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Thinking About the Human Bias in Our Ecological Analyses for Biodiversity Conservation Sérgio De Faria Lopes1,*

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Thinking About the Human Bias in Our Ecological Analyses for Biodiversity Conservation Sérgio De Faria Lopes1,* REVIEW Ethnobiology and Conservation 2017, 6:14 (18 August 2017) doi:10.15451/ec2017­08­6.14­1­24 ISSN 2238­4782 ethnobioconservation.com The other side of Ecology: thinking about the human bias in our ecological analyses for biodiversity conservation Sérgio de Faria Lopes1,* ABSTRACT Ecology as a science emerged within a classic Cartesian positivist context, in which relationships should be understood by the division of knowledge and its subsequent generalization. Over­time, ecology has addressed many questions, from the processes that lead to the origin and maintenance of life to modern theories of trophic webs and non­ equilibrium. However, the ecological models and ecosystem theories used in the field of ecology have had difficulty integrating man into analysis, although humans have emerged as a global force that is transforming the entirety of planet. In this sense, currently, advances in the field of the ecology that develop outside of research centers is under the spotlight for social, political, economic and environmental goals, mainly due the environmental crisis resulting from overexploitation of natural resources and habitat fragmentation. Herein a brief historical review of ecology as science and humankind’s relationship with nature is presented, with the objective of assessing the impartiality and neutrality of scientific research and new possibilities of understanding and consolidating knowledge, specifically local ecological knowledge. Moreover, and in a contemporary way, the human being presence in environmental relationships, both as a study object, as well as an observer, proposer of interpretation routes and discussion, requires new possibilities. Among these proposals, the human bias in studies of the biodiversity conservation emerges as the other side of ecology, integrating scientific knowledge with local ecological knowledge and converging with the idea of complexity in the relationships of humans with the environment. Keywords: Complexity, Evolutionary Ethnobiology, History of Ecology, Local Ecological Knowledge 1 Departamento de Biologia, Universidade Estadual da Paraíba, Av. Baraúnas n 351, Bodocongó, Campina Grande, Paraíba, 58430­335, Brasil. * E­mail address: [email protected] 1 Lopes 2017. The other side of Ecology: thinking about the human bias in our ecological analyses for biodiversity conservation Ethnobio Conserv 6:14 INTRODUCTION functions (Groot et al. 2010). In a biosphere increasingly transformed by human Ecology, as a science, emerged from societies, the science of ecology cannot deep questions about possible explanations advance as a predictive science without of natural phenomena that have faced gaining the basic theoretical tools needed to mankind since the beginning (Ellis 2015). In investigate and understand ultimate causes, the 16th century, one of these great mysteries not just the consequences (Ellis et al. 2013). in need of “scientific” unravelling was simply In this sense, the idea of infinite resources the distinction of what was alive and was began to be seen as irrational. The not. Later came questions regarding the subsequent environmental crisis took on complexities of the chemical processes remarkable proportions since the second involved with life and role of abiotic factors in half of the twentieth century (Holck 2008), driving it. Over time, the questions mainly due to the over exploitation of natural investigated by ecologist came to address resources with direct consequences for the complex interactions between the Biodiversity Conservation (Doughty 2013). environment and living beings (Agrawal et al. The conservation model that originated, 2007; Bramwell 1989; Graham and Dayton and was promulgated in the US, established 2002; McIntosh 1985). However, human that nature and non­human animals must be involvement was always considered outside protected from human interference, and that of the context of these interactions, in order true conservation means setting aside tracts to be neutral and objective in the discovery of land from which human settlements, and and production of knowledge (Prigogine even humans themselves, may be excluded 1994). (Brinkerhoff Jackson 1994). However, it is Ecology arises, then, from a classic necessary to direct efforts not only to Cartesian positivist context in which protected areas (Conservation Units), but relationships are understood by the division also to the conservation of managed areas of knowledge and its subsequent and their local populations, as well as the widespread, without relying on human establishment of co­management efforts involvement, especially regarding the (Huntington 2011). Consequently, the consequences of overexploitation of natural problem is not a lack of knowledge for resources (Pimm et al. 2014). However, effectively managing resources, but rather alterations to ecological and evolutionary motivating humans to conserve (Anderson processes across the Earth have been made 1996). by human societies since the beginning The conservation of natural resources (Barnosky 2014; Ellis 2015). Human must be understood through the complexity societies have made changes in local and of the relationship between the means global patterns of net primary productivity (resources and conditions) and living beings, (Krausmann et al. 2013), and have caused and their interactions, especially the active, widespread species extinctions (Dirzo et al. negative and positive participation, of human 2014; Pimm et al. 2014). Thus, the current beings. Maturana and Varela (1972) argue environmental crisis has generated losses to that a living being is coupled to its diversity as a whole, and especially to the surroundings [i.e., a system coupled to other global economy due to the loss of system(s)] and that the coupling is a ecosystem services and ecosystem condition of existence; if the coupling is lost, 2 Lopes 2017. The other side of Ecology: thinking about the human bias in our ecological analyses for biodiversity conservation Ethnobio Conserv 6:14 the living being will die. In this sense, if the My goal in this text was to review the coupling between the living system and its source of ecology as a science and man's surroundings is a condition of existence, the relationship with nature, seeking to assess human being, as a living system, cannot be the impartiality and neutrality of scientific explained as independent of its research, and the new possibilities of surroundings. understanding and consolidating knowledge, In this context, new proposals to specifically regarding ecology. Thus, this understand environmental relationships with study is based on these assumptions, humankind are emerging (Brook and without the pretence of being the last word. McLachlan 2008). Among these, the human Towards this end, I will first provide a brief bias in studies of ethnobiology emerges as historical review of ecology as a science in the other side of ecology, integrating order to further evaluate the contemporary scientific knowledge with local traditional possibilities of a humankind­nature inter­ knowledge that has accumulated and been relationship, particularly as it relates to transmitted over time. Local Ecological improving the science of biodiversity Knowledge (LEK) is comprised of a body of conservation. important historical information (Berkes et al. 2000; Huntington 2000; Huntington et al. Scientific ecology: a brief history and 2004), which is increasingly relevant for perspectives Biodiversity Conservation. LEK is based on insight into the workings of nature and, in The most fundamental concept of ecology many ways, converges closely upon the is its functional unit, the ecosystem. The Western science of ecology (Huntington basis of the concept of an ecosystem arose 2011; Pierotti and Wildcat 2000). Traditional from the deconstruction of the conceptual peoples possess a wide range of biological barrier that separated living beings from non­ information that can complement traditional living minerals (life and no life) in the 16th academic knowledge in ecology, zoology, century, and the subsequent understanding botany and conservation biology. This of the processes of the synthesis and knowledge could be especially useful to degradation of organic matter. In the 18th studies of population biology, distribution century, vitalism (the vital principle), based patterns and relationships among abiotic on organic organization, replaced animism factors (Albuquerque et al 2009; Brinkman et (Cartesian soul), which held that minerals, al. 2009; Huntington 2000), as well as to plants, animals and humans were created by efforts of resource evaluation and God and, therefore, possess souls (see management (Vandebroek et al. 2011), to Ávila­Pires 1999). In the 19th century, name a few. Lamarck’s Philosophie Zoologique, originally The activities of humans are often published in 1809, contained the earliest significant in shaping the lives and ecology account of a cohesive theory of the of non­humans and the nature world evolutionary process. Lamarck presented (biodiversity). Thus, the inclusion and the idea of the inheritance of acquired understanding of humans in studies of characteristics, while later Charles Darwin scientific ecology is urgently needed (1859) developed an understanding of the because it is indispensable for relationship of organisms to natural understanding major ecological questions. selection. As a result, two main lines of 3 Lopes 2017. The other side of Ecology: thinking about the human bias in our ecological analyses
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