MEDIA GUIDE MEDIA Media Literacy for Adults for Literacy

Home , Journalism genres, Mass media in Finland, Visual journalism

MEDIA GUIDE MEDIA Media Literacy for Adults for Literacy – Media MEDIA GUIDE

Media Literacy for Adults MEDIA GUIDE

Editor: Karoliina Knuuti Editor: Karoliina Knuuti

Working group: Emad Alasfr, Akram Al-Jariri, Viivi Itkonen, Petri Kangas, Elisa Kannasto, Ville Koivisto, Terhi Kouvo, Aapo Laakso, Saleh Masharqeh, Yasmine Misk, Tuuli Oikarinen, Anne Tastula, Anna Tervahartiala, and Nibal Thawabteh.

English proofreading: Kielipalvelu Kauriin Kääntöpiiri Oy

Translation from Finnish to English: Osku Haapasaari

Translation Arabic-English-Arabic: Ritaj Managerial Solutions (RITAJ)

Images: Aura Vuorenrinne, Markus Viljasalo

Layout design: Oy Graaf Ab

Publishers: Kansanvalistusseura sr. (The Finnish Lifelong Learning Foundation) and Media Development Center of Birzeit University

© 2020 Kansanvalistusseura sr. (The Finnish Lifelong Learning Foundation) and Media Development Center of Birzeit University. This work is licensed under the Creative Commons CC BY-NC-ND 4.0 Licence. To view a copy of the licence, visit creativecommons.org.

ISBN 978-951-9140-74-2 Media Guide ISBN 978-951-9140-75-9 Media Guide (web)

This publication has been produced with the support of the Finnish Ministry for Foreign Affairs in Finland. The Ministry support does not constitute an endorsement of the contents which reflects the views only the authors, and the Ministry cannot be held responsible for any use which may be made of the information contained therein. CONTENTS

Foreword ...... 6

1 What is journalism? ...... 9 Journalism as a societal profession ...... 11 How is journalism conducted? ...... 12 Journalism genres and article types ...... 14 News criteria dictate what we hear about in the news ...... 15 The process of making a journalistic article ...... 16 The characteristics of TV and radio journalism ...... 17 Data journalism and infographics first-class services for readers ...... 18

2 Critical reading of journalism ...... 20 The choice of topics affects our way of thinking ...... 21 Article format crams the world into a pre-shaped mould ...... 22 Lies, damn lies and statistics ...... 23 Media and science have much in common – and many differences ...... 24 Discrimination, stereotyping and picking experts ...... 25

3 The ethics and self-regulation of journalism ...... 29 Ethical principles of journalism ...... 30 The self-regulation of journalism ...... 30 Journalistic guidelines share similarities globally ...... 32 Guidelines for acquiring information, publishing and correcting information ...... 33 Guidelines for the professional position of a journalist ...... 36 Guidelines for the rights of an interviewer and interviewee ...... 38 Guidelines for private and public ...... 40 Guidelines for protection of sources ...... 41

Contents 3 4 What is visual journalism? ...... 45 The basics of photojournalism ...... 45 Genres of photojournalism – spot news, illustration and feature photography ...... 46 Photojournalist or photographer? ...... 47 Shot sizes and composition of a photograph ...... 48 How far can your camera see? ...... 51 Meeting a subject of photography ...... 51 The basics of video expression ...... 53 The basics of editing ...... 55 Audio narration as a part of video expression ...... 57 Graphic design and illustration ...... 58

5 Critical reading of visual journalism ...... 59 The rights and responsibilities of a photographer ...... 59 Probative value and photographic cogency ...... 60 The ethical guidelines of photojournalism – how to retouch ethically ...... 61 Critical reading of visual content ...... 62

6 The digital revolution and social media ...... 64 Social media platforms and tools ...... 66 Social media challenging traditional media ...... 67 Revenue logic of social media ...... 71 Activism and campaigning on social media ...... 73 How to use social media as a business or a community? ...... 74

4 Contents 7 Critical reading of social media ...... 76 Online conversations tend to be polarised ...... 76 What is allowed in netiquette? ...... 77 Fake news sites flourish on the dark side of the internet ...... 79 Content verification can help in tackling the problem of fake news ...... 80

8 Understanding media advocacy ...... 84 Differences between public relations officers and journalists ...... 84 Lobbying is convincing with arguments ...... 86 Marketing communications ...... 86 Critical reading and good practice of marketing ...... 90

9 Introduction to human rights ...... 93 Most important human rights documents and agreements ...... 94 Three generations of human rights ...... 94 Human rights dilemmas ...... 97 The role of the media in human rights ...... 98 Freedom of speech is the foundation of journalistic work ...... 99 Censorship and violations of freedom of speech ...... 100 Discrimination, equality and the work of journalists ...... 103

Bibliography ...... 106

Contents 5 FOREWORD

hat is the role of journalism in ip Erdoğan has taken leaps in converting democracy? What should every the country into a totalitarian state with no citizen understand about the ba- media freedom. Also, elsewhere in Europe sic functions of the media and and beyond, populist and far-right move- human rights? How to be an ments, many of which challenge the basic ethical professional or citizen institutions of democracy, are gaining more Wjournalist? How to read and analyse media support. These examples are just the tip of content critically? the iceberg, as similar trends and phenom- This textbook,Media Guide – Media ena threatening press freedom and people’s Literacy for Adults is the second and fully right to information can be found in many revised edition of the textbook of the same countries around the globe. title, published in April 2016. The funda- On the other hand, to name some more mental aim of the second edition is the same positive changes, ‘Islamic State’ or ‘Isis’ as in the previous one: to give at least some whose use of social media in propaganda answers to the questions above. But as the was handled in the previous edition has been media sphere is in a constant state of flux, largely defeated. Another interesting positive answering them fully in a textbook like this, trend is that, while many media corpora- even when revising it every four years, is of tions still struggle to balance their revenue course impossible. in the digital era, a few very aspiring citi- To give an example, since 2016 many zens’ journalism groups have managed to things have changed in the global media establish themselves in the field of respon- sphere. Politically speaking, Donald Trump, sible journalism. Perhaps the most prestig- notorious for his blatant hatred of the press, ious of these is the international network has been elected the president of the Unit- of investigative journalism called Belling- ed States, or as some call it – the “leader cat, first established in 2012, which, among of the free world”. In Turkey, Recep Tayy- other things, has played an important role in

6 Foreword uncovering human rights violations during media changing our public discourse. We the Syrian war. are nowhere near the saturation point for Despite all these changes, many of the the need of media literacy training. basic starting points of the book still remain All the aforementioned trends raise a few the same. In 2020, the media sector is still important questions. What does the future looking for new ways to cope with digitali- of journalism look like? How may the pro- sation. Also, the pace of development of new fessionals “prove” that they are needed when media technologies keeps accelerating. The there is always an inexhaustible, increasing urgent need for ethical and responsible jour- number of amateur commentators and pho- nalism, especially in fragile or conflict areas, tographers present? How to ensure that the has not lost its importance, indeed quite the global expansion of media technologies will opposite. support freedom of expression and lead to In fact, more people are using the inter- diversity and pluralism and not the oppo- net now than ever in history. According to site? When encouraging citizens’ journalism, Statista, in January 2020 the percentage was how to ensure that they will spend their time already 59 %, amounting 4.5 billion people. and effort sifting through the facts from the The number had more than doubled in the rumours and sharing accurate information last decade. People all around the world are instead of encouraging propaganda? spending more and more of their daily time on digital media, posting, blogging, sharing, This textbook is a package of basic knowl- liking and even starting their own online edge about journalism and media literacy. newspapers. These figures also suggest that It is concerned with the working practices, every year there are millions of new internet ethics, work-related rights, freedom of speech and social media users who might not have and the power and responsibility related to any knowledge of ethical guidelines and nev- the profession of journalism. The guide has er have heard any worrisome talk of social been designed to benefit both professional

Foreword 7 journalists and citizen journalist, as well as sional journalistic work processes, how to anyone who is interested in learning how improve their professionalism and also how the media works. to read media content as a citizen in a crit- However, since the context of the pub- ical and analytical way. There are also four lication is a media literacy education pro- types of information boxes that deepen the ject in Palestine (Media Literacy for Sustain topics, give additional information and acti able Society 2019–2020) that was funded by vate the reader. the Ministry for Foreign Affairs of Finland, The ‘food for thought’ boxes offer -ex there is a slight overrepresentation of exam- amples that activate the reader and support ples from Finland, Europe and Palestine. self-study. They also contain questions that However, much of what is discussed such teachers can use as tasks or topics for class- as ethical guidelines and human rights are room debates. based on globally agreed principles, and if The ‘pro tips’ are aimed at journalism one was to find a country of reference, Fin- students or professionals. They offer a set land, a country that has stayed in the top 4 of concrete guidelines and tips that may be in the RFS press freedom index ranking for helpful professionally. as long as the ranking has existed, is not the The ‘summaries’ boxes deepen the topic worst choice. being examined and offer study material for On the other hand, Palestine as an occu- advanced students. pied territory is an interesting example of the The ‘glossary’ boxes provide vocabulary many ways that media coverage can either and terminology related to the topic under solve conflicts or totally fail to do so. The discussion. decades-long Israeli-Palestine conflict makes the work of Palestinian journalists in the area As journalism exercises significant social very challenging in many senses. power, my view is that everyone should have at least a basic idea about the principles of The first three chapters of this textbook in- journalism and the ethical guidelines that troduce the reader to the basic principles and should guide the work, just as any citizen guidelines of journalism and critical media should be educated in the political system in analysis. Chapters 4 and 5 handle visual and their surroundings and to know their history. audio-visual journalism and critical reading In other words, I see critical media literacy of visual content and video editing. Chapters skills as part of active citizenship. 6, 7 and 8 introduce the reader to social me- I hope this textbook will help the reader dia and media advocacy and offer tools for on their way. their critical reading. The last chapter, 9, is about human rights. Ramallah 11 February 2020 All chapters include general knowledge Karoliina Knuuti that will help people to learn about profes-

8 Foreword 1 WHAT is JOURNALISM?

ass communication is communi- Journalism is produced for several differ- cation directed at a large group ent media channels, including newspapers, of people and relayed through magazines, radio, television, online mag- a media channel. Journalism, azines and, in some senses, documentary public relations, advertising, films. Branches of journalism are, for exam- marketing communications, art, ple, politics, economy, culture, entertainment Mentertainment and citizen communications and sports. are all parts of mass communication. The most important function of journal- Journalism, on the other hand, can be ism is to convey information. By doing this, defined as timely, fact-based communica- journalism is an important part of the dem- tion that offers the audience edited con- ocratic decision-making system, as it brings tent in a reliable and independent fashion. transparency to society and makes sure that The style, focus and genre of journalism decisions that are made are in tune with peo- may vary, but the same basic principles ple’s sense of justice. To ensure the possibility apply. for civil advocacy, it is important that citizens

What is journalism? 9 are already informed of decisions when they large newsworthy events. By establishing sol- are being prepared. idarity, journalism can be said to maintain In other words, the journalists’ mission peace in society. is to oversee the work of government offi- In comparison to times before social me- cials on behalf of the citizens. The press, dia, as we enter the new decade of the 2020s, or media in general, is occasionally called people’s consumption of media is a lot less ‘the watchdog of society’ or the ‘fourth estate’. consistent or channel-loyal. Instead of sub- ‘Watchdog’ refers to the fact that journalists scribing to the number-one local newspaper are supposed to call policymakers to account or gathering the whole family to watch the na- for their actions. Based on the classical the- tional TV news every night, people tend to ory about the tripartite system formulated collect information from different sources. by French 18th-century political philosopher That is why ever larger news events are needed Montesquieu, the other estates of modern de- to affect people collectively. Assassinations, mocracies are the branches of the legislature, wars and acts of terrorism feel like turning executive and judiciary. points in history, largely because of their wide In 2010s, the work of professional journal- news coverage. Widely covered events become ists has been frequently scrutinised through a part of history, and the audience follow- different social media channels. ing the events feel that they are experiencing Journalism also acts as a two-way chan- a historical event. Nevertheless, it is good to nel between the public and policymakers. remember that media has the power both to On the one hand, it conveys information blow things out of proportion and to sweep to the citizens about what is happening in society. On the other hand, journalism lets the policymakers know what kinds of effects their previous decisions have had and what kinds of decisions have been made elsewhere. Journalism also lets the policymakers know The tasks what the public expects of them. of journalism In addition to conveying information, To convey information good journalism interprets the world. Journal- ism explains things and phenomena in an easy To interpret the world and accessible way, describes the cause-and- To call decision-makers effect-relationships of events and provides to account on behalf of background information on issues and deci- the citizens sions. Journalism brings events closer to peo- To serve and assist ple’s everyday lives and shows what kind of communities impact they have on the lives of regular citi- To entertain zens. This can be said to be how journalism To activate people performs the above-mentioned tasks. To create a sense of Journalism’s functions also include solidarity in society the creation of a sense of solidarity in society, which can happen, for example, through

10 What is journalism? them under the rug. Today’s news coverage The societal position of a reporter is very is not an impartial summary of the truths of acutely described by a textbook of Finnish world events – it is put together by a group journalism “Principles of Journalistic Work”, of media professionals based on news crite- written by Aino Suhola, Seppo Turunen ria such as geographical proximity and even and Markku Varis (2005), which outlines based on personal interest. the premises of press work (translated into Journalism also tries to whet people’s ap- English by Osku Haapasaari): petite for learning new things. Journalism “You are a reporter, not a star. You are entertains, evokes emotion and experiences. a servant of the people, not a ruler. You are It offers new perspectives and stories, which a seeker of knowledge, not its guardian. You people can relate to. know people, but you are not everyone’s friend. You are there, but not seen – you are a shadow. You are present, but you are not the object of Journalism a societal profession the piece of news, nor the one something is happening to. You are not the protagonist of The profession of journalism is a public and the news article. You do a profession which social occupation. Journalists as profession- is mundane work. You are a professional, ac- als both support and sustain the credibility cording to whose information the majority of of the decision-making system and maintain us construct our worldview.” its functions. Whether a journalist is actual- Even though journalism is very impor- ly a user of social power is, however, a more tant to the functions of a democratic society, complicated question. journalism as a profession is sometimes not The work of journalists is essentially held in a high regard. the same, irrespective of the media channel Many reasons can be found for this: pre (radio, television, press or so on), as the same judice and outcry related to gossip magazine principles and values of news production and reporters and the paparazzi, accusations of conveying information are still valid. The most important values of a journalist are truthfulness, impartiality, independence of commercial and political interests and responsibility. Thus, even if a journalist handles social issues, s/he must not strive to be The core values a political force. A reporter can present point- of journalism ed opinions, but it has to be done separately from news work, otherwise the credibility of timeliness the reporter as an independent conveyor of truthfulness information is undermined, and the audience impartiality can easily begin think that everything that independence the journalist in question does is biased. representativeness Journalists must adhere to good journalis- responsibility tic practice, and this largely happens through self-regulation.

What is journalism? 11 bias and of sucking up to policymakers have all affected people’s attitudes towards journalists. Additionally, people easily criticise the work of a journalist if the perspectives Journalistic glossary or the coverage do not appeal to them for Caption personal or ideological reasons. A short passage written to accompa- ny an image or a photograph, which comments on the picture. A caption How is journalism conducted? often includes the photo credits.

Journalism is teamwork conducted by a large Citation group of professionals. A direct quote of what the inter- An editor-in-chief is in charge of the whole viewee has said. Good journalistic publication. They make the final decision on practice dictates that what is said the views expressed in the publication. They by the journalist and what has been are also responsible for the legality of the con- said by someone else are clear- tent of the newspaper or media, and for en- ly separated in the article or news suring that the publication adheres to good item. For this reason, citations are journalistic practice. The editor-in-chief of- often marked in a clearly discernible ten writes the editorial, which shows the pa- way, such as with citation marks. per’s outlook on a topical issue. In large papers, there might be multiple editors-in-chief, Commentary to the point where there can be a separate A narration technique often used department for writing the editorials. in documentaries and sportscasts, where a commentator outside the shot describes or provides background information to the viewer on Journalistic the events happening on screen. Fact box work process A summary is placed next to the ar- Coming up with idea ticle in the layout. It gives the basic Making an article plan information of the article, such as including the story angle names and key figures, in an easily readable format. Gathering information and conducting interviews Headline Compilation and modification The title of the article that summa- Publication rises the essential information from Gathering and discussing the article and grabs the reader’s feedback

12 What is journalism? attention. In an article, there can be multiple Pundits sub-headlines. Writing headlines is often or “talking heads” refer to the way TV pro- done by the sub-editor. duction commonly visualises a topic by illus- trating it with a close-up or a medium shot of Introduction the person speaking. Pundits can be, for ex- The lead or core of the article, whose aim ample, experts, politicians, political analysts, is to make the reader read the article to spokespersons or journalists. the end. The lead is usually the first one or two sentences of the text. Scoop A significant piece of news, which includes Jingle new information about an important top- A short song melody used in radio and ic. A journalist or news organisation gets television advertisements, and also in a scoop when it publishes an important the self-advertising of the radio and TV chan- piece of news before others. nels and programmes. Sidebar article News insert A short article, which is a part of the han- A part shot or a shot recorded beforehand, dling of a larger topic. It is shorter than which is featured in a television or radio pro- the main article, and provides some further gramme. information or a new perspective on the topic of the article. Podcast A form of digital media, usually an audio file Voice-over that is created in the form of a radio show, A production technique that superimposes monologue or interview. a narrating voice over visual narration. Voice- overs are commonly used in news and film Pull quote production. A quoted passage from the text, which is en- larged and highlighted in the layout phase. Pull quotes make the body text lighter and more visually appealing. They can also be used to highlight the most interesting parts of the text.

What is journalism? 13 A section- or line editor is usually respon- figures besides journalists may also be used sible for a single sector of the media, which as television or radio presenters, including they organise and coordinate, for example actors, models, comedians and experts. technology or economics. A news/managing A news anchor (newscaster, newsreader) is editor to a large extent decides what features a journalist who appears on radio, television or get reported. A department manager/editor online television. Some newscasters read news leads the work of a news department in large produced by the editorial staff with the aid of papers, such as the culture department. a teleprompter, a display device that enables A sub-editor and photo editor are titles in the anchor to read the script while seemingly the middle management of the editorial office. looking straight at the camera. Others appear A sub-editor is in charge of putting together in news programmes more in the role of a pre- and editing features, while a photo editor’s re- senter, by discussing, interviewing and inter- sponsibility is to order and pick visual content. preting. This is the case in, for example, many A layout designer uses layout software to US news channels, where the newscasters have create the layout for the printed paper. AD, a considerable amount of power as explainers the art director, is the staff member in charge of news and formers of public opinion. of the visual appearance of the publication. Reporters and photographers are employees of the editorial office who usually out- Journalism genres number other kinds of employees there. Re- and article types porters come up with ideas for articles and produce articles and news stories, for which In journalism, there are several different ar- the photographers take and sometimes pro- ticle or journalism types. Some of the best- cess the photos. A freelancer is a journalist known include news articles, interviews, fea- who works outside the editorial office. tures, reviews, columns and editorials. A multimedia journalist is a journalist A news article is the most important ar- who makes and modifies articles for the dif- ticle type in journalism. Its purpose is to ferent channels of the same media. A mul- convey information by answering the ques- timedia journalist may, for example, write tions of what, where, when, how, why and a dispatch for a piece of news, read it out who as neutrally and objectively as possible. loud for the radio and create an insert based The purpose of news is to tell people what on it for the television news. has happened. A radio journalist creates journalistic au- The form of a news article is highly stand- dio content, such as news and interviews, for ardised and regularly referred to as a down- the radio. A radio presenter is a journalist ward-facing triangle structure. The most who hosts radio shows. A radio presenter may, important information is located at the be- for example, conduct interviews and discuss ginning of the news article and, from there news and current issues alone or with one or onwards, less and less important background more colleagues. A radio presenter also intro- information is provided. The style has become duces the edited content and songs played on so standard, that the last chapter or chap- the radio station. Likewise, a television pre- ters of a news article can be removed during senter hosts television shows. Other public the layout without it hampering the ease of

14 What is journalism? understanding the article. The most important message in a news article is called a news lead. It is a brief, concise description of the article’s content. Article types In its simplest form, an interview can and genres be in a question-answer format, where both the reporter’s questions and the interviewee’s Article types of answers are quoted directly. journalism include: A feature article is a longer article type News articles than a news article. A feature should be fact- Features based, objective and accurate, but the genre Portraits also allows for more creative expression than Reportages a news article. While containing elements of Interviews news, feature writing provides scope, depth, Editorials and interpretation of trends, events, topics Columns or people. It aims to humanise, add colour, Reviews educate, entertain and illuminate. Types of features can be, for example, news features Essays on a topical phenomenon including the use of several independent sources, profiles and Journalism genres include: reportages. News journalism Columns, editorials and reviews are even Culture journalism more subjective article types than features. Celebrity/people They can and usually do include openly per- journalism sonal opinions from the writer. Nevertheless, Investigative journalism a good review not only presents the critic’s Gonzo journalism opinions, but the critic’s expertise is put into Citizen journalism practice, for example to analyse a piece of art or culture and place it in a larger context or Reflection: Please come tradition. Likewise, a good column is not just up with short descriptions of a rant composed of the writer’s thoughts but the concepts above. Can you a well justified argument on a topical issue. name more article types or genres?

News criteria dictate what we hear about in the news Newsworthiness relates to different factors Factors that influence newsworthiness are that influence whether a topic makes it to the general news situation, media publicity, the news or not. Space in a print paper is limit- the varying needs of different media, target ed in a concrete sense, but writing online news group thinking and follow-ups on a topic. In also uses up the working hours of reporters. simple terms, the more dramatic an impact

What is journalism? 15 it will have on the lives of a group of people, The process of making the more important a piece of news it is. Ad- a journalistic article ditionally, newsworthiness is always linked to a certain time and place. For example, The work of a journalist begins with an idea, the private lives of public figures are often which has to be developed and formulated only newsworthy when they are in contradic- into a tight article plan - a work plan that tion to the public image created by those pub- defines the article’s perspective or angle and lic figures, or to the values that they promote. has been clearly framed. News criteria refer to the principles Effective information gathering is a part through which the newsworthiness of phe- of a journalist’s professional skills. Possible nomena is assessed in editorial offices. News sources of information include perceptions criteria include significance, expected level and experiences of the journalists themselves of interest, surprise factor, timeliness, geo- and their acquaintances, officials, bulletins, graphical proximity, negativity and famous news agencies, event notices, websites, fo- or influential persons. rums, other media and rumours. The use of In addition, in some cases, a certain news social media as a source of information has topic can become newsworthy just because also increased during the 2010s. A journalist it has been discussed in other media or it must take a critical stance on all informa- is trending in social media channels. When tion they receive, including that provided by a piece of news has become a heated topic of officials. It is worth cross-checking any -in discussion, other media want their share of formation from multiple sources, even if it the readers’ expressed interest, and they start has already been published. Additionally, it to echo and multiply the same news item. is necessary to consider whether, for example, an interviewee might have their own agenda in providing material for the article. After the information has been gathered, it must be formulated into an article. Wheth- er the medium is on paper, a website or, for News values example, the radio, journalists should strive significance for expression that is as clear and accessible as expected level of interest possible. It is good to avoid complicated con- surprise factor cepts, lengthy sentences and foreign words. If, for example, an interviewee uses jargon forcefulness related to their field, it is the journalist’s task timeliness to either explain these terms in the text, or to geographical proximity ask the interviewee to translate their termi- negativity nology into standard language. The journalist famous or influential person always has the right or even the obligation to potential for personification ask “stupid questions”. unambiguity, ease of definition After publication editorial offices should keep an eye on feedback, usually gathered straight from the website or social media

16 What is journalism? channels. People click, share and comment in the comments field located beneath the articles. In past times, feedback was primarily mailed to the office’s post box or published Tips for addressing as letters to the editor. audiences verbally If an article contains errors, the editorial office must correct the error and/or publish on radio or tv a correction. If it can be argued that the article has offended someone, after its publication Voice and image a right to reply can be granted to the object Support the story without of the article. adding ambiguity.

Text reading The characteristics and pronunciation of TV and radio journalism Clear and organised.

The same principles of journalism are rele- Vocabulary and vant no matter what news channel a journal- grammatical rules ist works for, but there are differences. One Simple, correct is that a good radio journalist is required to and to-the-point. know recording and publication technology and needs to have clear vocal expression. Speed of reporting A television journalist is also required to have Slow enough that the viewer a pleasing outward appearance. can follow the news and In television work, the news value is de- understand it the first time. termined by the visual aspect of the topic in addition to the news criteria related to press Sound vibrations work. A common objective is that some foot- Compatible with the content age from the location itself or some relevant and meaningful. For illustrative footage is available, but often pro- example, a funeral cannot grammes have to resort to so-called talking be a subject for any sarcastic heads or pundits. tone. However, there is no need to have footage on everything and everybody you talk of. Source: Paul Stanley, Center for Communication, University of Miami The reporter may handle abstract topics by Professional Field Guide for TV News; showing images of activities related to the top- published by the Media Development ic while they narrate the information. Never- Center – Birzeit University. theless, the tone of images and the language used should also be compatible with the topic, and the images must be carefully selected. For example, a picture of joyful workers does not match talk on a deteriorating economy.

What is journalism? 17 Tips for a TV reporter working in the field Before going into the field for live cover reporting, it is sufficient to know that age, prepare some background informa- a journalist is present at the location tion and go through the objectives with of the incident. Always remember that the anchor and photographer. the security and safety of the work When coverage goes on air, any new team comes first. information should first be provided At the scene, the same information is in brief then elaborated on and ex- available to many people at the same plained, if time allows. It is a good time. A reporter can try to distinguish idea, for example, to provide a sum- themselves from others by their choice mary of all information that has been of expressions and points of view. previously gathered. Not all confrontations are violent and If a critical moment in the event ap- not all rallies are massive, so things pears, pause in talking and let the ac- should be conveyed with reference to tions speak for themselves. their actual magnitude. Avoid blowing Getting extremely close to the loca- things out of proportion. tion of the event will not bring any Reporting is teamwork. The praise and special acclaim. The reporter is there fame for successful reporting are not as a transmitter of facts and not a TV for the reporter only. A fair reporter star or a war hero. For the reliability of gives credit to the whole team.

Data journalism and infographics information to the reader in an understand- first-class services for readers able and interesting format. Data journalism can be presented through different info- Data journalism is a journalistic work process graphics such as tables, percentage diagrams, during which large amounts of information maps, timelines or counters. Data can also are acquired, modified and analysed. It pro- be demonstrated in different creative ways duces a “data journalistic article”, which of- like illustrations that represent dimensions. ten benefits from the publication of the data Interaction with readers can also be uti- used for the article. Data journalism seeks to lised while producing data: readers can be find interesting new perspectives and news asked to fill out a questionnaire, or the infor- by combining large amounts of content and mation they have entered can be collected and analysing and combining them. accumulated to form new data, which will be In addition to being the starting point for made available to readers once it is published. the writing of the article, data can be part Data journalism is often a very work-in- of journalistic narration. Through visualis- tensive method for journalists. Well-conduct- ations, it is easy to present large amounts of ed data journalism is, however, a first-class

18 What is journalism? service for the reader. At its best, data journalism also serves different special groups, such as people with dyslexia or foreign-language readers. Data journalism’s different visual methods of expression are also very popular in social media, which favours the visual aspect and quick glances.

An example of presenting statistics visually.

Revenue logic of media Revenue logic means a media corpora- people are less willing to pay for journal- tion’s way to create profits and thus to ism, as all sorts of sources of information fund its functions. The revenue logic of can be found online for free. The chal- media corporations has traditionally been lenge of this trend is of course that not based on dual markets: a newspaper or all free internet sources follow the same another journalistic product is sold to principles of truthfulness, impartiality the consumers and the subscribing/pay- and responsibility as the professional ing audience is sold to the advertisers. media channels do. The adverse con- This means convincing the advertisers of sequences of this trend can then be all the potential people who could see or witnessed in the popularity of some fake hear the advert. news, counter media sites and blatant The digital revolution has had an im- propaganda channels. pact on the revenue logic of media. Some Media companies are now trying to advertising has moved to the websites find ways to build new, digital-revenue of newspaper corporations. Online ad- models through which to maintain their vertising is often more affordable than trade. An example of these is the use of traditional newspaper advertising, which paywalls that restrict the access of users means that the total profits of newspaper not logged in as subscribers to some or corporations have fallen. Some corpora- all of the content on a website. tions also use a bigger share of their advertising budget to market their products Reflection: What do you think about directly to their customers through their the future of print media in light of own websites and social media channels. the spread of electronic media? How do The self-evident downside of the dig- you think the revenue logic will be in ten ital revolution for media houses is that years’ time?

What is journalism? 19 2 CRITICAL READING of JOURNALISM

he journalist’s occupation is societal; news piece is produced in a vacuum but in it is a part of the construction of so- a network of societal and power structures ciety. A journalist works with and and region-specific news values. within power relations that are part It is easy to notice that a columnist aims to of all societies. convince the readership of their cause. What Nevertheless, the societal power is harder to notice is that all forms of jour- Tof journalism may be difficult to perceive. nalism are susceptible to bias. Even behind The first step in becoming a critical reader a news article or statistics whose form seems at of media is understanding that no article or first neutral and independent, there is always

20 Critical reading of journalism a person, or an editorial office consisting of people, making choices. If the editorial office is honest and adheres to the ethical code of the profession, the article can be good and Questions to help impartial. However, not even good intentions with critical reading can guarantee an end result free of uninten- tional mistakes. The second step to the crit- of journalism ical reading of journalism is to understand Who has made the article/ that the simple fact that an article has been news story? Why has it published does not make it true. been made? How has the article been made? What is its angle? The choice of topics Does the article include affects our way of thinking the writer’s opinions? Are they clearly separated “It [the press] may not be successful much from the facts? of the time in telling people what to think, In what other ways could but it is stunningly successful in telling its the same topic have been readers what to think about.” covered? Bernard Cohen, 1963 At whom is the article targeted? What kind of reader does it seem to It is rare for the media – if and when it cov- speak to? ers the news neutrally and objectively – to be Whom does it represent? able directly to alter the opinion of people, Who acts in the article? even though it continuously influences what Who is presented as people are thinking about. the object? Agenda setting theory is a theory of in- Who gets to be presented fluence which, in its simple form, states that as an expert? How is media sustains themes or agendas that bind the expertise justified? the audience’s interest. The media, according What kind of facts are to the theory, uses societal power by bringing included in the article and items to the public agenda. what is left out? One important concept related to this is What kind of conclusions coverage, the public space granted to a party by does the article encourage the media. An example of coverage would be the reader to make? an interview with an influential figure, writing a review on a restaurant or an art exhibition, Reflection: Can you come or writing an article about a cause driven by up with more questions? a certain political party. Coverage can either be negative or positive in tone, but still be influential in making the audiences aware of

Critical reading of journalism 21 something or someone. This phenomenon is also, however, is always written by someone. strongly affected by the news values presented Many questions of power and respon- in the previous chapter. These values are some- sibility are related to news production, as what the same in different media enterprises the format is prone to presenting simplified and even from country to country. information with often limited space given In addition, however, even though media to explaining the backgrounds of the news in principle strive for impartiality, editorial event. Thus, presenting the world as news cre- offices also have their own agendas that influ- ates simplified, negative and conflict-centred ence what is highlighted in the mass media. knowledge, especially about geographically Firstly, there are a great many media outlets remote locations. that are specialised in something, say health For example, the news coverage of West- issues, hobbies or foreign politics. Secondly ern world -based international news agencies behind every media there is an individual, on Africa becomes the topic of discussion usually the editor-in-chief, who has their own every now and then because of the one-di- personal stance on societal issues. Thirdly, mensional picture of famine, poverty and war editorial office managers can have their own that it paints of the continent. The picture interests, or interests related to their position. is increasingly incorrect as, in 2019, four of Fourthly, reporting on a touchy issue may the world’s five fastest growing economies result in masses of feedback from the read- are in Sub-Saharan Africa. ers in general or a specific advocacy groups, The second form of power is the storifi- and sometimes avoiding this kind of “trou- cation of journalism. This refers to the broad ble” may result in reluctance to cover certain phenomenon of portraying things and events topics. Fifthly, often the policy of the me- as stories in journalism, especially in feature dia is influenced by the political or financial articles and in magazines. This is often jus- goals of its owners. Clear examples of this are tified as journalism also aims to entertain some state-owned media companies or par- and to commit the audiences as readers of ty-led magazines and newspapers. A medium the journal. That’s why journalists try to por- that sells advertising space often thinks twice tray things and phenomena in such a form before criticising the actions of its customer that the readers and viewers become hooked. companies or any parties closely related to Despite this justification, when infor- them. This is problematic for the principles mation is formatted into a story, journal- of freedom of speech and impartiality. ism sometimes creates fictional causalities and makes people look good or bad, heroes or villains. Additionally, for example maga Article format crams the world zines have a tendency to portray the lives of into a pre-shaped mould people they interview in an unreasonably interesting and favourable fashion. Every- A news article is the most common and stand- one knows the story format: “she overcame ardised of all journalistic story concepts. It her difficulties with her political career”, “he includes the smallest amount of the writer’s lived through a hard divorce”. own opinions or comments, or at least that All in all, when journalistic stories are pro- is how it ideally should be. A news article duced and consumed, it is good to keep in

22 Critical reading of journalism mind that reality is rarely a black-and-white look at the median value of statistical infor- heroic tale that advances smoothly and with mation. The median is a value that represents a purpose. the number that is in the middle when the results are put in order. In this extreme example case, however, not even the median would Lies, damn lies and statistics paint a good picture because, with an even number of data, the median is the average Statistics and Gallup polls can at first glance of two middle numbers resulting in $5,050, seem like a reliable and objective way for the same as the average. The only truly truth- the media to convey information. Still, ful way in this case is to describe the situation the worn saying “lies, damn lies and statistics” with words or infographs. encapsulates something essential about sta- Gallup polls can also be conducted in tistics and averages. When a newspaper con- a discriminatory manner or so that they ducts a questionnaire that receives answers create a false feeling of power over laws and from the readers, and the results are published regulations. For example, if a magazine asks sensationally as “the will of the people”, jour- its readers weather a teacher who belongs to nalistic power is at work. a certain ethnical, religious or sexual minority Firstly, already the phrasing of the ques- should be allowed to work in the profession or tion carries great importance. For example, should be dismissed, this might at first glance when asked whether the respondents support seem a harmless use of freedom of speech. But the idea of higher taxes, the answer is often to ask such a question in a poll is irresponsible, ‘no’. However, when they are asked wheth- as the question is basically asking the reader the level of health care and other services er whether the constitutional fundamental should be maintained even with taxpayers’ rights of minority citizens should be limited. money, the answer is more often ‘yes’. Posing such a question places the supposed Additionally, the result of polls is influ- reader to above people from the particular enced by who is being asked. For example, minority, and gives the impression that con- newspapers have different readerships that are stitutions can be changed quickly and with- often politically profiled. The result of ques- out lengthy democratic processes, just based tionnaires that measure the political outlook on majority feelings or opinions. of readers must therefore never be used to Gallup polls and statistics also legitimise draw conclusions about the public as a whole. popular and majority opinions. When it The varying types of conclusions that can makes the news that the majority of the pop- be drawn from statistics can be considered ulation is against immigration, for example, the third form of power use. For example, expressing such opinions out loud becomes averages do not show how widely the results more acceptable. Likewise, as an example, if were dispersed or where the extremities lay. a poll on party popularity is published before If half the population earns $10,000 per an election, it might indeed have a self-ful- month and half $100 per month, the aver- filling effect on the matter. Theoretically age earnings are $5,050 per month. However, speaking, many societal phenomena such as as the average doesn’t always paint a truthful politics and market economics are so-called picture, journalists are encouraged also to “level two chaotic systems”. In more simple

Critical reading of journalism 23 terms, this means that they are chaotic (very ground or revisit the original research articles. complex) but they also react to predictions In situations like this, the reporter of- made about them. This fact is by no means ten has to trust experts in the field such as a reason not to publish a poll – it is just the scientific community or officials. This is good to remember that publishing predica- why being able to identify the true experts tions may later have an effect on the matter is important for the reliability of news. Just under scrutiny. being a scientist or having a Ph.D. does not qualify a person to comment on all research. Also, researchers have a variety of goals and Media and science have much in motives. They make mistakes and sometimes common – and many differences they deliberately cheat. In the media, the impartiality of articles Science – especially related to health, histo- is often striven for by bringing two people ry, nature and technology – is a much-used or groups that represent opposing views into source of information and a popular topic in a juxtaposition. This is justified, for example, news and journalism. when presenting the arguments in topical po- Science and journalism have much in litical debate. common. Both strive to disseminate as truth- However, when facts and scientific infor- ful information as possible. Both seek to cor- mation are being handled, the form may mis- rect their mistakes, and neither is allowed to lead the reader. Not all sources are equal, and plagiarise or lie. not all research is of the same high standard. Despite similar principles, the characteris- Even though there might exist contrary re- tics of science and journalism differ. In jour- search results on a certain statement, the sci- nalism, the news criteria favour cases that are entific community may be unified in support unprecedented, unexpected or even weird. of one of the positions. It might be possible, On the contrary, science is slow and most of for example, that, of 100 studies, 99 say that the research data confirms facts that are al- X is true and only one has produced the op- ready known. The poorer a research finding posite result that X is false. The lone opposing fits into science’s current understanding of result should belong in the error margin, not the world, the more likely it is that the world as the second party in an impartial debate. Im- of science will consider it unreliable – not partiality that juxtaposes two opposing results a scoop. This is why, whenever news from in this example is structural but not truthful. a single study is reported, it is important to Misleading juxtapositions have been seen, place the findings in context. for example, in the case of news reporting In addition, the crisis of revenue logic in that handles climate change. The internation- the media due to digitalisation has affect- al scientific community has for decades been ed the journalist’s ability to tackle science practically unanimous about the fact that cli- topics responsibly. A journalist covering sci- mate change is real and is primarily caused ence must often handle topics in their field by humans. Still, however, climate sceptics of work, which they are not familiar with are sometimes heard and given their say in beforehand. As the workload increases, there the name of impartiality. is less and less time to investigate the back-

24 Critical reading of journalism How to recognise an unreliable source in science These questions may help you to recognise when your source is not reliable.

1. Does the source talk about conspiracy facts? Riding on the back of the name theories? The occurrence of conspiracy of a charismatic individual or guru claims is a clear indication that the au- is a common feature of unreliable thor may be confusing imagination sources. Typically, despite an impres- with reality. sive title, no academic background or 2. Does the source say that there is no other signs of real-life expertise can research to back up the claim or refute be found about the guru from other scientific methods altogether? independent sources. 3. Does the source present wonderful 5. Does the source benefit financial- and revolutionary results? Revolu- ly from the claim? Does the source tionary results are rare in science. If sell a product that is supported by the claim is miraculous and astonish- the claim? ing, it is often incorrect. Reflection: Can you come up with 4. Does the source use a charismatic in- more rules of thumb? dividual to justify the claim instead of

Source: Juhani Knuuti, Turun Sanomat 2017 (Translation and modification by the author).

Discrimination, stereotyping words, from the point of view of media con- and picking experts sumption, the media moulds our views of the world in many ways, both in positive and How are experts commonly picked and why? negative senses. Some of the negative effects Who gets to speak and who is spoken about? are due to unconscious and biased decisions Social norms and stereotypes are creat- made by journalists. That is why a critical ed in speech and actions. When producing mindset is always needed when analysing and circulating information, journalism also media content. spreads a worldview. Journalism does not Stereotypes have a bad reputation, but merely reflect reality, it creates it. In other in fact all people make sense of the world

Critical reading of journalism 25 through stereotypes. If this did not happen, ist will often pick the expert already known to the human brain would be filled with an array the media. That is, those people get to speak of knowledge fragments. Without the capa- who already have the most influence. This bility to organise things automatically accord- is influenced even further by people’s sub ing to stereotypes, it would be hard to put conscious and culturally defined values. For together connections and orders of impor- example, characteristics that convey expertise tance. This doesn’t mean to say that people are considered to be a deep voice, quick- in general and journalists in particular should wittedness and confidence, all of which have not resist harmful stereotypes. been traditionally considered male. If experts One element of reporters’ and the me- are then picked on these grounds without dia’s use of everyday power is that they pick critical reflection, the male-dominated soci- the words and angles from which the world etal order is reinforced. In addition, in many is discussed. As journalism is the product of countries, the key political and financial po- its cultural and social environment, it eas- sitions are still held by men, so a journalist ily keeps repeating the same stereotypes, who wishes to enhance equality encounters which dominate surrounding society. Also, difficulties in trying to find a woman to give the prejudices and stereotypes that individ- an expert opinion. ual journalists hold influence the content of This, based on statistics, is then exactly journalism. what is happening. According to the inter- One form of distortion is normativity, national non-profit organisation the World the presumption of a norm or the natural Association for Christian Communication’s state of things or people. Norms are presup- (WACC) 2015 Global Media Monitoring Pro- positions about what people are like and what ject (GMMP), 76 percent of people working they should be like. They regulate percep- in the news were male and only 24 percent tions of gender, religion, skin colour, lan- female, exactly the same as five years earlier guage, livelihood, nationality or sociality. in 2010 when the organisation published its The stronger a norm is, the more difficult it previous report. When investigating topics is to perceive. In general, norms become visi featuring a female interviewee, GMMP no- ble when someone breaks them. ticed that, compared to the portrayal of men, Additionally, reporters are human beings, women were more commonly portrayed as and their attention and learning are biased. victims or based on their position in the fam- Research has been able to show that a person ily. Certain groups of women such as poor most easily notices and learns things that re- older women or those belonging to ethnic inforce their preconceptions about the world. minorities were even less visible than others. This is called the confirmation bias. Report- Female reporters were also more commonly ers, while doing their work, become more made to report mellow topics such as fami- easily convinced about knowledge that sup- ly, lifestyle, fashion or art. When it came to ports their own values and worldviews than the reporting of leadership positions, women knowledge that questions them. were an exception. All in all, among the key Our subconscious biases may also af- findings, GMMP 2015 reveals that “the rate of fect the news in other ways. When choosing progress towards media gender parity has al- whom to interview for a story, a busy journal- most ground to a halt over the past five years.”

26 Critical reading of journalism Women in Palestinian media Women comprise about half the popula- and examining look at the type of edito- tion of the world. However, the presence rial processing of media content. In this of women in economic reports was only respect, the following features can be 2 %, while the percentage of women’s monitored: the stereotypical image of presence in the news was 14 % in 1995 women that confines her role to child- and amounted to 16 % in 2010, the last bearing and taking care of children still year of reliable counting. Women’s pres- persists; the exploitation of the image of ence in stories related to politics and women as victims in order to gain politi- the government recorded a percentage cal sympathy; the use of women’s bodies of 10 %. to promote consumer commodities; In the West Bank and the Gaza Strip, treating women condescendingly; han- women constitute 49.2 % of the total dling women’s rights as if it is a favour population, while their participation as or dealing with women’s successes with speakers in news broadcasts by Palestine astonishment, doubt and disapproval. TV during the period 14–27 May 2010 was only 15.5 %. Reflection: Why do you think there In addition to these quantitative indi- are so few women working in journal- cators, there are other aspects relevant ism in Palestine? Does it matter? Do you to the content and nature of coverage think that there is a difference between and the resulting social impact. However, the work of female and male journalists? measuring this impact needs a critical

This is how media, which faithfully re- other cultures. Presenting content which flects reality, maintains the gender divide. is openly racist is usually not permitted. Prejudices, stereotypes and unbalanced re- The media has been criticised, however, for porting establish the power relations be- portraying the role of immigrants and differ- tween groups and generate fruitful soil for ent minorities in an otherwise negative light. the growth of discriminatory attitudes and For example, immigrants may be discussed practices. in the media in a problem-centred way and The media moulds our views not only through the mouths of officials. In conflict about gender roles, but also about people from cases, the origin or the ethnic background of

Critical reading of journalism 27 Congratulations on an all-male panel! Did you ever look around a meeting male panel!” Congratulations indeed. or lecture room and wonder where all Again, there are no women participat- the women were? ing! The photographs feature a superim- Finnish researcher of nuclear weapons posed picture of David Hasselhoff giving policy and Doctor of Social Sciences Saara a thumbs up. Särmä also publishes pic- Särmä comments on the theme in her hu- tures of all-white panels. morous Tumblr blog, which has attracted The popularity of Särmä’s blog is much international attention. based on the fact that it is able to handle The blog, started by Särmä in 2015, a serious issue through humour. Discus- brings together pictures of male pan- sions in the public eye are still mainly els, “manels”. Manels are expert panels, held by men. all the participants of which are male, But can a blog also have an effect on whether the topic is politics, technology the phenomenon underlying the hu- or women’s rights. The website is sarcas- mour, and how? tically entitled “Congrats, you have an all-

Read more: allmalepanels.tumblr.com

the perpetrator often makes the news only if All in all, minorities are most often they are not part of the majority population. the objects of news articles, not active and This, at its worst, creates an illusion that there equal actors such as decision-makers, journal- are more perpetrators from certain ethnic or ists or experts in their own field, so the best minority groups. way to prevent discrimination in the media As an example, in 2019, there is an ongo- would be to have minority representatives as ing discussion about whether acts of violence producers of media. committed by Muslims in Western countries The only way for a journalist to prevent are more easily labelled as terrorism or cultur- the influence of stereotypes and bias on al conflict, whereas the same type of crimes the quality of their journalism is to become committed by the majority population were conscious of their own presuppositions and explained by disturbed individuals, mental always to consider their own knowledge and health problems or general malaise. Minor- outputs with a critical eye. ities may also be portrayed in the media as an exotic curiosity. A sole representative of a certain minority can also be unfairly asked to talk for their whole group.

28 Critical reading of journalism 3 The ETHICS and SELF-REGULATION of JOURNALISM

thics can be concisely defined as The work of a journalist is ultimately con- the reasoning behind human action trolled by national and international laws. and morals. Whilst morals refer to Usually, in free democracies, the ethical code the practical value choices a person of journalism is stronger than the local law: makes, ethics refer to the principles not everything that is legal is necessarily good behind them. The ethics of journalism practice. International law, international agree- Ehave many aspects including legal, instruc- ments and domestic law are thus not the only tional and professional. systems that regulate the work of a journalist.

The ethics and self-regulation of journalism 29 Ethical principles of journalism It is easiest to handle ethics through duties and freedoms. The most important free- According to the basic division, there are two dom that journalists use is the freedom of kinds of ethics: duty-based ethics and conse- speech, which is also defined in legislation. quentialist ethics. In the case of journalism, The journalist is responsible to the follow- duty-based ethics stress the importance of ing parties: truth, while consequential ethics focus on Society, the general public societal good. If a journalist thinks that it is Customers, supporters and subscribers most important that a story is true and that Their employer, the corporation the facts are right, they follow duty-based Colleagues, the professional community ethics. On the other hand, a journalist may Themselves, their conscience. think that the effects of a cause are the most important aspect and, as a result, follow con- In 1991, a Finnish researcher, Tiina Laitila, sequentialist ethics. Does the article offend studied 30 sets of journalist ethics publica- someone? What kind of effects will the publi- tions, and the result shows that journalists cation of the article have? Can the publication think they are primarily responsible to their of a certain article do more harm than good, audience and the sources and objects of their even if the facts used are correct? information. Their employer and the state are The ethical code of journalism is much much more seldom mentioned in ethical rule- the same as the ethical code of science. As in books. science, in journalism it is also important to be objective, critical, autonomous and progressive. Objectivity and criticality describe The self-regulation of journalism the relationship with knowledge. Autonomy should be achieved, at least from funders, In their everyday work, journalists are mostly owners and the state. The ethical code of guided by self-regulation. Self-regulation re- progressivity refers to the principle that sci- fers to the ethical guidelines of the profession- ence and journalism should create new in- al journalistic community. The self-regulation formation. system with its guidelines is independent of If the foundations of journalism ethics the state and legislation, aiming to secure are tracked far enough, one finds that they the truthfulness and accuracy of journalism are based on various international agreements as well as the rights of reporters and inter- and declarations, such as the UN Universal viewees, to name but a few examples. Declaration of Human Rights and regula- The self-regulation system of the media tions of international law. The UNESCO is an attempt by editorial office profession- declaration regarding mass media (1978) als to create, adhere to and oversee voluntary and the Paris Declaration (1983), which were editing guidelines, and to open the learning backed by numerous journalist associations, process relating them to the public. The sys- define the ethical guidelines more accurately tem makes the press independent: the media in questions related to media and journalism. carry their responsibility for the quality of They are based on the basic principles of inter- public discussion but still maintain perfect national law, democracy and independence. editorial independence.

30 The ethics and self-regulation of journalism Why do you need self-regulation when there are laws? The Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE) lists arguments for self-regulation:

Self-regulation benefits journalists. Self-regulation reduces the power It increases readers’ trust in the me- of the state over media. When media, as the media supervises its own dia has the responsibility to adhere to mistakes. Readers have the opportuni- good journalistic practice for the sake ty to critically assess whether the me- of itself, the state does not need to in- dia meets the guidelines laid down by terfere in its activities so energetically. the ethical codes. This is particularly Self-regulation thus secures the inde- welcome in new democracies, most of pendence and quality of journalism. which are also unfamiliar with an in- Self-regulation is not a question of dependent press. At the same time, self-censorship, but of the endeav- it protects the right of journalists to our to secure conditions beneficial be independent, and allows them to to the realisation of the freedom of be judged for professional mistakes speech. It is about establishing mini not by those in power but by their col- mum principles on ethics, accura- leagues. cy, personal rights and so on, while Self-regulation benefits readers. fully preserving editorial freedom on They can complain about articles for what to report and what opinions to free – a legal process would be costly. express. The resolution of disputes is quicker Self-regulation benefits democracy. than in court, and the mistakes are ac- Democracy is about a shared culture knowledged publicly by the press. of disputing in a rational and fair Self-regulation increases the inde- manner. Governments, even if freely pendence of media, as the offences elected, are participants in a political journalists commit are punished by contest, and therefore not best-suited their colleagues, not by state officials. to enforcing rationality and fairness. When it comes to correcting factual er- Media self-regulation is an effort to rors or violations of personal rights by impose democracy’s political culture, the press, satisfaction over the judg- independent of political forces. It also ments of self-regulatory bodies reduc- advances the transition from a govern- es pressure on the judiciary system to ment-owned, state-controlled press sanction journalists. to one owned and controlled by civil society.

The ethics and self-regulation of journalism 31 The principles of self-regulation have been their own position with it. Even questionable written down in the ethical codes of jour- practices can be easily justified by the ethi- nalism. An ethical code is a set of guidelines cal code, so professional ethics should also that is often more precise than the law. It de- remain the object of critical observation by fines the reader’s, journalist’s and interview- independent parties such as a public council ee’s rights. It also defines the basic principles for mass media. guiding journalistic work such as truthful- In principle, when a magazine, newspaper ness and objectivity. Ethical codes are also or media channel acts in a non-ethical man- nation-specific because of differences in cul- ner, anyone can submit a complaint concern- tures and legislation. ing a breach of professional practice. Unlike An individual media corporation can also legal complaints, such a complaint is handled have its own ethical guidelines. Well-known free of charge. examples include guides from BBC and As- sociated Press (AP). Additionally, different media can have their own codes: for exam- Journalistic guidelines ple, separate ones for the press, television and share similarities globally online media. The basic principles remain the same, however, regardless of the coun- Due to cultural and legislative differences, try and medium. Some other professional it is not an easy task to create global guide- communities also have their own ethical lines for journalists. It is nevertheless worth guidelines. The ethical code of journalists noticing that consumers of media seek out can be compared to the physician’s Hippo- information not only from national but also cratic Oath. The main difference is that new from international media. For this reason, physicians are required to swear to uphold there is a demand for internationally agreed specific ethical standards, whereas follow- guidelines. ing ethics is just a question of conscience There are existing global guidelines such for journalists. as the aforementioned Paris Declaration of It is essential for journalists themselves to 1983, and also a nine-item ethical rulebook have created an ethical code that is not dic- that has been compiled by an international tated by the owner of the media or the state. journalist association, the International Fed- If the government interferes in the writing eration of Journalists (IFJ). The latter in par- of the guidelines, the whole idea of self- ticular is quite broad as the rules are a com- regulation falls apart. It is also important for promise between journalist associations from the code to be updated when needed. For around the world. example, the quick development of online The main values include truth, independ- journalism has necessitated the modification ence and harm minimisation. For example, of codes to meet today’s standards. the first of the IFJ guidelines is: “Respect for It is worth remembering that the existence truth and for the right of the public to truth of professional ethics in itself does not guar- is the first duty of the journalist”. Guide- antee high-quality and independent journal- line number four states “the journalist shall ism. The professional community can also use only fair methods to obtain news, pho- abuse the ethical guidelines and reinforce tographs and documents”.

32 The ethics and self-regulation of journalism Questions immediately arise from be downright wrong when it is examined in the guidelines: How is truth defined? What greater depth. This feels frustrating, but it is about methods for obtaining information? an essential part of journalistic work. Despite Which of them are fair and which unfair? the temptation, a journalist must not make To give more accurate guidelines, one news out of information that has proven to must focus on the guidelines of a certain be false, even if this might serve a good cause country. That is why this chapter offers a se- and even if the reporter knows that they will lection of basic principles most common in not get caught. European countries. More accurate exam- A second important value is honesty, ples of guidelines used in this guidebook are which is most often realised by using only mainly from the Finnish journalists’ guide- direct methods in gathering and presenting lines. There are also examples from interna- information. It is recommended that a jour- tional, national and in-house guidelines. In nalist announce their occupation while con- the end, surprisingly, despite cultural and ducting their work and otherwise remain political differences, the rules from different open in their work. counties have much in common. It is possible, however, to deviate from In this guide, the ethical guidelines of this if there is no other way to obtain sig- a journalist have been grouped in the fol- nificant information. For example, it would lowing manner: be hard to get information about a closed 1. Acquiring information, publishing and community if the reporter had no access correcting information to the community. If a journalist sees that 2. The professional position of a journalist something is happening within the commu- 3. The rights of an interviewer and an in- nity that should be published, they may keep terviewee their occupation a secret. A lively discussion 4. Private and public. was raised in Finland in 2012 when a journalist from the country’s biggest newspaper, Helsingin Sanomat, infiltrated the camp of Guidelines for acquiring a Christian society, which organised courses information, publishing and aiming at changing sexual orientation from homosexual to heterosexual. The newspaper correcting information justified its actions by stating that, without One of the most common ethical guidelines such infiltration, it would not have been pos- of a journalist is truthfulness. It is the jour- sible to find out what actually happens during nalist’s duty to sift out truth from behind the courses: previously journalists had been assumptions and rumours. A journalist must unable to gain access to the camps. not leave unpublished or otherwise keep se- Nevertheless, guidelines on such a top- cret information that is crucial to the news, ic vary individually. The Washington Post’s even if this might water down a juicy article, guidelines regarding this matter are strict: or take the edge off a story. In many cases, “Reporters should make every effort to remain a news topic that at a glance seems meaning- in the audience, to stay off the stage, to report ful, interesting and surprising flattens out to the news, not to make the news. In gathering be boring and ordinary, or even turns out to news, reporters will not misrepresent their

The ethics and self-regulation of journalism 33 identity. They will not identify themselves as fit its reader and society, not the object of police officers, physicians or anything other the article. than journalists.” In addition to a single source of informa- A journalist must also differentiate be- tion, some of the guidelines highlight the crit- tween facts and opinions. The reader should ical mindset in a broader way. According be able to tell which parts of a text express to the guidelines of the international news a personal opinion, and which strive for agency Associated Press (AP): “A newspaper the objective conveying of information. Ac- should provide constructive criticism for all cording to the Austrian code: “Readers shall groups in society”. The paper, the TV channel be left in no doubt as to whether a newspaper or the radio station should thus remain criti- item is a factual report, the reproduction of cal in relation to what it covers, so that the en- the views of a third party or third parties, or tirety of its offerings convey a critical image of a comment.” society. The US-based Society of Professional The same applies to the use of illustra- Journalists (SJP) especially stresses criticism tions and sound. Also, within a single article, towards decision-makers. it should be clear which part is the journal- Additionally, according to the guidelines, ist’s own description of the event, and which a journalist should “give a voice to the voice- part comprises quotes by the interviewee. In less” and “seek sources whose voices we sel- practice this is often done by using quotation dom hear”. Journalists should therefore pay marks to signify the interviewee’s utterances. attention to which parties get to provide their The difference between truth and opin- voices. SJP’s guidelines thus take a stand on ion also applies to advertising. The division a common phenomenon according to which between announcements and edited content the more societal power you hold, the easier should be clear. This differentiation has been it is for you to get your voice heard through made more difficult, for example by the emer- the media. gence of advertorials. A journalist should also be critical of Remaining critical is an important value themselves. A journalist must pay attention that guides a journalist’s work and acts on to how their own values and experiences af- many levels. First of all, sources of informa- fect their work. Even if a news article seems tion should be scrutinised with a critical eye. impartial and the journalist lets the voices The Finnish guidelines for journalists high- of opposing parties be heard, a strong opin- light that “[being critical] is most important ion of the journalist can influence the tone in controversial topics, as the source of infor- of the article. A way for a reporter to remain mation may have a will to benefit or to harm”. critical of themselves is to publish a comment Many kinds of parties contact editorial or a column alongside the article, where their offices, and journalists should always stay opinions are laid bare. alert as to why. Does the person contacting Nearly all ethical code publications of the press want positive publicity for them- journalists stress the accuracy and validity selves or their company, negative publicity of published information and the meticu- for someone else, or publicity for a cause lousness that must be used to check it. Even that they think is important for some other though work is in practice often done in reason? The article should primarily bene- a hurry, this must not be a reason why facts

34 The ethics and self-regulation of journalism Excerpts from guidelines for seeking and publishing information No story is fair if it omits facts of major the reader. Fairness includes honesty importance or significance. Fairness – levelling with the reader. includes completeness. No story is fair if reporters hide their No story is fair if it includes essentially biases or emotions behind such subtly irrelevant information at the expense pejorative words as “refused,” “de- of significant facts. Fairness includes spite,” “quietly,” “admit” and “mas- relevance. sive.” Fairness requires straightfor- No story is fair if it consciously or un- wardness ahead of flashiness. consciously misleads or even deceives

The Washington Post Standards and Ethics

The journalist must aim to provide ports on subjects and events should truthful information. Information be supplemented once new informa- should be obtained openly. The jour- tion becomes available. News events nalist is encouraged to make known should be pursued to the end. his/her profession during the course Essentially incorrect information must of an assignment. If matters that are in be corrected without delay and so as the public interest cannot be other- to reach, to the highest extent possi- wise investigated, the journalist may ble, the attention of those who have carry out interviews and obtain infor- had access to the incorrect informa- mation by means that depart from tion. standard practice. The degree of attention brought to Information sources must be ap- the correction must correspond to proached critically. This is particular- the seriousness of the error. If there ly important in controversial issues, are multiple factual errors in an ar- since the source of the information ticle, or if the incorrect information may be intended for personal gain or might result in significant damage, to damage others. the editors must publish a new article A news item may be published on in which the incorrect information is the basis of limited information. Re- identified and corrected.

Guidelines for journalists, the Council for Mass Media in Finland

The ethics and self-regulation of journalism 35 remain unchecked. A journalist and at least the trustworthiness of the sources. Facts that the editor of the publication are responsible have already been published must be checked for the correctness of the information they as carefully as new ones. The fact that a piece have presented. All information must be of information has been published in another checked thoroughly, even when it has previ- paper does not make it correct. This is how ously been published elsewhere. In the case journalists avoid circulating mistakes made of errors, journalists must correct them with- by others. out delay. In online publications, it is not enough to remove the false information or to delete Guidelines for the professional the article. The audience must be informed position of a journalist of the error and the fact that it has been corrected. According to IFJ’s rules, journalists should The principle of openness also applies to decline a bribe that is offered in any form, correcting errors. It is good to tell the audi- whether it be aimed at publishing or prevent- ence in a straightforward way what kinds of ing publication. Forbidding bribery is thus ac- practices and principles the media has regard- cepted worldwide by journalist associations. ing errors and corrections. The wider realisation of independence is The source of the information used should more reliant on culture. The media is often be published. Only when this is done does bound to something relating either to finance the audience have an opportunity to assess or politics. IFJ rules do not mention, for example, independence from the state government. According to the Finnish guidelines, resolutions regarding content must be made on journalistic grounds. The decisions regarding publication, article topics and perspec- Reflection: tives should, in other words, be made within Find a journalistic story in the journalistic body. Conversely, journalistic which someone has been inter- bodies should make the decision themselves viewed. Why was this person not to publish a story. All forms of pressure chosen and who else could and attempts at restraining must be rejected. have been interviewed besides Complete independence is impossible: them? media is always owned by somebody, and Can you think of journalistic the ownership of media is ever more central- pieces where it was not easy to ised these days. A media corporation can own differentiate facts from opin- both a chain of movie theatres and a news- ions? paper. If the newspaper publishes a story on By which methods have you the chain of movie theatres, ownership rela- noticed the media correcting tions may affect how critically the journalist their errors? handles such in-house issues. Affiliations should be known by the reader, regardless of whether the ownership has

36 The ethics and self-regulation of journalism Excerpts from guidelines for journalistic professionalism A journalist is primarily responsible to The journalist must not misuse his/her the readers, listeners and viewers who position. The journalist may not deal have the right to know what is happen- with issues that may lead to potential ing in society. Decisions concerning personal gain nor demand or receive the content of media must be made in benefits that might compromise their accordance with journalistic principles. personal independence or profession- The power to make such decisions al ethics. The journalist is entitled to must not under any circumstances refuse assignments that conflict with be surrendered to any party outside the law, their personal convictions or the editorial office. The journalist good journalistic practice. has the right and obligation to resist It is crucial to observe good profes- pressure or persuasion that attempts sional practice when using the work to steer, prevent or limit communica- of others. Sources must be mentioned tions. when information has been published by other parties.

Guidelines for journalists, the Council for Mass Media in Finland

This newspaper is pledged to avoid preferential treatment that might be conflict of interest or the appearance rendered because of the positions we of conflict of interest, wherever and hold. Exceptions to the no-gift rule whenever possible. We have adopted are few and obvious – invitations to stringent policies on these issues, con- meals, for example. Free admissions scious that they may be more restric- to any event that is not free to the pub- tive than is customary in the world of lic are prohibited. The only exception private business. In particular: is for seats not sold to the public, as We pay our own way. We accept no in a press box. Whenever possible, gifts from news sources. We accept no arrangements will be made to pay for free trips. We neither seek nor accept such seats.

The Washington Post Standards and Ethics

The ethics and self-regulation of journalism 37 affected the tone or content of the story. That actions of their kin, it is easy to see why their is why, for example, the Finnish guidelines for credibility might be undermined. The audi- journalists state that “while handling issues ence will probably assume that the journalist that are significant to the media in question, is biased, even if this is not the case. The jour- the corporation or its ownership, a journalist nalist cannot likewise be obliged to break should make the context clear to the reader, the law. Occasionally their methods of in- listener and the viewer.” In practice, this can formation-gathering can be viewed as a grey be done, for example by adding a note to area by the law, but such assignments require the end of the article that the corporation voluntariness. mentioned in the article belongs to the same A journalist must respect the copyright conglomerate as the newspaper. law and practices of their country. At their Receiving bribes can also be viewed more most blatant, copyright violations are copy- broadly: the reporter should not try to make ing parts of an article from somewhere else, personal gain from their occupation or abuse something that should be avoided at all costs. their position. They must not handle issues that may result in an opportunity for personal gain, nor receive benefits that can undermine Guidelines for the rights of independence. an interviewer and interviewee The freedom to express and comment is a natural counterpart to the previous chap- The relationship between the interview- ter’s rule that outside influence and pressure er and the interviewee is confidential. One should be rejected. Perfect freedom of expres- of the principles of good journalism is that sion is impossible to achieve under pressure the interviewee can have complete faith in from an outside party. Freedom of expression the fact that the interviewer will not twist is not only about the right to express, but what they are saying by leaving essential parts even more importantly about people’s right out, or by putting words into their mouth. to know. The interviewee has the right to know in what In some cases, the journalist has the right context and for which publication they are to decline to work. Cases like this include being interviewed, and whether what they news concerning their close relatives. When say is meant to be published, or whether it a journalist reports, for example, the political will be used only as the background material for the story. Interviewees have the right to their quotations and their opinions. According to good journalistic practice, the interviewee is entitled to read the quotations that are attributed Reflection: to them before publication and possibly sug- What are the professional or gest corrections to them. All this takes place corporate affiliations of the media if the publication schedule permits. outlet you follow? This may sometimes lead to conflicts between the journalist and interviewee. Occa- sionally a situation might arise where an in-

38 The ethics and self-regulation of journalism Excerpts from guidelines for the interviews Interviewees have the right to know stances following the interview have in advance the context in which their changed so significantly that the- statements will be used. They must publication of the interview could be also be told if the interview will be viewed as unjust. used in multiple mediums. The inter- If the intention is to present informa- viewee must always be told whether tion about the activities of a clear- the conversation is intended for pub- ly identifiable person, company or lication or will be used exclusively as organisation in a manner that would background material. present them in a very negative light, It is worthwhile consenting to inter- the object of the criticism must be viewee’s requests to read their state- granted the right of reply on the is- ments prior to publication, if the edi- sue in question. If it is not possible torial deadline permits. This right only to simultaneously hear the views concerns the personal statements of of the parties involved, it may be the interviewee, and the final journal- necessary to give the party who has istic decision cannot be surrendered to received the very negative publicity any party outside the editorial office. the opportunity to be heard after- The interviewee’s refusal to allow wards. If this is not done, good jour- the publishing of their statement must nalistic practice calls for the publica- be complied with only if the circum tion of the comment of the criticised party.

The Council for Mass Media in Finland

terviewed politician receives information after politicians or figures of the corporate world an interview according to which the inter- are being interviewed, the public relations view they gave might put them in a bad light. officer, attorney or another representative of In a situation like this, the interviewee the corporation or politician might also be naturally tries to prevent the publication of present, recording how the interview is go- the article. In principle, they do not have ing. The representative may also interrupt or the right to do this unless the situation has tell the interviewee not to answer if they are significantly changed since the interview. about to say something, which could harm When handling very sensitive topics, their public image. the reporter should record the interviews so Ultimately, however, the power over that afterwards the interviewee cannot deny alterations and publishing remains with what they said, or blame the journalist for the journalist. An interviewee cannot pro- misrepresenting something. When important hibit the publication of a story. It is good to

The ethics and self-regulation of journalism 39 cy. The rule of thumb is that the more the object of the article has received publicity in Reflection: the past of their own free will, and the greater their societal power, the less privacy they Can you come up with examples must be granted. If a politician is suspected of situations where an interviewee of a crime, the societal significance of the is- might try to prohibit the publication sue is more important than the protection of the story after they have been of the politician’s privacy. In this case, it is interviewed? justifiable for the topic to be made into a story. Instead, if a “regular” person is suspected of the same crime, due to the protection adhere to common sense: if an interviewee of privacy it is often not justified to publish later denies what they said, it is worth con- the name of the perpetrator. The harm that sidering whether the utterance has such soci- is caused to the individual by the publication etal significance that it is worth publishing. of the story might be greater than the reader’s The interviewee also has the right to com- right to know the perpetrator’s name. ment on the piece of news afterwards, if they The media often has accurate guidelines see it as erroneous or offensive. If the inter- about the publishing of criminals’ names. In viewee or the object of the article feels that the Finnish media, the rule of thumb is that an already published article is offensive to the name of a person who has been sentenced them, they are entitled to publish a reply. If can be published, if the sentence is greater the article contains factual mistakes, the pa- than two years of unconditional imprison- per must publish a correction of the errone- ment. Publishing names must always be con- ous information. sidered on a case-by-case basis in order not to The right to reply does not, however, ap- cause harm to the victims of the crime. For ply to all news. It does not apply to regular example, the names of people who have been culture criticism, political, financial or so- sentenced for sexual offences towards minors cietal assessment or other such presentation or domestic violence are often left unpub- of opinion. Ultimately, the offensiveness of lished, so that the identity of the victims is an article is determined by the editor-in-chief not revealed against their will. of the publication, who has the power to grant The ethical guidelines of the American right to replies. Society of Professional Journalists proclaim as follows: “Show compassion for those who may be affected by news coverage. Use height- Guidelines for private and public ened sensitivity when dealing with juveniles, victims of sex crimes, and sources or subjects What is a journalist permitted to publish, and who are inexperienced [in dealing with media] in what manner? What must they publish or unable to give consent [to the publishing of and what cannot under any circumstances the information]. Consider cultural differenc- be published? es in approach and treatment.” The society’s The reporter must respect the sources and guidelines also state that it is not always ethical objects of their information, and their priva- to publish information that is legally available.

40 The ethics and self-regulation of journalism Do public figures have a right to privacy? The code of conduct of journalists states how much they spend on a family mem- that the right to privacy of public figures ber’s wedding reception. This does not, like government ministers is narrower however, include cases where there is than for “laypeople”. If a politician is sus- suspicion of corruption, like for instance pected of a crime, the societal signifi- evidence that they made use of public cance of the issue is more important than money to finance the reception. the protection of the politician’s privacy. In Finland, tax records are public. This But the right to privacy still exists. So, for helps responsible journalists to track example the ministers also have a right the money flows of important deci- for privacy. sion-makers, but it also makes misuse of For example, a minister’s health and the information possible. medical history is a personal matter as long as there is no major reason to sus- Reflection: Can you think of examples pect that it might affect his performance. of cases that bring into question a public The right to privacy also protects figure’s right to privacy? a minister’s personal money spending habits. This means that the public does not have a right to know, for example,

Universal principles of equality and class, profession, disability or other personal non-discrimination also apply to journal- characteristic. ism. A journalist must take care of the fact that equality is realised through refraining from discriminating against anyone based on Guidelines for race, ethnic origin, religion, gender, social protection of sources It has been said that the protection of sources is one of the strongest data acquisition methods for a journalist. The sentence sums up Reflection: nicely the position of sources in journalism. Under what circumstances do you Protection of sources makes it possible for think the name of a suspect or citizens to bring to light information through the name of a convicted criminal the media about malpractice committed by should be published and under policy-makers and officials without fear of what circumstances not? repercussions or retaliation. A classic example is the Watergate scandal, which led to the resignation of US President

The ethics and self-regulation of journalism 41 Richard Nixon. Eavesdropping practised by mands the journalist’s time and energy, but Republicans would not have been exposed it can be lost in the blink of an eye. Journal- without an anonymous source. ists who reveal their sources not only damage The journalist has the right and duty to their reputation, but also undermine the trust keep the identity of a person who supplies of the whole professional community. confidential information a secret. The jour- To ensure that socially important sources nalist must never reveal their confidential of information can trust that they will resources, not even under pressure. Attempts tain their anonymity in the future, journalists at such pressuring should also be fended off. must together and alone defend the position Achieving the confidence of the sources de- of the protection of sources. Protection of

Tips for responsible reporting In general, where there is rapid need for information, the need is greater for the verification of truthfulness and accuracy of information and pictures. It is the duty of other journalists to detect and correct misinformation. Therefore, resist the temptation of rapid publishing, be patient and verify. The code of conduct of the Palestinian Journalists Syndicate (PJS) stipulates the following with regard to the obligations of professional journalists towards the public:

Pay attention to issues of public opin- Avoid defamation or incitement ion interest through providing accurate to violence and hatred against and verified information and by focus- anyone or any party or institution on ing on marginalised areas and groups the grounds of sex, race, religion or Do not publish names of victims be- political affiliation fore verifying their identities or before Protect children from media materials their families are informed that negatively affect their psychologi- Do not publish photos of victims in cal development a way that hurts the feelings of their Avoid publishing pornography, relatives or the public in general inappropriate speech or sarcasm Respect the privacy of citizens, Commit to the use of quotation marks including legal entities, except in when you quote someone. issues related to public opinion Do not disrupt the judiciary and abide Reflection: What do you think this by not publishing names or photos of guideline refers to with “inappropriate the accused before a court judgment speech”? is issued

42 The ethics and self-regulation of journalism How to report terrorist attacks in an ethical manner The Organization for Security and Co- should try to avoid the term without attri- operation in Europe (OSCE) listed tips for bution. They should let other people char- reporting terrorist attacks in an ethical acterise while they report the facts.’ manner in their 2008 The Media Self- Detailed descriptions of what hap- Regulation Guidebook. pened, avoiding terms such as “freedom “Acts of terror should be reported accu- warriors” or “terrorists”, increase credi rately and responsibly. Special care must bility among the audience. The journalist’s be taken with the wording, which should goal remains the same as in reporting avoid praise for violent acts and eliminate any story: to let readers make their own terms that contain emotional or value judgements.” judgments. The term “terrorism” is interpreted in various, sometimes opposite Reflection: Take a look at new archives ways. As the BBC lucidly puts it: ‘The word for recent terrorist attacks in your area. ‘terrorist’ itself can be a barrier rather How did the reporters succeed in follow- than an aid to understanding. Journalists ing these guidelines?

sources is the security and right of the source, the law prohibits officials from even trying not the journalist. Much like working as to uncover journalists’ sources. a journalist, acting as a news source and The more democratic a society is, the more getting revealed are also life-threatening in revelations concerning authorities are tolerat- many countries. ed without trying to pressure the journalists If the publication of societally impor- to reveal their sources. In authoritarian so- tant information causes very unfavourable cieties, protection of sources is often weaker. publicity, the editorial office should outline to the audience how the dependability of the anonymous source and the information acquired from it has been ensured. In some specific situations, a court of law may order a journalist to reveal their sources. Reflection: For example, in Finland a court may order Can you come up with ex- the journalist to reveal their sources when amples of situations where handling a case where the most severe sen- a journalist might be pres- tence is at least six years of imprisonment, or sured into revealing their if it suspected that handing over information sources? has violated the obligation to maintain secre- cy. In Sweden, the protection is even stronger:

The ethics and self-regulation of journalism 43 Avoiding harm Freedom of publication is restricted by should not be done since it will easily a set of regulations to avoid unnecessary reveal the victim’s identity. harm to others. Another example: The public may For example, one particular example is have the right to know the name of whether publishing the name of an of- the thief who stole the safe of the school fender should always be allowed or not. canteen, but revealing the thief’s name There are two major objections for this. in newspapers will limit his chances for First is that the victims’ rights should rehabilitation and reintegration into always be taken into consideration. It can society. It may be asked whether public be argued that the public has the right to shaming just to satisfy the curiosity of know the name of a murderer or rapist in others is a proportionate sanction for their neighbourhood. However, reveal- a rather petty offence such as this – espe- ing the names in delicate cases must be cially if the offender is a minor. considered in terms of whether there is a risk of causing harm to the victim and Reflection: Can you come up with their family, thus victimising them twice. more examples of situations where in- For this reason, publishing the name of formation should not be made public in the offender in a case of incest is con- order to avoid harm? sidered an extreme example of this: it

44 The ethics and self-regulation of journalism 4 WHAT is VISUAL JOURNALISM?

isual journalism is a much wider con- newspaper The New York Times. These -pa cept than photojournalism. It is es- pers have experimented with the use of text, sentially creating the overall visual pictures, videos and infographics in the same appearance of a newspaper, maga- article offering a multimedia experience that zine, TV-channel or so on. goes beyond the possibilities of any tradition- The visual appearance of a media al media channels. Vchannel, newspaper or magazine is created with typography, photographs, videos, illustrations, cartoons, maps, infographics and The basics of photojournalism other graphical solutions. Modern online newspapers and maga- Photojournalism is a form of journalism zines have the technical conditions to employ whose purpose is to deliver news through multimodality in journalism. Good examples images, such as photographs, videos and il- of pioneers in this field include the British lustrations. The photograph is still the most newspaper The Guardian and the US-based important form of journalistic imagery.

What is visual journalism? 45 In traditional newspapers, images direct going well, while the accompanying image the interest of the reader. Illustrations help reveals the built-up tensions between the par- the reader to orient themselves amidst ticipants. the mass of text and to recognise news topics. The images help illustrate what has happened that day. Genres of photojournalism In addition, in the era of the internet and – spot news, illustration social media, the appreciation of photographs and all kinds of visual content has grown and feature photography steadily. Even though a publication may fo- Photojournalism may be roughly divided cus on textual content, visual presentation of into three main genres: spot news photogra- the message needs to be taken into account in phy, illustration photography and photo re- order for the message to be delivered effective- portages or features. This is just a one ex- ly. Successful visuality gives the impression ample of a division as many others would of professionalism. be also possible. A photograph, when published within A news photograph is a product of jour- a journalistic context, is in itself a journalis- nalistic culture, and fundamentally it should tic product, but its message is built together aim to answer the same questions as a news with the text. The text provides the photo- text: what, where, when, why, how and who. graph with a context and dictates how it will Like a news text, a picture aims for clarity be received – and vice versa. A photograph and simplicity and it should be about an event included in printed media is almost always that has newsworthiness. accompanied by a caption. The caption de- Illustration photographs, on the oth- scribes where the photo was taken, who are er hand, are usually used in journalism to represented in it, what has happened and why illustrate abstract topics or concepts. They the people are there. share many similarities with drawn illustra- Picking images for articles is precise work tions and are used in similar contexts: both and, in addition to the photographer, often are more often used in feature stories than the reporter, subeditor, layout designer and in news. Unlike spot news photography, they art director participate in the process. The im- may be very abstract and not necessarily at age, title and introductory paragraph should all related to the locations or people present all be considered to ensure that they support in the written story. Instead of just illustrat- each other. The title must not be in direct ing or showing what can be read in the text, conflict with the illustration, but light tension sometimes illustrations may bring the arti- or a contradiction may be an effective way of cle another angle or deepen some aspects of getting the reader’s attention. If the title reads: the story. “A minister marched out of the plenary ses- Feature photography can include several sion”, the photograph cannot show the very photographic subgenres such as photo report- same minister sitting contently at their seat. ages or photo essays. The distinctions between Nevertheless, as an example of suitable ten- these are somewhat blurred, and are largely sion, a news article can quote a politician who dictated by the platform of publication, lay- says that the cooperation between parties is out, number of illustrations and amount of

46 What is visual journalism? text. Unlike illustration photography, feature phers have a recognisable style, and the work photography should have to do with a news- of photographers who have originally been worthy event, person or phenomenon in a di- newspaper photographers has been shown at rect sense, but on the other hand it is gener- art exhibitions. ally more liberal and photographer-centred The difference between a photojournalist than spot news photography. When photo and a photographer can roughly be said to features are published for instance in maga- be that a photojournalist has a better under- zines, the focus if often on the photographs standing of creating journalistic outputs and, and layout, while the text is often of second- unlike an art photographer, a photojournalist ary importance. The aim, as in the features is committed to the code of ethics of jour- in texts, is to tell a story through a series of nalism. The skillset of a professional pho- photographs or to transmit the feeling of be- tojournalist also includes an understanding ing present at the event. of the journalistic work processes in a wider sense, as creating high-quality journalistic output requires much cooperation and Photojournalist or photographer? coordination between the editors, reporter and photographer. In addition, it is vital that All photographs are parts of visual culture. a photojournalist understands the basics of Throughout the history of photography, there designing a layout of a newspaper, magazine has been debate about whether it deserves or the TV channel they work for. Ready-made a place in the field of art or whether it should layout templates and stylebooks, which re- be considered merely the mechanic storing of duce the staff’s workload, often limit the pho- reality. This debate continues today, not only tographer’s freedom of expression. on whether a photograph can be considered Digitalisation has changed the photojour- art, but also on what kind of a photograph nalist’s job description drastically. A modern can be considered art. photojournalist uses digital image processing The differentiation of fields in contem- and editing programmes and other software porary photography is based on the special- for content production. Contemporary stor- isation of professionals, organisation and ing devices such as mobile phone cameras, the practices of publishing the images. It is have also made possible the rise of a new kind common to sort photographs into the fol- of citizen photojournalism. Mobile phones lowing categories: photojournalism, adver- have not, however, replaced DSLRs, digital tising photography and fine-art photography. single-lens reflex cameras, as the most impor- In addition to these, scientific documentary tant tool of a professional photographer. With photography could also be discussed. professional tools, taking pictures becomes Of these categories, fine-art photography easier even in harsh conditions. is most commonly thought of as a part of A successful journalistic photo may be the more general field of visual arts. Photogra- technically less than perfect, but due to its in- phy at news events is rarely considered art, formation value it can succeed well. The pho- but is not monotonic work either. An image’s tographer should, however, always strive to aesthetic character is also a part of its im- reach a technical level at which the conveying pact. Many well-known newspaper photogra- of the information does not suffer.

What is visual journalism? 47 Shot sizes and following them will make the photography composition of a photograph appear neutral and thus pleasing to the eye. Obviously, when a professional photographer Whether or not photojournalism is consid- knows what they are doing, these rules can ered visual art, the basics of visual aesthetics be “broken” deliberately to create different apply. There are several easy rules that will kinds of meanings. help to improve one’s skills in both taking First, there are eight standard shot siz- and analyzing photos. It is good to remem- es that primarily apply when photographing ber, however, that all the “rules” mentioned or filming people, and which are useful to below are guidelines to general aesthetics, and know in framing and composition, regardless

1. An extreme close-up (ECU) brings out detail, for 2. A close-up (CU) portrays the face of a person example a part of a face. with the curve of the shoulder also visible. No excess space is left above the head. The top of the head can be left out.

3. A medium close-up (MCU) is framed at 4. A medium shot (MS) shows half a person, the armpits or the chest. No excess space is left framed approximately at the navel. No excess space above the head and the person is central. is left above the head.

48 What is visual journalism? of the subject. Learning them by heart will into consideration in the photos. If a person help in the avoidance of easy mistakes such as is facing or a car is approaching the camera cutting someone off from the neck or knees. directly, central composition is a good choice. Generally, framing a person in a way that cuts Instead, when a person being photographed them off in the joints is not recommended is not facing straight at the camera but to- since the end result often seems a bit violent. wards the left, or the car is speeding from Secondly, it is good to learn the two most left to right, they should generally be placed common styles of composition: the central in the image area so that there is more space composition and the golden ratio. The direc- left towards the direction of gaze or move- tion of gaze or movement should be taken ment. If the framing is done in the opposite

5. A medium long shot (MLS) portraits a person 6. A long shot (LS) shows a person in full. No excess from mid-thigh up. No excess space is left above space is left above the head or below the feet. the head and the arms are at the sides, visible in their entirety.

7. A very long shot (VLS) portrays a person in their 8. An extreme long shot (ELS) is as wide a shot surroundings. There is a lot of room both above and as possible. It shows the whole picture with below. the surroundings and details are not discernible.

What is visual journalism? 49 The golden ratio is based on mathematical relationships. It means dividing the image area into approximately three sections in a horizontal direction and three sections in a vertical direction, so that the relationship of the parts is 2:3. When recomposing the image, the important items of the photo are placed at the points of intersection. Central composition means placing the items at the points of intersection in the middle of the image area. This composition is particularly effective when placing a target that is facing the camera directly. way, this leaves very little space for the di- of people, the photographer should always rection of the gaze or movement, emphasis- choose this perspective. In bird’s eye view, es the “unknown” outside the framing, and the subject is photographed from the top creates a feeling of anxiety, tightness or being downwards. This perspective gives the im- trapped in the corner. pression of the subject being weak and small. The three most commonly used perspec- In worm’s eye view, the subject is being pho- tives are the normal perspective, bird’s eye tographed from the bottom up. This gives view and worm’s eye view. In normal per- the impression that the target is very large, spective, the subject is photographed at eye and can also give an impression of power. level. When taking neutral photos or video

The normal perspective The birds eye view The worms eye view

50 What is visual journalism? How far can your camera see? 400 mm For a beginner, it is important to be aware of 300 mm the different types of objective lenses. There are three fundamental categories: normal, 200 mm telephoto and wide-angle. 135 mm Normal lenses have a focal length of 105 mm around 50 mm. They are conventionally re- 85 mm garded as the workhorse of many photojour- 50 mm nalists. 50-mm lenses give pictures correct 35 mm perspective with little distortion – telephoto 28 mm lenses are often used for portraits for their more pleasing effect. Normal lenses thrive in 18 mm documentary and street photography. 8 mm Telephoto optics are long-focus lenses that 6 mm are used to make distant subjects appear mag- nified. Lenses with a focal length longer than 85 mm are considered telephoto. Long-focus lenses with a large aperture opening are used to remove the subject from its background. Long lenses with a narrow angle are useful considered wide-angle. Extreme wide-angle when the object of the photograph is far lenses with a focal length of less than 21 mm away. They make the feel of distance short- are typically used when shooting architec- er in the image, but they flatten objects and ture, but for a photojournalist they come in make them look as if they are closer to each handy in crowds, small apartments, nooks other on the depth axis than they really are. and crannies. Wide-angle lenses show a larg- Wide-angle lenses have short focal lengths. er area of the event site, but by using them Any lens less than 35 mm focal length are the image looks more distant.

Meeting a subject of photography In many countries, people are more used to Reflection: photography than ever. Many carry smart- phones with powerful cameras in their pock- Can you come up with situations, where different lens types could ets, but some people get tense when a photo- be used deliberately dishonestly, journalist or a photographer takes out their giving the audience a false image professional camera and asks them to stand of the place, person or a news in front of it. event? A photographer’s professional skill set includes working with the subjects of photography and directing the person being photo-

What is visual journalism? 51 Tips for a photographer A photojournalist always needs certain A photojournalist must carry note-tak- tools when going to shoot a story. ing equipment, to make sure These include the camera itself and the names of people who have been the necessary lenses, back-up bat- photographed are recorded. The jour- teries and memory cards. In addition nalist can interview the event’s organ- to these essentials, the camera bag iser while the photographer makes should contain a flash and some spare their rounds, so the journalist does batteries. It is good to take a shot or not necessarily know where the pho- two at the office to make sure that tographer has been and whom they the camera is equipped with a memo- have met. ry card and that everything is working There are no such things as bad con- as it should. ditions for taking a photograph, only Cameras are sensitive machines and lack of preparation. Before embarking sometimes they break. The photogra- on a shooting session, the photographer also has to make sure that they pher must prepare for both their own can take photos even if the camera comfort and the forces of nature: light, breaks down during the trip itself. wind and other natural phenomena. Nowadays, should the need arise, The photographer must also take into the photo can be taken with a smart- account what kind of event and situa- phone. tion they are going into in order not to attract unnecessary attention.

graphed. A few tips can help photographers Secondly, it is a good idea to ask the sub- taking portraits. ject what kind of a photograph they were Firstly, it is worthwhile taking the time thinking of and whether they have prepared to get to know the subject before the shoot, for it. This should be considered even if as often the photographer and subject are the photographer has a clear vision of what meeting for the first time. During the shoot, the outcome of the shoot will look like. the subject should be directed encouragingly Thirdly, it is a good idea to carry around and in a friendly way, so that they are able to a pocket mirror so that the subject has relax – that is unless a different sort of out- the chance to check their makeup or hairdo. come is wanted from the shoot. In addition, Reducing face shine is possible with a tissue. the person being photographed should be giv- Small gestures like this make the person being en the impression that you are present only for photographed realise that the photographer them. General politeness is also important. wants the photo to turn out well, also from

52 What is visual journalism? the subject’s point of view. also apply to videography, or “cinematogra- Fourthly, it is usually good to keep quiet phy” as it is called in a film-making context. of technical difficulties, if there are any. Be- Some differences and special characteris- ing a photographer is in one sense a customer tics do exist, however. They mostly concern service profession. You should not let people the nature of videography as the recording see if you are in a foul mood. of time and movement, the simultaneous recording of sound and the combination of material, which is called editing. The basics of video expression In its most simple form, video footage can be shot by placing the camera on a tri- Audio-visual or “video” expression consists pod and pressing the rec button. The end-re- fundamentally of continuous photographs sult produced is also referred to as the “static and the associated sound, which can be ei- camera shot”. ther recorded at the site or combined with Nevertheless, professional audio-visual the footage afterwards. This is why many expression requires different framings and guidelines that have to do with photography types of shots, both close-ups and wider ones.

Photography glossary Exposure White balance The amount of light that reaches your A setting used in colour photography by camera sensor or film which the white colour in the image is technically defined. White should look Shutter speed white in the photograph, not yellow or Determines the length of the cell’s ex- bluish, for example. posure. On slower shutter speeds, it is important to know that the image might A RAW image be blurred if the photographer does not A lossless file format of the digital cam- use a tripod. era. Raw images are digital camera versions of the film negative. The image Aperture is saved as it is without packaging or Determines how large the surface area is colour correction. The adjustments can that admits light to the cell. The aperture be undone and remodified with image not only affects the exposure of the pho- processing software. tograph but also has an inverse effect on its depth of field. The larger the aperture, the narrower the depth of field.

What is visual journalism? 53 Over-the-shoulder shots are called external reverse shots.

A full-frame image shows the viewer where cinema, precisely because it gives the mate- the event takes place. Wide shots also give rial an amateurish feel. As different lenses the viewer an idea of how things in the im- refract light in different ways, it is preferable aged space relate to each other and how they to move the camera closer to the object in- move. Wide shots lack the definition to show stead of zooming or changing the lens when detail and the expressions on people’s faces. shifting from a wide shot to a close-up. If For these uses, more restricted framings are the lens were to be changed, the end results needed such as half-frames and close-ups. Ex- with two different lenses might look different treme close-ups can force the viewer to focus in the editing phase. on a detail, which is important to the nar- Panning means the movement of the cam- rative. era in which the camera remains stationary In addition, to make the footage livelier, but rotates around its vertical axis, in a hori- the camera is often moved around. The most zontal direction, left or right. Tilting means common manoeuvres of the camera have the vertical movement of a camera, where their distinct names. the camera remains stationary but rotates Zooming refers to the technique of chang- around its horizontal axis, upwards or down- ing the focal length of the camera while wards. shooting. In some cameras this is done au- A tracking shot means that the camera tomatically by pushing a certain zoom but- moves while recording. In tracking shots, ton. Zooming while recording is very com- the whole apparatus moves and this is how mon in amateur home videos, but it is more it differs from zooming. The camera may, for rarely seen in professional TV camerawork example, be placed on a trolley and follow and classical cinematography. Nevertheless, a person or a car. A common concern regard- zooming may be used in pseudo-documen- ing tracking shots is how to prevent the im- taries and mockumentaries as well as in art age from shaking during the shoot. The tech-

54 What is visual journalism? nology of hand-held stabilising gimbals has The basics of editing improved drastically in the last 20 years or so, but many creative solutions such as us- Editing refers to the process of creating ing a skateboard, wheelchair or pushchair as the ultimate meaning of the shot materi- a trolley can help achieve the desired out- al through 1) selecting which shots to use, come. 2) altering the length, speed or visual look Often, multiple shots of the same scene (such as colour or aspect ratio) of the shots, are recorded from different perspectives to 3) organising the material in a certain order provide material for editing. The master shot and juxtaposing shots with other shots, and means a wide shot that covers the whole scene 4) juxtaposing the shots with layers of sound, timewise, and all of its events. In addition to text, motion graphics, etc. the master shot, smaller framings are used In short, editing is a process of both cut- to record details of what is happening. In ting “out”, that is leaving some shot material the post-production phase, these shots can be unused, and cutting “in”, that is, assembling added to break the monotony of the master a meaningful whole of pieces of material that shot, hence their nickname “cutaway shots”. in themselves do not yet carry the same mean- Reverse shots follow the discussion or oth- ing(s) as the whole. Usually, editing succeeds er interaction between people. It is recom- shooting or otherwise acquiring the material. mended to frame reverse shots similarly, con- Nevertheless, the planning phase of editing sidering the perspective and the scale as this – how we want to assemble the material and portrays the subjects on a neutral and equal why – should be present before the camera standing. The positions in which the people starts rolling. stand in the master shot should be kept con- Throughout the history of filmmak- stant. If the positions change or the people ing, two distinct traditions of editing have move around, the movement should always be evolved: continuity editing and montage. shown in a wider framing, so that the view- Continuity editing is a common style in er does not get confused. Over-the-shoulder both television and film narration. It aims shots are called external reverse shots. Inter- to establish a time continuum, which is as nal reverse shots show each of the people by unbroken as possible in the story. The de- themselves, with just the direction of their sired result looks like it simply shows things gaze connecting them. The camera is outside happening. The viewer can peacefully focus the ring formed by the performer. on the content as the events slide in and out Reverse shot structure is a much-used gently and fluently across different cuts. practice, both in fiction and documentary Continuity editing is the most-used edit- cinema and in audio-visual journalism. It is ing style, especially in Hollywood and West- easy for the editor to cut into the opposite ern commercial cinema, so it is also some- reverse shot. This technique allows the edi- times referred to as the Hollywood edit. tor to lengthen or shorten the event, remove Continuity editing cuts that follow each unwanted passages and build a consistent other should always differ to a large enough whole from inconsistent shots, while retain- degree in shot size and/or camera angle. When ing the illusion of a natural progression of the object of the shot remains the same, cut- events. ting to only a slightly different framing makes

What is visual journalism? 55 Cutting directly from extreme wide shots to close-ups might confuse the viewer.

the image seems to jump. A suitable jump in The match-on-action technique can preserve a continuity edit is two to three steps into temporal continuity where there is motion wider or narrower framings. This same prin- or change in the image. Match-on-action is ciple applies to varying the camera angle, and when some action occurring before the cut is can be summarised as the 30-degrees rule: picked up by the cut left by the shot imme- no edit should join two shots whose camera diately following. For example, if a person is viewpoints are less than 30 degrees from one lifting a cup of coffee in order to take a sip another. At the other extreme, it is also not in the first image, match-on-action would a good idea to cut from very wide to close-up be to cut in the middle of the movement of or the other way around because it confuses the hand to more or less the same point of the viewer, unless confusion is the desired trajectory, but from another shot size or cam- effect. era angle. If, however, the person is lifting Additionally, in continuity editing move- the cup in the first image, it should not be cut ment should follow movement and still image into an image where, for example, the cup is still, but the type of movement may vary. It again on the table leaving the task unfinished. is common to cut from tilting to tilting or This would also create a jump in the image, panning and so forth. A good way to film which continuous editing aims to avoid. is to start from a static camera then move When changing the location of the cam- the camera from one still point to the next, era, it is worth considering the so-called axis. keep it still for a few seconds and only then This imaginary line travels through two im- stop the recording. In the editing phase, this portant points close to the camera. When gives more possibilities of using the shot, as all shots in a scene are done from one side it can also be combined with static camera of the axis, the directions of people’s gazes shots when used as a whole. and object movements remain consistent. If It is good to keep in mind that trajec- movement is suddenly shown from the op- tories should be finished in the narrative. posite side of the axis, the object seems to

56 What is visual journalism? travel in the opposite direction to what it In addition to Eisenstein and Kuleshov, would have done if it had been shot from the theory of montage was developed further the opposite side of the axis. by Dziga Vertov, Esfir Shub and Vsevolod Pu- If a person crosses the axis, the crossing dovkin, most prominently in the Soviet Un- should be shown to the viewer. If the crossing ion in the 1920s and 1930s. The techniques is not shown, the viewer is easily confused of montage are used widely in art cinema about the orientation of the shot, producing and video art, but also in music videos and an end result, which looks and feels illogical. commercials. If scenes are not shot in chronological order, the continuity across shots and scenes must be taken into account. It is good to Audio narration as have a person at the scene, whose task is to a part of video expression make notes of the details of every scene, such as the locations of objects like water glasses Audio narration consists of speech, effects, and the clothing of the performers, in order music or silence. Elements of audio narra- for the whole to remain consistent. Usually tion can play simultaneously, alternately or this is done by the script supervisor. be synchronised to each other or the footage. If the continuity is broken at some point, Sounds have a significant but often in- the narrative is fractured, which draws the at- conspicuous effect on the interpretation of tention of the viewer to the form of the sto- an audio-visual story – and complete silence is ry. When this is done deliberately, it can be hardly the least effective means of expression. very effective. Sounds affect not only the interpretation of Montage is an editing theory developed the footage but also the interpretation of oth- by the Russian film theorist Sergei Eisenstein. er audio elements. Melancholy music that A montage consists of a series of images or provides the background for speech makes shots, and the meaning and chain of events of people interpret the content of the speech dif- the movie are born of their joint effect. Mon- ferently than if the speech was accompanied tage can be seen as the cinematic equivalent by happy or pompous music. of a collage. Its main premise is that bring- Listening and hearing are two wholly dif- ing two or several images together through the means of editing creates meaning that is not found in any of the used images alone. The cinematic experiments of Eisenstein’s contemporary Lev Kuleshov illustrate this. Kuleshov did experiments in which he researched the way people constructed stories and wholes of the consecutive shots they saw on the silver screen. In his best-known example, the same expression on a male actor’s face is interpreted very differently when it is juxtaposed with a plate of food, a child lying ”Axis” is an imaginary line that travels through two in a casket or a female actress. important points close to the camera.

What is visual journalism? 57 An example of an axis-mistake in video editing. ferent things. The fact that people are sur- on the available graphic and text material is rounded by sound in their daily lives results called a layout designer. Close to the occupa- in audio narration often escaping the viewer’s tion of a graphic designer is the art director attention, and the meanings it produces are (AD) who, in addition to graphic design, is left unanalysed. required to have skills related to informa- Listening is a skill that can be learned. tion-gathering and application and com- Paying attention to and analysing what you mercial thinking. The AD is in charge of hear is the first thing to learn if you want to the visual appearance of the publication as understand and create audio narration. a whole. The tasks of a graphic designer are numerous. They decide on the text typeface and size, Graphic design and illustration heading styles, format, separation of the introductory chapters, alignment of pictures Graphic design means planning the visual and location of the captions. layout: the graphic designer’s responsibility When it comes to print media, the graphic is the appearance of the message. Graphic designer is also in charge of other things relat- design is an applied art form used, for ex- ed to the visual layout. They choose the paper ample, in advertising, on websites, printed quality, sheet size, printing method, cover products, in electronic publications, movies, quality and binding. logos, package design, signboards and sign- An illustrator is specialised in demonstrat- posts. Elements of graphic design include col- ing written text through images. Illustrators ours, symbols, text, typography, shapes and work in various occupations of graphic com- pictures, materials and sometimes movement. munication for different media, and some- The tasks of a graphic designer can also in- times make animated movies or do lettering clude illustration, photography and graphics. work. A person whose main tasks deal with the layout of fliers and other things based

58 What is visual journalism? 5 CRITICAL READING of VISUAL JOURNALISM

n addition to journalistic and artistic The rights and responsibilities thinking, photojournalists are required of a photographer to understand their role as formers of worldviews and opinions. It is important Milieus can be divided into three categories: for a photographer to be able to think public, semi-public and private. In general, in critically when photographing, and for democratic states, it is allowed to take photo- Ithem to know what they are allowed to pho- graphs in public environments. Public space is tograph. In addition to personal moral codes, something to which everyone has free access: many countries have laws that protect both train stations, airports, parks, streets, librar- photographers and their subjects. ies, shopping centres and hospital lobbies.

Critical reading of visual journalism 59 Nevertheless, a country may legally restrict Probative value and photography in certain public places such as photographic cogency airports due to national security concerns. Semi-public spaces include offices and fac- A photograph has an effect in journalism, tories, and photographing in them is gen- which is referred to by the concepts of au- erally forbidden, if it infringes the privacy thentication and photographic cogency. of the subjects. Privacy laws protect private Since its invention in early 19th-century areas designated for housing, such as apart- Europe, photography has been seen to make ments, private yards and hotel rooms. It is possible the objective or even scientific storing forbidden to photograph a person in a place of information and evidence. Nevertheless, protected by privacy without their permis- cogency has been a topic of heated discussion. Generally, at least in many countries, sion ever since photography was invented and, you also need permission from the parents with the advent of digital technology, the dis- to photograph a child. cussion has become even more topical. There When travelling, you must acquaint your- have always been many ways to manipulate self with the conventions and laws related to even analogue photographs but, with digital photography in the target country. technology, manipulation is easy and almost Photographers, especially photojournal- impossible to notice. Nearly all photographers ists, are also bound by good journalistic prac- process their images one way or another. As tice and the guidelines for a journalist. Thus, American sociologist and photographer Lew- a photographer must respect human dignity is W. Hine remarked at the start of the 20th and avoid focusing on characteristics such century: “While photographs may not lie, as ethnic origin, nationality, gender, sexual liars may photograph.” orientation, conviction in an inappropriate Despite the fact that most people are or derogatory fashion. Additionally, the pho- aware of these possibilities, a photograph is tographer must not publish sensitive things still often perceived of as an objective record related to private life without the consent of or evidence of an event, and it cements trust the subject or unless it has exceptional so- in the content of the text. After all, the pho- cietal significance. The photographer must tograph does “serve as evidence” to the fact also be tactful when dealing with death and that the photographer (or at least the cam- disease and photographing accidents and vic- era) was there. tims of crime. This leads to two conclusions. First, The cornerstone of the business of some the need for self-regulation for photojournal- media brands might be the testing of the lim- ists is as urgent as for any other type of jour- its of good journalistic practice. It is impor- nalist. Second, it is important for the con- tant to ensure that the employer or custom- sumers and audiences of visual or audio-visual er carries the responsibility for the published content to remain critical towards any ma- photos. Ultimately, however, most ethical re- terial we encounter in media – especially in sponsibility lies with the photographer. Only social media. they know what the camera memory card contains, and they decide what is handed over to the news desk.

60 Critical reading of visual journalism The ethical guidelines Adnan Hajj, a freelance photographer of photojournalism working for the international news agency Reuters, caused uproar in 2006 when he was – how to retouch ethically caught having added a smoke cloud to his How to differentiate between legitimate en- photographs of bombings in Lebanon. Reu- hancing of a photograph and manipulation ters dismissed the photographer as a result that aims to distort the truth? of the controversy and, in 2007 roughly six There is no clear answer to this. Differ- months after the incident, compiled a com- ent image processing practices are used in prehensive guideline package on image pro- different fields of photography, even in dif- cessing for its photographers. ferent sections of the same paper. The ethics The Reuters guidelines are above all crys- of photojournalism influence the guidelines: tallised in the premise that only slight fram- how realistic or truthful is the image of real- ing, resizing and basic adjustments are al- ity that will be presented. lowed. It is not permitted to add anything to The strictest authenticity requirements of or remove anything from photographs. Harsh all types apply to news photographs and video colour adjustments, exposure adjustment and inserts. In practice, only technical improve- blurring are also forbidden. ment is permitted: nothing may be added nor removed from the picture. Reuters prohibits, for example: Primarily, the use of photographs is reg- The adding and removal of elements ulated by journalists’ guidelines, in addition The use of a cloning or healing tool on to which media houses might have their own anything other than removing small im- norms. However, in many guidelines there perfections is only a small mention of image process- The use of an airbrush and/or paintbrush ing, if that. As an example of Nordic guide- Sharpening only part of the image lines, the Finnish ones state that “in addi- Excessive lightening or darkening tion imagery or sounds must not be used in Excessive modification of colour tones a misleading fashion”, and the Swedish ones Using the Auto Levels tool on Photoshop that “the documentary character of photo- Blurring graphs must be supervised. One must ensure Use of the eraser tool that photographs and images are truthful, Quick masks for selections, such as depth and that they are not used in a misleading of field way” and that “Combination photographs Automatic camera settings, in-camera sat- or other digital image processing must not uration styles. be used in a way that can mislead the reader. In the case of a combination photograph or In magazines, image processing is more re- image that has otherwise been retouched, laxed. In processing for a magazine, the mind- there must be a mention of image process- set is often that things that do not perma- ing”. The Norwegian guidelines are quite nently belong to a person such as skin prob- similar to the Swedish ones, but Icelandic lems can be removed. Sometimes portraits and Danish guidelines do not discuss image are improved significantly. A person may be processing at all. made to appear slimmer, and wrinkles, skin

Critical reading of visual journalism 61 problems, cellulite, varicose veins and other to the power of evidence that photographs “imperfections” may be removed. or video footage possess. All visual material One very special case in image processing can also be “processed” with lighting, expo- is advertising photographs, which do not in sure, framing and non-conventional framing practice adhere to the conventions of jour- of the subject. The photograph or video im- nalism. Every now and then, heated discus- age, detached from the situation where it was sion arises on the unrealistic imagery created captured, easily becomes a holistic representa- by advertising photographs and the beauty tion of that situation, even though reality just norms arising from them. outside the frame could be very different to New techniques of image processing are what we see through the framing. not a bad thing as such. They are useful tools One way that visual journalism can dras- that speed up visual production. As a com- tically affect people’s worldviews is when re- mon rule, it can be said that if image pro- peated, recycled or stereotypical imagery cessing has been used for something other starts to represent reality to its audience. than improving the image’s capability to re- This is especially a risk when tackling for- flect reality, it can be considered an effort to eign news or news about topics that are very mislead the viewer. distant from their audience’s everyday life. Image processing is not, as of yet, an au- If, for example, we repeatedly encounter in tomation: someone in the editorial office the media images or footage which portrays makes the decision to process or not to pro- African guerrilla groups armed with Kal- cess a photograph. Every now and then, it is ashnikovs conquering villages, our impres- worth thinking about these decision-making sion of the whole continent may be that it is processes. war-like. This might then have very negative Social media has also changed photojour- consequences, such as an increase in racism nalists’ field of action. Another great and si- and xenophobia and a decrease in willingness multaneous change has been the fact that dif- to help charitably. To say the least, stereo- ferent cheap and light cameras have become typical images on the news narrow people’s more common. The position of social media worldviews. as the fifth estate is reinforced, for example, Numerous other examples could also by an image where the scene of an accident be named here. For example, lighting that is surrounded on all sides by a plethora of creates a strong contrast may create a men- smartphone cameras, which together form acing atmosphere. Repeated unrepresentative a whole with the power of evidence, con- photographs of politicians have an effect on sisting of a mass of photographs pointing in their public image. A few members of the au- every direction. The photographs of citizens dience at a concert may be squeezed into may either reinforce or question the credibil- a tight frame to create an image of an are- ity of a professional photographer’s’ images. na that is packed with enthusiastic fans, resulting in a very different interpretation of the performing band’s success to that which Critical reading of visual content a wider framing shot of all the empty spaces in the arena might give. Manipulation through image processing soft- The squeezing of masses of people is ware is by no means the only factor contrary a continuous feature in media, even though

62 Critical reading of visual journalism it might be difficult to prove afterwards. and events happening before and after a sin- For example, photography from riots and gle frame or even a video clip is never told demonstrations often works this way. Even by the end product, to the benefit or harm if in reality the riot were very local and, just of the photographer. 50 meters away, people were calmly going The event took a tragic turn when Carter, about their daily business, the photographs who never fully recovered from the traumatic may give the impression of a state of emer- events he had witnessed as a war photogra- gency gripping the whole city. These kind of pher, committed suicide in 1995. framing choices are of course understandable It is good to return to this photo when since the aim of a news photo is to portray thinking about the mission of a photographer the topic of news, not the whole city. It is as a journalist. Is it truly so that a photograph however also a question of mindful choic- that shocked the world and made many peo- es made by the photographer that can have ple politically aware of the situation should effect on the interpretation of the event. Do not have been taken at all, so that the hands they choose a telephoto lens to squeeze in and of the photographer would have been free to focus on the rioters, or a wide angle to reveal help one child? the surroundings and true scale of the riot? With framing, subjects can be detached from their environment. The most famous example of the framing of a photograph is newspaper photographer Kevin Carter’s 1994 photograph of a starving toddler in the Su- dan famine, stalked by a vulture. The photograph, which won the Pulitzer Prize, caused a massive debate about the responsibility of a photographer. The photograph was read as the final truth about the situation, and en- raged citizens commanded the photographer to say why he did not help the child, but stalked the child like another vulture, this time with a camera. The story goes, however, that the photograph was in fact the result of framing choices. The vulture was in fact about 10 meters from the child and only seemed to be much nearer due to use of telephoto optics that flat- tened the depth of the image. The story also goes that the mother of the child walked in front of the child and there were other people around as well. Whether or not this description of the situation is accurate, the bottom line is this: knowledge about surroundings

Critical reading of visual journalism 63 6 The DIGITAL REVOLUTION and SOCIAL MEDIA

ournalism, and society as a whole, define it. These services do, however, have have undergone a revolution since many things in common. ever wider access to the internet be- First of all, the core characteristic of so- gan to spread in the 1990s. One of cial media is that it is social: it is based on the most important changes this has interaction between users and user-generat- enabled is the invention of social me- ed content. The users of social media can be Jdia. Since the creation of Facebook in 2004, individuals, communities, corporations and if not earlier, social media has in a compar- organisations. Users can communicate with atively short time become an integral part each other, share content, comment on things of people’s daily life, both during work and published by each other, form groups or fil- leisure time. ter for specific content. In addition to com- Social media is a term under which vari- municating with actual friends, networking ous and very different online services can be and exchanging ideas is perhaps increasingly grouped. All in all, it is difficult to precisely happening between previously otherwise un-

64 The digital revolution and social media known people. The possibilities are virtually videos, news, photographs and their associ- endless. ated comments can reach an ever-larger au- Another characteristic that social me- dience at the single push of a button. To be dia services have in common can be found exact, according to statistics published by in media technology that is used to spread the London School of Economics and Po- the messages, images, videos and other con- litical Science in January 2019, of the total tent from one user to another. In practice, human population of 7,511 billion people, this technological foundation is the internet, some 3,811 billion people (51 %) have ac- but the web itself is not enough. Like other cess to the internet and 2,895 billion people online services, social media requires a device (39 %) use social media actively. In addition, by which the service can be accessed. its use seems to be increasing despite occa- During the dawn of the internet era, sional criticism. With its 1.2 billion users in the electronic communications network was 2019, Facebook, which launched in 2004, most often connected via desktop comput- still holds its place as the most used social ers. They were impractical or impossible to media channel in history. move around without losing connectivity to To sum up, social media has made it pos- the network. The computer was most likely sible for at least some bloggers, YouTubers or situated at work or at school, sometimes at other active content producers to reach out home. This meant that its use was limited. to audiences that are much bigger and glob- The work computer could only be used dur- ally wider spread than most traditional news ing working hours and computer use at home channels. This raises many questions not only was, at least in the early age of internet, mostly of responsibility but also of the urgency for limited by its connection to the television or critical media literacy skills. telephone line. One of the most important aspects of the revolutionary penetration of social media channels has been the development of wireless network technology. Mobile technology in particular has totally freed social media and other online services from the restrictions of space and time. A smartphone is relatively inconspicuous, easy to use and portable. The phone is wherever its user is: at home, at a party, on vacation or at an event. The experiences and phenomena people go through transform these days almost instantly into social media content. The oft-heard phrase since 2010 “if it isn’t on social media, it didn’t happen”, has become strikingly true. Thus, using social media platforms and tools, our everyday experiences, thoughts, Kevin Carter 1993.

The digital revolution and social media 65 Social media platforms and tools lular operators worldwide due to the free use of these applications and platforms. The multiplicity of social media is more 3. Bookmark sites. With these services easily perceived through different classifi- the user can save and organise any links lead- cations. The classification can be based on ing to online services or pages. Links and link the sense of community, content or link- collections can be organised through differ- age to time or place. Social media is after ent index words or classes. The user can share all a field, which is in a state of constant their link collections with others. Stumble- change. New software platforms, services Upon is one of the most popular bookmark and applications are continuously being de- services. veloped, old ones are being transformed or 4. Social news sites. With the help of these replaced by new competing options. Even services, users send, read and share links to though classifications are often simplified actual news sites, which contain the news and and overlapping, social media can, for ex- articles. Users of the service vote either for ample, be divided into different categories or against a news article. News will be dis- based on the ways it is used: played on the page after this based on how 1. Social networks. A service is called popular it is. Reddit is an example of this a social network when the users have kind of service. the chance to reach other people through it, 5. Media sharing services. With these ser- to network and form different groups and to vices, users can share media content with each share content with other users or groups of other. Media can be images, sound or video, users. Users can be related through kinship, for example. As in the case of social networks, friendship, hobbies, work or, for example, these services often provide the chance to through a religious or political conviction. create an individualised user profile, under Shared content may incorporate sound, which the user compiles the content to be text, images, videos, links, different files or shared. Other users can rate and comment the combination of all of these. Users have on shared content. Services like this include the chance to interact with each other, to Vimeo, YouTube, TikTok and Flickr. form groups with one another, to publish 6. Forums. Forums give users the chance content and to share it further and comment to discuss a certain topic with one another on it. Services like this include Facebook, within the website. Content mainly consists Twitter, Pinterest, YouTube and Instagram. of text, but a forum can in principle include Some social networks have been born of anything: images, sound, links and so on. regional needs. In China, a popular service Very often content sent to a forum is overseen like this is called Douban, in South-Korea by an administrator. Supervision often con- Cyworld, in Japan Mixi, and so on. centrates mainly on the filtering of offensive 2. Instant messaging services. Instant or unlawful content. messaging services like WhatsApp, Signal, 7. Blogs and vlogs. The most common Facebook Messenger, Telegram and We- definition for a blog is an online diary that Chat are among the most popular social can be kept by one or more writers. Thus, networking platforms between users, and blogs often consist of blog entries published have become a very serious challenge to cel- in chronological order. These entries fea-

66 The digital revolution and social media ture topics that are either linked closely to scribe to content published on another user’s the writer’s life or attract their interest. They wall. These are especially used in political can cover pretty much anything from fash- debates and the entertainment industry in ion to health issues and from pets to foreign the form of a second screen, for example with politics. A blog can feature text and/or im- a sports or entertainment television broad- ages, videos or for instance, solely cartoons. cast and for event communications. The most A blog in the video format is called a vlog. popular micro blog platform is Twitter. In fact, there are such an unlimited number of themes and styles of writing in blo- gosphere, that it is becoming increasingly Social media challenging difficult to define the term. A blog has pret- traditional media ty much become a generic term describing pretty much any type of user-generated pub- The digital revolution of media is a term that lishing. Some blogs cover the news in more refers to the on-going change in the commer- depth and even more reliably than many pro- cial logic of editorial offices caused by digi- fessional news desks. Blogs have offered peo- talisation, and perhaps especially social me- ple a chance slowly and analytically to write dia. Firstly, newspapers are increasingly being about topics that are no longer covered in read online, which is why the circulation of the traditional media. Popular bloggers who the printed papers and thus the amount of cover topics in narrow, specialised fields can money collected through print advertising attract readers from all over the world. has been decreasing rapidly since the first Blogs are also written for marketing pur- years of the new millennium. The web ver- poses by companies or influencers. The suc- sions of news channels and magazines also cess of some bloggers has raised questions need to compete with the wide variety of about their responsibility and financial trans- blogs and other free sources of information parency. Famous bloggers might receive no- available to anyone equipped with internet table financial benefits in the form of gifts or access. Audiences of the television networks even direct payment in exchange for the cov- are splintering as streaming services take over. erage they offer a manufacturer. In principle, In many media corporations, decreases in the ethical standards of journalism do not revenues have led into cutbacks in the work bind the bloggers in the same way as tradi- force. The remaining reporters are often tional journalists. Unlike in journalism where forced to produce multichannel news cov- marketing is totally forbidden, bloggers are erage with smaller resources. At the same not always expected to be independent or time, content produced by people other than impartial. professional journalists such as blogs etc. is 8. Micro blogging services. A micro blog challenging the role of media corporations as is exactly what the name implies. Through the channel for acquiring information and a service like this, users publish short textu- setting the agendas for public discussion. al content, which can also include links to The professional news media is increasingly other content on the internet. The content picking news topics from trending social me- is published, on the user’s “wall” or “feed”, dia discussions and not the other way around. which other users can view. Users can sub- This means that the role of citizen journalists,

The digital revolution and social media 67 Social media glossary Cyber security and cyber warfare Cyberwarfare is the politically motivated use of technology to attack a nation or a nation’s Bot account computer and information systems, causing A bot is an agent that communicates on harm comparable to actual warfare. With social media, for example on Twitter. Bot cyber security, nations actively try to protect accounts are often automatic accounts that themselves from cyber-attacks. do not have a real user behind them. Bot accounts are used to influence attitudes Embedded media or thoughts through social media and, for The content of digital media, like a YouTube example, to reinforce a particular political video displayed within another piece of con- message. They can also distribute spam or tent, outside its native setting. malware. Emojis Creative Commons (CC) Emojis are Unicode-standard symbols, which A public copyright licence that gives you can portray expressions, feelings or even the ability to use and share otherwise copy images expressing, for example, leisure righted material such as photos for free. time, country flags and different charac- Creative Commons licensed photos can have ters. The most used ones are the smile and restrictions on whether an image could be the thumbs up emojis and new symbols are used commercially, whether it can be modi- constantly being produced by users. fied, and what kind of attribution is required. Fake news site Crowdfunding A fake news site publishes incorrect content In crowdfunding a company or a person can designed to provoke and mislead readers. fund their project or product by seeking A fake news site often resembles well-known small investments from individuals, most and established media, making it even hard- often done through the internet at dedicated er for readers to recognise untrustworthy crowdfunding websites. sources. Fake news can go viral on Facebook, where users often share content without Crowdsourcing clicking on or checking the source. means that problem-solving is handed over to an undefined group of people, usually Graphics Interchange Format file (GIF) through an open invite published on the in- A file format that supports both static and ternet. Crowdsourcing can be utilised by animated images. Gifs allow the presenta- companies but also for example by editorial tion of short “video clips” in a condensed staff. image format.

68 The digital revolution and social media Hashtag (#) Podcast A content identifier used in social media Podcast A podcast is a digitally shared services such as Twitter and Instagram. By voice-series with episodes that can either be marking a central word with a hashtag, it is downloaded or streamed directly from the possible to locate messages as a part of the source. Podcasts, like blogs, usually have a related online conversations. This serves to common theme and can be produced as a increase follow up, classification and to lo- monologue or have several voice actors. Pod- cate those who share common interests and casts can sometimes produced by large me- concerns. The hashtag is also an effective dia companies but many popular podcasts tool in shining the spotlight on a particu- are produced by private individuals. lar issue, be it political, economic, social or sport-related with the aim of mobilising the Retweet public towards the issue at hand. Examples A tweet that is re-shared to the followers of popular hashtags include #metoo and of another user’s Twitter account is called a #climatechange. retweet. It is part of Twitter etiquette to give credit to others and not just copy someone Meme else’s ideas. The retweet does this since it A meme is a popular and quickly spreading appears in your timeline with the author’s content on the internet. A meme can be a name and avatar allowing your followers to funny image, video or hashtag. The original easily retweet or like the original Tweet. meaning of the word meme is a cultural and communicational copy: an idea, style or way Spam of use that spreads in culture from one per- Unnecessary and repetitive social media con- son to another. tent that clogs up the feeds of social media users. Onion network In an onion network, special encryption is Tag or “@” used to anonymise messages so that they A keyword added to a social media post with cannot be traced to their senders. The an- the original purpose of categorising related onymity can be broken but it is time- and content. A tag can also refer to the act of tag- resource-consuming, so the onion network is ging someone in a post, which creates a link used by those who use the internet for illegal to their social media profile and associates activities or who dislike the idea of constant them with the content. surveillance in principle. Onion routers are easy to use even through a special application on a phone.

The digital revolution and social media 69 regular adults, teenagers, peace activists or, in extreme cases, terrorists as agenda-setters is growing. Also, especially in popular cul- Troll ture but also in politics, the starting point for Traditionally, an internet troll is a per- a news piece is often an Instagram, Facebook son whose main purpose is to provoke, or blog post created by the sources and objects irritate and bully others online. Recent- of the news themselves. ly, the term has taken on a new mean- In addition, professional reporters who ing, as groups of ‘trolls’ are organised control the production of messages are being and paid for publishing anonymous, partly replaced as the gatekeepers of infor- political content, which is used for the purposes of propaganda and information by the digital media corporations, mation warfare. such as Google and Facebook. Instead of controlling the message production, these online Tweet gatekeepers are controlling what the audience are exposed to by manipulating the order of A microblog post in Twitter. It consists of a maximum of 280 characters and the search results and algorithmic picking of may include text, photos, links, hash- content to feed. tags and tags. There are two types of visions for the future of journalism. URL (Uniform Resource Locator) The positive vision of these two involves Locates a page or other resource on an idea of developing the already diverse the World Wide Web. media publicity into something that is more strongly based on dialogue and interaction. User-generated content (UGC) Rather than having a passive group of recipients, media will be greeted by an active au- Content that has been created and published online by the users of a so- dience. In this way, the digital era is chang- cial or collaboration platform, typically ing the traditional concept of the professional for non-commercial purposes and it is identity of reporters. Discussions taking place one of the defining characteristics of on social media can at their best promote social media. democracy, enhance the supervision of journalistic work, support multivocality and offer Viral phenomenon access to information and arenas of discus- An internet phenomenon in which sion, even to those living on the periphery. some content spreads at great speed According to the negative vision, in the fu- and sometimes achieves great popu- ture traditional media will not be democra- larity. The word viral originally refers to tised, its news production will not spread viruses: something that spreads virally, out, and citizens will not be better informed. like a virus. The ownership of the media, by contrast, will become concentrated, resources decreased, products standardised and made more entertainment-focused and their quality impaired. Hoping to gain the most clicks, populists and

70 The digital revolution and social media Protection of privacy and social media An increasingly large part of our com- surveillance software with the help of its munications and correspondence goes “partnerships”, large US-based telecom- through electronic “mail services”. When munications and internet corporations. we hand in our correspondence at the Some of these partnerships had been postal service, we trust that the clerk de- already formed decades ago. Others livers our letter unopened to the receiver. were more recently established, after the One might assume that our e-mail and events of 9/11, during the war against social media correspondence should be terrorism. The PRISM software, used for similarly private between the sender and espionage, is the largest ever espionage the receiver but, due to disclosures made system that has come to light in the by several informers, we know that this is US. Of current common services, some not the case. information had been provided by Goog- Perhaps the most important inform- le, Facebook, Skype, Hotmail, Yahoo! er of the 2010s’ was Edward Snowden. and YouTube, among others. The cloud In 2013 Snowden, who had worked for a storage service Dropbox was joining the subcontractor of NSA, leaked documents PRISM programme at the time the news to the press, which revealed the wide- was leaked. The group is missing Twitter, spread espionage that the United States at least for the moment. The leak started intelligence service was practising. In the a wide discussion of the digital rights of name of national security, information citizens and the protection of privacy on had been gathered about large groups the internet. of people both in the United States and elsewhere in the world. The majority of Reflection: What kinds of ways to im- the people were not under suspicion of prove protection of privacy are there in any kind of crime. The documents that the international world? Snowden leaked showed that NSA used

shocking news will replace in-depth and slow ular, it challenges the way the existing media analyses. News, and in particular news head- corporations work and earn their revenues. lines, will become more sensational. Under commercial pressure and the concentration of ownership, the autonomy of journalists Revenue logic of social media will decrease. This is not the first time, however, that The channels and services of social media that the media will have undergone a change. are free to the user generate income by sell- Every time a new form of media becomes pop- ing advertising space and/or providing user

The digital revolution and social media 71 Critical activism glossary Data activism Data activists utilise, collect and combine Clicktivism often online-based open source data to draw The Oxford Dictionary defines the term click- attention to issues overlooked by those in tivism simply as “the use of social media and power. Data activism has the potential to other online methods to promote a cause.” highlight and alleviate structures of inequal- Social media enables a fast and easy way to ity but is sometimes problematised due to support a cause, value or campaign. the lack of expertise associated with it. At times, open data combined and analysed by Slacktivism non-professionals can end up being skewed. is a combination of the words ‘slacker’ and Brandivism ‘activism’ and means lazy activism. The word is a derogative term for “feel good” activ- During the era of digital advocacy, corpora- ism. What is typical for slacktivism is that tions are increasingly interested in activism. it only has minor practical implications as Some companies are keen on actually ad- its purpose is solely to make a person feel vancing social change, but some have mere- good about her-/himself as an active citizen. ly begun to take note of the brand value that An example of Slacktivism can include liking social consciousness offers. This means that a campaign photo on Facebook or clicking businesses in several fields are now actively “attend” on a campaign event with no inten- promoting eco-friendliness, sustainability tion of physically attending. and equality to name but a few trends. Con- sumers’ reactions to brandivism are divided: some think it is good that corporations have Hacktivism become more aware and ‘are doing their combines activism and hacking, meaning share’, while others criticise these actions someone breaks into a computer or a net- for being profit-oriented ‘greenwashing’ or work to gain confidential data or information. ‘pinkwashing’. Hacktivism is usually related to an at least seemingly moral cause, and has been used in revealing malpractice and in online boycotts. data to advertisers. This means that the so- the user provides information about them- cial media service customer is not the user selves in exchange for the use of a free-of- but the advertiser. charge service. Channels like Facebook are For example, when a person creates a pro- free, because they sell to advertisers, in an in- file on Facebook, they simultaneously give direct way, a huge amount of data, which they the corporation the right to view and handle gather from the users and which enables very their personal information and information powerful tools for advertisement targeting. on user behaviour, such as actions, locations As another example, the Google search and likes. It is a question of exchange, where engine shows the user personalised adver-

72 The digital revolution and social media Still, every once in a while, it is worth discussing why we hand over our personal infor- Greenwashing mation to these services. Would it be possible, Businesses have been criticised for for example, to limit the right of the corpora- ‘greenwashing’ their otherwise non-cli- tions to forward private information to other mate-friendly operations by marketing organisations through legislation? environmental friendliness and sustainability. The clothing giant H&M, for example, faced a backlash after launching Activism and campaigning a ‘conscious clothing collection’. Critics deemed the campaign as deceptive for on social media consumers, as the clothing brand’s inher- Activism on the internet has a long history. ent business idea is non-ecological fast Before the era of social media, the medium for fashion. civic activism and campaigning was by email and on various online forums. Pinkwashing In 2020, campaigning and activism is eas- The concept pinkwashing is similar to ier than in the 1990s and has become part of greenwashing, but instead of sustainabil- our daily lives. Social media has also become ity, the promoted issue is LGBTIQ rights. a way to get organised. However, activism tak- In the hope of appearing as progressive, ing place on social media also has a flip side. an increasing number of brands are tak- The information overload that people face ing part in equality events like Pride and every day is so vast and diverse that individu- promoting its products. Pinkwashing al campaigns often get lost in the abundance. is not only done by brands, as on well- Digital activism has given birth to fairly known example of pinkwashing is Israel. negative-sounding concepts like slacktivism, According to political analyses, the efforts clicktivism and hacktivism. Even though these at making the country look appealing and terms are dismissive words, the phenomena advanced are attempts to distract West- behind them are just about to reach their full ern countries’ and tourists’ attention from potential. Digital media is increasingly being the Israeli-Palestinian conflict. used to support a change within society. For example, in organising events during the Arab spring, social media already played a major role. As another example, the #metoo cam- tisements based on past searches by the user. paign that started in 2017 has to this day re- From time to time, the data collection sulted in much debate about and even some methods of large corporations become legal actions against gender-based discrimi- the topic of debate. Users do, however, hand nation and violence globally. This campaign over their information and content for the use gained significant momentum when celebri- of the social media corporation. This hando- ties joined it. ver is a part of the terms and conditions and To help in the understanding of this, Am- cannot be relinquished afterwards by cam- nesty International has published an activism paigns or boycotts. guide, which anyone can use to start a cam-

The digital revolution and social media 73 Post reach

Page reputation

Post engagement

A simplified description of Facebook’s algorithm. The same principle of good page reputation leading to more visibility also applies to Google Search Engines and many more social media channels. paign to support human rights and increase Places where one can leave comments also awareness of human rights violations. There make it possible to give negative feedback, are also websites offering tools to create public and some content might also be shared with petitions, which can be initiated by anyone. an intention of ridiculing someone. Also, Activism in itself can of course be bad an increasing amount of customer feedback or good in nature. Hate speech campaigns, comes via different social media channels and hacking and spreading private information as such is public. Nevertheless, as there are may also be classed as web or social media always trolls and other internet bullies present activism. on the internet, one must not be frightened by a small amount of negative feedback. What is important with negative feedback How to use social media as is recognising the difference between trolling a business or a community? and actual negative feedback. A troll usually poses less threat to the image of the organi- The major difference between marketing on sation, while an authentic, negative custom- traditional media and marketing on social er testimonial might prove very harmful to media is the speed. Electronic arenas offer the brand and should usually be replied to. a possibility for peer assessment and feedback When the complaint is dealt with quickly and that can spread surprisingly fast. efficiently, there is potential to turn a disap- Thus, because social media is by nature pointed customer into a pleased one. social and interactive, it cannot be controlled On social media, companies and commu- the way that traditional printed media is. nities are expected to reply to a customer’s

74 The digital revolution and social media question on the same day. For this reason, it possible to target communication effec- it is necessary to estimate the sufficiency of tively to carefully narrowed target groups. communication resources beforehand. There It also makes it easier to follow the coverage is no point in creating presence on social me- of a company or community. dia if you do not plan to participate. Just Clear instructions for commenting and “going there” or “being there” is not enough. clearly formed justifications for removing or These aspects are not, however, arguments leaving certain comments unpublished will against acting on social media, quite the con- prevent speculation about censorship. The act trary. By producing content themselves, of moderating is a way of controlling com- organisations can control at least a part of menting on your own electronic networks, their coverage on the internet. Popular blogs but it cannot prevent others from sharing will feature higher on search results than in- your content and commenting elsewhere. dividual criticism. Social media also makes

A successful advocacy campaign Civic activism and advocacy campaigns the world started protesting for climate have the potential to make vast social action. #Fridaysforfuture-hashtags and changes when a significant number of photos spread, millions of protesters took people engage. In addition to support, to the streets and Greta Thunberg gave a successful global campaign often calls speeches at the World Economic Forum, for wide social and traditional media U.S. Congress and United Nations’ Cli- coverage, and allies in the midst of poli- mate Action Summit. ticians, celebrities or influencers. World- While the school strike for climate wide public marches and protests are also has gained significant global atten- beneficial in terms of increasing visibility tion, the question remains – what next? and getting the media to engage. The 2019 IPCC report estimates that A well-known example of a successful the global temperature rise must remain advocacy campaign is the school strike below 1.5 °C above pre-industrial temper- for climate. The wider movement was atures to prevent a climate catastrophe, initiated in 2018 by Greta Thunberg, while current climate commitments will a then 15-year-old Swedish activist, who result in the temperature rising by over 3 begun to strike for climate on the steps °C. The school strike for climate has been of the Parliament House of Sweden on a successful advocacy movement, but Fridays. She refused to go to school be- much remains to be done. fore the policymakers of the world started taking serious initiative to fight the cli- Reflection: Can you come up with more mate change. The movement gained examples of successful internet cam- support quickly, as students around paigns?

The digital revolution and social media 75 7 CRITICAL READING of SOCIAL MEDIA

he starting point of journalism is to be the truth. There are also rumours and fab- objective, critical, autonomous and ricated information just like in face-to-face progressive. Professional journalism interaction. Neither journalists nor citizens is controlled by national and inter- should trust any content absolutely, regard- national laws, and the self-regulation less of the source. and ethics of journalists. TThrough social media, people are daily exposed to a massive amount of media mes- Online conversations sages, such as news, images and videos. Con- tend to be polarised sidering this huge media reach and the possibilities of available modern technologies, it What kind of rules apply online? Can almost must be recognised that not all media content anything be said without anyone being held is journalism, self-regulated or even telling accountable for it?

76 Critical reading of social media Online discussion refers to any discussion of Facebook offers a polarised view: a one-sid- held online. It can typically happen in inter- ed selection of news through their network. net conversation forums divided into specific This creates filter-bubbles where people get topics, in the form of comments under posts a falsified idea of the truth through individu- or within a certain hashtag or by replying alised search results and following conversa- to people with tags, for example on Twitter. tions that seem suitable to their own opinions. News shares and posts on social media pro- Some communities of different channels and voke online conversations, which sometimes platforms, such as Facebook groups, set their get more publicity than the original posts or own guidelines and limits to discussion. For news articles. a new member, these can come as a surprise. While not everyone participates in online The community may, for example, use a par- discussions, those who do are often loud and ticular language and communication style use rich expression. In general, then, online that can be tricky to learn when entering conversation can be characterised as polar- the discussion. ised, emotional and engaging. Individuals participating often form their opinions fast and present arguments with no fact-checking. What is allowed in netiquette? In addition, one of the downsides of online conversation is that especially when the topic Even though it is practically impossible is political or controversial, it includes attacks to make sure that everyone is playing by on individuals, or so-called ad hominem ar- the common rules, it is good to keep in mind gumentation. what kinds of issues based on legislation and Social media commentators, of course, are ethics should be taken into consideration. not as a rule restricted by any guidelines, nor The basic rule of internet communication do online discussion and feedback forums is that the same rules apply as elsewhere. For have journalistic or any other kind of filter- example, stealing and harming someone’s ing. When adding to this the fact that some- work, identity or possessions are as illegal times people even hide their identity under online as elsewhere. pseudonyms, it is easy to see why the world One can also be held accountable for vi- of online discussion sometimes seems like olating copyrights online as well as offline. the Wild West. Many services online such as YouTube are From time to time, threatening and bul- international. Violating copyrights will lead lying messages are brought to light. Despite to deleting the material at the very least but, this, many willingly acknowledge the idea of at worst, can lead to criminal charges. freedom of speech and even rely on it loudly On one hand, the same laws concerning, when making controversial comments online. for example, defamation and inciting ethnic Current research concludes that the choice or racial hatred apply online and this often of social media channels affects the flow of seems to be forgotten in midst of polarised information. For example, a study by Mark online conversations. On the other hand, Boukes (2019) suggests that the use of Twitter freedom of speech, manifested for example in as a news source provides access to a wider laws and international treaties, protect one’s range of topics and viewpoints, whereas the use right to express oneself and one’s opinions.

Critical reading of social media 77 In addition to legislation, a netiquette should include many ethical questions. First of all, once material is uploaded to the internet, it will likely to stay there forever. Given Tips for social this, when publishing information or pictures media friendships that concern others, one must be extra careful. Even family members and friends are Do not tell people on social media what you can- protected by the laws protecting privacy and not tell them face to face against defamation. What is even harder is in the presence of others. to set limits on rights to publish photos of one’s own children. At what age does the de- Do not write on social media what may embarrass cision on publishing photos online move from you if it was read by your the parents to the children themselves? family member, boss or Along with the growing rates of inter- idol. net access penetration, it is also only natural that some of the bullying has moved from Always remember to deal with the issue presented classrooms and workplaces to the internet. and not the person who Cyberbullying can include messages that are presented it. Personalising mocking or threatening by nature, which can issues does not benefit also be published on the ‘wall’ of the person anyone. who is being bullied; spreading rumours or Remember that com- personal information; manipulating and dis- municating emotions is tributing photos; using someone’s name with- sometimes tricky through out authorization; barring someone’s access to short postings. The reader a group or a discussion; establishing groups sometimes cannot tell if, with the intention of disparagement; tricking when writing them, you people into giving their passwords; slander were angry, critical or on a blog or other publication. cynical and they may mis- Trolling is also a form of cyberbullying. understand you. The use A troll is a person who intentionally misleads of sarcasm in particular discussions online, such as on forums or in should be carefully con- comment threads. The main intention of a sidered. troll is to annoy people, cause conflicts and provoke people online. This might happen in the form of slandering or leaving inappropriate comments, or just by writing unnecessary messages so that, in the end, following ra- Part of the etiquette also includes ac- tional discussion comes well-nigh impossible. knowledging that clicking is power. Nearly Because trolls seek to provoke an emotional all media websites count the number of visi- response, the best way of dealing with them tors by counting clicks. In addition, the power is to ignore them completely. There’s no point of clicks is enforced by digital and social me- in debating with a troll. dia algorithms as clicks make content spread.

78 Critical reading of social media Many positive things have been achieved nalism enjoys in the society - for some read- by liking and sharing. However, it is good to ers at least. remember that a click also reinforces negative Nevertheless, counter media tends to pub- phenomena. A click is basically anonymous: lish very biased information whose reliabili- it does not tell whether you liked the con- ty may be questionable, and the responsibil- tent or not. It only tells the hard fact that a ity for fact-checking and source-criticism is certain amount of people became interested enough to click it. For this reason, the only way of preventing unpleasant, inappropriate or bullying content from being shared and spread online is to resist your own desire and curiosity to click on it, and simply leave it be. Dark side glossary For example, videos shared online by ex- Misinformation tremist militant group Isis generated this type of discussion. In some of its most disturbing Information that is false but videos, Isis killed its hostages. The sole pur- not created with the intention pose of these brutal videos was to cause fear, of causing harm terror and utter shock and to recruit more people to support their violent ideology. The Mal-information more people clicked on these videos, the more Information that is based on effective their campaigning was. reality, and used to inflict harm on a person, social group, organisation or country. Fake news sites flourish on the dark side of the internet Disinformation When discussing the dark side of the internet, Information that is false and it can be divided in to the black and the grey deliberately created to harm area. The black area includes illegal activities a person, social group, organ- on the internet such as hacking, fraud and isation or country other criminal activity. The grey area is not Source: UNESCO. en.unesco.org/fight- illegal, but can be considered immoral by, for fakenews example, spreading false information. Counter media (or “alternative media”; “misinformation media”) is a term that describes the kind of media, usually operating Reflection: Do you think on the internet, which publishes information there should be some licenc- that is not in line with the so-called “main- es or permits to start a news- stream media” or “established media”. paper? What benefits or dis- Counter media often borrows the style advantages would this have? and format of established journalism and, in doing so, also shares the credibility jour-

Critical reading of social media 79 transferred to the readers themselves. Coun- can find the kind of information that the es- ter media does not follow the journalist’s tablished media may refrain from publishing. guidelines. This may include topical issues that the estab- Part of the popularity of counter media lished media do not report for ethical or po- can be explained by the fact that the readers litical reasons - and this is often what counter media activists would like us to think. People seeking this kind of content tend to search for and believe the kind of information that strengthen their own worldviews and beliefs. The term “counter media” itself is a new Tips for digital security one that is not yet fixed in vocabulary – the phenomenon is becoming more wide- Some negative aspects of the in- spread, and commonly accepted terms to de- ternet can be easily avoided by scribe it are being discussed. simple mnemonics.

Viruses and malwares – You must have anti-virus software Content verification can help in and a firewall installed on tackling the problem of fake news the computer. If you cannot be completely sure who publish- The motives of different internet users can be es particular software, do not different from those of journalists who pro- install it. duce content within specific professional and Password protection – A good ethical guidelines. This requires other users password includes upper- and to check and verify postings and content and lower-case letters, numbers the motives of their producers in order to con- or characters. Do not use any front fake news. Nevertheless, even a critical of your identifiers in the pass- media-literate social media user may fall prey words. Change passwords from to misinformation. time to time. Images, websites, false profiles or news- Never hand out passwords, like content is sometimes created with the in- credit card information or per- tention of benefitting through fraud. Some- sonal information by email. times this is made for financial gain, and If you come across an unbeliev- sometimes to influence a campaign or an is- ably great offer on the internet, sue. Misleading information can also be un- such as a sudden inheritance, intentionally circulated by individuals, activ- do not believe it. ists and organisations with good intentions, Take backups of all the files on so it is crucial to maintain a critical reading your computer. For this, prefer- mindset when consuming media, especially ably use both an external hard when the information is somehow surpris- drive and a cloud service. ing or new. In order to avoid falling prey to misinformation, the following details must be verified:

80 Critical reading of social media 1. Verify the source: Who are they, what 3. Verify the location: Google-search im- are their motives and interests. ages of the location and compare them 2. Verify the time the text or images were with what is posted. Geographically lo- uploaded. Compare the text with the time cate every location and compare it with and search for day or night in the imag- the image or the posting you are verifying. es. Look for the season of the year and 4. Verify the image: Save it on your com- compare it with the scenes in the images. puter and upload it to Google Images Analyse time differences. Search. Find the origin, where and when

Tips for verifying news, text content and users Use sites to debunk the spread of false information, such as Snopes, and to check whether the content to be verified is available on such sites. Identify the original content and its source by searching for the same or similar content online. Search for reports about the events in question in other news sources. Search for the first date of publishing. The objective of verifying the source of the content is to know if the person or account publishing the content is reliable or not. Asking the following questions may help:

Is the source credible. Who are they? social networks in order to find more Where are they? Are you familiar with information. If you find a real name, this account? Was the past content re- use people-searching tools such as liable? What is the nature of the con- Spokeo, White Pages, Pipl.com, WebMii tent that was previously uploaded? to find contact information. Social Check the uploader’s history on social networks like LinkedIn can also be media. How active are they on the ac- used to learn more about a person’s count, and what do they talk about professional background. and share? Where do they reside Check if the account of the person on based on the account initiation data? Facebook or Twitter is already authen- Check their friends and followers on ticated by testing the authentication social networks. Who do they follow mark (blue tick mark). By passing and who are their followers? Whom do the mouse over the blue mark, you they interact with? Are they on the list will see the words “page verified”, if of other people or not? it is. Try to find other accounts related to the same name or username on other

Critical reading of social media 81 Tips for verifying an image Stay updated on new the tools for deter- and Instagram extract the metadata. To mining the origin of images online spring search for the hidden metadata, you can up from time to time. In 2020, search use Geofeedia or Ban.jo. Also, this data engines such as Google Image Search or can vary if the image was modified by, for TinEye are helpful. example, Photoshop, so EXIF data cannot To verify an image save it on your com- always be absolutely trusted. Use sites puter or copy the link. Upload the image like “Image edited?” to detect image ma- or paste the link of the image on Google nipulation using Photoshop, for example. Image Search and compare the results to To verify the alleged time and place of an your image. Keep an eye out for the larg- image, check the geographical location est file sizes as usually the largest image of the images. There are tools that could is the original one. Check the publishing help you determine the GPS location date in the search results, as the oldest and check if the image was taken at the images are most likely to be the original alleged place or not. Search for reference ones. points to compare them with the satellite Check the image file’s EXIF data, or the images and the geographically located so-called metadata. This is a standard images, such as signs, numbers, letters, format for storing interchange informa- signs on buildings, streets, and licence tion in digital photography image files. plates. Also, search for streets or known For example, when taking a picture using natural characteristics such as mountains, a digital camera or smart phone, the trees, slopes, rivers, etc. and check mon- image retains information such as type uments and buildings such as minarets, of camera, image dimension and date of churches, stadia, bridges and so on. Use capture. However, the time data cannot Google Maps, Google Street View, and be taken as an absolute truth, since it can Google Earth to check whether the old be set manually on the camera. To find and located images match the terrain and the EXIF data, you can use free software location of the image you want to check. and tools such as Jeffrey’s EXIF viewer, You can also use WikiMapia to define the Fotoforensics.com and Findexif. com, or features. simply right-click on the image and click Some services like Flicker, Picasa and on Image Properties. Twitter offer the option to include the EXIF data often disappears when the im- location of where the image was taken, ages are uploaded to social media sites, noting that it is not guaranteed to be the but are saved if photos are sent via email. truth. Social networks such as Twitter, Facebook

82 Critical reading of social media it was posted. Search for any Photoshop tampering of the image and the parties behind posting it. 5. Verify the video: Upload the video thumb on YouTube or Google. Check where it had been posted and verify the identity of Check the details, pay attention to the clothes, buildings and architecture, the poster. Analyse the images’ locations licence plates and weather. Linking all in the video. Listen to any sound effects. these elements can help determine if Follow the cutting and montage. Check the content is logical and true or not. the YouTube uploading time. 6. Verify the posting and tweets: An effective way to verify a photo is do not to communicate with the person who believe any post or tweet in PDF format. uploaded the image, and then to ask Go to the original account owner and whether they took the image or not. make sure the posting or tweet are on The tracking process often starts with their account. Ensure that nobody had the person who uploaded it and ends hacked the accounts you are verifying. with the one who captured it. When communicating with the source, com- Network users have two types of verification pare their answers with the informa- available. The first is closed verification -car tion you obtained through your own ried out by the user alone or through a special search and make sure they match contact with other sources or users. The sec- your findings. You can also ask the ond is open verification through investigating source for additional images, taken the information integrity of the network by before and after the image to be ver- interacting with other users. ified. Use logic and your instinct during the verification process. Not all information needs tools and programs. For example, does the description or explanation accompanying the image match the image or not? Does the content seem logical and relevant to the context described? Are there any irregularities in the content that are misplaced and hard to believe? Do source information and details contradict each other?

Critical reading of social media 83 8 UNDERSTANDING media ADVOCACY

edia advocacy includes all com- own stories with their own words. It can also munication, which aspires to aim to pressurise or persuade decision-mak- the exertion of influence. It is ers. a broad concept, under which Different public, private and civil institu- things such as sending an- tions have a huge amount of information. In nouncements, advertising, sales order to reach out to the public, they often Mwork, lobbying, political speeches, religious cooperate with the media. sermons, demonstrations or salary negotia- tions can be grouped. Media advocacy is conducted for vari- Differences between public ous reasons, but generally aims at attracting relations officers and journalists the public’s attention to a person’s or company’s goals. It can aim to increase public vis- A public relations officer (or media spokes- ibility and interest so that the parties whom person or press officer) is a communications the communicator represents can tell their professional whose task is to communicate

84 Understanding media advocacy about the functions of the organisation, cause or the individual they are representing. Pub- lic relations officers are often employed in companies and associations, but events like Qualities of a good festivals and popular figures like politicians press release or celebrities can also have their own public relations officers. A good press release is: easy to read and written in A public relations officer has a dual role. clear language On one hand, they convey the message of their institution, explain its programmes, il- contains editable quota- lustrate its achievements, respond to critics tions and concrete facts, which help the work of and correct misinformation. On the other a journalist taking up hand, they provide the media with needed the case. information and communicate journalists’ and stakeholders’ needs to their institution, contains contact informa- thus encouraging cooperation. tion for requesting further information and guidance The most common tasks for a public to the other possible loca- relations officer may include writing press tions where more informa- releases and articles, organising press con- tion is available. ferences, editing customer and personnel magazines, annual reports, flyers and other printed products or communications material and online communications. They may, for example, write speeches or statements for the represented organisation’s CEO, politi- also be completely different. The values and cian or expert. Public relations officers may ethical guidelines that steer the work of jour- also call journalists and try to convince nalists do not, however, in principle bind pub- them to participate in press conferences or lic relations officers in the same way as they to make news about the party or person do journalists. A public relations officer is they represent. not supposed to be independent in relation Whereas public relations officers need to the party they represent. This is good to journalists to reach out to large audiences, keep in mind when encountering, for exam- maintaining good connections to public rela- ple, press releases or articles on a company’s tions officers is also important for journalists. magazine: they may seem very professional Firstly, interviews are often agreed via public and neutral, but they may or may not be im- relations personnel. Secondly, press releases partial and objective. or even private calls from communication Nevertheless, the job descriptions of personnel are important information sources a journalist and a public relations officer have, from which journalists can pick some poten- in recent years, moved closer to one another tial topics for their articles. as a result of the ongoing change in media. A public relation officer’s job description Whereas many media outlets struggle to find can be very similar to a journalist’s, but can new methods of funding in the digital era,

Understanding media advocacy 85 the tasks in public relations and the amounts Lobbying does not, however, in princi- of funds allocated to it have prospered sub- ple, have anything to do with corruption or stantially with the increase in the use of social bribery. Lobbying is first and foremost about media as platforms for publishing, mobilisa- trying to convince the other person by pre- tion, funded advertising and networking. In senting strong arguments, facts and figures. consequence, many journalists who have been When understood in a positive sense, lob- laid off from their news work have moved to bying is the exchange of information and “the other side of the fence”, and started work networking, which is based on discussion, in public relations. expertise and arguments. To offer the political system transparency, the European Union and the United States Lobbying is convincing use a lobbying register into which lobbyists with arguments enter the parties they are lobbying for and the budgets they are doing it with. Lobbying as a word comes from the place where politics is often done, the lobby of an office. Lobbying is the work of exerting Marketing communications influence and providing the communication that happens behind the scenes of democra- Marketing communications include advertis- cy. In lobbying, the representatives of inter- ing, public relations work, sponsoring, sales est groups try to influence, in an unofficial promotion through discounts, offers, compe- manner, the decision-makers who are crucial titions, fairs and sales work, which happen to a certain issue. Through these activities, between the representative of the corporation the representatives aim to affect the deci- and the customer. sion-making process that concerns the group Advertising is a very common form of they represent. marketing communications. Advertising is Lobbyists can represent, for example, cor- paid, target-oriented communications, which porations, consulting firms, interest groups or is often aimed at a large audience. Advertising groups of citizens. Parties that are being lob- persuades the audience to consume, increases bied can be policy-makers, officials, the me- market shares and makes corporations grow. dia or people with the opposite outlook on Advertisements can be used to inform the au- the issue. dience of items, services, causes or people. Lobbying has a bad reputation. In Advertising is often done through differ- the gloomiest images, lobbying can be seen as ent media and social media channels. Ad- secret influencing of decision-makers by pow- vertisements are present in newspapers and erful business elites and campaign funders magazines, on the radio, on television, at that leave our democratically elected repre- cinemas and on the internet. Social media sentatives as nothing but puppets. This fear has also given space for influencer market- is reinforced by the so-called “revolving door ing, where celebrities and micro-celebrities phenomenon”, in which people in positions endorse products. of power become lobbyists for the business A rather topical form of advertising worth world, and vice versa. mentioning here is an advertorial. An adver-

86 Understanding media advocacy torial is an advertisement made in journalistic style, visually and content-wise resembling a regular magazine article. When advertorials first appear in the pages of magazines Tips and or newspapers, it was often difficult to dis- prohibitions for media tinguish between them and the journalistic content of the magazine. That’s why many spokespersons ethical guidelines have now clear instructions The basic rule is to keep about how this type of content marketing professional relationships should be separated clearly so as not to mis- between journalists and me- lead the reader. dia spokespersons based on Publishing advertisements in the media the reciprocal need of each involves two parties. The advertiser associates party for the other. the publication with the corporation behind the advertisement, and sometimes with trou- Never lie bles concerning its reputation. From the ad- Admit a mistake/problem vertiser’s point of view, buying media space if any from different magazines, newspapers and Correct your errors quickly, media is affected by the content, alignment, especially in social media readership and image of the media in ques- Do not improvise or guess tion. The advertiser is associated with these Do not avoid journalists’ factors by publishing an advertisement in calls. the said media. The advertisement can affect the corporation’s image if the content of the media that supplied the advertising space is deemed questionable by the public. Media advertising may have problematic through the number of followers they have side effects in terms of the reliability of jour- on their social media accounts or other sig- nalism. Media channels that sell advertising nificant media exposure. In influencer mar- space are sometimes more careful than those keting, both are used by brands and organ- that finance their activities solely through isations to increase sales or advance a cause. subscription or support fees or taxes. For ex- For example, in 2019 one of the world’s most ample, the media outlet not necessarily dare famous micro-celebrities, Kim Kardashian to criticise corporations that buy advertising West, was able to earn up to half a million space from them. dollars through one endorsement campaign Influencer marketing has become a key due to her position as one of the most followed tool in marketing communications. Celeb- individuals on Instagram. Micro-celebrities rities are individuals who are well-known can be used locally, nationally or globally de- because of their careers or some other rea- pending on their value and reputation. son. So-called micro-celebrities, on the oth- Propaganda is (media) advocacy with er hand, are individuals who have worked the purpose of affecting people’s thoughts, to increase their online value, for example emotions, attitudes and behaviour. Propa-

Understanding media advocacy 87 Limitations on the media coverage of the elections in Palestine The Palestinian Law comprises many arti- government cars and equipment in the elec- cles related to the organisation of the me- toral campaign. This article holds the manag- dia coverage of the elections, including er or coordinator of the electoral campaign the campaigns of candidates, the polling accountable for ensuring compliance with day, the day the results are announced as the above-mentioned provisions. well as observing/oversight over the electoral process. Campaign signs The articles of the law provide for estab- Article 67 concerns the removal of the cam- lishing a committee jointly with the mass paign signs. Electoral lists shall remove all media to prepare a specific programme with their campaign signs within two weeks of the allocated schedule for liberal and free- the end of the electoral process. The Com- of-charge media coverage for all candidates mittee shall impose a guarantee of at least and electoral lists, taking into consideration USD 10,000 guarantee to ensure the adher- the necessity of ensuring equal opportu- ence of the list to the electoral campaign nities for candidates and lists. Objections provisions. to the programme must be presented to the Committee within 24 hours, at most. Funding of campaigns Here are some interesting excerpts from Article 68 concerns the sources of funding the law: for the electoral campaign. Electoral candidates shall not, directly or indirectly, receive Tone and location any funds for the electoral campaigns from non-Palestinian foreign or external sourc- Article 66 prohibits the defamation or insult- es. Each candidate shall submit, within one ing of other candidates, the organisation of month at most of the announcing the final political rallies in mosques or churches or results, a detailed statement of their funding near hospitals or public institutions, placing sources. Moreover, the Committee may re- electoral posters or banners in public venues quest the audits of the financial statements not allocated to the electoral campaign, us- by a certified auditor. ing the Palestinian National Authority logo in any of their electoral campaign and using

88 Understanding media advocacy Determinants of Article 69 concerns the limitations of commercial publicity campaign spending. Candidates may in Palestine not spend more than USD 1 million or its equivalent. The Palestinian Press and Publications Law No. 9 of Media coverage 1995 prohibits: Article 70 concerns observing the elec- 1. tions and media coverage. Accordingly, making use of press mate- the electoral process shall be conduct- rial for commercial adver- ed transparently and publicly to enable tising the observers and the media to observe 2. misusing one’s position as it. All local and international observers a news journalist to adver- and journalism and media representa- tise something or undu- tives shall be accredited by the Commit- ly criticise something, or tee. The Committee shall issue a card make unfair comparisons for such observers and representatives. between companies or en- All election personnel, including but terprises. not limited to the police, shall facilitate 3. the media from carrying the aforesaid process. advertisements to pro- The Central Elections Commission mote medicines, pharma- approved an accreditation system for ceuticals and cigarettes, journalists for both the general and unless authorised by local elections and for the SPJ Code the Ministry of Health. of Ethics while covering the electoral process. In addition, Article 40 of the Law obliges the press to candidly and clearly distinguish between remunerated advertisements and press materials.

Understanding media advocacy 89 ganda techniques can include, for example, aggravation, exaggeration and keeping quiet about alternatives. Propaganda often includes Political campaigns partial and loaded information, sometimes affected by advocacy downright lies. A straightforward definition of propagan- The role of social media in political da is difficult, partly due to its bad reputation. campaigns has been under scru- The act of definition carries with it the risk tiny since the end of the 2010s. of bias: the opinions of the opposing side are One of the most scrutinised cases often labelled as propaganda. For example, is the 2016 election and cam- the election posters of a certain party can paign victory of Donald Trump. be considered propagandistic by their oppo- In the middle of the debate is the Internet Research Agency (IRA), nents. which is closely tied to the Rus- States often regulate what can be adver- sian government, and which has tised. The advertising of something – a prod- openly been called a “troll factory” uct or an idea or even a human right – can (Bertrand 2017). A research article be forbidden altogether. by Bastos and Farkas (2019) describes the propaganda activities of IRA through a study of 826 Twit- Critical reading and good ter user profiles and 6,377 tweets practice of marketing by the agency. In their study, they found short-, medium and Advertisements affect our worldview, both long-term propaganda campaigns consciously and subconsciously. The imagery tailored to campaigns such as transmitted through advertisements moulds Pro-Russia, Pro-Trump and Black- our reality and our understanding of society, Lives-Matter activists. Some other values and human nature. Like journalism, researchers, Fiegerman and Byers, advertising and marketing are regulated by investigated the same specula- the principles of good practice, which are of- tion in 2017, and in 2018 Twitter ten defined in legal text. announced that its service was car- The first step in becoming a critical reader rying 3,814 IRA-linked accounts, of marketing is understanding that the main which indicates the scales of the idea behind it is to generate interest and drive IRA’s activities. Reflection: what sales. could governments or social me- Many advertisements might be over dia enterprises do to fight harmful the top and show a larger-than-life picture forms of internet activism during of the actual product. Nations usually there- political campaigns? fore try to limit the overkills of marketing activities legislation, for example by making it mandatory to show the “real picture” to the audience or consumers. That’s why the most extreme advertisements come with

90 Understanding media advocacy Glossary of marketing and advertising Advertorial or entertainment programme for a fee. An advertisement made in journalistic Sometimes this is done very subtly, so style, which visually and content-wise that the receiver doesn’t realise the com- resembles a regular magazine article. mercial ambitions behind what they see. For example, many women’s magazines This kind of “subliminal advertising” sell to their advertisers the rights to use could include the brand of the main pro- the magazine’s fonts, colours and other tagonist’s car. visual techniques. Social media marketing Media advertising Marketing and advertising through social Advertising that is trying to reach a large media channels. audience through media. Forms of media advertising include television and radio Sponsoring commercials. The funding or other financial support of events, athletes or TV programmes Product placement that aims at increased sales of the spon- The placement of a product, service or sor’s products or services, or at increased trademark in a movie, series, sportscast knowledge of the brand name.

disclaimers and warnings, so that the con- or insulted in advertising on the basis of gen- sumer knows that the stunts, actions per- der, sexuality, religion, race or disability. Ad- formed in the advertisement are done by vertising must not reinforce discriminatory trained professionals and should not be at- attitudes present in society. tempted at home. There are also usually specific regula- In general, the same legal and ethical prin- tions relating to advertising aimed at chil- ciples that govern media and publishing apply dren. A threatening or frightening advertise- to marketing. The only exception is journal- ment may be contrary to law or good practice ism, which usually also follows self-regulation when the advertisement can reach children, guidelines that are much stricter than the even if it is not aimed at children. Under-age national laws. Often the use of violence and people should not encounter advertisements discrimination can be forbidden in advertis- that contain sexual impulses inappropriate ing. Discriminating advertising means how to their age group or level of development, a group of people is subordinated, degraded for example.

Understanding media advocacy 91 An advertisement must be recognisable a billboard, shop window or in public trans- as an advertisement regardless of the way it portation must be considered more deeply. is presented and its format. The consumer Despite this, an advertisement is not has the right to know when they are being necessarily contrary to good practice, even subjected to commercial persuasion. Also, in- if many people think that it is vulgar or that fluencers must disclose if they are producing it arouses unfavourable images. content related to products that they co-operate In addition to law and ethics, there is an- with. In outdoor advertising, public space other point to this story. Following good prac- is used, and one cannot avoid encountering tice in advertising also has implications for advertising. That is why an advertisement on the societal responsibility of the corporation.

Headline posters and placards Placards and headline posters are the ad- to the message printed on the posters. vertising posters of evening newspa- According to good journalistic practice, pers. Their objective is to sell the paper the headline should be supported by through punchy headlines and eye-catch- the content. The aggravations of heading images. line posters can also be problematic in Aggravation is a part of media pub- the light of the principle of truthfulness. lishing, especially in headline posters. Another common reason for criticism The headlines display only one atten- is that the posters are often in plain view tion-raising point, even on complicated on the streets and at store counters, topics. Instances of violence, conflicts, which also makes children recipients of revelations and opposites are common their messages. positions in headline posters. From time to time, public discussion is Reflection: Who is responsible for raised on the ethics of headline posters. the ethics of placards? The journalist or One reason for this is that the content someone else? What could journalists do of articles is not necessarily equivalent themselves to avoid unethical headlines or placards?

92 Understanding media advocacy 9 INTRODUCTION TO human RIGHTS

“All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.” Article 1, Universal Declaration of Human Rights, United Nations (UN), 1948

he starting point for human rights is the fact that they are human. They apply to based on morals: human rights state everyone regardless of age, ethnic origin, reli- that human value is associated with gion, sexual orientation, nationality, culture, humanity. The purpose of human gender, race, disability or any other charac- rights is to live a life worthy of a hu- teristic. Inalienability refers to the fact that man being. human rights are acquired at birth and no- TCharacteristics of human rights include one can relinquish them, for example sell universality, inalienability and fundamental- themselves into slavery, even if they want to. ity. Universality means that human rights Fundamentality means that only very impor- belong to all people in the world, based on tant rights are included in human rights, such

Introduction to human rights 93 as the freedom of speech, the right to life and il and Political Rights (ICCPR) and the In- the right not to be tortured. ternational Covenant on Economic, Social When human rights are not adhered to, and Cultural Rights (ICESCR). The prepara- it is a human rights violation. tion of the covenants was initiated right after Even though human rights are universal, the creation of the Universal Declaration, and their realisation and promotion is in practice they were approved by the UN General As- the responsibility of nation states. sembly in 1966. The Universal Declaration and these two covenants form the foundation of the UN human rights system. They are Most important human rights occasionally referred to as the International documents and agreements Bill of Rights. The most important human rights document is the UN Universal Declaration of Human Three generations Rights, which was created after the Second of human rights World War in 1948. Officially, the declaration is a morally binding mission statement Human rights are often referred to as having by governments. It has, however, become le- three “generations”. gally binding based on international com- The first generation is civil and political mon law. rights. They are based on securing a certain The Universal Declaration includes an in- sphere of freedom for an individual in rela- troduction and 30 articles. It covers rights tion to public power, and enabling political extensively from the rights to life and free- participation. These rights are often about dom from slavery to the right to education, the freedom to enjoy something, which is why freedom of religion and thought, adequate they are often referred to as freedom rights. standard of living and the right to apply for The first-generation rights include the right and enjoy asylum. to life and freedom of speech and religion. In the eyes of the international commu- The second generation is the economic, nity, every country is primarily responsible social and cultural rights. These concern for human rights being respected within its the right to have or own something and borders. The obligation also applies to for- they deal with the prerequisites of a per- eigners staying in the country. son’s true well-being, the realisation of A state that is a party to suspected human which also requires resources from the so- rights violations can be taken to an interna- ciety. It is characteristic of these rights that tional court of human rights. Additionally, they are not realised simply by public pow- states or individuals who are guilty of severe ers not interfering on an individual’s rights. human rights violations, such as war crimes The second-generation rights are, for exam- or genocide, can be taken to an international ple, the right to be employed in just and criminal court. This happened, for example, favourable conditions, and rights to food, in the case of the Rwandan genocide. housing and health care. The most important human rights agree- The third generation is the collective or ments are the International Covenant on Civ- so-called solidarity rights. The foundation of

94 Introduction to human rights solidarity rights is the principle formulated in for example, the right to development and the UN Charter about the autonomy of peo- the right to a clean environment have been ple. Additionally, they are based on of the 28th strongly featured at global conferences. article of the Declaration of Human Rights, Although perhaps a useful tool, this divi- according to which everyone has the right to sion has been criticised for giving precedence the kind of societal and international order to the freedom rights that are most important under which the rights and duties outlined to the Western world. The Cold War-era con- in the declaration can be fully realised. There flict between the stresses on freedom rights in are no binding contracts on these third-gen- the capitalist world and economic, social and eration human rights but, in recent decades, cultural rights in Communist societies shows

Human rights agreements in the Palestinian territories Palestinian independence has not yet ty also stands, and civilians are tried in been recognized everywhere, and it is unjust military courts. Women and girls not a full member of the United Nations. face discrimination both in practice and As such, it is not by itself a party to any in legislation. The protection of women of the UN human rights agreements. against gender-based violence is also Palestine has, however, achieved the po- imperfect. The mobility of journalists is sition of observer state at the UN, which restricted. means the right to speak at UN General From the viewpoint of supervising hu- Assembly meetings, but not to vote on man rights, the current situation is prob- resolutions. Israel has signed most of lematic. If Israel and Palestine are one the human rights agreements. The agree- state, the human rights violations of Isra- ments apply indirectly to Palestine due to el against the Palestinians are glaring. If the Israeli occupation. we look at them as two states, Palestine According to an Amnesty International is not a party to any agreement, and its annual report, human rights violations citizens cannot appeal against violations are a part of daily life, both in the occu- in any court. Additionally, in this case it pied territories and in Israel. Palestini- can be noticed that the sovereignty of ans both on the West Bank and in Gaza the state is constantly violated. enjoy imperfect freedoms of speech, movement and assembly, and also suffer Reflection: Do you think that Palestini- from arbitrary detention and imprison- ans living under occupation have the op- ments. According to the report, torture portunity to enjoy human rights? Why or and beatings of arrested people are still why not? widespread problems. The death penal-

Introduction to human rights 95 Excerpts from the Palestinian basic law: Article 10 to express his opinion and to circulate “Basic human rights and liberties shall be it orally, in writing or in any form of ex- protected and respected. The Palestini- pression or art, with due consideration to an National Authority shall work without the provisions of the law”. delay to become a party to regional and international declarations and covenants Article 32 that protect human rights”. “Any violation of any personal freedom, of the sanctity of the private life of hu- Article 14 man beings, or of any of the rights or lib- “An accused person is considered inno- erties that have been guaranteed by law cent until proven guilty in a court of law or by this Basic Law shall be considered that guarantees the accused the right to a crime. Criminal and civil cases resulting a defence. Any person accused in a crimi- from such violations may not be subject nal case shall be represented by a law- to any statute of limitations. The National yer”. Authority shall guarantee a fair remedy to those who suffer from such damage”. Article 19 Reflection: Do you think that the Pal- “Freedom of opinion may not be preju- estinian basic law is respected by all diced. Every person shall have the right the citizens?

“The other factor” Agreements ban direct discrimination professional activity. Additionally, there on the following grounds: Gender, lan- is always a mention of “Other position, guage, religion, race, skin colour, political factor”. or other opinion, ethnic, national or social background, minority membership, prop- Reflection: What could be such other erty, wealth, decent, medical condition, position or factor? disability, sexual orientation, political or

96 Introduction to human rights that human rights are not free of ideology. In Human rights dilemmas addition, the Universal Declaration of Hu- man Rights has been criticised based on much To enjoy human rights, one also has the duty the same logic. The universality of rights has to respect the human rights of others. When been questioned and human rights have been two human rights contradict each other, a hu- seen as a value export from the West to other man rights dilemma arises. regions of the world. Human rights dilemmas and their reso- Despite the occasional criticism, the right lution are part of the work of human rights to life, to live without being tortured, equal- courts. Even though freedom of speech is ity, security, an adequate standard of living, the backbone of a democratic society, it can peace and freedom are values, which can be be restricted for certain, weighty reasons. justifiably argued as being universal. The most common reasons that make gov- When making divisions such as into ernments restrict freedom of speech concern “generations”, it is good to remember that defamation, obscenity, pornography, incit- the foundation of all rights lies in the dec- ing hatred, copyright violation, protection laration, and the declaration itself does not of privacy and maintaining general security differentiate between the levels of importance and public order. of individual rights.

Determinants of harming reputation in British law In British law, a statement may be considered harmful to a person’s reputation if it leads to any of the following:

Exposes the person to hatred, ridicule Journalists may not defend dishonour- or contempt. ing a reputation on the pretext that their Results in desertion or in being ne- station or newspaper was only repeating glected. a statement that had been previously Demeans and humiliates them in published elsewhere. Likewise, it is is not the community. an acceptable defence for a publication to argue that it is only quoting another Causes the person harm in their work, person, even if it encloses the quote in profession or business. quotation marks.

Introduction to human rights 97 Examples of basic and human rights that can conflict and cause dilemmas; Freedom of speech versus the protection of privacy and family life, and protection Freedom of against defamation; movement in the Freedom of speech versus hate speech; The right to private property versus the Palestinian territories right to a clean environment; Based on reports by the Inter- The right to private property versus the national Federation of Jour- right to an adequate standard of living; nalists, Palestinian journalists The right to freedom of movement and are not able to travel freely in the right to enjoy asylum versus the sov- Israel. The Israeli authorities ereignty of nations; limit journalists’ movement The right to life versus the death sentence between the West Bank and (permitted, but regulated). East Jerusalem, between the West Bank or Gaza Strip and Israeli territories, and even within the West Bank, The role of the media at 505 military inspection in human rights points. Both Palestinian The media is in a central position regarding press cards and Internation- the realisation of human rights. In an ideal Federation of Journalists al situation, the media acts as the eyes and (IFJ) membership cards held by Palestinians are rejected, ears, reporting human rights violations and but these cards are recog- triumphs. According to the non-profit or- nised when held by Israeli ganisation established in 1985 in the defence journalists. The Internation- and promotion of freedom of information, al Federation of Journalists Reporters Without Borders (RSF), a free has launched campaigns and aware media is a tool, which prevents and expressed its discontent the transformation of human rights violations over the current situation into a part of everyday life. over the past fifteen years to Despite these ideals, the media not only try and persuade the Israeli witnesses and reports violations; it can also authorities to recognise press promote them. cards issued in occupied Pal- History books and modern news feeds estine. are filled with examples where the media has been harnessed by the ruling class, a particu- Reflection: Why do you lar political party or one side of an armed think freedom of movement conflict, and made to act as a propaganda is important for journalists? machine in order to advance an agenda. The risk of this happening is particularly great in times of armed conflict, so critical

98 Introduction to human rights media literacy skills are in high demand, especially in conflict areas. It is also the role of the professional journalist internationally to try to recognise the motives behind one- Are there limits sided or violence-infused communications, for freedom of and report about them accordingly. When human rights violations are report- expression? ed, the ethical code of the media is important. Article 19 of the Universal The end must not justify the means. Journal- Declaration of Human Rights ism and citizens’ journalism should aim to of- states the following: “Every- fer objective, accurate, truthful and balanced one has the right to freedom information to the general public and avoid of opinion and expression; misusing human rights terminology. Not all this right includes freedom to social injustices are human right violations – hold opinions without inter- not to mention war crimes – and the role of ference and to seek, receive the media is to be a witness to the facts, not and impart information and a court of law. The weight of human rights ideas through any media and language and the reliability of the journalist regardless of frontiers.” will be eroded if the terms are used repeated- Can you come ly out-of-place in order to create a feeling of Reflection: up with situations where free- importance around an everyday topic. dom of opinion or expression should be limited? Freedom of speech is the foundation of journalistic work Freedom of speech means the right to pub- work is based on the opportunity to present licly express one’s opinions. It also includes strongly critical views, for example of politi- the right to seek and receive information cians and other decision-makers. Journalists without intervention from others. Freedom of must, however, adhere to good journalistic speech is the requirement for securing many conduct in their work. This happens mainly other central rights. Together with the free- through self-regulation. dom of peaceful assembly and association, In general, self-regulation is a guideline it is one of the cornerstones of a democratic that is stricter and more accurate than inter- society. Free communication is also a condi- national laws. Just because something is not tion for effective democracy as the “right to condemned by the international courts, that acquire and spread information through all does not make it ethical. media” is only realised if the media is free Freedom of speech occasionally clashes and independent. with rights to protect privacy and reputation. Free press is a central enabler and exhibitor The guidelines relating to these conflicts vary of freedom of speech. Freedom of speech is among national laws and journalistic codes a very important right for journalists whose of conduct in different areas. To guarantee

Introduction to human rights 99 not, by choosing their profession, placed themselves in a position of public power. In other words, the freedom of speech enjoyed Excerpts from by journalists is more extensive when the ob- international legislation ject of criticism is a politician, than when criticising “normal” people. on the freedom of speech Freedom of speech is not a value that up- Article 19. holds itself. Freedom of speech is tested and 1. Everyone shall have the right to reinforced daily both in journalistic work and hold opinions without interfer- in the lives of the general public. The free- ence. dom to receive information and to challenge 2. Everyone shall have the right the status quo by expressing criticism towards to freedom of expression; this those in power is a fundamental right and right shall include freedom to the foundation of a functioning democracy. seek, receive and impart information and ideas of all kinds, regardless of frontiers, either Censorship and violations orally, in writing or in print, in of freedom of speech the form of art, or through any other media of his choice. Even though freedom of speech and expres- 3. The exercise of the rights pro- sion is based on human rights agreements, in vided for in paragraph 2 of this practice, freedom of speech is limited every- article carries with it special where. One of the core tasks for advancing duties and responsibilities. It freedom of speech is prohibiting censorship. may therefore be subject to cer- The purpose of censorship is to change or tain restrictions, but these shall stifle acts, thoughts or publications, which are only be such as are provided by seen as repulsive, harmful, politically unwant- law and are necessary: 1) For ed or, for example, contrary to the interests of respect of the rights or reputa- state officials. Censorship can be divided into tions of others; 2) For the pro- preliminary censorship and post-publication, tection of national security or of punitive censorship. Preliminary censorship public order (ordre public), or of is the check of vocal, literary or visual pres- public health or morals. entations, the passing of which is a condition for the public presentation and circulation of International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights the publication. Punitive censorships sum up all the negative consequences that a citizen or a journalist may face when talking about or reporting on a certain topic. Worldwide, these include a wide range of consequences, the realisation of freedom of speech, politi- from mild ones such as getting negative feed- cians can be criticised in harsher words by back, to graver ones such as imprisonment the media than private people, who have and even death.

100 Introduction to human rights Palestinian national legislation on freedom of expression The Palestinian Press and Publications Law No. 9 of 1995, Article 4 Freedom of expression includes the following texts:

1. Informing citizens of facts, ideas, otherwise to protect national security trends and information from local, or stop a crime or serve justice Arab, Islamic and international sources 5. The right of citizens, political parties, 2. Allow citizens to publish their opinions social and cultural institutions and 3. Freedom of the press also includes trade unions to express their opinion, the search for information, news and thought and achievements in areas of statistics of interest to the public from their activities through publications. different sources and their analysis, circulation, dissemination and com- Reflection: What sort of thoughts does mentary within the boundaries of this law raise? Is it comprehensive? What the law do you think about the section “unless the court decides otherwise to protect 4. The right of the printed press, news national security or stop a crime or serve agency, editor and journalist to keep justice”? What could be a legitimate situ- sources of information and news ation for such a ruling by the court? confidential unless the court decides

Making the work of journalists harder within the media, independence of the me- is one of the means of censorship. Docu- dia, self-censorship, legislation, openness, menting and reporting these abuses against transparency and media infrastructure. Ad- journalists and citizen journalists are among ditionally, the score takes into account the vi- the core tasks of Reporters Without Borders olence that journalists have been subjected to, (RSF). which is counted as the numbers of deaths, Since 2002, RSF has been publishing imprisonments, detainments and the number the World Press Freedom Index. This index of journalists who have been exiled. is a ranking list of 180 countries in which The top positions tend to be occupied by the national freedom of the press has been the Nordic countries Finland, Norway, Swe- researched and analysed through a question- den and Denmark whilst, at the other end of naire and local correspondents. The index is the scale, from 2013 to 2019 the index has a points-based system where every country re- ranked Palestine at 132–146 out of 180 and ceives a comparison score between 0 and 100. Israel at 87–112. The score is calculated by separately assess- Even though, as a continent, Europe is ing the multivocality and diversity of values still in the lead, the rights of journalists are

Introduction to human rights 101 Examples of the censorship and self- censorship of journalists in Palestine Palestinian journalists are under stress from several directions. The media landscape is greatly politicised both in Israel and in Palestine, and group or political party identification of journalists is a very common problem. Here is a list of six different types of censorship in Palestine:

1. Israeli (military) censorship. Palestini- often has to do with financial pressures an journalists have no free access to Isra- from advertisers or threats from officials el, nor will they be granted a press card. to close down the functions of the media Their work is hindered, for example by office. confiscating their material or by destroy- 4. Financial censorship. Advertisements ing their editorial equipment. Journal- are pulled due to an over-critical tone of ists can be arrested without specifying writing or advertisers’ campaign against a reason. the sales of newsstand copies. 2. a) Palestinian Authority censorship in 5. Self-censorship. According to the Press West Bank (censorship by the self-gov- Freedom Index, one of the greatest chal- ernment body), which prevents journal- lenges for journalists working in Pales- ists from accessing information sources, tine, both in Gaza and in the West Bank, arrests and threatens them. is self-censorship. This type of censorship b) Hamas censorship in Gaza is a de- is connected to losing face where journal- gree more extreme. The life of the jour- ists are bound as guarantors of an own nalist can be in danger if their articles are state for the Palestinians. For this reason, contrary to Hamas’ viewpoint. it is not suitable for journalists to publish 3. Editorial censorship. The managing ed- articles on corruption, (for the absence itor or editor-in-chief intervenes in an ar- of a law that gives access to information ticle for non-journalistic reasons. This or the fear of losing foreign financial aid)

far from ideal even there. Reports have paid grouped into large media conglomerates, attention to, for example, the insufficient pro- where many different media outlets func- tection that the law provides in France for tion under the same roof. the sources of journalists. In one of the lead- The index is a point of reference that is ing countries, Finland, the index has been quoted by media throughout the world and paying attention to the centralisation of me- is used by diplomats and international enti- dia ownership, which is an internationally ties such as the United Nations and World common trend of development. Television Bank. Because it is well known, its influence corporations, radio stations, papers, etc. have over governments is growing.

102 Introduction to human rights dropped is the United States, whose ranking has fallen to 41–49 for the last five years, but which still held 20th place as late as 2010. This fall was first largely caused by the efforts made by the US government to track people who have leaked politically sensitive information, or the lack of governmental democ- but the US position has been kept low largely racy (peace process and the dream of an independent state is endangered). due to direct attacks on the media by Presi- dent Donald Trump. 6. Social censorship and self-cen- In self-censorship, journalists limit their sorship. In addition to the previous actions themselves. An example of self-cen- type, social pressure, taboos and low sorship would be the reluctance to express wages make the work of journalists harder even if the threat of violence thoughts that could be considered touchy by is not severe. This type of censorship the government, or which could get the jour- can include family, kin and religious nalists into trouble. A wider definition of taboos. Issues like sexual minorities, self-censorship is limiting one’s own actions domestic violence or neglecting chil- or statements in order to avoid offending or dren are seldom reported in an inves- irritating, for example, a government. tigative manner, even if the talk on the street is free. As a consequence of handling such issues, local journalists Discrimination, equality might receive death threats, or might and the work of journalists be shunned by their kin or local community. Discrimination means the unequal treatment or unequal positioning of people without Source: Tapio Kujala: Media War in the Middle East an acceptable reason. The creation of a hos- – The Cross-Pressures of Journalism in the Israeli – Palestinian Conflict. tile, derogatory or humiliating atmosphere, or an order or request to discriminate are also forms of discrimination. The ban on discrimination includes the ban on counter- measures: no harmful consequences should be caused by acting to secure one’s rights or by complaining about rights violations. Wholly Limiting the press not only affects pro- separate human rights agreements have been fessional journalists, but also the public, created by the UN to counter common forms who cannot receive critical and independ- of discrimination. These include the Inter- ent knowledge through newspapers, radio national Convention on the Elimination of or television. The internet is also constantly All Forms of Racial Discrimination (CERD, the object of espionage and surveillance. 1965), the Convention on the Elimination of Limiting freedom of speech is also often All Forms of Discrimination against Women a tool of political power. One of the coun- (CEDAW, 1979), Convention on the Rights tries whose position has most significantly of the Child (CRC, 1989), and the Conven-

Introduction to human rights 103 tion on the Rights of Persons with Disabil- the realisation of equality. That is why equal- ities (2008). ity must be kept in mind when topics and Discrimination and gender equality are interviewees are being picked and also when questions, which affect the whole journalistic the distribution of work within an editorial work process. Multivocality – giving a voice office is being made. People consume media to those who would not otherwise be heard regardless of their gender, religion and eth- – is an important goal in the field of media, nic group identity, so it would be good if all but in practice it is not always realised. groups also had access to producing journal- The media bears great responsibility in istic content, regardless of the topic.

Tips for avoiding discriminatory language when writing about women Focus on the substance instead of not asked about parenting or family the appearance. Media reports on responsibilities. Instead women should women in politics tend to focus on be presented as independent citizens, details like her supposed moods, diet, not through their affiliation to a family wardrobe and other aspects relevant to or their marital status. her appearance. Avoid portrayal of authority/power Avoid the use of descriptions compati- using male personal characteristics ble with the traditional stereotype im- as the constant reference to the mas- age of women such as saying a mother culine features of authority will limit of six children or the wife of someone, the prospects of female employment unless it is justified by the context, or at this level. This implies that, in order any descriptions that belittle or under- to be a decision-maker, a woman must estimate women, even indirectly such reflect behaviours associated with as saying a male nurse and female masculine traits, as if this were the only doctor. way to participate in or exercise au- Avoid asking women the frequently thority. repeated question of how she keeps Question the prevalent media rhetoric. a balance between her domestic tasks Most stereotype images and tradition- while occupying a public position. al practices are casual and not intend- It is a way in which journalists re- ed, but this is deeply rooted in the cul- mind women that they need to meet tural and popular heritage of traditions the expectations of their society as and customs. Nevertheless, these prac- wives, mothers and family caretakers. tices should be questioned. Standards differ for men as they are

104 Introduction to human rights International legislation on discrimination Article 2 “Everyone is entitled to all the rights and freedoms set forth in this Declaration, without dis- tinction of any kind, such as race, colour, sex, language, religion, political or other opinion, national or social origin, property, birth or other status.”

Universal Declaration of Human Rights Article 4

Discrimination against women in the media Reflection: Try the following game: count the number of times the names of female officials appear on the front page of local newspapers and compare these to the number of men’s names, or count how many times journalists pay attention to the opinion of women when preparing their reports. What did you find? Who is given the floor most often in the media?

Introduction to human rights 105 BIBLIOGRAPHY This publication is based on and inspired by various printed and digital sources. Here is a list of them – you may find them useful for further reading.

Ahmad Zaki Othman ‘Al-Sawt al-Hurr’ (Free Voice) EthicNet – collection of codes of journalism ethics in The Arab Network for Media Support website, Europe, bit.ly/1ZDUTqw ethicnet.uta.fi/finland/guidelines_for_journalists

Amnesty International, Human Rights Reports, Facebook Enterprise, official website blog, www.amnestyusa.org/research/reports www.facebook.com/business/news/ Organic-Reach-on-Facebook AP Statement of Ethical Principles, www.apme.com/?page=EthicsStatement Fiegerman, Seth, Byers, Dylan (2017). Facebook, Twitter, Google defend their role in election. CNN. Bastos, Marco & Farkas, Johan. 2019. ”Donald Trump Retrieved from http://money.cnn.com/2017/10/31/ Is My President!”: The Internet Research Agency media/facebook-twitter-google-congress/index.html Propaganda Machine. Social Media + Society. July- September (2019), 1–13. Haraszti, Miklós (2008): The media self-regulation guidebook, Bertrand, Natasha. (2017, October 30). Twitter www.osce.org/fom/31497?download=true will tell Congress that Russia’s election meddling was worse than we first thought. Business Insider. Hootsuite Enterprise, official website blog, Retrieved from blog.hootsuite.com/the-2015-social-media- https://www.businessinsider.sg/twitter-russia- glossary-207-essential-definitions facebook-election-accounts-2017-10/ International Federation of Journalists, IFJ, Center for Journalism Ethics: Global media ethics www.ifj.org ethics.journalism.wisc.edu/resources/global-media- ethics Ihmisoikeudet.net, Online study material on human rights, Council for Mass Media in Finland, www.ihmisoikeudet.net www.journalistiliitto.fi/in-english Jaakkola, Maarit: Hyvä journalismi: Käytännön opas Elokuvantaju – Online study material for film kirjoittajalle. Kansanvalistusseura (2013). studies, elokuvantaju.aalto.fi

106 Bibliography Kujala, Tapio: Media War in the Middle East – Organization for Security and Co-Operation in The Cross-Pressures of Journalism in the Israeli- Europe Palestinian Conflict. Tampere University Press, (OECE): The Media Self-regulation Guidebook, Tampere 2012. www.osce.org/fom/31497?download=true

Kunelius, Risto: Viestinnän vallassa – Johdatusta SPJ Code of Ethics, joukkoviestinnän kysymyksiin, WSOY 2003, 5.–7. www.spj.org/ethicscode.asp painos 2009. Stanley, Paul. Center for Communication, University Lehtinen, Aki Petteri: Journalismin uusi of Miami Professional Field Guide for TV News; objektiivisuus (2013), published by Media Development Center – Birzeit etiikka.fi/media/journalismin-uusi-objektiivisuus University.

Nordenstreng, Kaarle & Lehtonen, Jaakko: Hyvän ja TE-toimiston Ammattinetti (Online database of pahan kierrätystä. Viestinnän etiikan perusteita, in profession counseling produced by Work and Kivikuru & Kunelius (toim.), Viestinnän jäljillä. WSOY Economic Development Office of Finland), 1998, 253–272, www.ammattinetti.fi www.uta.fi/cmt/opiskelu/opinto- opasjaopetusohjelma/viestinnan%20etiikan%20 Yle, Finland: Mediakompassi, perusteet%202012 yle.fi/vintti/yle.fi/mediakompassi/mediakompassi

Nordenstreng, Kaarle (2012): Kansainvälinen oikeus Äänipää: Online study material for audio analysis, ja etiikka journalismissa, www.aanipaa.tamk.fi/lahto_1.htm www.uta.fi/cmt/opiskelu/opinto- opasjaopetusohjelma/Kansainvalinen %20 2015 World Press Freedom Index, oikeus %20ja%20etiikka%2010_10.pdf index.rsf.org/#!

Mäntylä, Jorma: Journalistin etiikka, Gaudeamus 2008.

Bibliography 107 mediaguide.fi MEDIA GUIDE MEDIA In the era of digitalization, critical media literacy is an essential part of active citizenship. Media Literacy for Adults for Literacy – Media

Media Guide provides tools that help the reader to understand the role of journalism in democracy, functions of the media and human rights and how to be an ethical professional or citizen journalist. As people all around the world are spending more and more time on posting, blogging, sharing, liking and even starting their own online newspaper, the need for ethical and responsible journalism is crucial. Critical media literacy is needed both from journalists and consumers of media. Media Guide is a survival kit designed both for professional journalists and citizen journalists, as well as anyone interested in journalism and media literacy. It deals with the working practices, ethics, work-related rights, freedom of speech and the power and responsibility related to the profession of journalism. The reader will be given basic and up-to-date information on the principles and guidelines of journalism and critical media analysis visual and audio-visual journalism and critical reading of visual content and video editing. social media, media advocacy and critical reading of social media human rights.

ISBN 978-951-9140-74-2 Media Guide ISBN 978-951-9140-75-9 Media Guide (web)