The Forest Sector in Chile: an Overview and Current Challenges

J. For. 114(5):562–571 REVIEW ARTICLE http://dx.doi.org/10.5849/jof.14-062 Copyright © 2016 Society of American Foresters international forestry The Forest Sector in Chile: An Overview and Current Challenges

Christian Salas, Pablo J. Donoso, Rodrigo Vargas, Cesar A. Arriagada, Rodrigo Pedraza, and Daniel P. Soto

Chile has a strong forest sector based on plantations of exotic species and an extensive area of temperate Among the ﬁrst English peer-reviewed pub- rainforests with unique ecological features and a wealth of biodiversity and endemism. We present an overview lications on the forest sector of Chile are of the forest sector of Chile focused on forest resources, silviculture, economy, social and environmental aspects, those of Recart (1973), Husch (1982), Je´lvez and forestry education and research. The Chilean forest sector is internationally known for its success. Although et al. (1990), and Gwynne (1993). These this is one of the most important economic activities of Chile, management between exotic species plantations mostly focused on forestry plantations and and natural forests is very asymmetric. Currently, highly intensive silviculture is applied to forest plantations of did not pay much attention to natural forests Pinus radiata (radiata pine) and Eucalyptus (Eucalyptus globulus, Eucalyptus nitens) but only limited operational and the social aspects of forestry in Chile. silviculture is applied to natural forests, even though there is considerable research to support it. There are still Later, Lara and Veblen (1993) focused on unresolved issues related to: conversion from natural forests to other land uses; pulp mills, and new efforts are the levels of substitution of natural forest ar- needed from the government and large forestry companies to account for social and environmental demands. eas by forest plantations and presented a There is a good amount of university-level forestry education; however, there is an oversupply of professional rather pessimistic view of forest plantations foresters. in Chile. Paredes (2005), when referring to forest certiﬁcation in Chile, gave a particu- Keywords: temperate rain forests, Nothofagus, forestry plantations, sustainability larly negative view of natural forests for timber production. Finally, some recent studies focused on Chile (e.g., Clapp 2001, Wilson hile has garnered national interest tatorship has exposed the large social and et al. 2005) have only presented brief over- in recent decades for a variety of po- economic differences within the Chilean views of forest conservation. Therefore, we C litical and economic circumstances, population (Schatan 2001). The forest sec- aim to provide a more comprehensive and, including relatively fast economic growth tor, particularly that associated with com- hopefully, objective and updated forestry compared with that of the rest of Latin mercial plantations of exotic species, has overview of Chile. America. For that reason, it has acquired a played a key role in the economic growth of privileged position in the developing world Chile but has also been controversial because Forest Resources of Chile and has established trade agreements with of the contrasting perceptions about the the United States and the European Union, current model of forestry among entrepre- General Features of Chile among other large markets and now is in the neurs, scientists, politicians, environmen- Continental Chile has an area of 75 Organization for Economic Co-operation tal nongovernmental organizations, land- million hectares (ha) in southwestern South and Development (OECD). On the other owners, and the general public. America and stretches from 17° to 56° S lat- hand, the relatively recent reestablishment Previous attempts to characterize the itude, a length of 4,330 Km from the North of democracy in Chile after 17 years of dic- Chilean forest sector have been incomplete. to Cape Horn in the southernmost tip of

Received June 12, 2014; accepted November 25, 2015; published online January 14, 2016. Afﬁliations: Christian Salas ([email protected]), Universidad de La Frontera, Departamento de Ciencias Forestales, Temuco, Chile. Pablo J. Donoso ([email protected]), Universidad Austral de Chile. Rodrigo Vargas ([email protected]), Universidad de La Frontera. Cesar A. Arriagada ([email protected]), Universidad de La Frontera. Rodrigo Pedraza ([email protected]), Corporacio´n Nacional Forestal. Daniel P. Soto ([email protected]), Oregon State University. Acknowledgments: We thank Kyle Meister and Chadwick Oliver for their helpful comments on an earlier draft. We also thank the editors and reviewers for their detailed comments that enhanced the quality of the article. This study was supported by the research projects FONDECYT no. 1151495 and CONICYT-PAI no. 821320069.

562 Journal of Forestry • September 2016 1996). Soils in Chile are highly influenced by volcanic activity, which is a product of a very active volcanic system along the An- dean Cordillera. In the foothills of the An- des, soils are derived from recent volcanic deposits of andesitic-basaltic origin, com- posed of very deep ashes and have excellent physical properties for tree growth. In the Central Depression, there is a great variety of geological material from the Andean Cordil- lera (Toro and Gessel 1999). Volcanic activity is one of the main natural causes of forest fires in Chile, the remaining being anthropogenic or, very rarely, ignited by lightning (Gonza´lez 2005). Chile is divided into three major cli- matic regions: the north region, which contains the Atacama Desert, one of the driest regions in the world, is characterized by a hot and arid climate in the lowlands and oc- casional summer rain in the Andean high- lands; the central region, extending about 900 m from 30° to 38° S, has a Mediterra- nean climate, with mild, wet winters averaging 11 °C, and long, dry summers averaging 18° C; and the south region, from 38° to 55° S, a region of mountains and fjords, with Figure 1. Chile in the world (A) and main cities and neighboring countries (B). strong winds and the Valdivian temperate forests, the North Patagonian rain forests, and the Magellanic temperate forests South America (Figure 1). Chile borders the Andes, rarely exceeding 1,000 m (Donoso and Donoso 2007, Veblen 2007). Peru to the north, Bolivia and Argentina to (Donoso 1996). In general, the Coastal Cor- Annual rainfall is always affected by variable the east, Cape Horn to the south, and the dillera is geologically older than the Andes. elevation in the west-east axis that contains Pacific Ocean to the west. One-third of its The Central Depression (or central valley) is the two Cordilleras (the Coastal and the An- 17 million citizens live in Santiago, the cap- a structural depression between the Coastal dean), but on average it ranges from less than ital and the country’s largest city. From east and the Andean Cordilleras that has been 508 mm in the north (with some places lack- to west, Chile is squeezed between the Andes filled to great depths with sediments eroded ing rainfall records during the last few cen- Mountains range (or the Andean “Cordil- from the surrounding mountains (Donoso turies), to 305–990 mm in the central re- lera”1), the Central Depression, and the Coastal Cordillera. Chile is sometimes re- ferred to as a geographical “island,” because Management and Policy Implications of its peculiar geographical isolation (Armesto et al. 1995), being located between This work provides insights about the Chilean forestry sector and guidance for understanding the the physical barriers of the Atacama desert to ecological, economic, social, and silvicultural complexity of its current framework. This review indicates that the north, the Antarctic Sea to the south, the most of the challenges affecting large forestry companies come from social and environmental concerns. Andes to the east, and the Pacific Ocean to Improving the management of planted and natural stands, plus the relationship between large companies the west. and indigenous communities, should be the focus of policymakers. In Chile, current socioenvironmental Chile is within the Andean biogeo- conflicts associated with large monoculture plantations and large clearcuts and the increasing high grading graphic region of Latin America (Morrone 2006). The Andean Cordillera decreases in of natural forests have called for a new approach in the forestry sector. This new approach should consider elevation from north to south, with its peaks the following: changes in silviculture and landscape management of forest plantations, including recovery reaching about 7,000 m in northern and of native forest patches in regions with large and continuous areas of monocultures of exotic species; central Chile (17°–34° S), 3,000 m in south- adequate subsidies for promoting the conservation and management of natural forests, therefore reversing central Chile (34°–45° S), and between the high grading process that is now occurring in these forests; and forestry education and research that 1,000 and 2,000 m in Patagonia (46°–55° must serve these purposes to train professionals prepared for the challenges of a discipline with major S). The climate and vegetation of Chile are environmental, social, and economic implications on people and local communities. Chile, with its high greatly determined by the orographic effects diversity and endemism, plus the opportunities for growing highly productive forests either from of the Andes (Veblen et al. 1996a). The plantations or native forests, could become a model for forest ecosystem management. Coastal Cordillera is lower in elevation than

Journal of Forestry • September 2016 563 Figure 2. Geographic distribution of forestry plantations (A) and the three most abundant natural forest types (B) of Chile. The scale is given .(miles 249 ؍ miles; 400 km 124 ؍ in km (200 km gion, and up to 990–5,000 mm in the past century (Morales 1996). There are Wilcox 1996) and are internationally recog- South. South of 40° S, rain occurs year- 6,500 ha of native species plantations, with nized for their ecological importance (Olson round (di Castri and Hajek 1976). Nothofagus (a native genus in Chile) species and Dinerstein 1998, Stattersfield et al. the most common.2 Plantations of the main 1998). Chile’s peculiar geographical isola- Forestry Plantations Nothofagus species (Nothofagus obliqua: tion, located between the physical barriers Chile is one of the top 10 countries “roble,” Nothofagus alpina3: “raulı´”; and described earlier, results in a high rate of in the world in terms of land dedicated to Nothofagus dombeyi: “coiguë”) have cap- plant and animal endemism (Armesto et al. forestry plantations and the fifth in the tured research interest during the last 40 1995). As indicated by Wilson et al. (2005), Americas (Cubbage et al. 2007), with 2.9 years. They have also generated much inter- despite their ecological importance, Chilean million ha (Corporacioń Nacional Forestal est in the United Kingdom, where growth temperate forests have experienced a long [CONAF] 2014). The principal species rates surpass those of most other native broa- history of destruction and are currently used in forest plantations are Pinus radiata dleaves and approach those of the fastest threatened by land-use changes and mis- (radiata or Monterrey pine), comprising growing conifers (Pearce 1977). Less exten- management. Furthermore, the strong bio- 62% of the total of plantations, followed by sive trial plantings with Nothofagus have geographic isolation of the southern temper- Eucalyptus species (mainly Eucalyptus globu- been done in France (Salas and García 2006) ate forest heavily restricts the possibilities of lus and Eucalyptus nitens), representing 31% and in Germany (Martin 1978). Currently recolonization after habitat destruction or (Instituto Forestal [INFOR] 2012). Most in Chile, efforts to assess the growth poten- plantations have been established from 37° sudden climate change (Armesto et al. tial of planted Nothofagus in terms of growth 1998). to 41° S in the southcentral region (Figure and timber quality indicate that these species Chilean temperate forests have experi- 2A), with 71% of the radiata pine planta- can achieve excellent volumetric growth enced a long history of anthropogenic dis- tions located in the Coastal Range, 19% in similar to that of radiata pine when intensive turbance. The influence of the indigenous the foothills of the Andes, and 10% in the silviculture is applied early on appropriate Mapuche through timber cutting and clear- Central Depression (Toro and Gessel 1999). sites (Donoso et al. 2009, Soto et al. 2009). There are also approximately 16,000 ha of ing fires before European colonization, prior Pseudotsuga menziesii (Douglas-fir) planta- Natural Forests to the 19th century, was not that important tions (INFOR 2012), which have longer ro- Chile’s temperate forests (Armesto et al. considering the small population (approxi- tations than radiata pine, but better growth 1995, Donoso 1995, Veblen et al. 1996a, mately 1 million) and the great forest cover rates than in its natural range in North Donoso and Donoso 2007) are of high eco- in southcentral Chile (Otero 2006). During America, just like radiata pine. In addition, logical importance and currently under the colonization of Chile, Spaniards cleared there are some Pinus ponderosa (Ponderosa threat, mainly because of illegal logging and vast areas of forests for agriculture and pas- pine) plantations in the South (in the North land use change (Lara et al. 1997, Altami- ture, mainly those located in the Central De- Patagonia) of Chile, where these plantations rano et al. 2013). These temperate rainfor- pression of Chile (Donoso 1983, Lara and were established to rapidly recover large ar- ests represent the second largest remaining Veblen 1993, Donoso and Otero 2005). eas affected by extensive forest fires in the area of this type in the world (Donoso 1995, This clearing, with the use of fire, continued

564 Journal of Forestry • September 2016 into the first half of the 1900s by other Eu- in the Andes of southcentral Chile (0.8 mil- clear bole up to 4–6 m, generally thinned ropean colonists, such as those from Ger- lion ha), the evergreen forest type of south- twice, and finally cut between ages 20 and many, Switzerland, and Italy (Donoso and central Chile (4.3 million ha), and the lenga 24, yielding 450–600 m3/ha from 450 Lara 1999a). Many human-induced forest (Nothofagus pumilio) forest type in southern trees/ha. In both regimes, plantation estab- fires destroyed immense areas covered with Chile (3.3 million ha). The roble-raulí- lishment is highly intensive, and the final cut natural forests, including more than 3 coiguë forest type is the most important for is only through clearcutting. However, there million ha in the austral region of Ayseń timber production because of the high wood are almost no limitations to the size or slopes (Otero 2006). With the promulgation of quality of these three Nothofagus species and where clearcuts are done, which produces the Decree Law 701 (D.L. 701), of 1974, its location on the most productive sites in large clearcut areas in the landscape of up to which subsidized plantations, between the Central Depression and foothills of the 499 ha (Figure 3A). 160,000 and 200,000 ha of native forest Andes (Figure 2B). Because of their proxim- Large-scale forest operations increase were replaced by plantations of exotic spe- ity to human populations and the gentle ter- hydrologic and morphological risks (Mohr cies during the 1970s and 1980s (Lara and rain that they usually cover, these forests are et al. 2011). Inadequate planning and exe- Veblen 1993). Since 1994, plantations very accessible. Currently, the roble-raulí- cution of clearcuts have resulted in negative have replaced an additional 40,000 hect- coiguë type is represented mostly in exten- impacts on biodiversity, water and soil pro- ares (Forest Stewardship Council [FSC]; sive areas of secondary-growth forests that cesses, and aesthetic values, which has in- FSC-Chile4). originated after forest fires (both anthropo- creased opposition to these practices even Even though several classifications genic and natural from volcanic eruptions), where silviculturally warranted (McGinley of the Chilean natural forests exist (e.g., clear cutting, and landslides. The old- et al. 2013). On the contrary to radiata pine Schmithu¨sen 1956, Oberdorfer 1960, Ve- growth forests of this type were largely plantations owned by forest companies, blen and Schlegel 1982, Gajardo 1994), the cleared for agriculture (Veblen et al. 1996a), plantations owned by small landowners are one provided by Donoso (1981) is the most and only few remnants persist (Donoso mostly unmanaged (Gerding 1991) and accepted by Chilean foresters, probably be- 1995). The coiguë-raulí-tepa type is mainly therefore best suited to produce pulp logs. cause it uses the dominant tree species and restricted to the Andes between 38° and 41° Eucalyptus species are largely used for pulp, forest structure to differentiate among forest S within 500–1,000 m of elevation (Donoso and therefore they are neither thinned nor types. This classification also has been used et al. 1986). The lenga forest type is espe- pruned. They are usually harvested around for defining forest types in the current cially important in Patagonia (from Coy- 14–15 years, with growth rates of 30–40 Chilean forestry legislation. Donoso (1981) haique to Tierra del Fuego). The ever- and 40–50 m3/ha/yr for E. globulus and E. classified the natural forest of Chile into 12 green forest type covers the largest area, nitens, respectively (Geldres and Schlatter forest types (Figure 2B), from the sclero- ranging from 37° to 45° S, especially 2004, Munõz et al. 2005). phyllous forest type with fairly scattered above 500 m in both Cordilleras in their Management of natural forests in Chile trees in central Chile to the simple Nothofa- northern reaches, and from sea level in is allowed by law but is less prevalent than gus forest types in the Tierra del Fuego re- their southern extent. forest plantation management. Although a gion. The genus Nothofagus, which accord- good amount of silvicultural research has ing to Hill and Dettmann (1996) is Silviculture been conducted in second-growth stands of generally considered one of the key genera in Highly intensive silvicultural practices roble-raulí-coiguë (e.g., Puente et al. 1979, understanding how southern biota have are applied to forest plantations, using 1981, Grosse 1989, Grosse and Quiroz evolved and migrated, is represented in all chemicals and large-scale and mechanized 1999), lenga (e.g., Schmidt and Caldentey but two Chilean forest types (Donoso harvesting. Radiata pine in Chile is managed 2001, Rosenfeld et al. 2006), and evergreen 1995). Eight forest types are dominated by as monoculture plantations, and manage- forests (e.g., Donoso 1989a, 1989b, Donoso broadleaved trees, in six cases by Nothofagus ment practices vary considerably according et al. 1999a, Navarro et al. 1999), only small species. Three forest types are named for to factors such as final product, site, and areas have undergone silvicultural treat- their dominant conifer species: Fitzroya cu- ownership (Je´lvez et al. 1990). Volume ments, especially thinning of second-growth pressoides (“alerce,” the second-longest lived growth rates of radiata pine vary between 18 forests and selection cuttings (Figure 3D tree species of the world) (Lara and Villalba and 35 m3/ha/yr (Toro and Gessel 1999) and F). This might be due to the fact that 1993), Araucaria araucana (“araucaria,” with an average of 25 m3/ha/yr. According natural stands have been largely subjected to a tree species associated with the indigen- to Gerding (1991), Meneses and Guzmań illegal cuttings of the best trees and therefore ous people called “Mapuche-Pehuenche”) (2000), and Cubbage et al. (2007) and our require further economic investment to be- (Gonza´lez et al. 2006), and Pilgerodendron current knowledge, two silvicultural regimes come potentially productive units through uviferum (“Cipre´s de las Guaitecas”) (Lara et (pulp-oriented and clearwood-oriented) are thinnings, supplementary planting, and al. 2006). The other forest type is dominated typically applied to radiata pine plantations other restoration activities. This economic by the Chilean palm Jubaea chilensis. owned by forestry companies. For pulp- investment could be done mostly by forestry There are some natural forest types that wood, the stands are established with companies but is much more difficult for are especially suitable for forest manage- 1,600–2,500 trees/ha, thinned once, and small landowners, given that there is a lack ment. These are the roble-raulí-coiguë forest cut when they are between 18 and 25 years of suitable policy initiatives to support this type of the Central Depression and low ele- old, yielding 350–800 m3/ha with about long-term investment and the market for vations in southcentral Chile (2 million ha), 800–1,000 trees/ha. For clearwood, stands natural forest products is not as well devel- the coiguë-raulí-tepa (Laureliopsis philippi- are planted with 1,200–1,300 trees/ha, oped as it is for plantations. Some simulated ana: “tepa”) forest type of the midelevations pruned two or three times to maintain a scenarios provide positive net present values

Journal of Forestry • September 2016 565 Figure 3. View of a typical clearcut in the landscape (A) and a high graded native forest in the Andes of southcentral Chile (B), a managed plantation of radiata pine (C), a stand of evergreen forest type under uneven-aged management (D), a plantation of well-managed Eucalyptus nitens in the Chilean Coastal Range, stream buffers with protection of native vegetation (E), and invasive species management for restoration to conserve the endemic forest of Robinson Crusoe Island (F). Photographs were taken by Pablo Donoso (A and D), Daniel Soto (B, C, and E), and Rodrigo Vargas (F). for long-term management of these forests of forest. These species are mainly distrib- stands have both the potential to be managed (Cubbage et al. 2007, Nahuelhual et al. uted in second-growth even-aged stands based on current knowledge and economic in- 2007). The Chilean government, during that are easy to manage because of their terest. 2008, approved a forestry law that would relatively homogeneous structure. The mean Roble, raulí, and coiguë are promising give some economic support to landowners annual volume increment for unmanaged species for use in forest plantations. These willing to manage their natural stands under roble-raulí-coiguë second-growthstandsisbe- Nothofagus species are easy to propagate in a sustainable framework, but its application tween 5 and 15 m3/ha/yr (Donoso et al. the nursery (Donoso et al. 1999b), establish has been negligible because of the small 1993b, 1999b, Grosse and Quiroz 1999), but well (Wienstroer et al. 2003, Donoso et al. amount of the subsidies. can be as much as 22 m3/ha/yr under appro- 2009) and are among the most valuable tree Natural stands of roble-raulí-coiguë are priate management (Donoso et al. 1993b). species of the Chilean natural forests silviculturally important because of their Studies dealing with this forest type have been (Siebert 1999, Díaz-Vaz et al. 2002). How- high timber value and good growth rates. focused on forest dynamics (Puente et al. ever, few studies have been done in roble- The greatest amount of silvicultural re- 1979, 1981) and silvicultural research trials raulí-coiguë plantations (Donoso et al. search plots (Lara et al. 2000) and pub- (Puente et al. 1981, Grosse 1989, Grosse and 1999b, Wienstroer et al. 2003, Donoso et al. lished studies are concentrated in this type Quiroz 1999). Overall, roble-raulí-coiguë 2013). In the last 30 years, some research

566 Journal of Forestry • September 2016 trials with plantations of these species have cluded in Chile’s national system of pro- forestry companies as having a poor environ- been established and during the last 10–15 tected areas (SNASPE), are mostly owned by mental record, generally these forest compa- years commercial plantations have been es- small- and medium-sized landowners. It is nies have followed Chilean environmental tablished as well. According to Cubbage estimated that these natural forests have laws. Nevertheless, the Chilean laws are too et al. (2007), Nothofagus plantations could been mostly subjected to high grading (i.e., flexible in relation to a major and controver- be harvested in rotations of 30–35 years cut the best and leave the worst) and that sial forest activity: clearcutting (Donoso with internal rates of return of 11–13%, only between 5 and 25% have been man- 2009). Although the size of individual compared to 16% in radiata pine planta- aged (Lara et al. 1997). Chile’s forest sector clearcut units has decreased, especially tions. A mixture of exotic and native species is asymmetric (Donoso and Otero 2005) in among FSC-certified companies, clearcuts plantations also has been promoted and the sense that plantations are intensively are much larger than those applied in North shows good empirical growth rates (e.g., managed for pulp and other wood products America and elsewhere, reaching a maxi- Douglas-fir and Nothofagus) (Siebert 1999). for export, with little value added (Gwynne mum allowed of approximately 500 ha Furthermore, in a financial assessment study 1993), whereas natural forests are misman- (Ward 2007). The impacts of large-scale conducted by Hildebrandt et al. (2010), a aged and high graded, mainly yielding fire- clearcuts in Chile have been addressed in higher proportion of raulí in a mixed plan- wood (Freˆne and Nuń˜ez 2010). Donoso (2009) and Huber et al. (2010). tation with Douglas-fir was shown to be es- The successes of the Chilean forestry Another controversial issue has been pecially profitable under higher degrees of sector have not benefited most of the popu- the conversion of native forests to forest risk aversion scenarios. lation. Although the plantation subsector plantations (i.e., substitution). Even though contributes the most forest-based exports, it native forest replacement was more com- The Forest Sector and Chilean has not increased the quality of life where mon in the past (Lara et al. 1997), it contin- Society most of these plantations have been estab- ues in the present (Miranda et al. 2015, lished (Donoso and Otero 2005). Indeed, Zamorano-Elgueta et al. 2015). For in- There are two public institutions re- the regions with more forest plantation stance, according to the monitoring pro- lated to the forest sector in Chile, the forest cover are the ones with the lowest human gram led by CONAF in the region between service (CONAF) and the institute of forest development index values of the country 40° and 41° S, the average annual loss of research (INFOR) both under the Ministry (Donoso and Otero 2005). Further details natural forest has been about 2,000 ha. of Agriculture. In addition to enforcing for- regarding the conflicts of the Chilean forest In the last 10–15 years, Chilean forestry laws and promoting the development sector can be found in Reyes and Nelson estry companies have become more con- of the forest sector, CONAF supports the (2014). As pointed out by Ward (2007), cerned about environmental issues in their conservation of natural protected areas and Chile’s competitive advantages (e.g., natural forest management operations. The total the sustainable use of forest ecosystems. resources and low-cost labor) come with area of FSC-certified plantations in 2004 CONAF promotes the establishment of for- their own baggage, which must be consid- was 306,949 ha (Paredes 2005), mainly as- estry plantations and the management of ered when forestry competitiveness among sociated with either small plantation-based natural forests as a way to contribute to the countries is compared (Sedjo et al. 1999). or natural forest-based companies. Today, economic, environmental, and social devel- For example, the relationship between this number is about 1.5 million ha (FSC- opment of Chile. INFOR generates scien- large forestry companies and the Mapuche Chile4) after the incorporation of large com- tific and technological knowledge for the (i.e., the indigenous people in southcentral panies into this system in recent years. Of sustainable use of forest resources, including Chile) has always been tense, with ongoing the forestry plantations in Chile, 52% are the statistical information for different as- disputes about land rights and documented now FSC-certified. However, two main pects of the forestry sector. incidents of violence and protests (Montalba concerns remain: plantations continue to Forest products provide Chile’s second and Carrasco 2005, Ward 2007, Freˆne and be managed with traditional harvesting largest export income after minerals, with Nuń˜ez 2010). Mapuche confrontations schemes (e.g., large clearcuts on steep slopes US$5.9 billion in 2011, 7.3% of total ex- with corporate interests have grown more and intensive widespread use of chemicals to ports, contributing 2.7% of the total GDP violent, and according to Aylwin (2009 and control competing vegetation), whereas en- and providing about 300,000 jobs (INFOR references therein), negligence from the gov- vironmental standards are mostly imple- 2012). The forest sector is the third most ernment to resolve many of the Mapuche’s mented in the matrix surrounding industrial important economic activity in the country historical demands have triggered these con- plantations (e.g., creation of conservation and is based largely on forest plantations of frontations. areas) but not within plantations; and an in- radiata pine and Eucalyptus (Je´lvez et al. Indigenous people represent about creasingly empowered society is demanding 1990). Two major Chilean companies, 4.6% of the Chilean population (Instituto environmental standards that are well be- CMPC (Compania Manufacturera de Pape- Nacional de Estadísticas 2003), and the gov- yond FSC standards to ensure water supply les y Cartones) and CELCO (Celulosa ernment created an indigenous subsecretary from planted watersheds near local commu- Arauco y Constitucion), along with a few (CONADI) in 1993 to support indigenous nities, landscape quality (i.e., aesthetic and other large companies, own 70% of the people’s rights. However, several conflicts connectivity), and good maintenance of plantations in Chile (INFOR 2005), con- remain. public roads. centrating the economic benefits in the Reducing the negative environmental Forest product facilities (mainly pulp hands of a few (Collins and Lear 1995). Nat- impacts of large-scale operations remains a mills) have experienced a number of envi- ural forests, which cover 14.1 million ha challenge for forestry companies. Despite ronmental problems. For example, a recent (CONAF 2014), of which 21.6% are in- the fact that many people have portrayed ecological disaster that involved the deaths

Journal of Forestry • September 2016 567 of multiple black-necked swans (Cygnus newer forestry schools have stopped offering most exclusively on short-term projects, and melancoryphus) in a sanctuary in southern forestry degrees (forest engineering) because its production of peer-reviewed publications Chile was linked to effluent from a local of a decline in enrollment, as also pointed is poor in comparison with those for tradi- pulp mill. One of the two largest forestry out by Nyland (2008) for the United States. tional forestry schools (Acunã et al. 2013). companies, CELCO, built a US$1 billion We estimate that in the future only between Technological funding has been mostly bleached kraft-type paper pulp mill on the two and four forestry schools will offer the granted to silviculture and industry technol- Rio Cruces near the city of Valdivia in traditional forestry curriculum, whereas ca- ogy-oriented topics, with only a small part southern Chile. Since this mill began full reers in natural resources and environmental focused on natural forests. However, there operations in February 2004, it has received sciences continue to emerge. Nevertheless, was an increase in projects granted to forest multiple complaints from the public con- there is high uncertainty regarding the job management of natural forests in the period cerning noise, noxious odors, and water pol- market for new careers in this area, because from 2000 to 2004 (Díaz 2006). On the lution (Marcotte 2006). An 30 km portion Chile’s job market is mostly dominated by other hand, ecological restoration in de- of the Rio Cruces north of Valdivia corre- traditional professions. For instance, civil graded forests and recovery of areas replaced sponds to a large wetland, now a Nature engineers are still largely preferred by com- by fast-growing plantations in the past are Sanctuary, derived from massive flooding af- panies and government organizations for important targets/challenges for researchers, ter a major earthquake in 1960 (Lagos et al. many of their environmental duties. companies, public service agencies, and 2008). In January 2004, there were more There are three doctoral programs in landowners. Some experiences in ecological than 6,000 black-necked swans in the Sanc- forestry (i.e., Universidad Austral de Chile, restoration are ongoing, but few of them tuary, however, during April to May 2004, Universidad de Chile, and Universidad de have been published; some examples are the dozens of these swans were found dead Concepción). In general, doctoral degrees work in Pilgerodendron uviferum forests by (Mulsow and Grandjean 2006). Studies held by Chilean forestry professors have Bannister et al. (2013), in the endangered have reported that the pulp mill effluent been mostly obtained from German univer- endemic forest of Robinson Crusoe Island produced the decline of a subaquatic plant sities (e.g., University of Gottingen, Univer- by Vargas et al. (2013), and in the coiguë- that is the main source of food of black- sity of Freiburg, and University of Munich) raulí-tepa forest type in the Andes (Donoso necked swans living in that Sanctuary, prob- and Spain (e.g., Universidad Politećnica de et al. 2013). ably contributing to the death of these birds Madrid, Universidad de Co´rdoba, and Uni- Researchers at INFOR usually apply for (Mulsow and Grandjean 2006, Lagos et al. versidad de Oviedo). However, in the past the same type of grants available for all for- 2008). The justice system found CELCO 15 years the proportion of professors being estry research projects in Chile, therefore, trained in universities from the United competing with research centers such as uni- responsible for the pollution of the Sanctu- States (mainly Colorado State University, versities. Although INFOR has been obtain- ary. Overall, the public (especially the in- Oregon State University, and North Caro- ing a larger proportion of grants for techno- habitants of Valdivia) has developed a nega- lina State University) has been increasing. In logical projects in the last decade (Díaz tive perception of the CELCO pulp mill the future, we expect an increasing number 2006), their researchers lack independent (Marcotte 2006). of doctoral programs in areas related to for- funding for their own projects, e.g., nonpro- Forestry Education and est science (e.g., environmental sciences, duction-oriented research, such as ecology ecology, and natural resources) rather than and wildlife. Furthermore, INFOR does not Research pure forestry programs. Regardless, there is have experimental forests where they could Forestry education has a long tradition still uncertainty about where the future doc- carry out long-term research (Donoso and in Chile. Formal training in forestry in Chile toral graduates would work, given that new Otero 2005). came with the founding of two forestry forestry schools and/or departments are not Research on forest plantations has cov- schools in the mid-1950s: the Universidad being created, INFOR has funding prob- ered many topics in forestry or at least the de Chile and the Universidad Austral de lems, and forestry companies do not usually most important for forest production, such Chile. During the “boom” of the forest sec- hire individuals with doctoral degrees. We as nursery establishment (e.g., Gerding et al. tor, from the 1980s to the mid-1990s, sev- believe that master-level programs are much 1986, Rubilar et al. 2008), genetic improve- eral new forestry schools were opened in the needed, because their graduates can work di- ment, integrated pest management (e.g., country, producing an oversupply of forest- rectly in different fields and are more related Lanfranco et al. 1994), thinning and prun- ers. There is a highly unbalanced proportion to the private sector. Masters programs can ing treatments, harvesting, forest planning between the amount of forestry schools and also be focused on different subdisciplines (e.g., Weintraub and Abramovich 1995, both forested area and population size in that can be applied to forestry problems, Meneses and Guzmań 2000), growth simu- Chile. Although in developed countries, such as cartography, energy, economy, envi- lators, and carbon markets (e.g., Espinosa et there is one forestry school per 4–10 million ronmental education, and others. al. 2005), among others. On the other hand, inhabitants, at the end of 2004 in Chile There is no guaranteed funding for research in natural forests has been largely there was one forestry school per 1.5 million INFOR, the government-dependent insti- focused on ecological aspects, such as forest inhabitants (Donoso and Otero 2005). Sim- tution for forest research. CONAF, the na- dynamics (e.g., Donoso 1995, Veblen et al. ilarly, in Chile, there is one forestry school tional forest service, is mainly in charge of 1996b), silvics (Donoso 2006), genetics per 1.5 million ha, but this number is be- applying forestry laws and managing (Donoso et al. 2004), and silviculture tween 7 and 13 million ha in developed SNASPE, but not for conducting research as (Donoso and Lara 1999b, Donoso and Pro- countries. In the last decade, foresters have the US Department of Agriculture Forest mis 2013). However, more extensive quan- difficulty in finding jobs, and several of the Service does. INFOR focuses its research al- titative-oriented studies, particularly for nat-

568 Journal of Forestry • September 2016 ural forest stands, remain to be conducted los bosques nativos de Chile, Armesto, J.J., C. DONOSO, C. 1989b. Regeneracioń y crecimiento (Salas and Real 2013). Villagrań, and M.K. Arroyo (eds.). Editorial en el tipo forestal siempreverde costero y an- Universitaria, Santiago, Chile. dino tras distintos tratamientos silviculturales Concluding Remarks and Future ARMESTO, J.J., R. ROZZI, C. SMITH-RAMÍREZ, [Regeneration and growth in coastal and An- AND M.T. ARROYO. 1998. Conservation tar- dean evergreen forest type after different silvi- Challenges gets in South American temperate forests. Sci- cultural treatments]. Bosque 10(2):53–64. Forestry in Chile has evolved with ence 282:1271–1272. DONOSO, C. 1995. Bosques templados de Chile y highly different rates of development for AYLWIN, J. 2009. 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Yale Uni- Working Pap. Ser. 30, N˜ uke Mapuforlaget. declining enrollment in forestry schools is versity Press, New Haven, CT. BANNISTER, J.R., R.E. COOPMAN, P.J. DONOSO, DONOSO, C. (ED.). 2006. Las especies arbo´reas de mainly a result of an oversupply of profes- AND J. BAUHUS. 2013. The importance of mi- los bosques templados de Chile y Argentina [Tree sional foresters, which results in unemploy- crotopography and nurse canopy for successful species of temperate forests of Chile and Argen- ment and low salaries. The main challenges restoration planting of the slow-growing coni- tina]. Autoecología, Marisa Cuneo Ediciones, to the Chilean forest sector can be summa- fer Pilgerodendron uviferum. Forests 4:85–103. Valdivia, Chile. 678 p. CLAPP, R.A. 2001. Tree farming and forest con- rized as follows: (a) to improve the relation- DONOSO, C., R. DEUS, J.C. COCKBAINE, AND H. servation in Chile: Do replacement forests CASTILLO. 1986. 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Editorial Universitaria, ism, and nontimber forest products); (d) to anho 2013 [Land vegetation resources of Chile. Santiago, Chile. Monitoring changes and updates for 2013]. develop a high-value wood market for native DONOSO, C., AND A. LARA. 1999a. Introduccioń CONAF, Departamento Monitoreo de Eco- species; (e) to reduce the allowable size and [Introduction]. P. 25–34 in Silvicultura de los sistemas Forestales, Santiago, Chile. 35 p. maximum slope for clear-cutting; and (f) to bosques nativos de Chile, Donoso, C., and A. CUBBAGE, F., P.M. DONAGH, J.S. JU´ NIOR, R. RU- Lara (eds.). Editorial Universitaria, Santiago, improve or create laws and regulations to BILAR, P. DONOSO, A. FERREIRA, V. HOEFLICH, Chile. address these challenges. We believe that ad- ET AL. 2007. Timber investment returns for vancing and promoting these issues will con- selected plantation and native forests in South DONOSO, C., AND A. LARA (EDS.). 1999b. 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The area of native species plantations only período 2000–2004 [Description and analysis of Argentina]. Editorial Universitaria, Santiago, covers the period between 1998 and 2013. forest technological research in Chile during the Chile. 426 p. This area was computed based on data avail- period 2000–2004]. Tesis Ingeniero Forestal, DONOSO, P., M. GONZA´ LEZ, B. ESCOBAR, I. able at sit.conaf.cl/, the CONAF system of Univ. de Chile, Santiago, Chile. 79 p. BASSO, AND L. OTERO. 1999b. Viverizacioń y land use information. DÍAZ-VAZ, J.E., H. POBLETE, R. JUACIDA, AND F. plantacioń de raulí, roble y coiguë [Nurseries 3. Two other scientific names, Nothofagus pro- DEVLIEGER. 2002. Maderas comerciales de Chile and plantations of raulí, roble, and coiguë]. P. cera and Nothofagus nervosa, are also some- [Commercial timbers of Chile]. Marisa Cuńeo 177–244 in Silvicultura de los bosques nativos de times used; however, we prefer to use Nothofa- Ediciones, Valdivia, Chile. 126 p. 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