Vegetarianism and Human Health Usha R. Palaniswamy SUMMARY. Vegetarianism dates back to a time before recorded history and, as many anthropolo- gists believe, most early humans ate primarily plant foods, being more gatherers than hunters. Human diets may be adopted for a variety of reasons, including political, esthetic, moral, environmental and economic concerns, religious beliefs, and a desire to consume a more healthy diet. A major factor influencing the vegetarianism movement in the present time is primarily associated with better health. Epidemiologic data support the association between high intake of vegetables and fruit and low risk of chronic diseases and provide evidence to the profound and long-term health benefits of a primarily vegetarian diet. Vegetables and fruit are rich sources of nutrients, vitamins, minerals, and dietary fiber as well as biologically active nonnutrient compounds that have a complementary and often multiple mechanisms of actions, including antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, hypoglycemic, hypocholesterolemic, and hypolipidemic properties, and mechanisms that stimulate the human immune system. Because of the critical link established between diet and health, consumers have begun to view food as a means of self-care for health promotion and disease prevention. Functional foods are targeted to address specific health concerns, such as high cholesterol or high blood sugar levels, to obtain a desired health benefit. Functional properties identified in a number of plant species have led to a modern day renaissance for the vegetarian movement. t is often asserted that humans are naturally vegetarian because the human body resembles plant eaters, not carnivores. However, Ihumans are omnivores, capable of eating either meat or plant foods, or general feeders, with more generalized anatomical and physi- ological traits. Human beings have developed feeding habits that is individualized, and acquired through a number of factors including religious and philosophical beliefs, habitat, availability, taste prefer- ences, socioeconomic status, and specific health requirements. Recently, a number of epidemiological and clinical trials have estab- lished a strong link between the intake of fruit and vegetables and a lower risk of several chronic diseases and conditions including cancer and heart disease (Hankey and Leslie, 2001; Key et al., 2002, Lampe, 1999). Additionally, scientific advances have aided in a greater under- standing of the potential advantages of a vegetarian diet and the role of fruit and vegetables in human health promotion and disease preven- tion. The suggested benefits of a predominantly vegetarian diet are so many that Americans, who were meat and potato dieters and finding self-definition in steaks, pot-roasts, hot dogs, and hamburgers just a decade ago, have paused to reconsider their food choices. In the United States until recently, vegetarians were scarce and considered as being odd, intimidating, cranky, fussy, and moralistic. Today, the vegetarian choices have become mainstream and continue to grow in popularity. At present many mainstream restaurants now feature veg- etarian dishes regularly (Restaurants USA, 1999). School of Allied Health-Asian American Studies Institute, U-2101 University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT 06269. G April–June 2003 13(2) 243 Workshop1 243 2/27/03, 1:31 PM The term vegetarianism generally Porphyry and Plato in the West. In the Evangelicalism. Oswald published The refers to a diet that is free from meat on East, the antiquity of vegetarianism can Cry of Nature (1791) expressing his the basis of religious, spiritual, ethical, be traced back to Zoroaster [628–551 outrage against cruel killings of animals economic, hygiene, and environmental BCE (before current era)], the founder (Whorton, 2001). In 1822, a law was considerations or the simple desire for of Zoroastrianism or Parseeism in India, passed to protect work animals from better health, free from chronic diseases Buddha (566–486 BCE) the founder of abuse (Turner, 1980). and conditions. There exists varying Buddhism, Mahavira (599–527 BCE) In the West, the nutritional superi- degrees of vegetarianism, depending on the founder of Jainism, and Ashoka ority of vegetarianism over an omnivo- what a vegetarian includes in the diet (265–238 BCE) the great emperor of rous diet was first demonstrated by besides products of plant origin: the India (Spencer, 1995). Although George Cheyne, a physician and health vegans are pure vegetarians and do not Hindhuism does not require a strict writer who had personally benefited include any animal product in their diet; vegetarian diet, it encourages a satvic from turning a vegetarian. He was greatly the lacto-ovo vegetarians include dairy (one of the three characteristics of things convinced that flesh food “inflames the and eggs in their diet; the lacto-vegetar- in the universe, which is pure, creative, passions, and shortens life, begets ians consume dairy, but not eggs; the illuminating and healthy) vegetarian diet chronical distempers and a decrepid age” ovo-vegetarians consume eggs, but not for good health, as befitting for gods (Cheyne, 1813). He recommended veg- milk; the pesco vegetarians eat fish, but and sages, and strictly forbids killing of etarianism exclusively for the physical no other meat; the pollo vegetarians eat the cows. A vegetarian diet is advocated well-being based on his clinical cases poultry, but no other meat; the macro- in Indian traditional medicine, Ayurveda, and personal benefits. William Lambe, biotics eat relatively high amounts of which is often defined as a way of life another English physician who claimed brown rice, accompanied by smaller (rather than a medical system), for a benefits from turning to a vegetarian amounts of fruit, vegetables and pulses; healthy and long life. Vegetarianism is diet, insisted that a strict vegetarian diet the fruitarians eat only vegetables and encouraged in the ancient verses of the was an absolute necessity to manage- nuts; the raw-foodists and natural hy- Upanishads and also mentioned in Rig ment of chronic illnesses. He proposed gienists do not consume any processed Veda, the most sacred of ancient Hindu that meat was unnecessary and what is foods and adhere to a very strict vegetar- texts. Pivotal to such religions are doc- unnecessary cannot be natural and what ian diet; sproutarians who eat a diet trines of nonviolence and respect for all is not natural cannot be useful to the primarily around sprouted seeds such as life forms. Thus, vegetarianism in the human body (Lambe, 1815). Vegetari- bean sprouts (Vigna radiata), wheat East was tied to philosophical and reli- anism was brought to the United States sprouts (Triticum sp.) or broccoli sprouts gious beliefs and faiths as well as better by William Metcalfe, an envoy of Bible (Brassica oleraceae var. italica); and the health and longer life. Christian Church, founded by William term partial vegetarian (or part-time The Eastern philosophers had a Cowherd, the first organization in the vegetarian) can be applied to any of the considerable influence in the West when West requiring vegetarianism for mem- above definitions used for individuals Pythagoras (580–500 BCE) was influ- bership (Spencer, 1995). In 1830, who occasionally consume some type of enced by the teachings of Zoroaster, MetCalfe’s movement involved Sylvester meat product due to personal, cultural, Buddha, and Mahavira. Pythagoras was Graham, a Presbyterian minister who or traditional reasons. In an online sur- a prominent vegetarian and the initiated a health reform based on the vey by Time/CNN, consisting of 10,007 Pythogorean diet came to mean avoid- principle that “physiology must be con- adult Americans, 57% reported to be ance of the flesh of slaughtered animals gruent with morality”, and “any behav- semi-vegetarians, 36% ovo-lactoveg- (Spencer, 1995). Pythagorean philo- ior that tarnished the soul must also etarians, 5% vegans and 2% other types sophical morality was not to kill living injure the body.” He also advocated of vegetarians (HarrisInteractive, 2002). creatures, never to eat meat and to against alcohol, extramarital sex, late- Since the simple term vegetarian or abstain from animal sacrifice, because all night entertainments, and consump- vegetarian diet does not provide for all animate are akin. Plutarch [46–120 CE tion of meat. During that period, Will- these minor variations, several other (current era)] connected vegetarianism iam Beaumont, demonstrated that veg- terms including plant-based diet or liv- with preservation of health: “indiges- etarian diets needed more time and ing food have been suggested for use to tion is to be feared after flesh-eating for probably “greater powers of the gastric describe a diet that is predominantly it very soon clogs us and leaves ill conse- organs” than animal foods. Graham based on foods derived from plants quences behind it. It would be best to postulated, however that meat was more (Dwyer, 1999; Weinsier, 2000). More accustom oneself to eat no flesh at all. … pathologically stimulating than veg- recently, it has also been suggested that and from over-eating man derives most etables. The present day graham crack- children raised on hit movies like Babe of his diseases” (Plutarch, 1889). ers bear his name. and Chicken Run tend to nonviolent In the 17th century, medical as well Vegetarians were also described as diets as a way to save their movie heroes as moral constraints were central to a smelling better and of superior mental (Corliss, 2002). vegetarian philosophy. Meat was con- and physical strength and performance sidered a harmful food that could “breed compared with meat eaters (Alcott, History of vegetariansim great store of noxious humors,” and 1844). The first vegetarian society was Abstention from eating meat be- that “flesh eating produced much sick- formed in 1847, in England and the cause it is wrong to kill animals has been ness and a vice as well” (Ryder, 1979; term vegetarian was first coined from held by a number of ancient philoso- Tryon, 1683). In the 18th and 19th the Latin vegetus that means lively or phers, including Zoroaster, Buddha, century, the regard for animal life and vigorous.