Thinking About the Human Bias in Our Ecological Analyses for Biodiversity Conservation Sérgio De Faria Lopes1,*

REVIEW

Ethnobiology and Conservation 2017, 6:14 (18 August 2017) doi:10.15451/ec2017086.14124 ISSN 22384782 ethnobioconservation.com The other side of Ecology: thinking about the human bias in our ecological analyses for biodiversity conservation Sérgio de Faria Lopes1,*

ABSTRACT

Ecology as a science emerged within a classic Cartesian positivist context, in which relationships should be understood by the division of knowledge and its subsequent generalization. Overtime, ecology has addressed many questions, from the processes that lead to the origin and maintenance of life to modern theories of trophic webs and non equilibrium. However, the ecological models and ecosystem theories used in the field of ecology have had difficulty integrating man into analysis, although humans have emerged as a global force that is transforming the entirety of planet. In this sense, currently, advances in the field of the ecology that develop outside of research centers is under the spotlight for social, political, economic and environmental goals, mainly due the environmental crisis resulting from overexploitation of natural resources and habitat fragmentation. Herein a brief historical review of ecology as science and humankind’s relationship with nature is presented, with the objective of assessing the impartiality and neutrality of scientific research and new possibilities of understanding and consolidating knowledge, specifically local ecological knowledge. Moreover, and in a contemporary way, the human being presence in environmental relationships, both as a study object, as well as an observer, proposer of interpretation routes and discussion, requires new possibilities. Among these proposals, the human bias in studies of the biodiversity conservation emerges as the other side of ecology, integrating scientific knowledge with local ecological knowledge and converging with the idea of complexity in the relationships of humans with the environment.

Keywords: Complexity, Evolutionary Ethnobiology, History of Ecology, Local Ecological Knowledge

1 Departamento de Biologia, Universidade Estadual da Paraíba, Av. Baraúnas n 351, Bodocongó, Campina Grande, Paraíba, 58430335, Brasil.

* Email address: [email protected]

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INTRODUCTION functions (Groot et al. 2010). In a biosphere increasingly transformed by human Ecology, as a science, emerged from societies, the science of ecology cannot deep questions about possible explanations advance as a predictive science without of natural phenomena that have faced gaining the basic theoretical tools needed to mankind since the beginning (Ellis 2015). In investigate and understand ultimate causes, the 16th century, one of these great mysteries not just the consequences (Ellis et al. 2013). in need of “scientific” unravelling was simply In this sense, the idea of infinite resources the distinction of what was alive and was began to be seen as irrational. The not. Later came questions regarding the subsequent environmental crisis took on complexities of the chemical processes remarkable proportions since the second involved with life and role of abiotic factors in half of the twentieth century (Holck 2008), driving it. Over time, the questions mainly due to the over exploitation of natural investigated by ecologist came to address resources with direct consequences for the complex interactions between the Biodiversity Conservation (Doughty 2013). environment and living beings (Agrawal et al. The conservation model that originated, 2007; Bramwell 1989; Graham and Dayton and was promulgated in the US, established 2002; McIntosh 1985). However, human that nature and nonhuman animals must be involvement was always considered outside protected from human interference, and that of the context of these interactions, in order true conservation means setting aside tracts to be neutral and objective in the discovery of land from which human settlements, and and production of knowledge (Prigogine even humans themselves, may be excluded 1994). (Brinkerhoff Jackson 1994). However, it is Ecology arises, then, from a classic necessary to direct efforts not only to Cartesian positivist context in which protected areas (Conservation Units), but relationships are understood by the division also to the conservation of managed areas of knowledge and its subsequent and their local populations, as well as the widespread, without relying on human establishment of comanagement efforts involvement, especially regarding the (Huntington 2011). Consequently, the consequences of overexploitation of natural problem is not a lack of knowledge for resources (Pimm et al. 2014). However, effectively managing resources, but rather alterations to ecological and evolutionary motivating humans to conserve (Anderson processes across the Earth have been made 1996). by human societies since the beginning The conservation of natural resources (Barnosky 2014; Ellis 2015). Human must be understood through the complexity societies have made changes in local and of the relationship between the means global patterns of net primary productivity (resources and conditions) and living beings, (Krausmann et al. 2013), and have caused and their interactions, especially the active, widespread species extinctions (Dirzo et al. negative and positive participation, of human 2014; Pimm et al. 2014). Thus, the current beings. Maturana and Varela (1972) argue environmental crisis has generated losses to that a living being is coupled to its diversity as a whole, and especially to the surroundings [i.e., a system coupled to other global economy due to the loss of system(s)] and that the coupling is a ecosystem services and ecosystem condition of existence; if the coupling is lost,

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the living being will die. In this sense, if the My goal in this text was to review the coupling between the living system and its source of ecology as a science and man's surroundings is a condition of existence, the relationship with nature, seeking to assess human being, as a living system, cannot be the impartiality and neutrality of scientific explained as independent of its research, and the new possibilities of surroundings. understanding and consolidating knowledge, In this context, new proposals to specifically regarding ecology. Thus, this understand environmental relationships with study is based on these assumptions, humankind are emerging (Brook and without the pretence of being the last word. McLachlan 2008). Among these, the human Towards this end, I will first provide a brief bias in studies of ethnobiology emerges as historical review of ecology as a science in the other side of ecology, integrating order to further evaluate the contemporary scientific knowledge with local traditional possibilities of a humankindnature inter knowledge that has accumulated and been relationship, particularly as it relates to transmitted over time. Local Ecological improving the science of biodiversity Knowledge (LEK) is comprised of a body of conservation. important historical information (Berkes et al. 2000; Huntington 2000; Huntington et al. Scientific ecology: a brief history and 2004), which is increasingly relevant for perspectives Biodiversity Conservation. LEK is based on insight into the workings of nature and, in The most fundamental concept of ecology many ways, converges closely upon the is its functional unit, the ecosystem. The Western science of ecology (Huntington basis of the concept of an ecosystem arose 2011; Pierotti and Wildcat 2000). Traditional from the deconstruction of the conceptual peoples possess a wide range of biological barrier that separated living beings from non information that can complement traditional living minerals (life and no life) in the 16th academic knowledge in ecology, zoology, century, and the subsequent understanding botany and conservation biology. This of the processes of the synthesis and knowledge could be especially useful to degradation of organic matter. In the 18th studies of population biology, distribution century, vitalism (the vital principle), based patterns and relationships among abiotic on organic organization, replaced animism factors (Albuquerque et al 2009; Brinkman et (Cartesian soul), which held that minerals, al. 2009; Huntington 2000), as well as to plants, animals and humans were created by efforts of resource evaluation and God and, therefore, possess souls (see management (Vandebroek et al. 2011), to ÁvilaPires 1999). In the 19th century, name a few. Lamarck’s Philosophie Zoologique, originally The activities of humans are often published in 1809, contained the earliest significant in shaping the lives and ecology account of a cohesive theory of the of nonhumans and the nature world evolutionary process. Lamarck presented (biodiversity). Thus, the inclusion and the idea of the inheritance of acquired understanding of humans in studies of characteristics, while later Charles Darwin scientific ecology is urgently needed (1859) developed an understanding of the because it is indispensable for relationship of organisms to natural understanding major ecological questions. selection. As a result, two main lines of

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inquiry emerged from the classic definition of used (Kormondy 1969). In 1866, the German ecology: the study of the interactions of biologist Ernst Haeckel proposed the term organisms with their physical and biotic ecology for the study of economics and the environment (Tansley 1914). relationships of animals and plants with the The notion of relationship between environment (Haeckel 1866). It was at the organisms and their environment emerged end of the 19th century, that the term took on long before the consolidation of ecology as its current meaning and developed as an an independent science within biology late in independent science (Tansley 1914), with its the 19th century. In a lecture at Sorbonne own interpretations and research methods University in 1864, Claude Bernard, argued based on Cartesian and Newtonian that to understand the life of an organism mechanistics. one must know its relationship to the general In 1887, Stephen A. Forbes published a environment (Grmek 1997), and this external paper, that would become a classic in relationship is necessary for understanding ecology, in which he described a trophic web an organism’s vital manifestation. A few among the biotic components of a lake and years prior, in 1859, Charles Darwin had that later served as a model for many already established some goals for this new studies on organization and biotic emerging science, however he never interactions, mainly in the USA (ÁvilaPires proposed a name for it. Darwin’s ideas about 1999; Forbes 1887). Other authors important evolution and selective pressure provided to the maturation of the discipline of the basis for the science of ecology, and ecosystem ecology, include August opened the way for studies into support Thienemann who introduced the terms capacity, dispersion, colonization, producers and consumers in 1926; he also competition, competitive exclusion and diffused the idea that life (Leben) and its biogeography, and was pioneering a notion surrounding world (Umwelt) should be of the concept of ecological niche (Darwin considered as a unit. Charles Elton 1859), which would be fully developed developed pyramids of numbers and the decades later by Elton, Gause and concept of the ecological niche (1927) and Hutchinson. Ecological topics became Eugene Odum, Alfred J. Lotka and Raymond investigative axes of this new science, which Lindeman presented the idea of energy would, a few years later be recognized with ecology. However, ecosystem ecology still an official name. has been criticized by analyzing the Several suggestions for the nomenclature ecosystem in a holistic manner, although of this new science were proposed in the adopting a reductionist methodology 1860s. In 1865, LouisAdolphe Bertillon, (Wimsatt 1982). proposed the term mesology to describe the The risk of applying partition analysis to theory of the environment (Drouin 1993), complex systems is that it can disrupt the and the English naturalist St. George holistic unity of ecology, the concept of the Jackson Mivart proposed hexicology for the ecosystem, as well as imped an study of the relationships of organisms with understanding of certain phenomena and the environment, the nature of the inhabited properties that result from a degree of location, favorable conditions and complexity or organization (Hurrell and interactions between benefactors and Albuquerque 2012). The partitioning of enemies; however, this latter term was never ecology based on observable variables can

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disfigure the essence of the process, and so in these laboratories, such as those care must be taken with simplistic models proposed by Lotka, Volterra, Gause, based on a Laplacian conception of a D’Ancona, among others, could hardly be Universe that is reducible to simpler levels, applied to real situations nor be represented so as not to forget the emergent properties in nature. The application of the that the holistic view of ecology provides. experimental method depends on a deep The scientific revolution of the 17th knowledge understanding of communities century was a watershed. Much of the new (Agrawal et al. 2007), thus demonstrating vision of the world at the time was due to the the error of seeking holistic knowledge mechanistic and reductionist school of through reductionist analysis of each factor thought founded by René Descartes (1596 involved (Wimsatt 1982). 1650), which intended to explain biological In the 1940s there were several attempts phenomena in terms of the frameworks of to reduce the complexity of ecological physics and chemistry. This was not different relationships through the use of in ecology. The discipline of ecology arose mathematical equations, which gave rise to out of large questions about the distinction theoretical speculations farremoved from between the living and the nonliving; the the field and laboratory (ÁvilaPires 1999). attempt to elucidate the chemical activities of This period was considered the golden age fermentation, putrefaction and combustion, of theoretical ecology (Scudo and Ziegler and plant physiology (ÁvilaPires 1999). 1978). Throughout the 1970s and 1980s, Thus, with a better understanding of the ecological modeling attracted (and still process of photosynthesis, initiated by the does), ecologists who sought (and still seek) English chemist Joseph Priestley (1733 to make ecology less descriptive and more 1804) and the Dutch Johannes IngenHousz predictive. However, the attempt to turn (17301799), the appreciation of the ecology into an exact science needs to be interactions among animals, plants and assessed considering the idiosyncrasies of minerals solidified the ecology as a the intellectual and cultural information of the discipline. IngenHousz suggested that there respective epochs. There are compelling existed a natural equilibrium between arguments for why reductionist research animals and plants; in the presence of light, strategies cannot address for certain plant chlorophyll would consume the carbon problems in ecology (Wimsatt 1982). dioxide exhaled by animals, and release Thus, also in the 1970s, the field of deep oxygen, which, in turn, would be used by ecology emerged (Naess 1973), derived animals (ÁvilaPires 1999). With this idea, from conservation biologists of more IngenHousz helped to solidify the systemic northern countries, with the intention of unity of ecology. going further than the ecology itself, towards Early in the 20th century, several understanding it as a state of ecological laboratory experiments applying reductionist consciousness, that is, that human and methods were undertaken in order to solidify nonhuman lives have intrinsic value and standardize methodological approaches independent of utilitarianism (Naess 1984). in ecology (Lotka 1925). However, the basic Deep ecology has an extremely biocentric unit of this new science was the complexity approach and, includes spiritual, ethical and of the relationships of organisms with the moral influences, especially with regard to a environment and so many models developed dichotomous and dialectical relationship

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between man and nature. It holds that transformed into anthropogenic biomes humans are related to nonhumans and (anthromes) by human occupation and land irrevocably connected to the natural world use (Ellis and Ramankutty 2008; Ellis 2015). (Pierotti and Wildcat 2000), however, human Ecologists have preferred to leave the intervention in ecological processes was not human being out of their considerations of well being perceived. During 1970s, the ecosystems, because their inclusion human participation as key actor in introduces sociocultural variables that perturbation process, while at the same time require complex analyses (Diegues 2000). being a fundamental agent in the With the exclusion of the human being from recuperation of systems start to be ecological analyses, the ubiquitous considered, understanding the human being modifications caused by human activity is to be intrinsic to ecological complexity. considered an external action, and always During the 1970s and 1980s, Ramón with a negative impact on nature. Margalef and his disciples from the The validity of widely accepted Barcelona school, introduced in ecology the environmental beliefs should be questioned, concepts of nonlinear thermodynamics of such as, for example, beliefs about primary irreversible processes, contributed to the forests or about global warming analysis. complexity in its triadic model of competition, Scientific discoveries are often accepted as where the analysis of the two competitors if they were absolute truths. A scientific truth, adds that of the resource for which they however, is a conclusion drawn from a compete (Margalef 1980; Margalef 1986). limited set of data; it is an explanation of Margalef did not enter into the practical level what scientists understand about a subject of complexity science, but was one of the at a particular point in time, based on their pioneers in relating ecology to complexity own qualifications and interpretations (Flos 2005). (Prigogine 1994). An “absolute truth” may be In the 1980s, ecology resurfaced as a replaced by another truth in light of new result of studies about capitalism and information that does not fit the previous utilitarianism, going beyond the paradigm. consequences of environmental destruction, Ecology is a theoryladen science and addressed the relationship between (McIntosh 1987). However, many ecological man and environment. Due to human theories have been replaced over time impacts to natural environment having (Graham and Dayton 2002). Concepts and consequences directly affecting human laws have been questioned, tested and societies (Ellis et al. 2013), a new worldview subsequently falsified (Brook and McLachlan appeared (ecological sensitivity as a social 2005, Graham and Dayton 2002). The fact), driven by scientific and metaphysical concepts of climax communities and questions. ecological equilibrium, for example, have Nonetheless, ecological models and been used for nearly an entire century ecosystem theory experienced difficulty without being questioned, until some 25 or integrating the human being into analyses. 30 years ago (McCune and Allen 1985; These theories were intended for Dublin et al. 1990). Currently scientists work understanding pristine models, in spite of the with the theory of nonequilibrium or with fact that almost all of the world’s landscapes systems that are far from equilibrium, in (around threequarters) had already been thermodynamic terms (Reice 1994).

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Increasingly, nature is recognized as a state can influence knowledge construction. In this of continuous change (Pickett et al. 1991), sense, the neutrality of the researcher, as with some changes being random and required by the positivist paradigm is a independent of each other, and others complicating requirement and distorts the induced by human beings. Other theories of essence of the complexity of ecology (Allen ecology have also been challenged over the and Hoekstra 1992). years, such as, the theory that areas with Finally, and in the contemporary way, greater soil fertility would have greater ecology that develops outside research diversity (i.e. the higher the nutritional value centers is often used interchangeably as of the soil, the greater the number of plant "environmen" and "nature". This improper species). However, it was later shown that use can transform the science of physical environments with intermediate environmental relationships (complex nutritional availability were those that had interactions) into ambiguities and greatest diversity (Theory of Intermediate weaknesses that are aimed at Soil Fertility, Tilman 1986). In a similar heterogeneous concepts (Guerra Sierra and manner, many other theories have been del Hierro 2008). falsified or challenged over time, including the theory of complexity and stability The realism illusion – uncertainty (Chesson 2000); the theory of diversity requires other perspectives versus area (Losos and Schluter 2000; Whittaker and FernandezPalacios 2007); Understanding contemporary science is the theory of a predatorprey dynamics an exercise that begins with the history and (Krebs et al. 2001), among others. heritage of the hegemony of one kind of Much of the work that are done in ecology knowledge: the positivist view. Since the 17th is still at the level of testing new hypothesis century, scientific research was marked by of specific phenomena, but is at risk of the Cartesian paradigm or generating reductionist explanations, positivism/rationalism. The most prominent because complex phenomena require rationalists of the 17th century were René complex explanations; otherwise, the Descartes (French), Baruch Spinoza explanatory models become reductionist (Dutch/Portuguese) and Gottfried Leibniz (Morin 1980, 1985, 1990). In an opposite (German), who suggested that the world and contemporary way, the central issue of could be transformed into a mathematical ecology is the existence of ultracomplex framework. Since then, Western science has webs involving different trophic levels and subscribed to a ‘‘mechanistic’’ view of the environmental factors or the existence of universe, wherein the world is a machinelike semiindependents interconnected system with interconnected parts governed microsystems (Agrawal et al. 2007; Allen by laws that produce well defined and and Hoekstra 1993). However, this controllable outcomes (Goerner 1994). This complexity is not taken into account when view led to the attempt to discover nature the human being is included in this process. itself, its laws, and its determinism in order to Analysis of ecology should not include predict and monitor natural phenomena. humans as just a research subject, but also Determinism was, and is, desirable for consider the consequences of their actions. explaining physical phenomena for which Humans are also perceived as those who certain regularity is expected. However, it is

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possible to escape the tough Determinism of hegemonic science in a culture of a capitalist Newtonian mechanics. society that longs for immediate results. Determinism, it must be understood, is However, the relationship of objectivity to opposed to the uncertainties of the future, science is nothing more than the imposition and is influenced by the transformations of of one particular subjectivity to the exclusion history. With the advent of quantum physics, of all others. Especially, in areas that relate scientific methods began to be questioned more directly to human life, a perfectly less, especially considering the notion of deterministic point of view cannot be irreversibility of time, as defended by Ilya expected, leaving little room for human Prigogine (1994). Thus, new perspectives freedom, unless it is made with a purely are expected by the premise of uncertainty. subjective notion. From this point of view, The limits set by the probability of man is not an exception to nature, but is deterministic uncertainties and the content of certainly a key feature of it (Bateson 1972; physical reality reveal a new complexity, Euvé 2005). According to Prigogine (2001), where the relationship between observer “whatever we call reality, it is revealed to us and the object of study (neutrality) loses its only through the active construction in which dichotomous character and assumes a we participate”. continuum. This continuity does not The separation of the researcher from the necessarily lead to a merger between the object of study (in ecology, the separation of subject and the object, because the rigor of man from nature) is one of the pillars of the the scientific method and the fidelity of scientific method, where the researcher observation impose their displacement (Bohr should define the research object 1991). According to Niels Bohr (1991), about independently of himself. However, there is the notion of complementarity in quantum no categorical separation or, watertight physics “any situation in which the division between researcher and object interaction is at the same time negligible and (Euvé 2005), otherwise this understanding uncontrollable escapes the classical problem would allow the illusion of objectivity and of objectification”. neutrality (reality). The researcher (subject) One of the great and still indissoluble does not occupy a transcendent position in myths in science is related to neutrality and relation to the world; the subject cannot objectivity. On the one hand, the idea of describe an object abstracting of the bond neutrality, the noninclusion of subjective that unites them (Prigogine 1994). aspects of research or the establishment of The approach of positivist science is to results and interpretations without collect an abundance of data prior to making researcher interference, is still endorsed by conclusions regarding a topic or problem. scientific precepts (Almeida 2012). The idea There are countless examples of research of neutrality, in fact, is unique to modern into natural (ecological) phenomena without Western science and is just a component of this certainty of understanding, plus, the research that does not allow interpretations methods selected to examine a particular and representations with thin lines of problem, can have a strong influence in subjectivity and idiosyncrasies of human determining the answer. In this sense, knowledge and practices in scientific scientists are expected to provide clear and production. On the same hand, the defense explicit explanations of both the process of of objectivity is a product of positivist research and the results obtained so that the

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investigation can be replicated. This position senses can deceive us, such as, for is considered to reflect the "real world", and example, the inverse codification of an thus, the methods employed become image that our brain needs to perform so standardized, precluding investigators from that we know where things really are. seeking more information that could lead to Anyway, our real world is a universe from different interpretations. The partiality which an observer can never eliminate towards this view (absolutist position of disorder or himself (Morin 1999). For positivism) ignores other possibilities and Maturana (1977), an important Chilean other perceptions of the same reality, neuroscientist, “reality is a phenomenon nevertheless in a constant changing world, constructed by an observer in relation to the there will always be uncertainties. All environment”. So, we can only attain knowledge of the world is not only private, knowledge of appearances, never of things but also provisional, hypothetical and in and of themselves (Kant 1966). According uncertain (about the irreversibility of time). to the Austrian physicist Erwin Schrodinger Classical science requires that all "all we know, we know from our own knowledge from observation and experience experience" (Schrodinger 1997). be considered, without reference to human. Furthermore, Edgar Morin (1999) comments, Although, according to Gaston Bachelard “we only produce knowledge beginning with (1996), "scientific knowledge is not a ourselves, from our cognitive models, which pleonasm of experiment". Thus, one can are known by cognisance of our own speak of the dialogical nature of the autonomy”. In this sense, assumptions, relationship between scientific discourse and theories and interpretations by scientists are the real. In these sense, Emanuel Kant the result of cognitive attitudes experienced (1966) models all understanding of reality as and consolidated by them (Hurrell 1987). eminently having a human foundation. He Finally, natural reflection can assist in has argued that “all spatiotemporal objects resolution and clarity of results; however, are appearances, and since they are the researchers generate explanations from their only objects given to us, therefore all objects own theoretical framework. are appearances (transcendentally ideal) The concept does not arise of scientist's through the lens of human sensibility”. ability to debug errors and illusions in favor Contemporary science proceeds in a of a truth that then unfolds (Foucault 1995). direction opposite to the ontology of the real, According to Bachelard (1996) “we always but without completely abandoning the real know in negation to previous knowledge, so sense. For Bergson (1990) “the reality is there are no new truths, only the first error”. only a particular case of the possibility”. Truth is in constant motion being associated Mental models are characterized as with the history and context of memories and incomplete representations of reality (Jones culture of a particular time, that is, truth is a et al. 2011), and are models of dynamic mirage that cannot be realized because the representations that change over time called world we know is created by us (Eisner the cognitive representations. For George 1990). According to Multifocal Intelligence Berkeley, one of the defenders of idealism, Theory (MIT), the virtuality of thought shows the world only exists as an idea, a kind of that absolute truth is always an unattainable consensual hallucination (Berkeley 1871). end (Cury 2013). Thus, truth is an ongoing Even the physical reality perceived by the dialogue between the subject and nature,

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with questions being formulated to determine knowledge, among others, prevented the answered. An active questioning. In this union of human understanding with the sense, contemporary epistemology clarifies nature of things (Adorno and Horkheimer that the subject is not the scribe of nature. 1985). Nature is interrogated, and the scientific Positivist reductionism constantly tries to method is not content to passively record separate component facts in order to data. rearrange them later and induct Some authors (Morin, Eisner, Maturana, generalizations. One of the great emblematic Varela and many others) point out that expressions of the 17th century reductionism science is a human construct, which is the was "divide and rule," used as a formula by exact opposite of positivism, that is, science Machiavell (14691527) to dominate cities; is not a soliloquy, or even just a dialogue and by Descartes (15961650) to dominate with other scientists, but a constant intellectual challenges. In this sense, all the construction, which must take into account cruel rigor of the scientific method was the complexity of human relationships. invested in favor of contemplating a universe Nevertheless, materialistic view (partial of simplicity, clarity, calm, purity, eternity and understanding of a phenomenon), in peace, and, evading the everyday, world general, works well, and can bring benefits experience, personal existence, and to the evolution of a theory regarding the reconciling monotony, instability, humanenvironment relationship. This is not complication and noise (Einstein 1979). to say, however, that it is factual to reduce However, a price to pay, according to the complexity of this relationship without Prigogine (1994), is that "the more the world considering the influence of cultural becomes transparent, the soul becomes relationships (Hurrell 2014). opaque". Plurality and human complexity present a The complexity of the human new way of seeing truth and reality. What is environment relationship required are pluralistic ways of thinking about the world and actions to change it The technical and methodological (Kuhn 1962). New paradigms are emerging advancement of humanity does not always from quantum physics, philosophy, human follow a path of Cartesian reductionist sciences, chaos theory, complexity and so absolutism. The great achievements of many other sources. What can a new humanity over, at least, the last ten thousand alliance between the history of men, their years, are referred to as the "Neolithic knowledge and their science tell us? paradox", distinct from the positivist On these emergent properties of the methodologies of the 16th and 17th centuries arrow of time (irreversibility), which (Fores 1983). For a long time, human bifurcates and distinguishes the stories of knowledge relating to nature was sufficient the universe, matter and life, the human for clarifying the partial truths that posteriorly condition is imbricated by multiplicity (Morin it would "falsified" by the new positivist 1973, 1999). The hybridization of physical, science (Fores 1983). However, with the biological and metaphysical, collective and advent of positivist science some attitudes, individual, and natural and artificial such as faithful credulity, aversion to doubt, phenomena allows the development of a boastful knowledge, acceptance of partial new paradigm of systemic complexity and of

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multiple understandings (Morin and Le humanism" of Nietzsche (2000), in which it Moigne 2000), which includes uncertainty, pulsates and yearn for it return. unpredictability, incompleteness, and instability (May 1989). This complexity is Approach of scocialecological more properly recognized as a selfeco system ethnobiological studies organized system with emergency features, which it creates itself, and that is far from Some sciences that focus on human equilibrium (Morin 1999; Morin and Le beings, such as human ecology (Campbell Moigne 2000). 1985; Neves 2002) and ecological Therefore, LéviStrauss comments: “the anthropology (Hardesty 1979), approaches scientific thinking should be adjusted by one relationships between human beings and side by the perception and imagination and their environmental, on the other hand, the by other side by displaced manner, that is, biocultural ecology (BuxoRey 1980) and necessary relationships that constitute the ethnobiology mainly evidence the complexity object of all science”, that is, must be of the relationships between human beings achieved in two different ways: one closer to and their surroundings, involving abiotic and sensitive institution and another farthest biotic interactions, as well as social and (LéviStrauss 1964). A scientific fact, in and cultural dimensions (Albuquerque and of itself, is the result of the sum of selections Hurrell 2010). In addition, and in a made throughout the research process contemporary way, ethnobiology can serve (Brook and McLachlan 2005). Thus, there is as a mediator for multicultural dialogue and no way to separate the human from the complex of environmental issues. scientific, the internal from the external of the In general, ethnobiology is characterized scientific activity. as a holistic and multidisciplinary discipline, In this sense, the human presence in and so possesses many definitions with environmental relationships (the ecology), different emphases and approaches, both as a study object and as an observer, although always with interest into interpreter and source of discussion offers interrelationship between human groups and new possibilities. This is a period of post the natural environment, along with the normal science (Toledo and Barrrera changes over time (Hurrell and Albuquerque Bassols 2008), according to Kuhn's 2012), that is, the researches of terminology (1962) with the confluence of ethnobiology investigates the complex set of generic works with the influence of relationships between biota and past and mathematics and Newtonian classical present human societies (Stepp 2005). physics. According to Kuhn (1962), theories Thus, ethnobiology is the study of the ideas, are not falsified by direct comparison with knowledge, beliefs and actions of a given nature, but by adopting new paradigms, society about nature (Ellen et al. 2000; which he called “scientific revolutions” or Nabhan 2009; Toledo 1992; 2002). To “extraordinary science”. This new era of Marques (2001), ethnobiology can be science is consistent with the field of described as the scientific understanding of complexity, in which issues complex the connections between humans (culture humanists it integrates actions and and knowledge) and their environment. concepts, and possibly it involves the The propositions of ethnobiology have ecology. We may forward to "asleep many different goals, which result in lines of

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investigation into the relationships humans Medeiros 2013; Albuquerque et al. 2015a; with specific areas of ecological knowledge Albuquerque and Hurrell 2010; Hurrell and (Sturtevant 1964) or with ecology itself. Albuquerque 2012). For Alves et al. (2010), Moreover, several areas of biology are the association of ethnobiology with ecology investigated in ethnobiology studies, such as adds complexity, especially when ethnobotany, ethnozoology, considering ecology as an interaction ethnoornithology, ethnoichthyology, among between the natural and social sciences others. Among these lines of investigation, (Odum 1977). Thus, rather than adopting the ethnobotany and ethnozoology are worth purely ecological methods and techniques, mentioning; a major review of the definition this proposal incorporated ecology into its and key concepts of ethnobotany were conceptual framework with the provided by Hurrell and Albuquerque (2012) understanding that ecology is the science of and a review of ethnozoology by Alves the complex relationships between living (2012). In general, the historical view of beings (human beings included) and their ethnobotany and ethnozoology has been of environments (sensu lato), as the result of a utilitarian bias, with humans being an evolutionary process (Hurrell 2014). considered disconnected from the The complexity of the relationship ecosystem. This perspective, however, between people and the environment often cannot be comprehended in the context of involves adaptive responses to ecological biocultural ecology, whose premises include and evolutionary forces (Albuquerque and human beings, as both culturally and Medeiros 2013; Hurrell 2014; Hurrell and biologically part of ecosystem (Albuquerque Albuquerque 2012). The application of ideas and Hurrell 2010; Hurrell 1990; Hurrell regarding evolution, through deductive 2014). reasoning, to human societies and culture, The proposal to integrating ecological was first considered by Herbert Spencer concepts into ethnobotany emerged in the (18201903) in the 19th century. Recently, 1940s (Ford 1978; 1994). However, was in one branch of ethnobiology has realizing 1980s that the link between ethnobotany and studies that follow ecological assumptions ecology really started (Albuquerque and and theories within an evolutionary context, Hurrell 2010). The ethnobotanical approach an approach termed “evolutionary of looking at peopleplant relationships from ethnobiology” (Albuquerque and Medeiros the theoretical context of general ecology 2013; Albuquerque et al. 2015a; Hurrell and can be useful (Albuquerque and Hanazaki Albuquerque 2012). In these studies, the 2009; Peroni et al. 2010), due the complex relationship between humans and ethnobotany, in the particularistic sense their environment are investigated within the (Albuquerque and Hurrell 2010), to be context of evolutionary biology. This type of similar to ecology in their complexity and approach reflects the current state of the interdisciplinary (Hurrell and Albuquerque epistemological evolution of ethnobiology 2012). and increasingly solidifies the perspective of Some pioneering works have made a complex relationship between humans and strong and wellstructured connections their environment. The use of evolutionary between fields of ethnobiology and the principles could unite the theoretical theoretical and methodological frameworks concepts of ecological systems with those of of ecology (see details in Albuquerque and cultural systems, because both systems

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have an open nature, interacting strongly Current discussions regarding the and adjusting their structure and environmental crisis have taken place not organization, which could indicate a only in the fields of ecology, geography, coevolutionary relationship between them, engineering and economics, but also in the referring as a socialecological system social sciences including anthropology, and (Berkes and Folke 1998; FerreiraJúnior et ethnobiology. In fact, the environmental al. 2011; Folke 2006; Nascimento et al. crisis involves ecological and social 2015). problems in the same context (Walker et al. Among the diverse research lines in 2004). In the last three decades, discussions evolutionary ethnobiology, some are regarding conservation and the maintenance associated of ecological theories applied to of the processes that define biodiversity local (or traditional) knowledge, wisdom and, have become essential in scientific studied societies (see details in Albuquerque community (Holck 2008). According to et al. 2015a). Studies, for examples, with Castro et al. (2010), such discussions are ecological resilience (Carpenter et al. 2001; based on understanding of two fundamental Gunderson 2000; Holling 1973; Reldman aspects of biodiversity: (1) a multidisciplinary and Kinzig 2003), ecological redundancy approach is necessary for understanding the (Walker 1992; Wellnitz and Poff 2001), interrelationships among ecological, Optimal Foraging Theory (MacArthur and economic and social systems in an Pianka, 1966; Martin 1983; Perry and Pianka integrated manner (Berkes and Folke 1998); 1997; Pyke 1984; Sih and Christensen and (2) conservation cannot be based solely 2001), are investigated on the field of the on establishment of areas conserved cultural history (cultural systems) (Danielsen et al. 2007), because managed (Albuquerque 2006; FerreiraJúnior et al. and impacted areas represent a large 2013; Folke 2006). percentage of the world's ecosystems (Ellis The contribution of local knowledge to 2015; Pimentel et al. 1992). scientificacademic knowledge of The traditional models of conservation ethnobiological studies has been recognized science have been marked by since late in the 20th century (Posey 1987; methodological reductionism (Brinkerhoff Hunn 2007). In ecological studies, the use Jackson 1994), however, the conservation local (or traditional) ecological knowledge is processes and management of natural promisor to better understanding about the recourses should not proceed in a process maintainers of biodiversity reductionist direction. The relationship (Albuquerque et al. 2009; SánchezAzofeita between nature and human beings et al. 2005), approaching studies of incorporates a social perspective in perception and representation of processes changing, including how they are landscapes; temporal and spatial changes in perceived by those who cause the own target populations; use and management of changes (GarridoPérez and Glasnovic natural resources, among others. 2014; Rozzi 1999). Human experience with nature can provide numerous insights into The other side of ecology: integrating the processes that maintain and transform local ecological knowledge with ecological equilibrium (GarridoPérez and scientific knowledge for biodiversity conservation Glasnovic 2014). The reductionist Cartesian view of positivist researchers can limit the

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scope of interpretations of natural knowledge and beliefs passed down through phenomena and their relationship with generations via cultural transmission and in human beings. The same situation can be the shared practices, and can be dynamic seen and perceived by different individuals and flexible in face of fluctuations of that with different life experiences and values, environment (Berkes et al. 2000). Although that is, is possible to have more than one views of TEK are considered ‘‘traditional,’’ explanation for the same phenomenon with the negative connotation of being based on the theoretical premises of the outdated or primitive, and thus of little use to researcher (Maturana 2007) and/or the local solve problems of modern society (Beckford knowledge. Thus, the conservation aspects and Barker 2007), this should not be taken go further this perspective (Diegues 2000). It to mean that they cannot change since the is clear that humans are not unrelated to use of the term “traditional” simply implies nature, and can manage, plan and execute the repetition of a fixed body of data. actions related to it; inherently we are, and Local Ecological Knowledge or Non belong, to the complexity of ecology. Traditional Ecological Knowledge represents According to Leff (2002), from this experiential knowledge derived from perspective “the environmental crisis is not interactions with the local environment and is an ecological crisis, but a crisis of the characteristic of culturally heterogeneous reason”, or, in other words, a crisis of the (pluricultural) contexts (Berkes et al. 2000; concept of dissociating nature from society Huntington 2000; Huntington et al. 2004; (Capra 2004). It is necessary to seek the Hurrell 2014). The ecological knowledge of other side of the environmental crisis; the human communities that interact with maintenance of biodiversity is not only due resources can be profound, accurate and to natural processes, but also to actions of valid and should be incorporated into human societies, their cultural relationships, ecological studies and assessments of the and their ecological knowledge (Capra 2004; conservation status of species (Albuquerque Diegues and Arruda 2001). et al. 2009; Alves and Souto 2015; Helfman The ecological knowledge emerged from 2007; SánchezAzofeita et al. 2005). the interaction between the human being In fact, both of these sources of and their local environmental can be defined knowledge are relative terms, not mutually as Local Knowledge Systems (LKS), which exclusive (Hurrell 2014), although Ruddle is defined as a set of knowledge, practices, (1994) considered that the term 'local' is less beliefs, traditions about the environment problematic, and thus a more practical developed and sustained by indigenous and description or identifier of the relevant local communities (Vandebroek et al. 2011). people and their knowledge. In addition, In the literature, several terms have been Brook and McLachlan (2008) also used to refer to this type of knowledge, considered LEK as more inclusive term. including Traditional Ecological Knowledge Thus, I will use it for the purposes of this (TEK) (Berkes 1999; Berkes et al. 2000; review. Huntington 2000), nonTraditional Ecological An individual person’s ecological Knowledge (Hurrell 2014) and Local knowledge depends on their direct Ecological Knowledge (LEK) (Berkes 1993). experience with the environment in which Traditional Ecological Knowledge they live, as well as on the learning represents the cumulative body of ecological processes they participate in with other

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community members (Rudlle 1993). into species distribution, ecophysiology and According to Toledo and BarreraBassols ecology (Huntington 2000; Huntington et al. (2010), an individual builds their knowledge 2004). In this sense, there is a need for through historical experience (what was complementary studies that incorporate local said), socially shared experience (what ecological knowledge and scientific ecology others say) and personal experience (what (Figure 1). This complementarity is known as an individual observes for themselves). the postclassic period of ethnobiology Thus, understanding the choices made by (Clément 1998) and is considered an people in their relationship with the important tool for decisions regarding environment requires knowledge of how conservation strategies and local these people conceive and classify their management plans (Huntington 2011). midst. In addition, the knowledge (environmental) to be understood is FINAL REMARKS inextricably linked to belief system (kosmos), body of knowledge (corpus) and production Ecology, like other scientific disciplines, practices (praxis) of traditional knowledge emerged from a Cartesian scientific (Toledo 1992; 2001; 2002; Toledo and academic context, which influenced its BarreraBassols 2008). The studies of the methodological and theoretical basis. kosmoscorpuspraxis complex (KCP) However, advancement in the understanding integrate the LEK within theorizing of the complex interrelationships observed processes, through symbolic meaning, and experienced over time by many representation and production at various professionals, has allowed a clearer spatiotemporal scales (Toledo and Barrera comprehension of the complexity of the Bassols 2010), to the use and management conceptual and methodological basis of of the landscape and natural resources ecology. The inclusion of a humanistic bias (BarreraBassols and Toledo 2005; Reyes as the object of study and complexity García and MartíSanz 2007). generator is pungent matter in new Because of its peculiarities, contemporary theoretical and methodological approaches ecology tends towards interdisciplinary to ecology, as well as biodiversity integration, incorporating local ecological conservation processes. knowledge (LEK) into the production of To meet the objectives of biodiversity scientific ecological knowledge (SEK) conservation in their entirety and maintain (Hurrell and Albuquerque 2012; Reyes natural resources it is necessary to diagnose García et al. 2010). This integration the impacts to resources, their causes, promises to produce a greater awareness of processes and consequences and their relationships over knowledge, in order to indirect effects on economy, institutions, balance the excesses of positivist science, individuals and social behaviors (Diegues without linking with environment. LEK can 2000). It is necessary to direct efforts not provide information about the contemporary only to protected areas (Conservation Units) status of target species and ecological (West et al. 2006), but also to managed resources (Turvey et al. 2014), beside, it can areas and in support of local people (Berkes be a guide for autoecological studies of 2004; Wells and McShane, 2004), which species of economic interest, or provide currently account for most of the landscapes complementary information to investigations in the world (Ellis 2015). Thus, a new

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Figure 1. Representation of a framework to guide empirical studies when considering methodological complementarity. The goal in this framework is not necessarily to cover every possible process, but, instead, to highlight the way that are needed to better of knowledge ecological and to understanding ecological phenomena and conservation strategies. discussion seems have become established (complex complementarity). at this time – the role of the community in the The use of traditional ecological analyses conservation of natural resources, with use in conservation studies can be insufficient if of the local ecological knowledge to targeting it is disconnected from qualitative data on the actions (Mittermeier et al. 2003). The the investigated human populations and their biological and cultural impacts that our complexity (Berkes 2004; Berkes et al. 2000; actions have had, and still have, on the Danielsen et al. 2007). The use of the LEK environment and on our own species has addresses a level of reality and correspond often been the driver of the rise or decline of to the universe of meanings, motives, civilizations throughout human history beliefs, aspirations, values and attitudes, (Diamond 1991; Diamond 2005). which corresponds to a deeper space of It is necessary to dissolve the dualism relationships, processes and phenomena between man and the environment so that that cannot be reduced to the environmental issues can be resolved operationalization of variables (Minayo (Nabhan 2001). The conservation biology 2003). In fact, the integration of the LEK with science, inherently, need of the relationship the SEK do not cancel each other out, but between human being and the environment complement each other, providing different as well as of the perception of man, acting insights to the same reality (Minayo and clearly as a negative modifier, but Sanches 1993; ReyesGarcía et al. 2010; undoubtedly, of form positive in their Vandebroek et al. 2011). Apart from recovery actions, management and opposition and the substitution of enhancement of integrative relations knowledge, it is necessary to speak of

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complementarity (Figure 1). ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Thus, the progress of acquiring knowledge should always be a I would like to thank the anonymous reorganization of models to understand the referees for detailed and wise advice and the world and never by their deletion or CNPq for the financial support and for replacement. However, one has to take into productivity grant awarded. account of Popper's ideas, that any description of a phenomenon involves REFERENCES process of a selection (Popper`s 1959) thus the holistic approach (complementarity) Adorno T, Horkheimer M (1985) Dialética do should be viewed with caution and directed esclarecimento: fragmentos filosóficos. only for some knowledge phenomena. Tradução: Guido Antônio de Almeida. Jorge Zahar Ed. Rio de Janeiro, RJ. The continued development of integrating LEK into science ecological frameworks for Agrawal AA, Ackerly DD, Adler F, Arnold AE, Cáceres C, Doak DF, Post E, Hudson PJ, Maron understanding environmental change J, Mooney KA, Power M, Schemske D, depends on the advancement of tools for Stachowicz J, Strauss S, Turner MG, Werner E aggregating observations in a way that (2007) Filling key gaps in population and satisfies the demand for quantitative rigor in community ecology. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment 5(3): 145–152. the ecological sciences but, critically, seeks Albuquerque UP (2006) Reexamining to avoid inappropriately reductionist hypotheses concerning the use and treatments of resource users’ knowledge knowledge of medicinal plants: a study in the (Beaudreau and Levin 2014). LEK is not Caatinga vegetation of NE Brazil. Journal of inherently based only on concepts about Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 2(1):30. nature, but also involves public politics Albuquerque UP, Hanazaki N (2009) Five (politic ecology) and ethics questions problems in current ethnobotanical research and some suggestions for strengthening (Pierotti and Wildcat 2000). Finally, there is a them. Human Ecology 37: 653661. lot to be learned from these knowledge, not Albuquerque UP, Araújo TAS, Ramos MA, only from the knowledge itself, but also from Nascimento VT, Lucena RFP, Monteiro JM, the philosophical meanings embedded in Alencar N, Araújo EL (2009) How ethnobotany that knowledge (Vandebroek et al. 2011). can aid biodiversity conservation reflections Anyway, according to Germano and on investigations in the semiarid region of NE Brazil. Biodiversity and Conservation 18: Kulesza (2010) it takes a new alliance that 127150. aims to meet polyphonic interests, the Albuquerque UP, Hanazaki N (2010) Recent wishes of local communities, society as a Developments and Case Studies in whole and the scientific community itself. In Ethnobotany. Sociedade Brasileira de this sense, human bias is of the utmost Etnobiologia e Etnoecologia/NUPEEA, Recife. importance in the search for answers to Albuquerque UP, Hurrell JA (2010) ecological questions, especially when we Ethnobotany: one concept and many interpretations In Albuquerque UP, Hanazaki N integrate the Local Ecological Knowledge (orgs.) Recent Developments and Case Studies into our ecological analyses with goal to in Ethnobotany. Sociedade Brasileira de improve the processes maintainers of the Etnobiologia e Etnoecologia/NUPEEA, Recife, biodiversity. pp. 8799.

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Received: 22 April 2017 Accepted: 13 August 2017 Published: 18 August 2017