-factory-tour-787-dreamliner-and-777- Rotterdam: NAi, 2010. p.131 worldliner/ T hes i s
needs to contribute to a community’s the Bjarke Ingels Group (BIG) push T Beyond Energy it le goals and represent its values through its traditional plant designs. This thesis will
Introduction : I planning and design. apply a planning and design methodology n
to a new combined heat and power plant t roduc In the United States power plants are that will meet the needs of new buildings generally considered to be necessary planned by a university’s masterplan nuisances that are merely tolerated. Even ti on “America’s electricity infrastructure is ill-equipped to in order to design a plant that is well in applications of energy districts and sustain our country’s needs today, and wholly insufficient engineered, is locally appropriate, and is CHP plants, the generation facilities are to handle the growth in demand that is projected over the meaningful and beautiful. next few decades.” rarely given equal importance to other buildings and facilities. Plants that For a process that brings a power plant - Spencer Abraham. Former are given design significance are still into its community and integrates it US Energy Secretary relegated to locations that remove them within the community’s built context, from their communities. Energy use and the choice of the plant’s building site the impact of energy use is a growing part is important. This thesis will propose a of the American and global psyche. This planning process that will allow a designer awareness, along with the economic and to analyze the community’s stated goals social pressures that will lead to a more and values and then apply a method distributed generation infrastructure that will show benefits or challenges will provide a new generation of policy of potential plant building sites. This makers, planners, and architects with process will show how locating a power an opportunity to rethink the role of a plant on sites with various relationships power plant from only providing energy to its community or communities can needs at the lowest cost and with the impact its ability to address various least social impact, to a role of engaging community goals. the community and providing for social The power plant’s physical relationship interaction and integration. Rising energy costs and concerns over on large power plants that are located with its community or communities human impact on the environment will out of sight and far from users. The In order for this role change to occur sets up opportunities for various levels likely cause changes to America’s energy close proximity that is created between a planning and design methodology is and types of community impact. This infrastructure. Distributed generation energy generation equipment and the needed that will enable planners and thesis will explore how David Orr’s methods, including combined heat and equipment’s users due to distributed architects to tailor a plant’s design to idea of “architecture as pedagogy” can power (CHP) plants, are a likely to be generation systems provides power plants contribute to a community’s visual be applied to a power plant when it is key components of these infrastructure with new opportunities to go beyond and intellectual discourse. The City intimately sited within its community. changes. Distributed generation shifts simply meeting a community’s energy of Copenhagen has developed a model The power plant can also incorporate the major generation facilities closer for distributed energy systems, and various design strategies and various non- to the energy users rather than relying 02 the architects of Gottlieb Paludan and generation related programs, and this 03 T T hes i s hes i s
T thesis will explore a range of possibilities, needs. This chapter will explain the T it le it le challenges, and implications of some of current energy system and explain the : I these strategies. role renewable energy sources will play in : I n n t roduc America’s future energy systems. t roduc The future role and form of energy production in the United States and The second chapter will explain how ti on around the world is somewhat murky. changing America’s energy system ti on The time horizon for how an energy framework to a more decentralized generation facility will function or what system and the use of distributed energy a power plant will look is shorter than technologies can meet the national, local, capital investment required return and building community energy needs horizon. For energy infrastructure to and goals. This chapter will focus on grow and change with its surrounding presenting the technical and economic community will require a flexibility of goals for each community scale and then design and planning. The implications of explain how distributed energy systems a flexible building design and other power and technologies can address those goals. plant related design challenges, such as The third chapter will explain how equipment access and fuel and waste locating a powerplant within a local transportation, will also be addressed by community provides opportunities to this thesis. meet other needs and goals of that The structure of this thesis is separated community beyond simply satisfying its into three main chapters. The first energy related needs. This chapter will chapter is a preamble that will make briefly discuss how this methodology can the case as to why new powerplants are be applied to many community types, but necessary. New renewable technologies, it will focus on how a powerplant can help such as wind and solar power, coupled to meet the goals of a university through with increased energy efficiency is often its role on a university campus. touted as adequate for future energy
04 05 P ream b le
noted, and all other references should be that every projected technology was Chapter One A Case for New Power Plants assumed as referencing the reference case developed and fully implemented, which - A C from the AEO2010. is not likely to happen. Even in this Best
Available Technology case commercial ase Energy consumption is directly linked
energy consumption increases by 2035 to economic development: as economies for in most categories including commercial,
grow, they require increased levels of N “Anybody who is relying upon renewables to fill the gap is industrial, transportation, and electric thermal and electrical energy. Major e w living in an utter dream world and is in my view an enemy power. The reduction in overall energy energy analyses project increasing P
of the people.” consumption comes from lower residential o
global and American energy demand w
consumption and increased efficiencies er - Sir Bernard Ingham throughout their projection horizons. in the electric generation infrastructure P
The U.S. Department of Energy’s lan which leads to reduced electric generation Energy Information Agency (EIA) and transmission losses. The idea that t s projects that in all but one scenario that making piecemeal, small changes to energy consumption in the United States building, industrial, and transportation will be higher in 2035 than in 2008. The efficiencies will offset economic and EIA’s reference case projects an energy population growth is simply unrealistic. consumption increase of 0.5% per year for at total increase of fourteen percent As the David J.C. MacKay’s quote at
by 20351. Other projections such as those the beginning of this section says, big from HIS Global Insights, Inc. and the structural changes must take place in International Energy Agency (IEA) offer order to change the trajectory of energy
similar energy consumption outlooks2. consumption. In his book Sustainable Energy without the Hot Air, MacKay Some environmental groups, government explains his ideas on developing a ncreasing nergy emand agencies, and industries would have people 1.1 I E D sustainable energy economy. He proposes believe that through policy changes, six strategies for eliminating the gap Many governmental agencies, investment 2035. The AEO2010 looks at multiple Sir Bernard Ingham was improvement in building and vehicle Margaret Thatcher’s between consumption and renewable companies and energy sector companies scenarios that take into account variables efficiencies, improvement in technologies, press secretary, is a production. To eliminate that gap develop projections for the future of in world energy conditions. In order to university lecturer, and a and small changes in consumer habits journalist, as well as an demand can be reduced or supply can global and American energy scenarios. For make arguments and points this thesis that significant reductions can be made executive for two energy be increased. MacKay’s three proposals the purpose of future energy projections may refer to extreme case scenarios found related organizations. in nationwide energy consumption. for reducing demand are: population this thesis will refer to the reference case in the AEO2010. If this thesis refers to The AEO2010 makes it clear that this reduction, lifestyle change, and changing proposed by the U.S. Department of a scenario other than the reference case, is not the case. In only one case was to more efficient technology. Three Energy’s Energy Information Agency the case scenario will be specifically energy consumption less in 2035 than in proposals for increasing energy supply (EIA) and its Annual Energy Outlook 2008. This case was the Best Available are: “sustainable fossil fuels” and “clean 2010 (AEO2010) and its projections to 06 Technology case which assumed 07 1 Annual Energy Outlook 2010: with Projections to 2035. Washington, DC: U.S. Energy Information Administration, Office of Integrated Analysis and Forecasting, 2010. p.2 2 Ibid., p.88 3 MacKay, David J.C. Sustainable Energy – without the hot air. UIT Cambridge, 2008. ISBN 978-0-9544529-3-3. Available free online from www.withouthotair.com. p.115 1 - P 1 - P ream b le ream b le coal,” nuclear power, and renewable nuclear. Essentially, the United States demand higher as electricity becomes they do, they will account for a significant
energy from other countries3. Clearly will likely be just as dependant on fossil more competitive compared to oil and increase in electricity demand. This shift
- A C Americans are unwilling to control the fuels for its energy needs in 2035 as it is gasoline. will allow transportation energy to come - A C population, and Americans are only today. from multiple fuel sources rather than One outcome that is addressed in willing to make moderate changes to predominately oil, which has economic, ase ase 1.1.2 Shift to Electric Vehicles the AEO2010, but is not given much their lifestyles. As discussed before, environmental and strategic benefits.
for attention due to the lower oil price for the AEO2010 projects that relying on The benefits of electric vehicles asa One year distant from the release of the
N projection, is the shift to electric vehicles. N technology will realistically only reduce load balancing and storage device will AEO2010 there are some indicators that e w Major car companies are introducing e w the energy consumption increases or at be addressed later in the paper. Further might show which scenarios present in P electric-hybrid vehicles and even purely P best maintain energy consumption levels. discussion about electric vehicles is o the AEO2010 are more likely to actually o
w electric vehicles, and if they are adopted w Therefore, to achieve a sustainable energy beyond the scope of this section, but early er occur, and some that indicate potential quickly, they could have an impact on the er
P future, the United States must increase indicators are that their development P inaccuracies in all scenarios. The crude electrical generation industry. Electric lan its sustainable energy supply. What this may provide an important piece of the lan oil price in April of 2011 has exceeded vehicles have challenges to overcome t s supply can and will look like is discussed United States’ energy future. t s the projection of the AEO2010 and other before they become widespread, but if in the next section. reports that it compares itself to. In fact, the oil price of $113 in April of 2011 is the 1.1.1 Projected Energy Demand price projected by the AEO2010 and by Deutsche Bank (DE) for 2025 and by the The EIA’s AEO2010 projects that the International Energy Agency (IEA) and most likely energy scenario will require Strategic Energy & Economic Research, an increase in capacity of 268 gigawatts. Inc. (SEER) for 2030. Though oil prices It projects that this increase will be may come back down to the levels provided for with all fuel types: 33 GW projected by these agencies, currently it from coal, 119 GW from natural gas, appears that oil prices are rising faster 10 GW from nuclear and 106 GW from than every major projection anticipated. renewables4. The AEO2010 projects that, figure 1. increase in energy consumption by fuel type to 2035 of the 106 GWs, most renewable growth According to the EIA, the average gasoline will be in the biomass and wind sectors. price in the United States was $2.81 at A troubling reality that the AEO2010 the time of the AEO2010 release (April projects is that, despite significant growth 2010). The average price was $3.81 for in renewable energy sectors by 2035, the the week of April 25, 2011. This increase majority of electricity in the United in gasoline prices have little short-term States will still be produced by coal, affect on the electric generation industry, followed by natural gas. Renewables will but long-term it could shift electrical account for a similar, or a slightly higher percentage, of electrical generation as figure 2. generation capacity by fuel type to 2035 08 09 4 Annual Energy Outlook 2010: with Projections to 2035. Washington, DC: U.S. Energy Information Administration, Office of Integrated Analysis and Forecasting, 2010. p.2 1 - P 1 - P ream b le ream b le 1.2 Why Conventional Power Plants are Still Needed -65% of the increase in total generation. wind are too unreliable within the current However, every fuel type, including coal, infrastructure system. If the country As the previous section laid out, energy who strongly disagree that renewable
- A C will continue to grow through 2035. New could be develop a system that would - A C demand in the United States is going are going to be able to close the energy conventional power plants will be needed allow areas of high production to share to continually increase even with gap. Speaking on this topic for the BBC to meet increasing demand and to replace with areas of low production, then the ase conservation policies, technology, and regarding the UK’s energy future, Sir ase aging existing plants. average energy production could be shared
for increasing energy prices. This increased Bernard Ingham had a harsh reaction for across the country. However, storage demand along, with a reduction in to people who are selling renewables as
N The United States has significantly higher N systems and distribution systems cannot
e w generation capacity due to limitations the only energy solution: “Anybody who potential for renewable sources than the e w adequately guarantee a continual energy
P and closure of aging coal, oil, and is relying upon renewables to fill the gap United Kingdom, but in his analysis P supply from wind or solar. Therefore, o nuclear plants, will create a gap between is living in an utter dream world and is o
w of the UK’s energy future, David J.C. w under current regulations utilities that er er generation capacity and demand that in my view an enemy of the people6.” MacKay explains that, “any plan that
P built a solar panel or wind turbine must P will have to be met with new renewable The U.S. may have greater renewable doesn’t make heavy use of nuclear power lan also build a conventional plant of equal lan sources, newly built conventional power resources, especially solar and biofuel or “clean coal” has to make up the energy t s capacity to guarantee energy delivery to t s plants, or a combination of the two. potential, but this strong rejection of balance using renewable power bought the customer. This requires high capital renewables as a significant replacement in from other countries .” It is clear to There are great minds such as Larry 8 investment that provides little gain. for conventional power plants is common David J.C. MacKay that England does Page at Google and Ray Kurzweil who Secondly, with current technology and among energy experts. In fact, none of not have the capacity to meet its needs believe that our future energy needs will even projected technology there simply is the major energy forecasts, including the with domestic renewable sources, and be provided by improving renewable not enough land area to give to solar and reference case of the AEO2010, forecast even though the United States is much energy technologies. Larry Page and wind and still have a healthy agriculture renewable technologies even keeping pace larger it is unlikely that the entirety of its Google are investing millions of dollars to industry, wood and forest industry, with growth, let alone replacing current needs can be met from renewable sources develop solar thermal energy technology. and access for other land uses. This is capacity. in the foreseeable future. Ray Kurzweil believes that, because especially true when considering the third photovoltaic technology is silicon- The AEO2010 projects electrical The inability for the United States to meet problem of economics. Even in places based its growth should be exponential. generation capacity to increase from its future energy needs and to replace where there is technology available, to The capacity of photovoltaic panels is 1,008 gigawatts in 2008 to 1,216 its current capacity with renewable make use of wind or solar to replace the current generation systems, it would be doubling every two years, therefore in gigawatts in 20357. This increase of 208 resources is a result of several conditions. approximately twenty years, or eight gigawatts is equivalent to over 200 full- First, renewable sources such as solar and extremely cost prohibitive. doublings, photovoltaics should be able to size commercial nuclear power plants or
provide all of the world’s energy needs5. roughly 4500 typical university campus power plants such as those found at It would be ideal if Larry Page, Ray the University of Cincinnati, Purdue Kurzweil and others who believe that University, or Ohio State University. our future energy needs will be met The AEO2010 projects that the largest through advancements in technology. growth will be from renewable sources However, there are other energy experts 10 and that renewable will account for 45% 11 5 Kurzweil, Ray. Keynote Address. The Future of Thinking. World Futures Society Annual Conference. World Future 2010: Sustainable 8 MacKay, David J.C. Sustainable Energy – without the hot air. UIT Cambridge, 2008. ISBN 978-0-9544529-3-3. Available free online from Futures, Strategies, and Technologies. The Westin Boston Waterfront Hotel, Boston, Massachusetts. 10 July 2010. www.withouthotair.com. p.6 6 “BBC - Radio 4 - Transcripts.” BBC - Homepage. Web. 31 Dec. 2010.
- A C for wind farms range from one to three - A C projects that the United States’ electricity megawatts. According to Ray Miller, demand will increase by 268 gigawatts by the superintendent of the University of ase ase the year 2035. A gigawatt is one thousand Cincinnati’s utility plants, the Greater for megawatts, which itself is one thousand Cincinnati area, which has a population of for
N kilowatts, which is approximately the N about 2.2 million people9, has an electrical e w demand of an average house in the United demand of six thousand megawatts or e w P States. In other words, one gigawatt is P six gigawatts10. The projected energy o o w equivalent to the average demand of one demand increase of 268 GW is equivalent w er er million homes. P to forty-five new Greater Cincinnati P lan areas being built. Therefore, in order to lan The Zimmer Power Station, outside t s meet the projected electricity demand t s of Cincinnati, Ohio, is the largest coal for 2035, 214 Zimmer-sized plants; 5,700 power plant in the country. It is rated at new CUP-sized plants; or 134,000 two approximately 1300 MW or 1.3 GW. The megawatt wind turbines will need to University of Cincinnati’s Central Utility be built. Actually, the number of wind Plant (CUP) can provide electricity for turbines would need to be far greater, but both its main campus and its medical that discussion will be presented later. campus, along with several area
figure 3. energy demand equivalents for projected energy demand increases by 2035
12 13 9 U.S. Census Bureau. Metro Population Estimates 2009. Washington D.C. 2009. 10 Miller, Ray. Power Plant Technology Class Lecture. University of Cincinnati. Cincinnati, Ohio. 07 April 2011. 1 - P 1 - P ream b le ream b le 1.2.2 Capability and Challenges to generation capacity after about fifteen have fluctuated between two dollars and of generation facilities. The construction Renewalbe Energy Sources years. Current PV technology and fourteen dollars per MMBTU since 2000. of new power plants provides planners, The major challenge with renewables
- A C costs create a situation where many PV capacity factor - the Natural gas plants make for excellent designers, and engineers the opportunity - A C percentage of net actual in general is the amount of time they projects, and some wind turbine projects, peaking plants due to their fast start up, to rethink the types and locations of power output over a collect, which affects both the initial have ROIs that have longer time horizons period of time compared but their viability as base load generation these new plants. The opportunities for ase to power output if ase capital costs associated with a PV or than the equipment’s life expectancy. is susceptible to gas prices. these new plants will be discussed in the
the same equipement for wind turbine project and the return on Therefore, without subsidies, these operated at the next chapters. for
N nameplate capacity over The replacement of existing capacity in N investment (ROI) time horizon for the technologies often cost more in capital the same period of time. e w addition to the new electrical demand will e w projects. PVs and wind turbines have and maintenance than the savings from
P require the construction of large numbers P poor capacity factors, which are generally the energy generated. o o w between twenty to thirty percent, unlike w er er a conventional plant that can produce its P 1.2.4 Upgrade and Replacement of Existing P lan rated capacity over ninety-five percent of Capacity lan the time . Utility companies are required t s 11 The most important factor in making the t s by law to be able to provide power to its case that a significant number of new customers with high reliability. Therefore, power plants will need to be constructed any utility company that builds PVs in the near future is the need to replace or wind turbines must also build a existing capacity. According to Ray conventional plant of equal capacity Miller, the average age of coal plants if it wants to be able to guarantee that in Ohio is over fifty years old. No new the new capacity is reliable. Thus, each nuclear power plants have been built in megawatt of PV or wind generation is the United States since the 1979 Three both more expensive than conventional Mile Island incident, meaning that generation and requires a conventional most nuclear plants are nearing forty plant to be built anyway. That is two or years old. Therefore, combined, over three times the capital cost to the utility seventy percent of America’s electrical company. Additionally, when the PVs or generation capacity has either exceeded wind generators are operating, then the or is approaching the end of useful life back-up conventional plant is sitting and will need to be replaced. figure 4. centralized generation grid simplified diagram unused and is not making money for the Natural Gas has accounted for the bulk utility. of increased capacity since the 1980s The significant capital costs extend the and continues to represent the majority ROI of PV and wind turbine projects. of large plant construction. Natural Gas PVs have expected lifetimes of about plants are clean and inexpensive to build, twenty years, but lose substantial but gas prices are highly volatile and 14 15 11 Miller, Ray. Power Plant Technology Class Lecture. University of Cincinnati. Cincinnati, Ohio. 07 April 2011. 1 - P 1 - P ream b le ream b le - A C - A C ase ase for for N N e w e w P P o o w w er er P P lan lan t s t s
figure 5. current energy grid system overview diagram
16 17 2 - A ch i ev ng Chapter Two 2.1 Regional Community and Grid-Scale Technology Achieving a Community’s Energy Goals transmission and distribution grid scale power generation cost about $24 per ton
technologies. The regional community in 2002, but cost $105 per ton in 2011 and a C refers to a scale ranging from a is projected to pass $135 in 2012, which ommun it metropolitan area, to a geographic region represents a five-fold increase in a decade. such as the East Central Area Reliability Natural gas prices have fluctuated from “Don’t be distracted by the myth that “every little helps.” If Coordination Agreement, which is one $3.50 per MMBTU in 2002, to $14 in y
everyone does a little, we’ll achieve only a little. We must ’ s
of ten grid network regions in the U.S. 2007, and back to $4.40 in 2011. E do a lot. What’s required are big changes in demand and in and includes Michigan, Indiana, Ohio, nergy supply.” Mitigating the increasing fuel prices is a Kentucky, West Virginia, and parts of second goal that new power plant design – David J.C. MacKay in Pennsylvania and Virginia, to nationwide G
and location can address. New power oals Sustainable Energy without the grid technologies. Hot Air plants can be more efficient and use less 2.1.1 Regional Community Goals fuel, and they can utilize a broader range Increasing Demand for Energy of fuel types in order to flexibly deal with As presented in earlier sections, fluctuating fuel markets. a broad community goal is to have
access to more energy production. Increased Reliability Therefore, the first community goal that Few types of power plants can start up on can be addressed through power plant short notice. Therefore, some generators technology is supplying more energy in are kept online in anticipation of order to keep pace with energy demand. increased demand. The excess generation capacity that is available to respond to Rising Energy Costs fluctuations in demand is called spinning It is broadly accepted that energy cost The previous chapter laid out the case the local community, and the immediate reserve. According to Ray Miller, in 1978 will continue to rise through 2035 and for the construction of new power plants building community. Each of these three the industry standard for spinning reserve beyond. As discussed previously, the in the United States. This chapter will community scales will be addressed in a was twenty-five percent, and currently, AEO2010 projects that oil’s price will rise lay out the technological and economic separate section which will present goals due to efficiency concerns, it is between from $94 a barrel in 2015 to over $133 a related energy goals that can be that can be addressed through power three to five percent . There have been barrel in 2035. The price of oil in April 1 addressed through the types, designs, plant design. Then, after the goals have increases in technology to deal allow for 2011 was $113, well above the project and location of the new power plants. been introduced, possible power plant less spinning reserve, but in general, the rate of increase. The rise in fuel price is The goals that the plants can address technologies or design strategies that especially concerning in the coal market. vary based on the scale of community can be used to address those goals will The resistance to coal-powered generation that is under consideration, and these be presented. The regional community is not reflected in coal prices, as the scales can generally be categorized into discussed in this chapter refers to a demand for coal is increasing in places three scales: the regional community, scale that can be addressed through a 18 such as China. The types of coal used for 19 1 Miller, Ray. Power Plant Technology Class Lecture. University of Cincinnati. Cincinnati, Ohio. 31 March 2011. 2 - A 2 - A ch i ev ng ch i ev ng current electrical grid is less capable of Energy Security all major building projects, that power selling surplus electricity back dealing with large changes in electricity The vital role that our energy supply plants could be targeted for terrorist through the local distribution network; and demand. plays in nearly every aspect of American attack. This concern was especially true a a
C society has left the country dependent for nuclear plants. This concern is still – ‘Microgeneration’, i.e. small C
ommun it This reduced capability has harmed installations of solar photovoltaic ommun it upon our energy supplies. Therefore valid, and most power plants have been the reliability of the grid. This reduced panels or wind turbines that supply the susceptibility of our energy supply forced to increase their physical security one building or small community, reliability was exposed during the black to interruption has left us vulnerable. in response to this treat. again potentially selling any
y out of 2003 that affected 55 million people y The United States expends considerable surplus ’ ’ s s
E across the Northeastern United States E effort ensuring that our supply of Combined Heat and Power (CHP) nergy and Canada . The cause of the blackout 2.1.2 Distributed Generation Grid nergy 2 energy resources is constant and that our plants – enable the heat associated was that power lines were knocked out Basics of Distributed Generation with electricity generation to be processing and generation facilities are
G The UK Department of Trade and G during tree trimming in Ohio, which used locally. Types of CHP plant secure. Energy security is an important oals Industry (DTI) and the regulator Office include: oals caused the local generation plant to shut factor in the United States’ energy policy of Gas and Electricity Markets has taken down, which triggered a cascading effect – Large CHP plants (where the and in any decision about location and a broad view of distributed generation electricity output feeds into the that overloaded and shut down plants design of power plants. higher voltage distribution network (DG) and has defined it as: across the northeast. A more reliable or the transmission network, but Our reliance on foreign sources for oil and the heat is used locally); system is a goal that can be addressed “Electricity generation though the design of new generation natural gas has degraded the country’s technologies that do not rely – Building- or community-level systems. influence around the world, and some on the high-voltage electricity CHP plants; would argue that much of America’s transmission network, and heat technologies that are not connected – ‘Micro-CHP’ plants that foreign policy, including wars, is driven by Concerns about Human Impact on the to the gas grid. This definition effectively replace domestic boilers, generating both electricity and Environment securing oil resources. Much of America’s includes: heat for the home The concerns about human impact on blood and treasure is spent on energy, and Distributed electricity generation the environment rise, reducing fossil using its energy resources efficiently and – enables us to harness smaller- – Non-gas heat sources such as biomass (particularly wood), solar fuel consumption, reducing emissions, effectively shouldn’t be seen simply as scale, low-carbon sources of power by directly connecting them to thermal water heaters, geothermal and improving efficiency will become an economic issue but also as a national the distribution grid. Types of energy or heat pumps – which increasingly important goals. This goal security issue. Energy Independence distributed electricity generation generate heat from renewable of sustainability may be one of the is a national security issue which can include: sources for use locally, either by one household or through pipes biggest drivers of future power plant be directly addressed by the design and – All plant connected to a to a number of users in a building design, location, and fuel types. Incidents location of new power plants. distribution network rather than or community (sometimes known such as the one at the Fukushima Daiichi the transmission network; as community or district heating The second energy security concern is the schemes). nuclear power plant in March of 2011 – Small-scale plant that supplies targeting of power plants by terrorist or also increase the importance of plant electricity to a building, industrial It is important to note other hostile actions. After the attacks site or community, potentially safety and of the radiation impact on the that distributed heat and power on the World Trade Center on September technologies are not necessarily environment. low carbon. For example, much of 11, 2001, there was concern that, like the Combined Heat and Power in 20 operation in the UK burns fossil 21 2 “Blackout.” CBC News. 20 Aug. 2003. Web. 06 Jan. 2011.
a when considering their overall a
C potential in helping us to tackle C ommun it climate change. ommun it
In addition, distributed electricity generation as defined
y above is not always located close to y ’ ’ s s
E demand. For example, wind farms E
nergy in remote areas of the country nergy may be located further from demand than recently constructed G centralised power stations. G oals Such generation can still bring oals substantial environmental benefits, but it is important to bear in mind the diversity encompassed within
the term distributed energy3.”
For the remainder of this thesis this figure 6. distributed energy system simplified diagram definition will used to define a distributed generation (DG) system or a decentralized system. Some of the examples given in the definition will be analyzed in a later section and may not be recommended for use but the DTI/Ofgem definition is comprehensive and matches well with how this thesis approaches the issue of DG.
figure 7. distributed energy system diagram
22 23 3 United Kingdom. Department of Trade and Industry. Office of Gas and Electricity Management.Distributed energy - A call for evidence for the review of barriers and incentives to distributed electricity generation, including combined heat and power (HMSO, London, November 2006), p.2-3. 2 - A 2 - A ch i ev ng ch i ev ng Reliability and Redundancy DE systems are inherently located A decentralized or distributed energy close to the energy users, therefore, (DE) system utilizes a variety of require short transmission distances. a a
C smaller, energy generation facilities and Transmission losses in the United States, C ommun it equipment to provide energy needs. using traditional generation methods, ommun it Equipment and facilities can range in size average between six and seven percent
from kilowatts (kW) to fifty megawatts of energy generated5. Additionally, y y
’ (MW) for more. A DE system has many DE system generators are tied to ’ s s E significant advantages over conventional, the distribution grid rather than the E nergy nergy large-scale power plants which include: transmission grid, which reduces the improved reliability and redundancy, number of voltage transformations G G required before use. Each transformation
oals fewer transmission losses, the ability oals to shift between sources, the ability can constitute an efficiency loss of to incorporate thermal storage, and one percent, therefore, a DE system improved energy security. can improve efficiency by one or two percent by simply reducing the required The challenges to North America’s transformations. A DE system that uses aging energy infrastructure have become CHP can achieve efficiencies of over apparent in the past decade. The most eighty percent compared to traditional widely used example is the 2003 blackout systems which only reach thirty to fifty that affected fifty million people in percent. CHP plants will be discussed in northeastern United States and Canada. greater detail in a later section. Cities such as New York, Cleveland, Detroit, and were without power for most Ability to Shift Between Sources of August 13, 2003, and power was not In the financial investing industry fully restored in Toronto for four days . 4 diversification is key to stable, long- term gains. If someone’s portfolio is all Fewer Transmission and in one company or industry, their gains Transformation Losses DE systems can improve system efficiency are not diluted by other investments by using combined heat and power (CHP) and their portfolio maintenance costs plants which utilize the waste heat from are low. However, they bear a significant the electricity generation process. DE risk on their investment when conditions systems can also improve grid efficiency change in that industry. The same is true by minimizing energy loss due to in the energy industry today: a diverse electricity transmission and distribution. portfolio of fuel sources and technologies figure 8. centralized, energy district, distributed energy systems simplified diagrams is critical to the long-term health of the 24 25 4 “Blackout.” CBC News. 20 Aug. 2003. Web. 06 Jan. 2011.
a this section refers collections of plans, strategic plans of universities a
C its fuel source and technology portfolio long-term rolling blackouts for much C buildings or institutions on the scale of was needed. This thesis looked at three ommun it for a more balanced cost structure. The of Japan, including Tokyo and other ommun it municipalities, university or medical large, public research universities: crucial role the energy industry plays in industrial centers. For the United States, campuses, commercial districts, research the University of Kentucky, Purdue the American economy dictates that the potential issues could be disasters such or industrial parks, or high-density University, and Indiana University. A y y
’ health of the United States is integrally as Hurricane Katrina or the Deep Water ’ s s
E residential communities. list was compiled of for each university E link to the health of the energy industry; Horizon oil rig that threaten domestic oil nergy that showed key words and general nergy therefore a distributed energy system production, or storm damage or terrorist 2.2.1 Local Community Goals themes indicated by the written goals should be seen as potential asset for the attack on a major natural gas pipeline. G Local communities usually have specific as priorities for each institution. Some G future competitiveness of the American A diversified portfolio of energy sources oals goals or long-term vision plans that do not goals were specific to a single university, oals economy. provides for a more stable national and directly include energy, however, energy but there was significant overlap in both regional energy market. and energy technologies can directly A distributed network of smaller general themes and specific goals. The impact these goals. These goals can be generation facilities allows for a variety of three lists were combined into a single found clearly in the vision statements or fuel sources which has multiple benefits. list that represented the general goals of strategic goals of universities or medical The first benefit is cost diversification. Energy Security large, public research universities. facilities, but they can also be found in As discussed previously, fuel prices are A distributed energy system improves such things as marketing materials for Eighteen categories were listed in this volatile and having multiple fuel options energy security. Large, central energy commercial districts, industrial parks, or study, not all of which can be addressed by allows for the operation of the most cost plants are tempting targets for attack, residential communities. A research park energy or power plants. Of the eighteen efficient fuel at the time of the energy and a system of dispersed generation might advertise itself as low operations general goals, it was determined that demand. The flexibility for a region or facilities is less exposed and provides cost, “green” or “sustainable”, and there are eight broad categories that the nation to optimize their fuel sources fewer appealing targets. Increased energy innovative with robust infrastructure. A energy use and energy infrastructure of can improve all economic conditions efficiency and the ability to incorporate high-rise residential complex or a home university campus can address, and they as less expensive energy makes other non-fossil fuels allows a distributed owners association might advertise free or are: energy efficiency/reducing operating industries more cost competitive. The system to reduce the nation’s need for subsidized heating and/or cooling. They costs, lower capital costs, sustainability, second advantage to diversification is the energy imports. might also advertise as a “sustainable” reliability, research, innovation, and ability to provide reliability of energy community. teaching. Each of these categories will be when there are threats to the fuel supply. discussed below. If one type of fuel is unavailable, either There remainder of this section will internationally or nationally, due to focus on how energy infrastructure can political or natural disasters, fuel prices meet the needs of a university campus can spike quickly. Examples are recent community. To understand the types events in the Middle East during the spring and ranges of goals that American of 2011 which brought concerns about oil universities are pursuing, study of the 26 27 5 “Transmission and Distribution Losses.” EIA - Frequently Asked Questions. Web. 05 Mar. 2011 2 - A 2 - A ch i ev ng ch i ev ng Energy Efficiency - Reduced Costs Lower Captial Costs Sustainability goals are not limited to distances. Locating smaller power plants A more detailed discussion about A DE system is composed of multiple universities, but as public manifestations over a broader area allows them to utilize district energy and Combined Heat and energy generation sources, each of which of a community’s goals and as an local energy sources. This means that the a a
C Power (CHP) plants will be addressed requires far less capital than larger, educating institution, public universities wood, corn stover, or industrial waste is C ommun it in the following sections, but it is worth centrally located power plants. This understand the importance of leadership used can be transported economically, ommun it discussing the basic benefits here. A allows a DE system to utilize various on issues that will be important for their and is therefore more likely to be used as a district energy system, of which a CHP fuel sources that enable it to reduce costs students in the future. Sustainability is fuel source. This aspect allows distributed y plant may be apart, allow for much higher by using the most cost effective fuel y
’ one of these issues. generation to better utilize sustainable ’ s s E generation and distribution efficiencies at any given time or by reducing fuel fuels and can help universities meet the E nergy The first way that distributed energy nergy than conventional electricity and thermal consumption in general by utilizing wind, renewable energy commitments that they system can help to achieve a university’s energy production. The cogeneration of solar, or hydropower when available. or their states have made. G goals of sustainability is through energy G a CHP plant has the potential to double Generally, a new commercial district or oals efficiency. A CHP plant can be twice as oals the efficiency of a typical system. For research park would not build its own fuel efficient as a conventional system. example, a12 MW trigeneration facility power plant, so a district energy system Reliability Therefore, a CHP plant can allow a in Trenton, NJ reduced particulate might mean a larger capital investment Research universities are sensitive to university to consume half of the fossil emissions by 33,000 lbs/yr. and reduced up front. However, a CHP plant would energy interruptions. They are often fuels, emit half of the pollutants and gas and oil consumption by 50%6. eliminate the need for individual boilers affiliated with hospitals that must have gases, and generally have half of the and chillers for each building, and thus constant supplies of electricity and Reducing operating costs is important to impact on the environment. Simply would reduce the capital cost for each steam. Also, many of their laboratories any community, and for the universities developing an efficient district energy individual building. Additionally, a DE and research departments have sensitive studied, the energy efficiency provided by system like the ones described later system’s multiple sources allows each equipment and experiments that must a CHP-based district energy system is an can comprise a significant piece of a piece of equipment or facility to be have controlled electricity, steam, and important part of reducing their energy- university’s sustainability goals. upgraded with new technologies or fuel chilled water supplies. based operating expenses. Universities types with far less capital expenditure The incorporation of solar and wind are already one of the largest sectors to In engineering fields such as the power than would be required to upgrade or energy technologies can add to the energy utilized district energy systems, for this industry, a systems of ‘nines’ is used to convert a traditional power plant. portfolio of an energy district. However, and other reasons discussed later, but describe reliability. One ‘nine’ means that a major advantage of a distributed most of them could benefit from a more Sustainability power is delivered 90% of the time, Two energy system lies in the potential for robust system. The other community Sustainability has become a common ‘nines’ means that power is delivered 99% the use of biofuels. A challenge to the types mentioned earlier rarely utilize trend among university goals. Each of of the time, etc. The current electrical use of biofuels in large power plants is district energy systems, and they could the universities studied had some type grid provides reliability of 99.7% or of sustainability plan, and Indiana the distance these power plants are from see dramatic increases in energy efficiency close to three ‘nines’7; in other words, a fuel sources. The energy density of most if they adopted district energy systems. University published a 122 page Campus commercial costumer can expect to not biofuel types is far less than fossil fuels. Sustainability Report in 2008. This have electrical service for about twenty- Fuels such as grasses, corn, or even wood report was referred to frequently by six hours a year. Three ‘nines’ would the university’s 2010 master plan. chips have high moisture contents, which 28 make them more costly to transport long 29 6 USDOE. 1995. “Cogeneration Powers Up Cost-Competitive Energy.” Tomorrow’s Energy Today for Cities and Countries. DOE/GO- 7 Kolanowski, Bernard F. Small-scale Cogeneration Handbook. Lilburn, GA: Fairmont, 2008. p. 159 10095-216. Washington, DC: US Department of Energy. November 1995. 2 - A 2 - A ch i ev ng ch i ev ng require eight hours or less of electrical Biofuels, and the Indiana Center for Innovation 2.2.2 Energy District Technologies outage, which is generally considered to Coal Technology Research. A research Innovation and forward thinking Energy districts and combined heat be the goal for the power industry. university that owns several generators research is key component of the vision and power (CHP) plants are related but a a
C has the opportunity to apply the research plans for research universities. In order different energy system concepts. An C
ommun it Hospitals require four ‘nines’ of ommun it conducted within the university for its to attract the best research faculty, the energy district does not generate thermal reliability and e-commerce requires six own energy generation. The size of a best students, and to secure the best energy itself, but rather is the system that ‘nines’ or greater of reliability. Six ‘nines’, university’s generators allows for smaller research grants, universities must project transfers the energy from the generation
y which is known as ‘six sigma’ reliability, y an image of innovation. Distributed
’ scale fuel usage and for more control of or storage equipment to the energy users. ’ s s
E represents less thirty seconds per year E the plants operation. It makes sense for generation technologies which utilize a This energy transfer is accomplished nergy without electrical service. These levels nergy a public research university to practice variety fuels, including renewables, and through a system of insulated pipes using of reliability require on-site generation . 8 what it teaches in the form of using new includes building integrated technologies steam, hot water, or chilled water. CHP G Hospitals, data centers, research G power plant technologies that it develops is nearly inevitable for universities and plants are energy generation facilities oals laboratories, and other facilities that oals on its own campus. other communities. Embracing and that use cogeneration to produce both require high levels of electrical reliability showcasing the use of these technologies electricity and thermal energy. Some require their own on-site generation or Major public universities, specifically can give a university an appearance of energy districts use a CHP plant as the back-up sources and thus make excellent the Land Grant institutions, have an forward thinking that is both responsible generation component, but some energy candidates to provide the core required for obligation to support the local and state and innovative. For a research institution, districts are only produce and distribute a decentralized generation system. A DE economies. Research that promotes local its energy infrastructure should not be steam, hot water, or chilled water. system is usually comprised of multiple fuel sources and the burning of local relegated as a nuisance but as an asset to energy sources in addition to being grid- fuel sources for its energy generation is Conventional electricity generation plants display. tied, and can therefore provide this high one way to promote the state economy. waste up to seventy percent of the energy level of reliability. If at all feasible, it should be seen by in the fuel which is released as heat and is the university and the state residents Teaching released into the atmosphere. Generally, that the university be obliged to use Universities are public manifestations of an energy district will use a CHP plant in locally produced fuels. The use of local a community’s goals and as an educating order to capture this waste heat for other fuels means that university funds are institution, public universities have a purposes such as space heating or cooling, spent locally, and local fuel use provides role of leadership on issues that will be or for process heating. Steam is used for an opportunity to refine processes and important for their students in the future. high-temperature operations such as
Research promotes the promulgation of the use of This role is not limited to the education industrial processes. However, hot water Many research universities, including these local fuels. This is in opportunity of young people as their obligation for systems operate at a lower temperature Purdue and the University of Kentucky, for the universities to lead the way in new teaching extends to advancing state and which allows for the incorporation have significant research departments energy sectors. industries and advising for public policies. conducting energy related research. For The energy sector is an opportunity example, Purdue University alone has for public universities to advance a the Energy Center, a Center for Direct community’s knowledge on what will be Catalytic Conversion of Biomass to a critical issue for decades. 30 31 8 Kolanowski, Bernard F. Small-scale Cogeneration Handbook. Lilburn, GA: Fairmont, 2008. p. 159 2 - A 2 - A ch i ev ng ch i ev ng of non-traditional thermal generation system that takes into account all “By using a heat pump to upgrade low- grades of heat recovery in the generation methods such as solar water heating or potential energy sources with the district. temperature sources, scattered sources process or from non-generation sources the use of biomass as a fuel source. Harvey describes what an integrated of heat such as sewage treatment plants, such as solar hot water. a a
C energy district system might look like: bakeries, manufacturing, electrical C
ommun it Energy districts have advantages that Cogeneration systems have lower ommun it transformers, rejected heat from ice do not necessitate the utilization of the “1. a district heating network for operating costs than conventional rinks. A heating district becomes an cogeneration of electricity and thermal the collection of waste or surplus plants, but require more initial capital heat and solar thermal energy from energy broker, taking excess and giving
y energy. L.D. Danny Harvey, in his book A investment. The lower operating costs y dispersed sources and its delivery ’ deficiencies11.” ’ s s
E Handbook for District Energy Systems, to where it is needed. mean that the higher the local fuel costs the E nergy lists eight main advantages of heating more cost effective the systems become. nergy 2. a district cooling network for and cooling districts: Cogeneration systems and district energy the delivery of chilled water to Cogeneration G individual buildings systems make sense for many situations, G Cogeneration is the basic technical oals 1. efficiencies due to economies of oals but retrofitting can be prohibitively scale 3. central production of steam and/ concept behind CHP plants. Cogeneration or hot water in combination with expensive. Cogeneration systems are a is the simultaneous generation of two 2. easier transition to renewable the generation of electricity best fit for high electricity demand areas energy sources (cogeneration) to serve the district types of energy, in the case of CHP that such as hospitals, universities, hotels, heating network means electricity and heat. The process 3. individual buildings have lower and research or business parks can serve capital costs as boilers and chillers 4. central production of chilled of generating electricity creates more as core demand base that can be used are not needed water to serve the district cooling heat energy than electrical energy, so in network, using either waste heat to anchor the district’s energy demand. 4. savings in space, maintenance, cogeneration CHP plants that ‘waste’ from electricity generation to drive There is also need for significant heat and insurance heat is retained and used as process or absorption chillers and alongside demand, so other than laboratories and 5. no need for on-site cooling towers production of hot water or steam space heating. hospitals, spas, aquatic centers, high and condenser piping for district heating (trigeneration), or as a separate process using The space heat is either transported as heat demand industries are also a good 6. noise and vibration is chillers steam or hot water. The advantage of fit for cogeneration systems. Another eliminated 5. production of electricity through steam is that it is higher energy and can reason that cogeneration makes sense for 7. no roof-mounted cooling towers building integrated photovoltaic be used for process heat, do not require universities, government and military eliminates risk of legionnaires (BiPV) panels pumps, and steam pipes are smaller than disease complexes, and hospitals is that they 6. possible diurnal storage of heat water pipes. Hot water pipes are large, have enough long-term control to be able 8. absence of roof-mounted cooling and coldness produced during off- but they have fewer energy losses during to plan, implement, finance, and operate towers increase flexibility of peak hours design, increase opportunity for transmission due to their relatively low the entire system. 7. possible seasonal underground PV or solar thermal collectors9. temperature. Another advantage to a hot storage of summer heat and winter Todd White, in his feasibility study water system is that, because it is a lower Currently district energy systems are used coldness ” 10 for a district energy system (DES) to replace individual heating or cooling grade heat, the heat can come from lower An integrated energy district that for Union Township, OH, explains plants in buildings and supplement large, energy sources. These sources can be lower efficiently produces, collects, and that, “Some of the biggest feasibility distant electrical plants. In the United distributes energy can be a critical asset issues are social issues. Unfamiliarity States they are rarely a fully integrated 32 to a community. Has Harvey explains: or negative perceptions of DES, lack 33 9 Harvey, L.D. Danny. A Handbook on Low-energy Buildings and District-energy Systems: Fundamentals, Techniques and Examples. London: 11 Harvey, L.D. Danny. A Handbook on Low-energy Buildings and District-energy Systems: Fundamentals, Techniques and Examples. Earthscan, 2006. p.575,576 London: Earthscan, 2006. p.578 10 Ibid., p. 561 2 - A 2 - A ch i ev ng ch i ev ng of readily available information for CHP assessing DES feasibility or any form of Distributed generation capabilities and energy management planning, lack of infrastructure, including CHP as defined a a
C awareness of environmental pollution in a previous section, vary dramatically C ommun it caused by energy generation, and lack of in size and capability. It is important to ommun it emphasis on environmental issues in most present the spectrum of CHP systems in organization’s management structure order to understand how solutions and y ideas can fit into the broad energy system. y
’ also reduces the likelihood that a DES ’ s s E will be considered in addressing local E nergy The spectrum distributed generation is nergy energy needs .” 12 comprised of: kinetic generators of a few
G The social barriers that exist to watts to several hundred watts, building, G oals DES implementation include lack of building or site integrated microgenerators oals awareness, opposition to power plant such as PVs or wind turbines that produce siting, and negative perceptions of several kilowatts to a megawatt, small
combined heat and power systems. For industrial or community power plants in various reasons, many Americans are the range of several megawatts to over not aware of the effects of their energy one hundred megawatts, medium sized figure 9. district energy/CHP system simplified diagram use, and they have concerns about noise, power plants ranging from one under one aesthetics, and emission. The popular hundred megawatts to a several hundred image of a power plant belching smoke megawatts, and finally, large power plants into the atmosphere and the democratic that are several hundred megawatts to nature of American society make it over a gigawatt. The smallest scales of difficult to site new plants within the distributed generation technologies are communities to be served. A successful not technically CHP as they only produce cogeneration system should seek to go electricity or thermal energy, but they are beyond the energy needs to address other on the distributed generation spectrum community goals. and affect the district energy systems that CHP plants are apart.
There is not a consistent set of terms to describe the various scales of generation equipment. The U.S. Department of Energy broadly defines four segments of distributed generation: mega-scale, mini-scale, micro-scale, and renewables. figure 10. CHP system diagram 34 The U.S. DOE definitions for micro DE, 35 12 White, Todd K. Furthering the Implementation of District Energy Systems in Municipal Settings in the United States: Prefeasibility Study of a District Energy System for the CBD East Development of Union Township, Butler County, Ohio. University of Cincinnati, 1999. p. 5 2 - A 2 - A ch i ev ng ch i ev ng mini DE, and mega DE are adequate Mega-Scale Micro-Scale Renewables definitions for the sizes of generators The DOE defines Mega DE as: “These The DOE defines Micro DE as: “These The DOE defines Renewables as: represented in those categories and will installations include colleges, universities, installations are generally small “Small renewable energy systems have a a
C be presented below. This thesis will add district systems, airports, prisons, and commercial systems with key segments traditionally been photovoltaic solar C ommun it two categories, supplemental DE and industrial applications. Applicable including hotels, healthcare facilities, installations between 1 kW and 20 kW ommun it grid-scale DE, to the DOE’s micro DE, technologies include simple-cycle gas health clubs, small manufacturing, and in capacity. The majority of installations mini DE, and mega DE scales. turbines, combined-cycle gas turbines, microbreweries. Typical equipment have been at schools or public buildings y and boiler/steam turbines. The vast includes small reciprocating engines, such as museums. Many utilities and y ’ ’ s s
E Renewables is too broad a category to be E majority of existing CHP installations microturbines, and fuel cells. Such small states allow net metering from such nergy helpful to be included in the DE spectrum nergy fits this category. The large economy of system installations face an economy systems, though the installed capacity and will be discussed separately, outside size for these projects makes emission of size disadvantage (higher installed is quite low since the systems cannot be G of the DE spectrum. G permitting and interconnection costs less cost, higher operating and maintenance justified based on economics. Small wind oals oals of a barrier. These installations typically costs per kilowatt) and regulatory and systems generally range from 10 kW to
Supplemental range from 5 MW to 50 MW13. ” cost challenges with regard to emissions 30 kW in capacity and are mostly located The supplemental energy technologies permitting, building code approvals, and in rural locations. Large, utility-size presented here are not technically CHP, electrical interconnection. These systems wind turbines (750 kW to 1.5 MW) have
but they are included because their Mini-Scale range from 30 kW to several hundred kW also been purchased and installed near
inclusion in a distributed energy district The DOE defines Mini DE as: “These in size15.” schools16.” has relevant impacts on the other CHP installations include hospitals, office systems in the district. Supplemental buildings, food processing, refrigeration, Grid-Scale DE is equipment such as solar panels, and public facilities such as arenas, Grid-scale DE systems are larger than small wind generators, and solar thermal museums, and conference centers. Typical 5-50 MW of mega DE. These are CHP systems that supplement other electricity equipment includes large reciprocating plants that use heat locally but send or thermal energy systems and range engines and simple gas turbines. These the generated electricity to transmission from watts to tens of kW. Supplemental systems range in size from 500 kW to grid rather than the distribution grid. DE can also include kinetic generators of 3-5 MW. Approximately 5% of existing Therefore, the spectrum used in this which there are few good examples, but CHP installations would fit into this thesis is supplemental DE (watts-20 kW), which may develop further. category .” 14 micro DE (30 kW-100s kW), mini DE (500 kW-3-5 MW), mega DE (5-50 MW), and grid-scale DE (100 MW-1+ GW).
36 37 13 United States of America. U.S. Department of Energy. Chicago Regional Office.Distributed Energy Resources in the Midwest. Chicago, 15 United States of America. U.S. Department of Energy. Chicago Regional Office.Distributed Energy Resources in the Midwest. Chicago, 2002. p. 42 2002. p. 42 14 Ibid., p.42 16 Ibid., p.43 2 - A 2 - A ch i ev ng ch i ev ng Trigeneration the individual building where it is used to Spinning reserves require some fuel latent heat, which enables ice storage Trigeneration is the process of producing regenerate a desiccant, which is used to for input even when unloaded, and therefore tanks to be smaller than chilled water electricity, heat, and chilled water in a dehumidification. The use of desiccants are a drain on the system during peak tanks. a a
C single system. There are several processes can reduce the amount of work required demand times. By reducing the difference C
ommun it Seasonal thermal storage is usually ommun it that can be used for trigeneration. by chillers to condition the air, or during between peak demand and base-load, limited underground storage due to the Electricity and heat can be produced some climate conditions remove the need operators are better able to operate required sizes. Underground thermal by typical steam boiler or turbine for air conditioning entirely18. equipment closer to full load, which is
y energy storage (UTES) can be one of y systems, and the chilled water can be ’ more efficient19. Thermal storage provides ’ s s
E three ‘natural’ systems which use rock E simultaneously produced in two ways: (1) the opportunity for solar and wind power nergy Energy Balancing and Optimization or earth as the storage medium: aquifer nergy a compression chiller can be driven from to provide an input into the system A DE system can go beyond improving thermal energy storage (ATES), borehole the mechanical power of the steam or note: Absorption chillers whenever the energy is available, which G the efficiency of the generation and convert heat energy into thermal energy storage (BTES), or cavern G gas generation turbine, or (2) the waste does not restrict their benefits to peak oals transmission systems to reduce the a chilling effect that relies thermal energy storage (CTES). UTES oals heat from the electricity generation on a absorbent’s chemical times as they often are. Thermal storage required size and capacity of the reaction with a refigerant. systems can also be ‘artificial’ by the use process can be used by an absorption systems also enable the equipment to generation equipment by the use of This system requires a of large underground steel or concrete chiller, which can be located centrally significant amount of run during times of the day or times of thermal storage systems. A significant heat to generate the water tanks or water-tight gravel pits or at each building17. A third option, the year when they are most efficient. portion of the required generation cooling effect. saturated with water . The basic premise though not a simultaneous process, is For example, chillers and gas turbines 20 capacity is required for peak periods behind UTES systems is that the excess to efficiently generate excess electricity operate much more efficiently at night of demand. This means that much of heat injected into the system during which can be used to electrically power when ambient temperatures are lower. the capital and demand costs of the summer months can be accessed in order conventional compression chillers. It energy system is tied to relatively short A DE system can utilized both diurnal to supplement space heating needs during is important to recognize that the first periods of time. Thermal storage systems and seasonal storage systems. A diurnal the winter months, and conversely that two simultaneous methods reduces the can spread the energy demand on the system balances the daily energy coolth stored in the system during winter efficiency of generating electricity by generation equipment over longer periods demands, while seasonal storage systems months can be accessed during summer varying degrees, therefore each system of time and thus level out the demand balance energy demands throughout the months. should be considered to determine the peaks and valleys. Plants that provide for year. Diurnal systems use either above most efficient method for each situation. base-load are generally more efficient than ground or below ground storage tanks. An in depth discussion of absorption peaking plants, therefore using thermal For heating hot water can be stored in chillers is beyond the scope of this storage to allow base-load rather than tanks. More common than heat storage section, but there are a few important peaking plants to meet demand improves is the use of chilled water or ice for concepts that are relevant. The first is the system efficiency. The reduction in thermal storage for cooling purposes. Ice that absorption chillers require reliance on peaking plants also reduces undergoes a phase change which stores the need for spinning reserve, which are An alternative use of waste heat from power plants that are spinning with no to drive an absorption chiller is to load so that they can respond to changes transport a relatively low-grade heat to in increased demand instantaneously. 38 39 17 “The New District Energy: Building Blocks for Sustainable Community Development.” CDEA/ACRT. Canadian District Energy Association, 19 Harvey, L.D. Danny. A Handbook on Low-energy Buildings and District-energy Systems: Fundamentals, Techniques and Examples. Jan. 2008. Web. 11 Oct. 2010.
2.3.1 Technical Goals 2.3.2 Building Technologies a a
C An in-depth discussion of integrated C ommun it Individual buildings can also benefit from building technologies is beyond the ommun it a distributed energy system. Buildings scope of this thesis. However, it is worth and building users look for their energy mentioning the major technologies y y
’ equipment and systems to be efficient, that buildings can use to supplement ’ s s E have lower maintenance costs, and use the district energy systems. It is the E nergy nergy as little space as possible. Distributed integration of these technologies into energy systems, especially district energy a district energy system that is going G G systems, can address all three. to allow renewable energy to have the oals oals significant impact that is hoped for. The As described in previous sections, district challenge that renewables, specifically energy systems that use cogeneration wind and PVs, cause utility companies systems are extremely efficient and can due to capital costs and reliability was use less energy than conventional systems. discussed in chapter one. District energy systems also achieve economies of scale in both equipment Building integration has three major maintenance and equipment operators benefits. The first is that dedicated and maintenance staff. These advantages solar and wind farms take up land area reduce operating costs for the users of that can be used for other development, the building, which allows resources to be which is especially costly in densely focused on the core business or goals of developed areas. By building integrating the building. the generation technologies into the buildings, generation does not preclude A district energy system removes most building development. The second benefit of the heating and cooling equipment of building integration is improved from individual buildings. This frees up capacity factor. This is because the hundreds or even thousands of square generation is more widely distributed, feet of useable space for other functions. and therefore there is a higher probability For buildings that cost several hundred that somewhere some of the technology dollars per square foot to build, this will be generating at any given time. The equates to hundreds of thousands or third benefit is that energy is generated even millions of dollars of value for the by the building that will use the energy, building users. therefore, there are fewer transmission 40 and transformation losses. 41 3 - C ommun it have used to imprint themselves on their parking garages, and water towers. For Chapter Three Community Imprint - Beyond Energy and Economics communities, and lastly this section will each strategy presented examples will be propose other potential strategies that given that show how that strategy has been y
could be used by powerplants to positively applied to each of these infrastructure I mpr impact their communities. typologies. This section will also discuss how these strategies can be used for the i n t
The infrastructure typologies discussed in - B “Architecture has the power to communicate, to excite and to design of a powerplant and will provide this section will be highways and bridges, move us irrespective of its immediate function. A building examples if applicable. eyond can become a familiar landmark on a city’s skyline and transit stations (bus, train, subway, etc.),
provide a welcoming presence – especially at night, when it E
is literally a beacon.” nergy
3.1 Minimize Visual Impact - Sir Norman Foster and Most infrastructure projects are seen divide the servant functions from the as simply meeting a specific and often served functions, which encourages both E conom i cs “The holistic thinking we apply to buildings applies equally unsightly function: they are considered a physical and intellectual disconnect to infrastructure – transport systems, streets and public to be necessary nuisances. The common between the user and the used. This spaces – the ‘urban glue’ that holds the city together.” public opinion, especially in America, division allows the user to remain only - Sir Norman Foster is that industry and the infrastructure distantly aware of the consequences or that supports it, though vital to the impacts of actions. Shannon and Smets everyday way of life, is ugly and should describe it this way: “A double world be removed from sight whenever possible. is thus constructed: the underworld of Kelly Shannon and Marcel Smets, traffic and train movement, stench, noise, in The Landscape of Contemporary and parking versus the upper world of Architecture, separate the concept of beauty, delight, recreation, and social
minimizing the visual impact into two interaction2.” This strategies, though strategies: hiding and camouflage. common and viable, is in almost every Powerplants that are located near the try to use it to an advantage. Projects that way antithetical to basic goals of this users they supply have an opportunity to attempt to utilize their close proximity to thesis. create an imprint on those users beyond users recognize that they will create an 3.1.1 Hiding Shannon and Smets explain that: simply providing basic electricity and imprint on their communities. Generally, “hiding seeks to obscure or obliterate an energy service. All infrastructure projects they seek to imprint themselves in one infrastructural intervention .” Hiding take one of three attitudes about the of three ways: (1) psychological imprint 1 most often takes the form of covering imprint they make: (1) they are indifferent as a community symbol, (2) physical the infrastructure with what appears to their impact, (2) they attempt to imprint, and (3) imprint on perception or to a more natural or at least a more minimize their visual impact, or (3) they knowledge. This section will then show beautiful landscape. Hiding seeks to recognize the presence they will have and examples of strategies that powerplants 42 43 1 Shannon, Kelly, and Marcel Smets. The Landscape of Contemporary Infrastructure. Rotterdam: NAi, 2010. p. 57 2 Ibid., p.56 3 - C 3 - C ommun it ommun it Several highway projects The Kastrup typify hiding. The Big Peak-Load Plant Dig project in Boston and is only used during Jardins Wilson outside of periods of peak heating y Paris are two examples. demand, but it is y I I mpr These projects have, at capable of supplying mpr great expense, separated heat to the Copenhagen i n the cities from the traffic Airport plus several i n t arteries that pass through of the surrounding t - B them. These projects have neighborhoods. When lit - B reclaimed the roadways at night the equipment eyond eyond for pedestrian and inside is visible, but the recreational activities, building’s shape and which is arguably a materials obscure its figure 13. Kastrup Peak-Load Plant. Copenhagen, Denmark. E better use of the densely form. Its shape resembles E nergy nergy populated urban spaces3. a hill or one of the sound ramparts surrounding the airport. The storage and figure 11. Jardins Wilson project. Paris, France. tanks and gas flue stacks and are designed to look like
E agricultural silos similar E
conom i cs to those found in the area conom i cs farms, which minimizes
its visibility from the air6.
The Transgas Energy proposal for the Studios architecture Greenpoint-Williamsburg designed the parking neighborhoods of garage to be buried under Brooklyn, New York a landscaped park for went through several Google’s headquarters design iterations before (Silicon Graphics before finally being cancelled Google’s purchase in in 2010. The final design 2004) in Mountain View, plan was to bury the California . powerplant underground 4 and extend the planned adjacent park over the plant. The gas flue stack would have looked like a typical high-rise apartment building so that it would look similar to area apartment buildings and so that it would blend in with New figure 12. Google headquarters. Mountain View, California York’s skyline across the 44 figure 14. Greenpoint-Williamsburg Power Plant proposal. New York, New York. 45 river7. 3 Shannon, Kelly, and Marcel Smets. The Landscape of Contemporary Infrastructure. Rotterdam: NAi, 2010. p. 67 6 4 Ibid., p.68 7 3 - C 3 - C ommun it ommun it 3.1.2 Camouflage The Ballet The goals of camouflage are very Valet parking garage was designed by similar to those of hiding but the visual Architectonica to be y camouflaged so that it y I obscuring is achieved through different I mpr does not interfere with mpr means. Shannon and Smets describe this the look of Miami’s i n idea using the military techniques known South Beach 1920s i n t art deco district. The t - B as CCD (camouflage, concealment, and façade is green shades - B of fiberglass waveforms eyond deception) . Some projects use trees and eyond 8 that obscure the typical other natural plantings to visually break lines of a parking garage. The façade is also densely
E up or conceal part or all of the building E planted with vines that nergy in order to make it less recognizable. The cover the outside of nergy technique of deception is to make the the garage so that the whole building looks figure 15. Ballet Valet parking garage. Miami, Florida. and façade of the building look like something almost entirely make of and vegetation . else, often to match surrounding 9 E E
conom i cs buildings. This technique is often used by conom i cs
parking garages. Camouflage has similar The Henderson- drawbacks as hiding. In this regard it is Atwater parking garage is designed to blend in also considered to be antithetical to the with the surrounding ideas proposed by this thesis. buildings. The limestone exterior is similar to those on the surrounding Indiana University campus, and the openings are shaped to look like windows of any typical area building.
figure 16. Henderson-Atwater parking garage. Indiana University. Bloomington, Indiana.
46 47 8 Shannon, Kelly, and Marcel Smets. The Landscape of Contemporary Infrastructure. Rotterdam: NAi, 2010. p. 68 9 Shannon, Kelly, and Marcel Smets. The Landscape of Contemporary Infrastructure. Rotterdam: NAi, 2010. p. 79 3 - C 3 - C ommun it ommun it The Thorpeness water The gas stack for the tower in Suffolk, England Power House at Rice is camouflaged to look University in Houston like a like a little red is wrapped in a brick y house. facade that makes it look y I I mpr like bell towers found at mpr university and religious i n campuses. i n t t - B The water tower in - B Mannheim, Germany is eyond eyond camouflaged to look like a classical pavilion that overlooks a reflecting pool E in the city’s main park E nergy nergy and and E E
conom i cs figure 20. Mechanical Laboratory and Power House. Rice University. Houston, Texas. conom i cs The Central Utility Plant at the University of Cincinnati was built on a Mannheim water tower. figure 17. Thorpeness water tower. Suffolk, figure 18. site that was adjacent to Mannheim, Germany. England. single-family residential homes. The power plant was significanly larger The water tower in than the surrounding Louisville, Kentucky buildings. To help reduce looks is camouflaged the apparent scale, the to look like a Roman east facade was broken column within the up into smaller masses classically styled city that had gabled roofs. government complex. The gabled masses were roughly of similar scale as the homes across the street.
figure 19. Louisville water tower. Louisville, Kentucky.
figure 21. Central Utility Plant. University of Cincinnati, Ohio. 48 49 10 Rice 3 - C 3 - C ommun it ommun it 3.2 Community Symbol (Psychological Imprint) figures x, xx Highway signs indicate when a boundry has 3.2.1 Means of Local Identity where the display is simply text or been crossed. Signs also y Infrastructure projects, especially large images portraying a local tradition or an indicate what the people y I I mpr or conspicuous projects, have a unique important historical event or person. This within that community mpr value about themselves. i n capacity to imprint a community identity is a common strategy for state welcome The Kentucky sign tells i n t about its horse racing t
- B on the residents of the community, signs that often display a state slogan and - B culture and an historical visitors to the community, or both. These show an important identification image. point of pride as the eyond eyond projects can act as a representation of birthplace of Abraham figure 22. interstate highway signs for Ohio and Kentucky A common method for buildings is Linoln. a local identity that the community
E mimicking traditional building forms, E can identify themselves with and it can figure xx nergy nergy prominent natural shapes, or local A high-speed bus route act as a unifying element. Its role as a in the Netherlands uses industry. Using traditional building community symbol can also present a common design elements and forms and natural shapes are common that indicate the bus and community’s core values or traditions to stops or passing towns by
E strategies for transit hubs such as airports E people visiting or passing through that displaying the names as conom i cs and train stations. Two good examples of graphic text elements. conom i cs community. this are the Siem Reap-Angkor Airport figure 23. Bornholm bus station, The figure 24. Norreport Station. Copenhagen, Community Identification figure xx and the Denver Airport. Shaping the Netherlands Denmark. The first, and perhaps most common way The Norreport Station’s structure after a local industry is common neon sign in Copenhagen, that infrastructure has performed as a Denmark both identifies for water towers. A clear example of this community symbol is by simply being a the station and has is the Gaffney County, South Carolina become a marker for means of community identification. This the neighborhood and water tower that is shaped like a peach often takes the form of a text-based sign commerical district that to represent its claim to be the “Peach surrounds it that simply displays the name of the Capitol of South Carolina”, which is station, town, or state that the user is the second largest producer of peaches approaching or passing by. Water towers after California. The water tower acts an figure xx are clear examples of this strategy. This water tower in identification, a landmark, and as a way They are often painted with the name Florence, Kentucky to display its agricultural identity. is located just off of of the town or county that they service I-71/75. It clearly tells and act as a means of identification for what city the traveler Infrastructure can also represent a is approaching from a people visiting or passing through the community’s identity through the use of distance, which alerts community. the traveler to the city’s locally important materials. Examples main exit. Display Local Traditions might be glass in Toledo, Ohio; Kentucky figure 26. Gaffney water tower, South Another common way that infrastructure limestone in Kentucky; or the use of pine figure xx Carolina. has performed as a community symbol is or other woods in Portland, Oregon. This The Gaffney County, figure 25. Florence water tower, Kentucky. South Carolina water through representing local traditions. The method might be considered a ‘critical tower is shaped like a most basic strategy that has been used is regionalism’ approach. peach to show its tie to peach farming. 50 similar to the community identification 51 3 - C 3 - C ommun it ommun it figures xx figure xx Highway signs indicate The Denver International when a boundry has Airport ‘s design refers to been crossed. Signs also two local traditions. The y indicate what the people white, tent-like sructures y I I mpr within that community are a visual analogy to mpr value about themselves. the snow capped Rocky i n The Kentucky sign tells mountains. Their form i n t about its horse racing also reference the Native t - B culture and an historical American settlements - B point of pride as the that predated Denver’s eyond eyond birthplace of Abraham settlement. Linoln. E E nergy nergy
figure 27. highway sound barrier. Los Angeles, California.
figures xx and and The Siem Reap-Angkor International Airport,
E figure 29. Denver International Airport, Colorado. E Cambodia is uses galleris conom i cs figure xx conom i cs that refer to Angkorean This CHP plant heritage, and the roofs in Roombeek, The reference traditional Netherlands uses a facade Khmer architecture. that looks like locally significant Delftware tiles. The motifs shown on the tiles are also of local importance.
figure 28. Siem Reap-Angkor International Airport, Cambodia.
figure 30. Roombeek power plant, The Netherlands.
52 53 11 Shannon, Kelly, and Marcel Smets. The Landscape of Contemporary Infrastructure. Rotterdam: NAi, 2010. p. 38 12 Shannon, Kelly, and Marcel Smets. The Landscape of Contemporary Infrastructure. Rotterdam: NAi, 2010. p. 41 3 - C 3 - C ommun it ommun it Display or Facilitate Community a glass dome over the congress chamber figure 31 The city of Manassas, Ideals and Goals to represent the idea of governmental Virginia shows that they Buildings represent the investment of a transparency and government oversight. value their high school y athletics programs by y I significant amount of capital investment, I mpr Some infrastructure projects simply painting the school’s mpr and therefore, their design, and their accomplishments on the i n very presence, represents the owners’ and display a community’s values through local water tower. In this i n t case the accomplishment t - B text or image. Water towers often display - B community’s values. A building, through was the AAA State local high school sports accomplishments Championship in eyond its design, has the ability to display or eyond football. facilitate a community’s ideals and goals. or are painted with patriotic themes. The architecture of public buildings in E E nergy America during the first few decades figure 32 nergy of the 19th century heavily relied Warren County, Local Connection to Other Kentucky shows
and on Greek Revival as a major stylistic and Networks that patriotism is a trend. The architecture of Thomas Infrastructure systems such as community ideal through
E the painting of its water E Jefferson’s University of Virginia typified transportation networks often develop conom i cs tower, which is painted conom i cs this movement and it was especially color schemes, distinct physical with red and white stripes and white stars on influential for buildings that housed characteristics, or other methods to a blue background. literary and debating societies that were delineate the local condition within a figure 31. Manassas water tower, Virginia. figure 32. Warren County water tower, Kentucky common during the 1820-1830s. This larger network. The Bilbao metro stations figure 33 movement was a response to the desire to all have a similar but unique entrance so The metro system in Bilbao, Spain uses a physically represent the new democratic each station is easily recognized as part of standard, but distinct ideals and wisdom that the Greek styles the Bilbao metro system rather than the entrance to all of its metro stations. This represented . regional, international, or other transit 13 allows each station to be systems. Public transit systems often easily visable and easily Architecture can also represent a recognized as an entrance use a system of colors or letters that are to the metro system . community’s ideals through the use 14 used to indicate various lines and routes of metaphor. For example, a building which are then translated into the station intended to be a community beacon may building designs. This is another way to refer to a lighthouse, or a community identify the station while also imprinting center might resemble a hearth to show the station onto the community around comfort and security. The Reichstag it as the station and the community’s renovation by Norman Foster employs figure 33. metro system enterance. Bilbao, Spain. relationship to the transit line becomes part of the local identity.
54 55 13 Turner, Paul Venable. Campus: an American Planning Tradition. New York: Architectural History Foundation, 1984. p.90 14 Shannon, Kelly, and Marcel Smets. The Landscape of Contemporary Infrastructure. Rotterdam: NAi, 2010. p. 29 3 - C 2 - A ommun it ch i ev ng 3.2.2 Gateway or Landmark Point of Entry figure 34 Fourteen lit pylons A power plant can, depending upon its The location and design of infrastructure welcome visitors location, can serve as a gateway or a can serve as gateway or indicate the to the Los Angeles y International Airport as a I landmark. By locating the power plant point of entry to a destination or C mpr they enter from a major ommun it in a prominent location, it can be given region. Kelly Shannon and Marcel Smets access artery16. i n a level of importance that indicates it describe a similar idea when discussing t
- B figure 35 value to the community. Often the scale transportation infrastructure thresholds: The entranc to this y eyond bridge across the Areuse
of infrastructure projects naturally ’ s
“They are the points of River is framed by a E makes them highly visible. A power plant transgression that create the steel square. Steel slats nergy
E that emphasizes its visual impact can, spatial condition for the meeting along the sides and top
nergy help to exagerate the depending upon site location, serve as and dialogue between different perspective17. G a point of entry, a district marker, or a orders. In many instances, the figure 34. Los Angeles International clarification and concretization of oals Airport entrance, California. and monumental emblem. the threshold as an in-between is figure 36 figure 35. Aruse River bridge, Switzerland. intended as a setting for welcomes
E The entrance to this The difference between the role as a bridge across the Areuse conom i cs and farewells, arrivals and gateway or landmark compared to departures – thresholds expressed River is framed in steel. as gateways. Prominent landmarks Steel slats along the sides the community identifier discussed and top help to exagerate or focal points address the identity previously is largely one of tactics. the perspective17. of the local environment and Though both identify the entry into a symbolize destinations15.” new locality, the strategy of Displaying Local Identity is largely based on text or figure 36. Rijeka Memorial Bridge, Croatia. a literal image that specifies the specific The examples presented by Shannon and figure 37. University of Pennsylvania chiller Smets were roads and bridges, which are plant. Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. identity. A Gateway or Landmark does figures 37, 38 not specifically name a community, but both physically and symbolically the The chiller plant for the University of gateway threshold. However, the concept through its distinctiveness, becomes Pennsylvania located associated with a specific community and can be translated to other infrastructure adjacent to two campus access roads. The location types. By physically locating a power becomes identified with that community. along with the eye- plant or other infrastructure next to a catching design serve to create a distinct entrance major entryway, that infrastructure piece, to the southern part of if displayed prominently, can be a strong the campus. visual tie to that location and become identified with the arrival or departure from that specific physical area.
figure 38. University of Pennsylvania chiller plant. Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. 56 57 15 Shannon, Kelly, and Marcel Smets. The Landscape of Contemporary Infrastructure. Rotterdam: NAi, 2010. p. 140 16 Shannon, Kelly, and Marcel Smets. The Landscape of Contemporary Infrastructure. Rotterdam: NAi, 2010. p. 37 17 Ibid., p. 140 18 2 - A 2 - A ch i ev ng ch i ev ng District Marker figure 39 A prominently displayed piece of This fifty meter light tower both lights a major infrastructure that is located near the town intersection and a serves as a beacon to a C center of a district can visually locate its C locate the intersection ommun it ommun it location from a distance. This concept from a distance19. is recognized and commonly for tourist maps that reduce parts of a city to a y single, important image that is associated y ’ ’ s s E with that area. The Roman emperors, E nergy nergy and later Popes, had a similar idea when the erected obelisks at important plazas G G and churches in Rome. The obelisks figure 39. city beacon for Le Courneuve, France. oals figure 40 oals served as visual markers visitors and This series of water pilgrims to navigate their way through towers are strikingly painted blue and white, Rome. A power plant, especially its tall and they are lit with gas stack, can similarly serve as a distinct colored lights at night. These towers provide a visual marker that can mark the district strong visual connection or development that it supplies. to the neighborhood that it supplies.
figure 40. Kuwait City water towers, Kuwait.
58 59 19 Shannon, Kelly, and Marcel Smets. The Landscape of Contemporary Infrastructure. Rotterdam: NAi, 2010. p. 141 3 - C 3 - C ommun it ommun it 3.3 Physical Imprint figure 41 The city of Barcelona, A second set of strategies that can be that can be beneficial to other program Spain invested heavily in order to upgrade y used for powerplants involve addressing types and there is a balance between its transportation y I I mpr the plant’s physical imprint on the programs that allow each to thrive. infrastructure to support mpr the 1992 Olympics. A i n community. These strategies fall along sports complex was built i n t One of the better examples of using an within an interchange t
- B a spectrum of physical imprint from - B inherent property of an infrastructure loop of the newly strategies that seek to minimize the plant’s built roads. This both eyond project to support other program is the eyond impact on the community on one end of utilizes what is typically Nudo-de-la-Trinitat in Barcelona, Spain. wasted space and it the spectrum to others that highlight the tells the story about the E This project placed athletic facilities for E plant’s visibility and presence. connection between the nergy the 1992 Olympics within a highway improvements and the nergy athletics that they were interchange, which is normally unused built to support21. and and 3.3.1 Program Grafting space20. Other good examples are the
E A strategy that is further along the conversion of train stations into shopping E conom i cs visibility spectrum is either incorporating malls. This idea capitalizes on the inherent conom i cs size of the stations and the high volume the infrastructure project into other figure 41. Interchange Park. Barcelona, Spain. program or grafting other program onto of people passing through the station, figure 42 the infrastructure. Depending upon the which allows for high visibility for the This highway control and service facility was built relative scale between the infrastructure stores and convenience for the customers. into the underside of and the augmented program, this can be the Nanterre A4 , which Examples of powerplants that have runs under La Defense in considered similar to camouflage in that Paris . incorporated other program into their 22 it is attempting to break up the typical designs are Teeside Biomass Powerplant, form of the infrastructure (which is often the Amagerforbraending plant, the larger in scale than surrounding buildings) figure 43 proposal for Greenpoint Power Plant, and The main train station with other building types. However, in Kyoto, Japan, is a the University of Pennsylvania Chiller depending upon how it is handled, commercial hub for the Plant. The Teeside Biomass Power Plant city. It is not only the program amalgamation can be considered main station, but it also in the United Kingdom by Heatherwick a positive method for incorporating houses a department Studio, when complete, will have a store, an amusement figure 43. Kyoto Station, Japan. infrastructure into a community. The facilitiy, s theater, a hotel, museum built into one of the upper levels best examples of program grafting utilize and a parking garage. of the plant. The Amagerforbraending It is both a gateway to inherent qualities of the infrastructure the city and a hub that figure 42. highway control for the Nanterre plant in Copenhagen, by Bjork Ingels draws city residents. In A4. Paris, France. Group, will take advantage of the height this way it is an example of a gateway, a district of the gas flue stack to incorporate a marker, and of program
ski slope into the roof of the plant. The grafting23. design for the Greepoint Power Plant in 60 61 20 Shannon, Kelly, and Marcel Smets. The Landscape of Contemporary Infrastructure. Rotterdam: NAi, 2010. p. 140 21 Shannon, Kelly, and Marcel Smets. The Landscape of Contemporary Infrastructure. Rotterdam: NAi, 2010. p. 80 22 Ibid., p. 96 23 Ibid., p.208 3 - C 3 - C ommun it ommun it figure 48 figure 49 The water tower to The Bjork Ingels Group service the L’illustration has designed a new power newspapwer incorporated plant that will be built in y an office tower into its Copenhagen, Denmark. y I I mpr structure. The tank also The design utilizes the mpr displayed a clock and the inherent height of the i n company’s logo. gas stack to provide the i n t elevation differences t - B required for a ski - B figures 44, 45 slope, which are rare in eyond figure 44. Val-de-Seine tramway parking eyond This parking garage has garage. Issy-les-Moulineaux, France. northern Europe. Skiers added programs of a travel through the plant tramway station and a on the lift and can see E E retaining wall24. into the plant through nergy skylights along the routes nergy down the hill. and and E E conom i cs conom i cs figure 45. Val-de-Seine tramway parking figure 48. L’illustration newspaper water garage. Issy-les-Moulineaux, France. tower. Paris, France. figures 46, 47 The Teesside Biomass Power Plant will house a museum in addition figure 49. Amagerforbraending ski slop and power plant proposal. Copenhagen, Denmark. to providing energy for figure 50 the Teesside community. Right: Proposed view One of the Greenpoint- The plant will also be from Kent Avenue and Williamsburg power wrapped in a mesh- Northplant 12th proposals Street. The included like screen that will be box-likewrapping aesthetic the power of plant vegetated. The plant will most inindustrial a commercial facilities district. become an iconic image is avoided byThe wrapping design would for the area’s waterfront. the projectextend with parts modern of existing offi cescommercial and gallery districts to space. the waterfront.
figure 46. Teesside Biomass Power Plant, United Kingdom.
figure 50. Greenpoint-Williamsburg power plant proposal. New York, New York. figure 47. Teesside Biomass Power Plant, United Kingdom. 62 Environmental Benefi ts This facility will redefi ne the way 63 20 Shannon, Kelly, and Marcel Smets. The Landscape of Contemporary Infrastructure. Rotterdam: NAi, 2010. p. 74 Improved Air Quality – Operation of the TGE facility urban power plants integrate with is expected to reduce local power plant pollution and the community and the environment. dramatically reduce regional power plant emissions. Even ignoring pollution reduction, facility impact levels will be Social / Cultural Benefi ts: negligible. Health-based air quality standards will be met. Innovative Architecture – The facility will redefi ne the Reduced Truck Traffi c – TGE will replace a currently way urban power plants integrate with the community and operating fuel depot and, with it, 300 fuel trucks per day the environment with a design that is responsive to its sur- that emit diesel exhaust in the waterfront streets. roundings and to the community’s aspirations for waterfront Brownfi eld Cleanup – TGE’s parcel is a contaminated site access. Visual and physical waterfront access is being used for over 100 years for oil refi ning and storage, and incorporated into the design. Sustainable design practices adjacent to a former coal gasifi cation plant. Before building, include effi cient solar orientation and renewable energy. TGE will remediate the site, under the auspices of the New York City 2012 Olympics – In anticipation of New Department of Environmental Conservation. York City’s bid to host the 2012 Olympic Summer Games, Reduced Water Demand – The facility will use no river TGE is developing the facility to integrate with the proposed water for cooling and no drinking water for most of its other archery and beach volleyball facilities planned for parcels to needs. The waste water source TGE proposes to treat and the south of the TGE site. The TGE facility also will inte- use could reduce the withdrawl from the New York City’s grate with any other passive or active recreational uses that reservoirs by more than a billion gallons per year. might be planned for parcels south of the TGE site. Pollution-Free Solar Energy – Extensive photovoltaic cells Education and the Arts – Displays and interactive ter- will cover much of the main building and exhaust building, minals along building walls will provide information about producing 350,000 watts. sustainable development and environmental architecture. Space will also be provided for local artists to display their work, including HDTV niches where video documentaries can be presented.
Page 5 3 - C 3 - C ommun it ommun it Brooklyn, New York by Direct Design figure 51 The Millau Viaduct is a Enterprise, though unrealized, was marvel of engineering. planned to be surrounded by commercial The bridge is 2.4 y kilometers, and at its y I spaces. The University of Pennsylvania I mpr highest, is taller than mpr Chiller Plant, by Leers Wienzapfel, the Eiffel Tower. The i n designers recognized i n displaced a running track. However, t that the project was t - B - B instead of simply writing the track off, going to be massive and highly visable, so they eyond the track was incorporated between the eyond accentuated that fact. two skins of the plant. The white concrete and the white cables create E an eye-catching and figure 51. Millau Viaduct, France. E nergy elegant solution to the nergy
engineering problem25. and figure 52 and This bus station in Spain E provides cover for its E conom i cs occupants and the buses, conom i cs but the distinctive shape is unmistakable.
figure 52. Casar de Caceres Subregional Bus Station, Spain. figure 53 The train station in Lisbon, Portugal is visually striking and is a symbol of the city’s revitalization of a once neglected industrial
area26.
64 figure 53. Oriente Station. Lisbon, Portugal. 65 25 Shannon, Kelly, and Marcel Smets. The Landscape of Contemporary Infrastructure. Rotterdam: NAi, 2010. p. 110 26 Ibid., p. 112 3 - C 3 - C ommun it ommun it figure 54 figure 57 The Santa Monica Civic The Chilled-water Plant Center parking garage at the University of uses colored lights Pennsylvania is wrapped y and panels that turn in a mesh screen that y I I mpr a building type that is encloses a running track mpr typically a monolithic, that encircles the plant. i n forgotten mass, into a At night the mesh is i n t vibrant source of color lit, which glows and t - B - B and visual interest for the becomes a beacon at a district. sourthern entrance to the eyond eyond university. E E nergy nergy and and E E conom i cs conom i cs
figure 57. University of Pennsylvania Chilled-water Plant. Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. figure 58 figure 54. Santa Monica Civic Center parking garage, California. The Soro CHP plant uses a polished black panel exterior that creates a stark and reflective background for neon lights that form shapes and patterns on the facade that faces the street. These shapes and patterns act to give visual interest to the motorist passing by.
figure 58. Soro CHP plant. Soro Kommune, Denmark.
figure 55. Haderslev water tower, Denmark. figure 56. Tienan water tower, Belgium 66 67 3 - C 3 - C ommun it ommun it 3.4 Imprint on Perception or Knowledge figure 59 The Norwegian Public Roads Administration The presence of energy infrastructure 3.4.2 Community Hub - Program built a series of rest stops y within the community that it supplies Amalgamation and viewing platforms y I I mpr provides an opportunity for the A second way to imprint infrastructure that are located to stage mpr famous and beautiful i n infrastructure to have an impact on how on the community is to bring other types views of the landscape. i n t The strategic locations t
- B energy or other fields are perceive by of building functions together with the - B make them tourist the community or to impact the level infrastructure. This can be done by mixing destinations in their own eyond figure 59. Norwegian Public Roads Administration rest stop viewing platforms. eyond right . of knowledge that the community on infrastructure with other programs 28
the topic of energy or other topics. This to become a community hub that will figure 60 E E method of imprinting perhaps has the attract interaction on a regular basis. This metal footbridge nergy crosses a major artery nergy most potential to positively integrate This regular interaction will thus create a into Melbourne, energy infrastructure into communities. familiarity with the infrastructure which Australia. The bridge and and sound attenuation wall and The first two chapters of this thesis dealt will be a change of perception of that frame the city skyline for
E with the reducing the physical separation infrastructure’s role in that community. visitors from the north. E conom i cs The bridge also frames conom i cs between energy infrastructure and users, views of pedestrians as Rather than incorporating the but this section is a critical component they cross the highway infrastructure into a community hub, into the Wittlesea of reducing the intellectual distance Gardens . the infrastructure can also incorporate 29 between the two. smaller, more specific programs into itself. The program amalgamation figure 60. Craigieburn Bypass. Melbourne, Australia. 3.4.1 Staging Scenery can be used to address a single goal or figure 61, 62 figure 63 One way to inform the public about The Dortmund Train The Berlin Central it can be any program that generally Station houses an “urban Station is a central infrastructure is simply to show it to fits into the community. Examples of entertainment center” hub that promotes the them. One way to do this is to create a that acts as a beacon that viewing of all types possible programs are retail, museums, draws city residents and of transit movement series of sequences that set up portions visitors alike . and other commercial greenhouses, transit stations, ski slopes, 27 of the infrastructure systems as pieces activity. athletics, laboratories, and others. of scenery that will lead a person along a path that will show them aspects of the infrastructure that are desired to be shown. figure 61. Dortmund Train Station, figure 63. Berlin Central Station, Germany. Staged sequences can be placed along a Germany. set desire line that people will naturally flow along or pass by. Another method is to frame the scenes in such a distinctive way that people will go out of their way to explore them and in the process will be exposed to the infrastructure systems 68 and will be imprinted by them. figure 62. Dortmund Station, Germany. figure 64. footbridge. Paris, France. 69 27 Shannon, Kelly, and Marcel Smets. The Landscape of Contemporary Infrastructure. Rotterdam: NAi, 2010. p. 202 28 Shannon, Kelly, and Marcel Smets. The Landscape of Contemporary Infrastructure. Rotterdam: NAi, 2010. p. 130 29 Ibid., p. 148 3 - C 3 - C ommun it ommun it figure 65 figures 68, 69 This colage represents the The Teesside Biomass possibility for a power Power Plant will house plant to become a food, a museum in addition y transit, and energy hub to providing energy for y I I mpr for a city. The gas stack the Teesside community. mpr becomes the support The plant will also be i n structure for a spiraling wrapped in a mesh- i n t growing surface inside like screen that will be t - B - B of a greenhouse. The vegetated. The plant will plant can generate the become an iconic image eyond eyond electricity for the trains Above: Conceptual night rendering of TGE plant, for the area’s waterfront. The underlying design concept for the TransGas land proposed for Olympics 2012 facility and a and the waste heat can Energy facility challenges common perceptions about Monitor Museum in the Bushwick Inlet. be used to heat the E E industrial buildings. It also promotes sustainable TGE’s proposed architectural design calls for high greenhouse. The urban nergy nergy design, refl ecting TGE’s overall mission. Pollution-free quality materials such as terracotta, glass, and metal greenhouse design photovoltaic solar panels line the south face of the curtainwall systems. A visitors center and artist gallery and image are from plant, while building orientation further reduces the space line Kent Avenue (the primary waterfront street in Plantagon. and building’s air conditioning requirements. Elevations are the area) and North 12th Street. With its reduced scale, and varied, subdividing the bulk and rendering it much less dynamic architectural façade and innovative treatments,
E imposing. Exhaust stacks are gathered into a single the architecture of the building creates a vibrant and E
conom i cs building, transforming the maligned industrial image of inviting atmosphere. conom i cs electric generating facilities. figure 65. greenhouse, transit station, power plant colage. figure 68. Teesside Biomass Power Plant, United Kingdom. figure 66 One of the Greenpoint- Williamsburg power plant proposals included wrapping the power plant in a commercial district. The design would extend parts of existing commercial districts to the waterfront.
figureAbove: 66.Proposed Greenpoint-Williamsburg view from Kent Avenue and powerNorth 14th plant Street. proposal. New York, New York. Page 15 figure 67 This heating plant is fueld by biomass figure 69. Teesside Biomass Power Plant, United Kingdom. and wood waste. It incorporates university laboratories into its design. The university has specialties of renewable energy and of forestry, which are displayed in this facility.
70 figure 67. Central Heating Plant. University of Northern British Columbia, Canada. 71 3 - C 3 - C ommun it ommun it 3.4.3 Technological Snap-shot 3.4.4 Dispaly-Transparency-Intermixing figure 70 Like many of Sir Infrastructure is often technically driven. A visual connection can be made Norman Foster’s designs, Infrastructure projects are often large between infrastructure and user by the Millenium Bridge y is a high-tech solution y I and capital intensive, so their investment displaying the infrastructure systems I mpr that represents the most mpr should use the latest possible technologies through transparency and intermixing. advanced engineering i n at the time it was i n in order to best improve the efficiencies Transparency might be literal physical t built. His buildings t - B and capabilities of the communities that transparency, but it can also be a more and this bridge are - B markers of technological eyond they support. One way to imprint the metaphorical openness that allows the eyond advancement in his field. community is for the infrastructure to systems to be better understood by
E be such a cutting edge technology that the community. This openness could E nergy as it ages it becomes a monument to the be achieved though the intermixing of nergy technology of the time that it was built. programs as discussed earlier or through and A cutting edge technology often becomes intermixing through bringing pedestrian and the example of the “first” or “last” or vehicular circulation paths through E E
conom i cs of whatever technology is being used. or near the systems to be displayed. The conom i cs Important buildings are often known by basic idea of displaying the infrastructure this type of status due to being the first systems through transparency and figure 70. Millenium Bridge. London, United Kingdom. building of a certain type of structure, or intermixing is to eliminate the physical figure 71 The TWA terminal as the tallest skyscraper at that time, or and visual separation of the users. at JFK Airport was as the last building to use this material, cutting edge concrete design and engineering. etc. A piece of infrastructure that acts as 3.4.5 Architecture as Pedagogy It is a masterpiece that a technological snap-shot can be a source A major strain of architecture is using represents the height of design and concrete of community pride when it is built and the design to teach its users. This is an engineering of 196230. can serve as a type of time capsule that important component of this thesis. represents the general level of technology All of the previous sections have set up of the time. situations that allow the design of energy infrastructure projects to teach the users of that infrastructure how it works and how their choices impact the use and need for that infrastructure. The first step is to eliminate the physical distance; the second step is to eliminate the visual distance, which have been discussed
figure 71. Trans World Airlines terminal. New York, New York. 72 73 30 Shannon, Kelly, and Marcel Smets. The Landscape of Contemporary Infrastructure. Rotterdam: NAi, 2010. p. 213 3 - C 3 - C ommun it ommun it figure 72 Bernard Tschumi created an ‘event’ space that displays the activity y of the buses and trains y I I mpr that service Lausanne, mpr Switzerland. The building i n and its occupants are i n t in constant flow, and t - B the transparent design - B displays this movement. eyond eyond
figure 74 The Greenway Self Park
E figure 72. Lausanne bus and train station, E by HOK displays vertical nergy Switzerland. nergy axis wind turbines at the prominent corner of the building. These generate and some electricity for the and garage, but they also
E display the technology. E figure 74. Greenway Self Park. Chicago, conom i cs This is an example of conom i cs Illinois. how wind technology can be incorporated into figure 75. University of Pennsylvania Chilled-water Plant. Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. urban development31.
figure 73 This parking garage for the Nice Airport transforms the standard and mundane activity parking and walking to the terminal into a visually interesting pathway. Inventive massing, curving ramps, and landscaped patios add interest to the
commute32.
figure 73. Nice Airport Terminal 2 parking garage, France.
figure 76. University of Chicago South Chiller Plant, Illinois.
74 75 31 Shannon, Kelly, and Marcel Smets. The Landscape of Contemporary Infrastructure. Rotterdam: NAi, 2010. p. 224 32 Ibid., p. 238 3 - C 3 - C ommun it ommun it previously. The last step is eliminating them to absorb the information and form the intellectual distance. This is achieved those connections at their own pace. This through teaching. is the second layer of understanding. y y I I mpr The teaching component related to A more in-depth understanding of mpr
i n energy infrastructure is really three broader systems and how they interact i n t t
- B fold: familiarity, basic conceptual is provided in two ways at an aquarium - B understanding, and broader systems or zoo. The first way is through accessible eyond eyond interaction. All three can be addressed staff that can answer questions or through the design or planning of a challenge the visitors to think critically E E
nergy power plant. Good analogies that can be about their experience. This can be a staff nergy used for this strategy are either a zoo/ or volunteer “ambassador” or can be in
aquarium experience or a factory tour. the form of a tour. The second way that and and An aquarium addresses all three levels aquariums and zoos offer opportunities E through its design. for critical thinking and systemic E conom i cs conom i cs understanding is through books, videos, figure 77. New Jersey Aquarium shark tunnel. Camden, New Jersey. An aquarium first familiarizes the visitor and other resources in their gift shops. with fish, sharks, and other animals that normally cannot be seen through These levels of understanding can also the use of glass fish tanks or even shark be achieved in a power plant. The visual tunnels that bring the visitor into close familiarity can be provided for through the physical and visual proximity to the transparency, proximity, and intermixing animal environments. This level of of program with the infrastructure understanding is achieved almost purely systems. The basic understanding of the through the visual connection and the systems and the user impacts on those familiarity that comes with it. systems can be provided for through displays or some other type of feedback In aquariums, a basic understanding of system. An in-depth understanding of animals or animal habitats is achieved the larger system can be provided through through displays. Aquarium displays tours, seminars, or media resources about provide simplified diagrams and limited that specific plant and its relationship text to supplement the tank that provides to the community and the larger grid figure 78. Boeing factory tour. Mukilteo, Washington. the visual familiarity. This allows the systems. visitor to connect those diagrams or facts to the animals on display, and allows
76 77 C hap t er
Conclusion T it le
The next twenty five years will likely be plants to go beyond simply meeting the or
a critical time in the history of world- basic energy demands of that community. M
wide energy production, distribution, Through proper planning, site ajor and consumption. This thesis has considerations, and architectural design,
made the case that a more distributed a generation facility can support other O system of generation will be a major stated goals of the communities that they u t l i ne component of the changes to America’s support. A well designed plant can leave
energy infrastructure. Cogeneration and a psychological, physical, and perceptual S ec combined heat and power plants will be imprint on their communities that will ti on the core of this distributed system. transform it from being a necessary nuisance to become a community asset Cogeneration plants must be located near that supports the community’s goals and the users of the energy, and therefore, represents the community’s values. provide opportunities for the utility
78 79 Bibliography
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