Constructing Ambiguous Identities: Negotiating Race, Respect, and Social Change in ‘Coloured’ Schools in Cape Town, South Africa Daniel Patrick Hammett Ph.D. The University of Edinburgh 2007 1 Declaration This thesis has been composed by myself from the results of my own work, except where otherwise acknowledged. It has not been submitted in any previous application for a degree. i Abstract South African social relations in the second decade of democracy remain framed by race. Spatial and social lived realities, the continued importance of belonging – to feel part of a community, mean that identifying as ‘coloured’ in South Africa continues to be contested, fluid and often ambiguous. This thesis considers the changing social location of ‘coloured’ teachers through the narratives of former and current teachers and students. Education is used as a site through which to explore the wider social impacts of social and spatial engineering during and subsequent to apartheid. Two key themes are examined in the space of education, those of racial identity and of respect. These are brought together in an interwoven narrative to consider whether or not ‘coloured’ teachers in the post-apartheid period are respected and the historical trajectories leading to the contemporary situation. Two main concerns are addressed. The first considers the question of racial identification to constructions of self-identity. Working with post-colonial theory and notions of mimicry and ambivalence, the relationship between teachers and the identifier ‘coloured’ is shown to be problematic and contested. Second, and connected to teachers’ engagement with racialised identities, is the notion of respect. As with claims to identity and racial categorisation, the concept of respect is considered as mutable and dynamic and rendered with contextually subjective meanings that are often contested and ambivalent. Political and social changes affect the context within which relations to identities are constructed. In South Africa, this has shaped a shift away from the struggle ideology of non-racialism and the respect that could be accrued through this. This process also complicated the status recognition respect historically associated with teaching. As local, national and global contexts have shifted and processes of globalisations have impacted upon cultural and social capital, the prestige and respect of teaching have changed. Appraisal respect has become increasingly important, and is influencing contested concepts of respect and identity. As these teachers exert claims to identities which include assertions of belonging in relation to race and attempts to earn respect, these processes are shown to be elusive and ambiguous. As a trans-disciplinary thesis, this work is located at the intersection of, and between, geography, education, history, anthropology, politics and sociology. Utilising a wide range of materials, from documentary sources, archives, participant observation, interviews and life histories, a multilayered story is woven together. The work’s originality stems from this trans-disciplinary grounding and its engagement with wide ranging theoretical approaches. This thesis argues that the lived experience of educators reflects the ambiguous and contentious experience of ‘coloureds’ in Cape Town. Drawing upon wider literature and debate, the contested location of education – its commodification – in South Africa reflects broader concerns of educationalists in the North and South, and is imbued within concerns over development and sustainability. ii Acknowledgements I owe a great debt of gratitude to a great many people for the completion of this work. I must thank my supervisors, Alan Barnard and Kenneth King for their energy, advice, patience and dedication to keep my work focused. I am very grateful for the assistance of Sara Rich-Dorman, who was always willing to respond to questions and share ideas about my work. James Smith’s candid comments on my writing highlighted many issues which needed further thought, and suggested other literature that I engage with. Also in Edinburgh, Thomas Molony was an ideal person to share an office with during my writing up, and our lunches perched atop the back-garden wall provided much solace from the rigours of writing. Lawrence Dritsas and Tom Fisher were willing providers of the ‘water of life’, whilst Carolyn Petersen endured many coffee breaks as we both attempted to put our ideas on to paper. The support I received in South Africa made this research possible. Critical to introducing me to many of the pitfalls and dangers of my field, and for instituting contacts with gatekeepers were Harold Herman at the University of the Western Cape, and Crain Soudien at the University of Cape Town. Both Neville Alexander (UCT) and Peter Kallaway (UWC) made time in their busy schedules to spend time discussing my research, often posing the simple questions that were the most difficult to answer. Without these people the development of my theoretical ideas would have been a very laborious process. My post as a research associate at the Centre of African Studies at UCT for the duration of my fieldwork was of invaluable help. Within the Centre, I offer my thanks to Jutta Schuur, Eva Franzidis, and Charmaine McBride. I owe a debt of gratitude to Ciraj Rassool whose office neighboured my own and who was always willing to let me drop in with questions and ideas. Conversations with a large number of people at Friday coffee, including Noeleen Murray and Nick Sheppard, provided a supportive academic network with a social element. Natasha Himmelman was a iii colleague whose ideas and differing approaches helped develop and challenge my theoretical ideas and constructs. Kim Wildman’s friendship, futon, and enjoyment of rugby and Windhoek provided a vital escape from the stresses of fieldwork. Also in Cape Town, I must thank Butch and my housemates, Rukia and Iming, for their support during my time with them. Those teachers who acted as gate-keepers and facilitated my entry into the world of teaching and education in South Africa are owed an enormous debt of gratitude. The principals, teachers and students who talked to me and helped me explore this subject were the lifeblood of my research, without them this could not have happened, and I extend my thanks to all of them. Emile Jansen’s comments helped keep my work grounded and allowed me to develop an understanding of the culture of the hip-hop community in Cape Town. I am also grateful for conversations (in person or via email) with Alan Wieder, Pablo Idahosa, Nadine Dolby, Bekisizwe Ndimande, Azeem Badroodien, Natasha Distiller, Paul Hendricks, Charlotte Lemanski and Jane Battersby all of whom helped me to focus my questions and develop my thinking in the veritable minefield of fieldwork and writing. I owe a very special mention to Dan Yon at York University, Toronto, who became a firm friend during the course of my PhD. I will remain in his debt for his academic and pastoral support, and for facilitating my Overseas Institutional Visit to York University. Outside the university, Caroline Twomey suffered my panics and grouchiness with immense love and support, for which I am truly grateful. Finally, the inevitable but heartfelt thanks to family and friends in the UK, South Africa, and elsewhere for their support and encouragement. Financial support was provided by the UK’s Economic and Social Research Council. iv Table of Contents Abstract ........................................................................................................................ii Acknowledgements.....................................................................................................iii List of Figures ...........................................................................................................viii List of Tables...............................................................................................................ix Abbreviations ............................................................................................................... x Introduction.................................................................................................................. 1 I.1 Coming to the Research...................................................................................... 3 I.2 A Note on the Term ‘coloured’........................................................................... 4 I.3 Thesis Outline..................................................................................................... 5 1. Historical Context .................................................................................................... 9 1.1 ‘Creating’ the ‘coloured’.................................................................................. 10 1.2 Reaching a consensus? - The problem of defining ‘coloured’......................... 15 1.3 Laagering the ‘coloured’.................................................................................. 19 1.3.1 Political Expressions................................................................................. 20 1.3.2 Spatial and Social Distancing.................................................................... 22 1.3.3 Passing for White ...................................................................................... 25 1.4 Educating Race - The development of ‘coloured’ education........................... 27 1.4.1 Pre-colonial and colonial education policy............................................... 29 1.4.2