task as representatives of the minority. the of task as representatives and Estonian their to fulfil media between Russian-language of possibilities the about positive not are but communities, Russian mediators as themselves perceive journalists Russian-speaking that conclude We integration. in role their about perceptions their display and journalists, Russian-speaking Estonian of status professional current the depict we survey quantitative a Using Estonia. in integration societal of context the in media Russian-language of position the and media language minority of concept the discuss we First, sphere. public the in participate to groups and individuals for opportunities equal groups, and majority and minority between communication unhampered is there if successful be only can main two The Integration barrier. language Russian-speaking. a by separated spaces is informational different have communities today language population Estonian of quarter a regime Soviet the during colonization socialist of consequence a As Estonia. in integration societal advancing in media language A M. Jufereva, E. Lauk :M Lauk E. Jufereva, M. Izvorn b st rac an Izvorn i znanstven [email protected] J of University :: Lauk Epp [email protected] J of University :: Jufereva Maria note Authors s t

The article focuses on the role of Russian-speaking journalists and the potential of Russian- of potential the and journalists Russian-speaking of role the on focuses article The oc d j i znanstven M iet o minority language media, E media, language minority K rad /U i rad i e nor y wor u i nor rad /U i rad a rna it D l i ds K 316.774:81’282(474.2), 316.658:316.774=161.1(474.2) /Pr y l D K 316.774:81’282(474.2), 316.658:316.774=161.1(474.2) /Pr ang it n yväskylä, D yväskylä, Maria Jufereva :: Epp Lauk Epp :: Jufereva Maria lists i u y l te ag yväskylä, D yväskylä, e medi gra ang :: Finland Communication, of epartment a an stonia, societal integration societal stonia, n t ti :: Finland Communication, of epartment d j u o on i on u ag he con rna i lists e medi n E n t h st e con te i mljeno: 31.01.2015. mljeno: i on te a i mljeno: 31.01.2015.mljeno: x x of s t of t of a oc iet a l ...

51 MEDIJSKE STUDIJE MEDIA STUDIES 2015 . 6 . (11) . 51-66 M. Jufereva, E. Lauk : Minority language media and journalists in the context of societal... Izvorni znanstveni rad / UDK 316.774:81’282(474.2), 316.658:316.774=161.1(474.2) / Primljeno: 31.01.2015.

Introduction

Many European countries currently experience an increase in ethnic minority populations as a consequence of immigration from other parts of the world. Estonia’s Russian ethnic minority population emerged differently: through Soviet colonization in the post-WWII era. The integration of this minority into Estonian society became a socio- political challenge since the country regained its independence in 1991. During the period of radical political, social and economic reforms in the 1990s, the status of the large, mostly Russian-speaking non-titular population (in 1989, 38.5 %) had to be determined. During Soviet rule, there was no need for integration between Estonian-speaking and Russian- speaking populations, a single citizenship existed in the Soviet Union – the Soviet one – with Russian as a shared official language throughout theS oviet empire. Soviet migration policy resulted in Estonian and Russian-speaking communities living side by side, using different information channels and having little in common. 51-66

. After the disintegration of the Soviet Union, Russophone residents of Estonia and (11) (11) .

6 Latvia (unlike those of Lithuania) were not granted citizenship but were offered passports . of non-citizen residents. Furthermore, the first Citizenship Act in 1992 reinforced the division of society along ethnic lines: all ethnic Estonians became citizens, while 85 % of the Russophone population were non-citizens (for more see Lauristin and Kallas, 2008). In the 1990s integration policy focused primarily on increasing the knowledge of Estonian among the non-titular population but failed to address many other problems. Only as late as 1998, was the first minority policy document issued (for more see Lauk and Jakobson, 2009). Although the knowledge of Estonian has remarkably improved, 16 % of the Russophone population still claim that they do not understand any Estonian (Vihalemm T., 2011: 115). Research has repeatedly confirmed that the main

MEDIJSKE STUDIJE MEDIA STUDIES 2015 sources of information for non-Estonian speakers are Russia’s media channels (Kirch M., 52 1997; Jakobson, 2002; Hallik, 2006; Vihalemm P., 2004, 2008, 2011; Lauristin et al., 2011). However, up to 71 % of Russophones also regard Estonian produced Russian media as important sources of information on Estonian issues (Vihalemm P., 2011: 159). Therefore, the state integration strategy document for 2008–2013 (EL 2008–2013) specifically emphasized the significance of media and journalists as agents of societal integration in Estonia. The first state integration strategy Integration in Estonian Society 2000–2007 defined integration as harmonisation of society and as an opportunity to preserve ethnic differences offering ethnic minorities “opportunities for the preservation of their cultural and ethnic distinctiveness” (Riiklik Programm 2000–2007: 5). To diminish the gap between the two language and cultural communities, the promotion of “linguistic-communicative integration in society” was strongly emphasized, meaning “the re-creation of a common sphere of information and Estonian-language environment in Estonian society under conditions of cultural diversity and mutual tolerance” (ibid.: 6). Integration is regarded as a two-way process that requires efforts on the part of the majority and minority alike, and is based on the mutual acceptance and respect of various social groups (Integration in Estonian Society, 2014). n mnrt lnug i clua ad oiia sl-ersnain Crak 2007:10), (Cormack, self-representation that suggest political we and cultural is language minority a in expectations of the the of expectations 2006). the in position their and aspirations E in integration societal of context and attitudes professional journalists’ speaking and political inclusion/exclusion (Kirch and political media contents in both live that are majority languages in other countries”. other in languages majority are that live they where state in nation the a minority constituting in communities spoken “languages contribute to integration and societal coherence. coherence. societal and integration to contribute R J V categories of minority languages. languages. minority of categories (1992). Languages E in information same the of more providing and intercultural their for important integration. considered is minorities by media mainstream of use issues; 2)the minority-specific by introducing diversity to media contribute in journalism working 1)minorities ways: important two in media integration the intercultural system, to contribute educational still the with par on integration of agent core a considered smaller than the rest of the the of rest the than smaller aS of territory agiven within professional values with the contextual conditions of their media environment. media their of conditions contextual the with values professional do How 1) are: study in integration societal of context the in role 2014).al., language media and the place of of E place the and media language minority of concept the aspects: contextual some discuss also We integration? of agents are What 2) field? media the in M. Jufereva, E. Lauk :M Lauk E. Jufereva, M. akobson, 2009; 2009; akobson, stonia, referring to the definition given in the the in given definition the to referring stonia, stonia. etik, 1999; Kõuts, 2004; Hallik, 2006; Pettai, 2006; 2006; Pettai, 2006; Hallik, 2004; Kõuts, 1999; etik, ussian-speaking journalists may potentially bridge two informational spaces and thus, thus, and spaces informational two bridge potentially may journalists ussian-speaking S In this study, we use the term minority language when speaking about about speaking when language minority term the use we study, this In S By increasing the availability of information on on information of availability the increasing By on focuses study our contrast, In o far, only one – – that unpublished exists study deals with these ( questions ara ara O Izvorn verwhelmingly the studies dedicated to media and integration issues focus on on focus issues integration and media to dedicated studies the verwhelmingly We conclude with analysing the intersection of of intersection the analysing with conclude We S igner et al. (2011: 421–422) argue that although mass media cannot be be cannot media mass although that argue 421–422) (2011: al. et igner i znanstven C V onc R ihalemm ihalemm ussian-speaking journalists have a potential to express the views and and views the express to potential a have journalists ussian-speaking A ccording to the Charter, minority languages are “traditionally used used “traditionally are languages minority Charter, the to ccording R i nor rad /U i rad ussophone minority. minority. ussophone e R ussian-speaking journalists position themselves as professionals professionals as themselves position journalists ussian-speaking p R ussian and it tu y l T D a . and and . K 316.774:81’282(474.2), 316.658:316.774=161.1(474.2) /Pr tate by nationals of thatS of by nationals tate ang S lisi aes population”. tate’s R u ussian-speaking journalists’ perceptions of their role as role their of perceptions journalists’ ussian-speaking J ag stonia. ng mi ng akobson, 2011; akobson, E R e medi R stonian, stonian, and on the coverage of interethnic relations ussian in in ussian ussian-language media in societal integration in in integration societal in media ussian-language R A ussian-speaking journalists’ perceptions of their their of perceptions journalists’ ussian-speaking . et 1993;al., nor a an T herefore, it is important to explore explore to important is it herefore, E stonia. stonia. d j it E European Charter for Regional or Minority Minority or Regional for Charter European stonia represents the fourth category: category: fourth the represents stonia o y l

A A T u R greeing that the key aim of the media media the of aim key the that greeing e hre dsigihs mn five among distinguishes Charter he idarov and and idarov E rna ussian that is provided in in provided is that ussian stonian issues and events in in events and issues stonian J M ang T V akobson, 1996,akobson, 2002; Kirch tate who form a group numerically numerically agroup form who tate he main research questions of this of questions research main he hlm P, 08 2011; 2008, P., ihalemm ike Cormack (2007) fairly criticizes criticizes fairly (2007) Cormack ike i lists u R ag ussian-speaking journalists’ journalists’ ussian-speaking n t D e medi h rechsler, 2013;rechsler, e con i mljeno: 31.01.2015. mljeno: te a x of s t of R oc J L õesaar et et õesaar E ussian in in ussian J M auk and and auk R ufereva, ufereva, stonian, stonian, iet R ussian- ., ., 1997; ussian a l ...

53 MEDIJSKE STUDIJE MEDIA STUDIES 2015 . 6 . (11) . 51-66 M. Jufereva, E. Lauk : Minority language media and journalists in the context of societal... Izvorni znanstveni rad / UDK 316.774:81’282(474.2), 316.658:316.774=161.1(474.2) / Primljeno: 31.01.2015.

this definition as inadequate.A s he claims “the concept of a linguistic minority is essentially a political one” – it is the nationalism of the majority group that creates the situation where “one community is constructed by the other as a minority” (Cormack, 2007: 1) and marginalized by the majority community. The Russian language is not threatened with disappearing in Estonia because of a large number of native speakers, the geographic proximity of Russia and easy access to Russian language media both locally produced and from Russia. The Russian-speaking minority forms a distinct minority language community in Estonia. There also seem to be strong links between citizenship and the sense of belonging to Estonia: 80 % of Russian-speaking Estonian citizens and two thirds of all Russian-speaking residents regard themselves as being Estonian people (Vihalemm T., 2011: 134–156).

Various labels are used in scholarly literature for the media produced in minority languages: minority media, ethnic media, diasporic and minority language media. A

51-66 common consensus does not seem to exist about the meaning and use of these attributes.

. For example, Anne-Katrin Arnold and Beate Schneider (2007) use the terms ethnic media (11) (11) .

6 and ethnic journalists to distinguish the media of large immigrant communities from . mainstream media. Matthew Matsaganis et al. (2011: 8–9) define ethnic media as media produced by and for (a) immigrants, (b) ethnic, racial, and linguistic minorities, and (c) indigenous groups living in various countries across the world. Mark Deuze (2006: 262) does not distinguish between ethnic and minority media, he understands ethnic or minority media as media produced by and for minority groups, living in the host country. Valeria Jakobson (2002) who studied the Russian-language media’s role in societal integration in Estonia used the terms ethnic minority media and Russian language media. We use the term minority language media adopting it from Cormack who argues that the status of a language in a state is crucial in forming identities and values, and also that official languages of one state may be minority languages in another, such as Russian MEDIJSKE STUDIJE MEDIA STUDIES 2015 54 in Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania, or Arabic in France (ibid.: 1). In Estonia, we find media and journalists that belong to and work for the Russian-speaking minority community and also a huge range of easily accessible Russian media produced in Russia. This situation is complicated in terms of societal integration and the coherence of Estonian society, as Russian media largely serve the Russian state’s policy of “protecting Russian minorities abroad”, even at the expense of aggression. This situation clearly makes the role of Estonian produced Russian-language media even more important in supporting integration and social cohesion.

In his seminal article Minority Language Media in Western Europe (1998) Mike Cormack suggested seven conditions necessary for the successful emergence and development of minority language media: number of users of the language; mass campaign for media; leadership and organization; political culture; political weakness of the central government; symbolic status of the language and international trends. Cormack restricted his study to the Western European minorities of Celtic languages and the regional languages of Spain. Later, he further developed minority language media studies (Cormack, 2004, 2005, 2007) defining, among other issues, their core concerns such as the status of media in the context of a specific language and culture, and the economic basis of minority language media. were ethnic ethnic were newspapers and broadcasts produced in in produced broadcasts and newspapers ee since 2008 ee err.ee broadcaster service the public addition, In Эстонии). СМИ русскоязычные (Современные readers weekly 90,000 D Western of those E proportion of of proportion post-WWII of decades five nearly the during However, time. longer or and in the inter-war period, over 100 titles of newspapers and magazines existed for shorter Union were widely distributed and consumed. and distributed widely were Union in educated were they which in language %. of Cormack’s seven conditions by examining them in the context of of context the in them examining by conditions seven Cormack’s of outside media language minority on research (comparative) in applicable also are Cormack by proposed factors non- the in which which in environment media the explaining for framework this use we Instead, media. language political environment” (1998: environment” 48–49). political the of consideration be must media these to discussion “centralanyto that and context”, specific to the given to be needs attention careful media language minority of discussion changes changes in media ownership, and the reduced its appearance to three times a week in J in aweek times to three appearance its reduced survived. R 2001,172008–2011. in of While crisis economic the in collapse eventual its to and 1990s of decline survive. newspapers in in newspapers Vedomosti, MK-Estonija, Stolitsa MK-Estonija, Vedomosti, ( newspapers surviving of basis 1991 and now has 200,000 unique readers per week, followed by followed week, per readers unique 200,000 has now and 1991 M. Jufereva, E. Lauk :M Lauk E. Jufereva, M. rqe Uribe- nrique ussian language dailies existed, by 2011 only one daily newspaper and nine weeklies weeklies nine and newspaper daily one 2011 only by existed, dailies language ussian uring uring T T A T he shared language of those of non- of those of language shared he he historical and political contexts of of contexts political and historical he he emergence of news portals to some extent compensates for the lack of available available of lack the for compensates extent some to portals news of emergence he fter fter in 2007 in Russi Izvorn E T stonia’s independence between stonia’s 1918between independence and 1940, only 8.2 % of E E he new private investors faced economic difficulties, which led to the dramatic dramatic the to led which difficulties, economic faced investors private new he E uropean context of Colombia and concluded that with slight modifications, the the modifications, slight that with concluded and of Colombia context uropean E stonia regained its independence in 1991, in independence its regained stonia ven the single remaining remaining single the ven E stonian stonian stonia’s i znanstven R . an- . ussians. ussians. T R J he he ussians increased to 30.3 % and that of other minority nationalities to 8.2 8.2 to nationalities minority other of that and % 30.3 to increased ussians ongbloed (2014) critically examined Cormack’s seven conditions within within conditions seven Cormack’s examined critically (2014) ongbloed R ussian. ussian. l T E ang allinn city government has run their their run has government city allinn uropean countries that are discussed more frequently in literature. literature. in frequently more discussed are that countries uropean R i R nor ussian-speaking journalists operate. operate. journalists ussian-speaking rad /U i rad T sinlnug pes uig h eooi rcsin f h late the of recession economic the during press ussian-language he he u S it ince 2005, several on-line versions have been created on the the on created been have versions on-line several 2005, ince R ag E y l Eesti(ERR Rahvusringhääling ussian-language press emerged in in emerged press ussian-language urope. However, we do not attempt to make another test test another make to attempt not do we However, urope. D K 316.774:81’282(474.2), 316.658:316.774=161.1(474.2) /Pr ang e medi ). T u Postimees na russkom jazyke, Den za Dnjom, Delovyje Delovyje Dnjom, za Den jazyke, russkom na Postimees he first Internet portal in portal Internet first he ag R e medi R ussian language daily ( daily language ussian a an ussian-language media ussian-language of the E E stonian origin was was origin stonian R a an stonia, media existing throughout the the throughout existing media stonia, E ussian-language media in in media ussian-language d t stonia. In addition to the the to addition In stonia. d j wo i o une 2013.une u rna S nfor oviet subsidies stopped along with with along stopped subsidies oviet ) launched the internet-portal internet-portal the launched ) i lists R ussian language portal portal language ussian R A m ussian ( ussian Postimees na russkom jazyke russkom na Postimees Crak rus “n any “in argues, Cormack s n t R E ussian as this was the only only the was this as ussian a stonia in the 19 the in stonia h ti e con ona i Rus.postimees.ee mljeno: 31.01.2015. mljeno: Rus.delfi S E oviet oviet period did not stonia’s population E te S E R stonia differ from from differ stonia oviet regime, the the regime, oviet l s stonia’s ussian-language ussian-language x of s t of pac ) emerged in in emerged ) oc th es century, R iet Stolitsa. ussian- S oviet oviet a

with with Rus. l ... )

55 MEDIJSKE STUDIJE MEDIA STUDIES 2015 . 6 . (11) . 51-66 M. Jufereva, E. Lauk : Minority language media and journalists in the context of societal... Izvorni znanstveni rad / UDK 316.774:81’282(474.2), 316.658:316.774=161.1(474.2) / Primljeno: 31.01.2015.

According to Cormack (1998), the number of language speakers is one of the factors for assessing the potential success of minority language media. He suggests that one million could be the minimum size of a population to maintain the full range of modern media. The overall estimated size of the Russian-language media market in Estonia is about 300,000 people. According to Integration Monitoring 2011, 71 % of Russophone population listened to the Estonian public service channel Radio 4 (Vihalemm P., 2011: 162) and over 80 % of the Russophone population regularly watched PBK (Pervyi Baltijski Kanal/ First Baltic Channel), which is available in all Baltic states. In addition to re-transmitting government controlled Russian TV channels (NTV-Mir and REN-TV), PBK also produces a daily newscast in each country. Along with PBK, other Russian TV channels are the main information source for 75 % of the Russophone population (ibid.: 165). These channels are also deemed most trustworthy by Estonia’s Russian-speaking population. Estonian media channels are regarded as much less trustworthy by the majority of their total Russian- speaking audience (Vihalemm P., 2011: 162). There is very little interest in newspapers, the

51-66 circulation of the most popular Russian-language national weekly Postimees in Russian is

. about 8,000 to 9,000 (EALL, 2014). (11) (11) . 6 . As the Russian-speaking audience has always been more oriented towards Russia’s media channels rather than those of Estonia there has not been a “mass campaign for media” (Cormack, 1998). Although some Russian politicians have raised the issue, no substantial pressure exists from the audience for establishing and maintaining the full range of Russian-language news media in Estonia. However, the development plan Integrating Estonia 2020 identifies the Estonian public service broadcaster (ERR) as an important actor in promoting a common media field R( eport, 2014: 16). After a long and lively debate in the media and among politicians the government decided to launch a Russian-language television channel as a part of ERR at the end of 2014. This is not a sign of the “political weakness of the central government” and willingness “to concede power to MEDIJSKE STUDIJE MEDIA STUDIES 2015 56 regions” as Cormack’s fifth factor declares (Cormack, 1998: 41), but an additional attempt to expand the common informational space. The channel will begin broadcasting in autumn 2015. According to a survey, about 66 % of Estonia’s Russian-speaking population are potentially interested in watching the new channel (Kuul, 2014).

The results of a range of national studies (Kirch A. et al., 1993; Jakobson, 1996; Kirch M., 1997; Vetik, 1999) have demonstrated that Estonian and Russian language media produce different and separated semantic fields and informational spaces. In her study on Russian-language media and integration Jakobson concludes that in the 1990s, the Russian-language press mostly performed as a constructor of social barriers between the Russian population and Estonians, as well as a creator of distrust towards the Estonian state and societal institutions (Jakobson, 2002). As several studies confirm, no significant progress has yet been achieved in developing a common informational space for the two linguistic groups (Vihalemm P., 2008; Vihalemm T. 2011; Vetik, 2012). Therefore, producing and distributing information on Estonian affairs inR ussian and through Russian-language media continues to be very important. An experienced journalist interviewed by the authors of this article (male, 56) emphasized this: outlets (the press, news portals, radio and television) with a 71 % response rate. 71response a % with television) and radio portals, news (thepress, outlets of offices editorial the in time full worked who journalists 140 is population the of % 78 R and Social Cohesion in Estonia Social (forand 2014–2020). new 2011, In the of half prepare than more to used was that report monitoring integration working as journalists in the the journalists in journalists as working among shift generational the (cf. 1990s early the in reflects place took that which years, 20 than less spanning of majority the outlets. online in worked journalists as opposed to 20 % of men. men. of % 20 to opposed as degree university non-journalistic a hold women of % 30 and men, of 10% to compared higher levels than male journalists: 24 % of women have education university in journalism journalism. in degree university a have them of third one about one, older the than educated professionally better is generation 120 of survey 2006 a of results some comparison, For analysis. data for used was programme feminize: currently there are 58 % female and 42 % male journalists. While in 2006, 2006, in While journalists. male % 42 and female % 58 are there currently feminize: careers. of lengths and 11 with experiences work were conducted different with interviews journalists depth little about the lives of ordinary Estonian people. And Estonians know nothing about how the Russians Russians community. Russian the of the celebrities ten top the name even how cannot They live. about nothing know Estonians And people. Estonian ordinary of lives the about little very knows community Russian The life. political Estonian about but community Estonian the of life the about not but informed better is community Russian the think I lives. separate live communities two The is understood and defining the world in the minority group’s terms they contribute to contribute world they ( identity” its and terms group the “empowering the group’s minority which the in through world the discourse defining and the understood is supplying By are. certainly journalists 49), 1998: which (Cormack, producers” cultural and minority intellectuals of any role of the and is study media distances the language of social part of essential “an alteration 119). Hence, (2007: reduction/ prejudices” cultural and […] identity and about meanings knowledge and values, information of “diffusion as such integration, and consumption M. Jufereva, E. Lauk :M Lauk E. Jufereva, M. ussian-speaking journalists in in journalists ussian-speaking T among conducted was questionnaire standardized a using survey, A A R he majority (52 he majority %) of rnold and and rnold S ussian-speaking journalists are used. used. are journalists ussian-speaking t Izvorn a of Russi tus of i znanstven E S stonian mass media are concentrated) and in northeast northeast in and concentrated) are media mass stonian chneider point out some important interrelations between media media between interrelations important some out point chneider i nor rad /U i rad it an- R R y l ussian-speaking journalists are in their 30s with journalists careers or 40s, ussian-speaking ussian-speaking. ussian-speaking. D K 316.774:81’282(474.2), 316.658:316.774=161.1(474.2) /Pr ang S s O oviet period and their number is decreasing. decreasing. is number their and period oviet p verall, the the verall, Da u e J ag anuary and February 2011 – the year of the latest latest the of year the – 2011 February and anuary a t ki M e medi a an L ost of them worked in the capital of of capital the in worked them of ost ng j ng auk, 1996). auk, A lso, female journalists are generally educated to educated generally are journalists female lso, ibid a an E A d M stonian journalistic field seems to gradually gradually to seems field journalistic stonian o T dditionally, from from dditionally, .: 45)..: he questionnaire was hand-delivered to all all to hand-delivered was questionnaire he u d j et rna o O u ho rna nly 17 % of them have experience of of experience have them of 17% nly a lists d i lists n t s prof J anuary till anuary h R e con ussian-language media media ussian-language Strategy of Integration of Strategy i mljeno: 31.01.2015. mljeno: essi te R x ussian-speaking ussian-speaking M of s t of E T stonia, where where stonia, ona arch 2012,in- arch allinn (where (where allinn T he younger younger he oc T E ls he he iet stonian stonian a S l PSS ...

57 MEDIJSKE STUDIJE MEDIA STUDIES 2015 . 6 . (11) . 51-66 M. Jufereva, E. Lauk : Minority language media and journalists in the context of societal... Izvorni znanstveni rad / UDK 316.774:81’282(474.2), 316.658:316.774=161.1(474.2) / Primljeno: 31.01.2015.

parity existed between male and female journalists in Russian-language media, by 2011 the proportion had remarkably changed in favour of women (62 %). Interestingly, more women than men work in online media (22 and 12 %, respectively), and more men than women work in broadcasting (41 and 36 %, respectively).

The greater feminization among Russian-speaking journalists is probably one of the consequences of the economic hardships of the past six to seven years, which hit Russian- language media even harder than Estonian ones. As the Russian-language press has dramatically shrunk there are fewer well-paid jobs, and the majority of incomes after tax remain below €800 (75 %). More men have, probably, left the field because of low salaries. The salaries of Russian-speaking journalists are clearly lower than those in Estonian media. According to a survey of all Estonian journalists carried out in 2012–20131, the proportion of those paid less than €800 is considerably lower than in Russian-language media (39 %), the share of those paid between €800 and 1,200 is 45 %. 51-66

. Professional self-identification and commitment to the profession are relatively weak (11) (11) .

6 among Russian-speaking journalists. Many (36 %) see their journalistic job as temporary, . only as a stage in their careers. Only 14 % of respondents answered a decisive “no” to the question whether they have considered switching to another field, while nearly one fifth answered a clear “yes” and another 21 % had seriously thought about it. About the same number of journalists thought they could easily lose their current job and only a little more than a third (36 %) had a more positive view of the future. The majority of Russian- speaking journalists (83 %) are not members of the Estonian Journalists’ Union, whereas those who are, belong to the generation aged 50 and above. Perhaps, the fact that the Union does not have much authority among Estonian journalists in general (Harro-Loit and Loit, 2014) partly explains this situation. However, Russian-speaking journalists have not established their own organisation either. MEDIJSKE STUDIJE MEDIA STUDIES 2015 58 A code of ethics is another important element of journalists’ professional self- identification. However, nearly one third (30 %) of Russian-speaking journalists are not familiar with the Code of Ethics of Estonian Journalism. Another indicator of professional identity is a certain responsibility for one’s professional community and for one’s own actions as a member of a “guild”. For the majority of Russian-speaking journalists, personal ambitions and loyalty to their employers seem to be more important than any sense of membership of a profession and responsibility for its operations (see Figure 1). Similar attitudes are also observed Europe-wide, in a survey of journalists in 14 countries in 2011– 20122, 95 % of respondents stressed responsibility for their own actions and conscience, and over 80 % for their publisher.

Worlds of Journalism Study: 1 The survey was part of the global project http://www.worldsofjournalism.org/. 2 Online survey conducted in 2011–2012 as part of a EU-funded research project “Media Accountability and Transparency in Europe (MediaAcT)” among journalists in 12 European countries (Austria, Estonia, Finland, Germany, Italy, the Netherlands, Poland, Romania, Spain, Switzerland) and two Arab countries: Jordan and Tunisia; with a total of 1,762 respondents. The project’s homepage: www.mediaact.eu. 40 60 80 20 % 0 E of knowledge – motivation and attitude of E of in fluent or good being reported 30s their sufficiently good in good sufficiently are good or fluent in fluent or good are best the have 40s and 30s their in in fluent completely were they that stated respondents the of quarter a only environment, A that admitted respondents seems to be even better than that of of that than better even be to seems interethnic communication. For communication. interethnic an indispensable skill, as the majority of their sources are are sources their of majority the as skill, indispensable an – among those with four to nine employments, 36 % were men and 19 and men 36 %were women. %were employments, to nine four with those – among women than often more jobs their change men that appears also It careers. their during jobs three to two had had % 53 whereas newsrooms, different nine to four in employed been had journalists (24 of %) quarter 1):a Figure almost (see market job the on mobility security. job journalists’ on impact obvious an M. Jufereva, E. Lauk :M Lauk E. Jufereva, M. nglish. stonian stonian (which is true at least for the lthough lthough E E stonian. stonian. T T nglish language teaching in in teaching language nglish 1 employment he mutual comprehension of the other group’s language forms the basis of of basis the forms language group’s other the of comprehension mutual he the of difficulties economic and instability he Izvorn 59 E 23 stonian is the official language of the country and its everyday linguistic linguistic everyday its and the country of language official the is stonian A i znanstven nother 54 % said they could understand and speak speak and understand could they said % 54 nother E i nglish (see Figure 2). Figure (see nglish nor rad /U i rad E 2-3 employments stonian). In comparison, 72 % of respondents declared they are are they declared respondents of % 72 comparison, In stonian). it y l 31 D E K 316.774:81’282(474.2), 316.658:316.774=161.1(474.2) /Pr ang stonian is very important or quite important in their work. work. their in important quite or important very is stonian 53 E R u R stonian skills (67 and 89 % of the respective age group group age respective the of % 89 and (67 skills stonian ussian language schools has been higher than that of of that than higher been has schools language ussian ag ussian-speaking journalists, knowledge of of knowledge journalists, ussian-speaking e medi S J oviet oviet period). However, it also seems to be a matter E ob stability among R among stability ob stonian (89 % of those in their 20s and 71 % in in % 71 and 20s their in those of % (89 stonian T a an he younger generation’s command of of command generation’s younger he E 4 or more 4 or E E nglish). 10 stonian journalists journalists stonian stonian is not valued as highly as that of of that as highly as valued not is stonian d j J ob insecurity is reflected in journalists’ journalists’ in reflected is insecurity ob o 24 u R rna ussian-language media sector have sector media ussian-language O ne can speculate that the quality quality the that speculate can ne i lists ussian and E and ussian E stonian. Indeed, 92 % of the the of % 92 Indeed, stonian. n t h R e con E stonian. stonian. i mljeno: 31.01.2015. mljeno: (% respondents) of stonian journalists journalists stonian N ussian journalists ussian te E =278, N x of s t of J ournalists in in ournalists E Figure 1.Figure oc R stonian is stonian =100 iet E nglish nglish a l ...

59 MEDIJSKE STUDIJE MEDIA STUDIES 2015 . 6 . (11) . 51-66 M. Jufereva, E. Lauk : Minority language media and journalists in the context of societal... Izvorni znanstveni rad / UDK 316.774:81’282(474.2), 316.658:316.774=161.1(474.2) / Primljeno: 31.01.2015.

English Estonian 90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20 51-66

21-29 years 30-39 years 40-49 years 50-59 years 60+ years . (11) (11) .

6 Figure 2. . Command of Estonian and English in different age groups (% of the age group) N = 100

There was, still, a substantial group (19 %) of those whose knowledge of Estonian was passive (understanding to a degree but not speaking) or non-existent. This group has diminished since 2006, when about a third of Russian-speaking journalists did not communicate in Estonian.

It seems, however, that the self-assessment of knowledge of Estonian is somewhat MEDIJSKE STUDIJE MEDIA STUDIES 2015 misleading. When asked additionally about the root of difficulties in their work, 31 % 60 mentioned insufficient knowledge of Estonian (as the fourth difficulty after lack of time, insufficient knowledge of the topic and high levels of stress).

Russian-speaking journalists liaising between Estonian and Russophone communities

Journalists in Estonia had to redefine their professional roles and tasks after the cessation of censorship and ideological surveillance over the media. Russian-speaking journalists had been in the position of the “official voice” of the ruling power even to a larger extent than Estonian journalists, as they represented the media in the language of pan-Soviet communication. The transformation from an ideological opinion-maker to an information provider occurred quite quickly in the early 1990s. Russian-speaking journalists have clearly adopted the role of information transmitter (98 %) and did that to a greater extent than the role of a “watchdog” (77 %). They regard the role of a mediator between the two linguistic communities as even more important. They emphasize discussing and explaining the problems of Estonian society in Russian-language media (94 %), reporting on Estonian culture and history (84 %) and helping the Russophone of those in the same group were of the opposite opinion. of % 45 journalism, whombelieved inthat degrees university with group the in appeared attitude positive integration).promote not do media the that declared %(53 sceptical most the media in promoting integration. surveys both of respondents of % (48 2006 since thought changed not has attitude this and R the that fact the and mid-2000s the since the of degeneration the Indeed, decisions. and (2000–2007), more (14journalists %) that believed they could influencepoliticians’actions are made in that decisions political on whatsoever influence no have media and journalists speaking to ability media’s the about dubious 88 improving % were the situation. Furthermore, existing thought of that respondents they but problems these interpreting and the of importance the out pointed also and 75 by treatment % stateofficials in unequal opportunities institutions. A language journalism can substantially support integration and social cohesion in cohesion social and integration support substantially can journalism language otas oil groups”. it social way the portrays through integration influence to ability media’s mass to points media the in cases) as the most urgent problems of the the of problems urgent most the as cases) projects involving both E both involving projects in communicate to into integrate to people speaking fluent completely those of % 80 in process. integration the interpret and see journalists view. this optimistic support not do studies sociological trust generally people that believed them of throughout common or a compromise. Journalists should invite experts, public opinion leaders and people from different different from people and leaders opinion public discussion. to apublic society of sections experts, invite should Journalists compromise. a to it, or of aware majority solution a ethnic suggest to and the Russian-speakers, for make consequences possible to its and is essence its problem, what explain the identify to is journalist Russian a of task The way: following in it 32) expressed as journalists. them for tasks of part are they that feel to population M. Jufereva, E. Lauk :M Lauk E. Jufereva, M. ussia’s television channels, plays a role here. here. role a plays channels, television ussia’s s specific problems of minorities, 86 % of respondents mentioned unequal job unequal mentioned respondents of % 86 minorities, of problems specific s E A A T Interestingly, the level of knowledge of of knowledge of level the Interestingly, stonian supported the idea that local local that idea the supported stonian he journalists mentioned economic difficulties and unemployment (95 % in both in % (95 unemployment and difficulties economic mentioned journalists he ccording ccording to lso, education seems to influence attitudes towards thepotential of Izvorn R ussian-language media do not promote integration). promote not do media ussian-language E i znanstven stonia. stonia. In 2006, during the of implementation the first A rnold rnold and i R E nor rad /U i rad stonian regarded reporting about joint integration activities and and activities integration joint about reporting regarded stonian ussian-language media support integration. ussian-languagemediaHowever, support another 45 % E stonian society, have a greater impact on the the on impact greater a have society, stonian it stonians and R and stonians R y l sinsekn junlss el srn aflain ih the with affiliation strong a feel journalists ussian-speaking D S K 316.774:81’282(474.2), 316.658:316.774=161.1(474.2) /Pr O ang chneider chneider (2007: 118), the “representation of ethnic minorities ne of the interviewees, a former editor of a weekly (female, of a weekly editor a former interviewees, of the ne J u ournalists with a non-journalistic university degree were ag E e medi stonian society. society. stonian ussians as important. ussians as important. E R R R stonian society (83 %) as the most important important most the as %) (83 society stonian a an ussian-language media in publicly discussing discussing publicly in media ussian-language ussian-speaking population prefers watching watching prefers population ussian-speaking ussian-language media should help help should media ussian-language E stonia’s R J E d j ournalists do not think that local local that think not do ournalists ussophone population, which, although although which, population, ussophone R tna pas sgiiat oe n how in role significant a plays stonian ussian-language news media in in media news ussian-language o u rna T R he majority (71 %) of those able able those of %) (71 majority he ussian-language media, although although media, ussian-language i lists n t h O e con n the other hand, 85 % 85 hand, other the n Integration Programme i mljeno: 31.01.2015. mljeno: te R x ussian-language of s t of T R he journalists he journalists ussophones. ussophones. oc T R R R he most most he E iet E ussian- ussian- ussian- stonia, stonia, stonia stonia a l ...

61 MEDIJSKE STUDIJE MEDIA STUDIES 2015 . 6 . (11) . 51-66 M. Jufereva, E. Lauk : Minority language media and journalists in the context of societal... Izvorni znanstveni rad / UDK 316.774:81’282(474.2), 316.658:316.774=161.1(474.2) / Primljeno: 31.01.2015.

Russophone community: 78 % of them see expressing and defending the interests of Russian speakers as very important or important in their professional work. This attitude has actually strengthened since 2006, when only 38 % emphasized this task as important. Journalists try to reduce tensions in society by informing both their audiences about Estonian issues, and the Estonian-speaking audience about the issues of the Russophone community.

67 % of surveyed Russian-speaking journalists regarded the translation of websites, television and radio programmes and other media material into Russian and English as important. Our survey results reflect Russophone journalists’ positive attitudes to their role in building social coherence in Estonian society and bridging between the two communities. The same attitude appears in some of our interviews. A television journalist with 20 years of professional experience (male, 53) put it in the following way:

Our apparent role is to connect the two communities. We are sitting on two chairs simultaneously. On the 51-66

. one hand, we have to keep an eye on what is going on in Russia, and we should tell people about that. On (11) (11)

. the other hand, it is necessary that we observe how the Russian-speaking community interacts with the 6 . Estonian speaking one. How realistic this role is, is another issue.

The 2011 Integration monitoring report confirmed that the majority of both Estonian and Russian-speaking people expected Russian-language media to cover life in Estonia in more depth and breadth and to better explain the context of events (Vihalemm P., 2011: 166). However, the interviewed journalists did not see the picture as encouraging and pointed to several disturbing moments, such as insufficient communication between Estonian and Russian-speaking journalists; the attempts by both sides to cover up negative facts about the other; lack of interest in each other’s culture or history etc. MEDIJSKE STUDIJE MEDIA STUDIES 2015 62 Conclusions and discussion

Both Cormack (1998, 2005, 2007) and Uribe-Jongbloed (2014) emphasize the relevance of political culture as a condition for the development of minority language media. In addition to everyone’s right “to freely disseminate ideas, opinions, beliefs and other information by word, print, picture or other means” (Art. 45), the Estonian Constitution provides minority groups with the right “to establish self-governing agencies under such conditions and pursuant to such procedure as are provided in the National Minorities Cultural Autonomy Act” (Art. 50). Estonia’s Public Broadcasting Act defines transmitting “programmes which […] meet the information needs of all sections of the population, including minorities” (Art. 5 (8)) the task of the public service broadcaster ERR. No legal act or procedure exists to prevent the development of minority language media, neither are there any restrictions on access to various media. However, Russian-language media are not typical minority media which aim to maintain the language and cultural traditions of a minority, since Russian is the official language spoken by millions right across the border, and satellites make a variety of Russian television channels available. In addition to the economic problems of Estonia’s Russian-language media, the audience’s consumption habits weaken the opportunities that Russian-speaking journalists have to influence R of case the in present partly only are society, host the and in integration their to contribute to interests and needs minority’s a represent to media language minority for order in necessary are that conditions contextual and qualities professional that conclude We can the facing issues explain to ability their possibly, and of command limited a addition, In conditions. employment unfavourable to exposed more therefore are and organized R communities. both for space information common a of development diminishing the the two linguistic communities distance and between contributing to the in life everyday on information more However, role between their and mediators standards as professional general towards the oriented of more are interests they the Instead, promote to ability their about positive too the of representatives as R and professionals as simultaneously themselves positioning >Cormack, M >Cormack, 10.1177/1464884907074807. >Cormack, M >Cormack, 13Communication (1): 33–52. > R existing the to hostile is that propaganda from entertainment and information of flow the with audience an for integration. of process the M M >Cormack, 1(1): Politics Cultural and Media 107–122. M >Cormack, 3–12. Clevedon, N Clevedon, Studies. A E the of magazines and newspapers member the [ tiraažid keskmised väljaannete Liidu Ajakirjade ja liikmeslehtede >EALL 262–280. DO and E and > M >Современные русскоязычные СМИ Эстонии [ Эстонии СМИ русскоязычные >Современные > (10.10.2014).Эстонии estonica.org/ru/культура/Русскоязычные_СМИ_Эстонии/Современные_русскоязычные_СМИ_ M. Jufereva, E. Lauk :M Lauk E. Jufereva, M. 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Participatory and edia ussian language mass media in E in media mass language ussian atters L atters d j T stonian R stonian hey are also aware of the importance of of importance the of aware also are hey o anguage M anguage u anguage M anguage A edia S edia rna ewspaper A ewspaper s our research indicates, within the the within indicates, research our s D td. E etsember%202014 (24.01.2015).etsember%202014 R stonian society to their audience. audience. their to society stonian European Journal of of Journal European urope. i lists ussification of N ussification ussian-language media are not not are media ussian-language 7(1): Forum Media Mercator tudies. International Journal of of Journal International edia. eparation? 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Büroo. ahvastikuministri n t – International International witzerland. 2004 [Media System and System and [Media 2004 L pace] pp. 157–174pace] pp. in h anguage practices, practices, anguage issertation. T issertation. e con i mljeno: 31.01.2015. mljeno: urocentrism: urocentrism: te x stonian R stonian of s t of ampere: ampere: urope, urope, edia: edia: oc etik, R etik, ussian- iet a aivo aivo l ...

65 MEDIJSKE STUDIJE MEDIA STUDIES 2015 . 6 . (11) . 51-66 M. Jufereva, E. Lauk : Minority language media and journalists in the context of societal... Izvorni znanstveni rad / UDK 316.774:81’282(474.2), 316.658:316.774=161.1(474.2) / Primljeno: 31.01.2015.

Mediji na manjinskim jezicima i novinari u kontekstu društvene integracije u Estoniji Maria Jufereva :: Epp Lauk 51-66 Sažetak U fokusu ovog članka jesu uloga novinara koji govore ruski jezik i potencijal medija na .

(11) (11) ruskom jeziku u unaprjeđivanju društvene integracije u Estoniji. Posljedica socijalističke kolonizacije za . 6 . vrijeme sovjetskog režima jest ta da četvrtina estonskog stanovništva danas govori ruskim jezikom. Te dvije glavne jezične zajednice (estonska i ruska) imaju različite informacijske prostore koje dijeli jezična barijera. Integracija može uspjeti samo ako postoji nesputana komunikacija između manjinskih i većinskih skupina te ako pojedinci i skupine imaju jednaku mogućnost sudjelovanja u javnoj sferi života. U članku se prvo bavimo konceptom medija na manjinskim jezicima te ulogom medija na ruskom jeziku u kontekstu društvene integracije u Estoniji. Koristile smo metodu ankete kako bismo doznale kakav je trenutačni profesionalni status estonskih novinara koji govore ruski jezik te kako oni percipiraju svoju ulogu u procesu integracije. Zaključile smo da novinari koji govore ruskim jezikom sebe doživljavaju kao

MEDIJSKE STUDIJE MEDIA STUDIES 2015 posrednike između estonske i ruske zajednice, ali i da nisu sigurni da mediji na ruskom jeziku mogu ispuniti 66 zadaću da budu predstavnici manjine.

Ključne riječi mediji na manjinskim jezicima, Estonija, društvena integracija

Bilješka o autoricama Maria Jufereva :: Sveučilište Jyväskylä, Odjel za komunikaciju, Finska :: [email protected] Epp Lauk :: Sveučilište Jyväskylä, Odjel za komunikaciju, Finska :: [email protected]