GIS Based Assessment of Pelma Sub-Watershed East Rukum

GIS BASED ASSESSMENT OF PELMA SUB-WATERSHED

EAST RUKUM

Government of Nepal Ministry of Forests & Environment Adaptation for Smallholders in Hilly Area (ASHA Project)

Published By

Adaptation for Smallholders in Hilly Areas (ASHA) Project ASHA Project Ministry of Forests and Environment, Government of Nepal Kathmandu Nepal

Report Prepared by, District Project Coordination Unit, Rukum The ASHA Project District GIS and Spatial Planning Unit, Rukum.

The Authors & Contributors Mr. Dil Kumar Rai (District GIS Specialist) Mr. Furbe Lama (District Climate Change Specialist)

Review team Mr. Shrikanta Adhikari (Agriculture Specialist & Acting Technical Team Leader) Mr. Deepak Bahadur Chand (Forestry Specialist)

Citation:

Please cite this report as: Adaptation for Smallholders in Hilly Areas Project 2018. GIS Based Assessment of Pelma Sub-Watershed East Rukum. Adaptation for Smallholders in Hilly Areas Project, Ministry of Forests and Environment, Kathmandu, Nepal.

Acknowledgements

The greatest gratitude goes to the Government of Nepal Ministry of Forests and Environment, Adaptation for Smallholders in Hilly Areas (ASHA) Project, Project Coordination Unit-Hattisar, Kathmandu and Technical Support Unit- Surkhet for the valuable technical support to accomplish Pelma Sub-watershed Assessment Report. The Geo-spatial team express appreciation to District Project Coordination Unit Rukum for the coordination support and International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD) for imparting technical suggestion for conducting this assessment.

Special thanks also go to the district level government line agencies, particularly District Forest Office, District Soil Conservation Office, District Agriculture Development Office, District Livestock Service Office, District Women Development Office, Office of District Coordination Committee and District Education Office and their officers for their cooperation during data collection. We would also like to thank individual experts and representatives of various NGOs and local people who generously provided their valuable information and suggestions for this assessment.

ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS

ASHA Adaptation for Smallholders in Hilly Areas CC Climate Change CCA Climate Change Adaptation CBS Central Bureau of Statistics CFUGs Community Forest User Group GIS Geographic Information System GoN Government of Nepal ICIMOD International Center for Integrated Mountain Development IFAD International Fund for Agricultural Development INGO International Non-governmental Organization IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change LAPA Local Adaptation Plans for Action LRMP Land Resource Mapping Project LULC Landuse & Landcover MODIS Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer MoFSC Ministry of Forests & Soil Conservation NAPA National Adaptation Programme of Action NGO Non-governmental Organization RS Remote Sensing RUSLE Revised Universal Soil Loss Equation UNISDR United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction VDC Village Development Committee

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Tables of Content

Acknowledgements ...... ii ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS ...... iii Tables of Content ...... iv List of Figures ...... vi List of Tables ...... vii 1. Introduction ...... 1 2. Objective ...... 1 3. Study Area ...... 2 4. Methodology ...... 3 4.1 Collection and Analysis of Secondary Data ...... 3 4.2 Collection and Analysis of Primary Data ...... 3 4.3 Spatial Analyses ...... 3 5. Bio-Physical Condition Assessment ...... 5 5.1 Trends in Land Use/Land Cover Change in Pelma Sub Watershed (1997-2017) ...... 5 5.2 Estimation of Soil Erosion Loss Dynamics (1997-2017) ...... 7 5.3 Spatial and Temporal Distribution of Forest Fire (2000-2017)...... 8 5.4 Land Use Adjustment ...... 11 Table 3: Land use Adjustment in the Pelma Sub Watershed of Puthauttarganga Rural Municipality...... 11 Table 4: Land use Adjustment in the Pelma Sub Watershed of Puthauttarganga Rural Municipality...... 12 5.5 Landslide Distribution ...... 14 6. Upstream and Downstream Linkages ...... 17 7. Socio-Economic Condition Assessment ...... 19 7.1 Demography ...... 19 7.2 Caste and Ethnic Distribution ...... 20 7.3 Literacy Status ...... 20 7.4 Gender Relation ...... 21 7.5 Usual fuel for cooking ...... 21

7.6 Main source of drinking water ...... 22 7.7 Economically active population ...... 22 8. Rukum District VDCs & Pelma Sub-Watershed Climatic Vulnerability ...... 23 9. Drivers of Pelma Sub Watershed Degradation...... 25 9.1 Unscientific cultivation ...... 26 9.2 Destruction of natural vegetation and deforestation ...... 26 9.3 Erosion and landslide: ...... 27 10. Recommendations ...... 28 11. Action Plan- Puthauttarganga ...... 39 11.1 Action Plan Puthauttarganga Rural Municipality Ward No 1 ...... 39 11.2 Action Plan- Puthauttarganga Rural Municipality Ward No 2...... 43 11.3 Action Plan- Puthauttarganga Rural Municipality Ward No 5 ...... 46 References ...... 50 Annex 1: Land use/ land cover change methodology ...... 54 Annex 2: Estimation of Soil Erosion Dynamics Methodology...... 56 Annex 3 Spatial and Temporal Distribution of Forest Fires Methodology ...... 57 Annex 4 Land Use Adjustment Methodology ...... 58

List of Figures Figure 1: Location of Pelma Sub Watershed of East Rukum District...... 2 Figure 2: Change in Land Use/Land Cover in Pelma Sub Watershed in 1997, 2007 and 2017...... 6 Figure 3: Estimated Soil Erosion Rate in Pelma Sub Watershed in 2017...... 8 Figure 4: Table Spatial extent Coverage of forest fire in the sub watershed...... 9 Figure 5: Frequency of forest burnt events by year (2000- 2016)...... 10 Figure 6: Distribution of Forest fire Hazard Map in the Sub watershed...... 11 Figure 7: Landslide Distribution in Pelma Sub watershed...... 15

List of Tables Table 1: Areas under Land Use/Cover and Change in Land Use/Land Cover in 1997, 2007 & 2017. ... 5 Table 2: Estimated Soil Erosion Rate of 1997, 2007 and 2017...... 7 Table 3: Land use Adjustment in the Pelma Sub Watershed of Puthauttarganga Rural Municipality.

...... 11 Table 4: Land use Adjustment in the Pelma Sub Watershed of Puthauttarganga Rural Municipality.

...... 12 Table 5: Spatial Distribution of Landslide hazard areas in the Sub watershed of Puthauttarganga

Rural Municipality...... 14 Table 6: Upstream and Downstream Linkages Sites within wards of Puthauttarganga Rural municipality of Pelma Sub Watershed...... 17 Table 7: Up & downstream linkages sites beyond the current wards based on landslide, erosion and deforestation and deforestation in Pelma watershed...... 18 Table 8: Distribution of Population and its Density on Sq. Km...... 19 Table 9: Distribution of Population and its Density on Sq. Km. (Source: CBS, 2011.) ...... 20 Table 10: The Number of Household and Fuel sources for cooking...... 21 Table 11: The Number of Household and Sources of drinking water...... 22 Table 12: An Account of Economically Active Population by former VDCs, Source: CBS, 2011...... 22 Table 13: Vulnerability Index of VDCs in Rukum District...... 24 Table 14: Characteristics of acquired satellite image...... 54

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1. Introduction The Himalayan catchments of Nepal including watersheds in mountain regions are considered to be very sensitive to climate change due to the high variation in altitudes. Changes in cloud cover and rainfall, particularly over land; melting of ice caps and glaciers and reduced snow cover are some of the prominent threats due to rise in temperature. The significant effect of climatic variability in major rivers and their tributaries has already been observed. As a result, rivers and tributaries, catchments and watersheds are at risk from increased flooding, landslides and soil erosion and more intense rain during the monsoon. Besides, water scarcity and droughts pose a similar threat to livelihood systems and ecosystem functioning (Siddiqui et al., 2012). Thus, adaptation to climate change must be the priority for the country to help poor communities to cope with, and adapt to, the impacts of climate change in mountain region.

In this milieu, the Government of Nepal (GoN) has been facilitating climate adaptation planning and implementation. The National Adaptation Programme of Action (NAPA) was endorsed by the Government in September 2010, which expresses how changes in temperature and precipitation patterns and climate-induced disasters are undermining development initiatives, livelihood assets and natural and physical infrastructure. GoN has also prepared a national framework for development of Local Adaptation Plans for Action (LAPA), which supports the operationalization of the NAPA priorities by facilitating the integration of climate change resilience into development planning processes and outcomes from local-to national levels.

Considering sub-watersheds as organizing units for planning and implementation for adaption to climate change is a new approach in climate change adaptation arena, where large regions can be divided along topographic lines that transcend administrative boundaries and the status and trends analysis can be done on the basis of entire natural systems in concert with social conditions (Siddiqui et al., 2012). The assessment of entire natural systems are imperative for the design of adaptation measures ensuring upstream and downstream linkages. Integration of watershed assessment findings could contribute for the local adaptation planning to address adverse impact of climate change in a more comprehensive manner ensuring adaptation intervention programs to be targeted to areas where the risks of catastrophic climate-induced impacts are highest.

With this background, Adaptation for Smallholders in Hilly Areas (ASHA) Project under Ministry of Forests and Soil Conservation (MoFSC) with the financial support of International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD) carried out this GIS based watershed assessment of Pelma Sub Watershed East Rukum and prepared this study report.

2. Objective The objective of this assessment was to impart GIS based analytical assessment of the biophysical and socio-economic conditions of Pelma Sub Watershed of East Rukum and to recommend strategies action for watershed conservation and management. The findings expected to provide a

1 basis for developing local adaptation plan to cope with, and adapt to, the impacts of climate change in the watershed.

3. Study Area The Pelma Sub Watershed is situated in Puthauttarganga Rural Municipality, East Rukum district of Province 5 and geographically projected on 28° 30' 52.57" and 28° 48' 16.16" N latitude and 82° 39' 12.31" - 82° 59' 8.4" E longitude, covering an area of 560.24 square kilometers, altitude ranges from 1272 meter to 4882 meter above the sea level. Three former VDCs e.g. Maikot, Hukam, Taksera, Kol, Rangshi & Jang of the Rukum contains to sub watershed. The Pelma SW geographically overlay on the midhills of Nepal joining with Bhume Rural Municipality in the south, In the East, Baglung District and Dhorpatan wildlife reserve in north site. Pelam & Ranma khola are the major streams of the sub watershed that accumulated into Sanibheri River. Physio-graphically, the landscape features and terrains are constitute with steep slope, river terracing with steep valley or v shaped valley. It has sub-tropical to cool temperate climate. Along the river, flood plains and terraces, the soil texture varies from loamy to sandy. There are several lithology & geologic features found in the sub watershed e.g. Lakharpata formation, Ranimata formation, Siuri formation, & Surbang formation. The upstream site of the sub watershed holds with Dhorpatan wildlife hunting reserve area, which protected by government of Nepal for the biodiversity and wildlife-hunting purpose. Therefore, the sub watershed assessment has been excluded the Dhorptan wildlife-hunting reserve area.

Figure 1: Location of Pelma Sub Watershed of East Rukum District.

4. Methodology The study is the combination of both primary and secondary source of information. Information on the trends of land use and land cover changes, estimation of soil erosion dynamics over the last three decades obtained from analysis of Landsat satellite images. Information on the forest fire obtained from the analysis of Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) active fire data sets. Information on landslide distribution obtained from analysis of secondary data and Google Earth Image. Similarly, information on land use adjustment obtained from same Landsat TM imageries that used in land use analysis and land capability data.

4.1 Collection and Analysis of Secondary Data The data required for the assessment, secondary data and information collected through review of relevant literature and collection and analysis of secondary data available from the District Soil Conservation Office, District Forest Office, District Agriculture Development Office, District Livestock Service Office, Office of District Coordination Committee and other agencies. Socio-economic data available from the Central Bureau of Statistics, soil data available from SOTER, climatic data available from Bioclim and land capability data available from Department of Survey collected and analyzed.

4.2 Collection and Analysis of Primary Data Consultations with stakeholders at district and selected community level within the sub-watershed were the major sources of primary data and information. District Forest Office, District Soil Conservation Office, District Agriculture Development Office, District Livestock Service Office, Office of District Development Committee and other government offices, International Non-governmental Organizations (INGOs), Non-governmental Organizations (NGOs), and civil society groups based in district were consulted through informal and formal meetings. Group discussions, key informant interviews and other participatory rapid appraisal techniques were used to collect data and information.

4.3 Spatial Analyses Land Use and Land Cover Changes

Landsat satellite images sets from 1997, 2007 and 2017 used to analyze and map land use land cover for the three periods. The main satellite data used in the analyses included Landsat Thematic Mapper images and Landsat Thematic Mapper images. The images were downloaded from the Earth Resource Observation System Data Center of the United States Geological Survey Annex 1.

Estimation of Soil Erosion Dynamics

Revised universal soil loss equation (RUSLE) was used in an Arc GIS environment with rainfall erosivity, soil erodibility, slope length and steepness, cover-management, and support practice factors to estimate soil erosion dynamics in the watershed according to Uddin et al. 2016 Annex 2.

Spatial and Temporal Distribution of Forest Fires

Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) satellite based recorded forest fire event datasets from 2000 to 2016 used for trending, spatial coverage and frequencies of occurrences analysis under the GIS environment to map spatial and temporal distribution of forest fires according to Parajuli et al. 2015 Annex 3.

Land Use Adjustment

The current land adjustment condition of the sub watershed have based on current extend of land use land cover features superimposing to shape layers of land capability class prepared by LRMP, 1984 of Pelma sub watershed of Puthauttarganga Rural municipality of East Rukum according to FAO 2006 Annex 4.

Landslide Distribution

The study used secondary sources of information to map landslide spatial distribution map. Secondary data on landslides in the watershed obtained from West Rukum District Landslide Archive of District Soil Conservation Office West Rukum. The landslide hazard events patches and areas invented by direct visual image interpretation of Google earth Pro image and that spatially processed under the GIS tool and techniques environment.

5. Bio-Physical Condition Assessment 5.1 Trends in Land Use/Land Cover Change in Pelma Sub Watershed (1997-2017) 5.1.1 Changes in Land Use/Land Cover

The land use and land cover features identified in the sub watershed include agriculture land, forestland, shrub land, grassland and riverbed. Change in land use and land cover has assessed considering three time period decades (1997, 2007 and 2017). Thence, the major Landuse landcover features identified including these decades. The spatial extent of these LULC have a dramatic mode in terms of its changing pattern with pace and magnitude range, which is illustrates following below paragraphs.

The land use landcover features in 1997 orderly reflect that agriculture land with 11.4 percent of the total area or 63.8 sq. km. of the total area. It followed by forestland that occupy the 47.7 percent of the total area of the sub watershed, which about 267.5 sq.km of the total area. The shrub land features spaced the 7. 2 percent are of the total area and grassland spread on the area of 187.8 km sq. and riverbed covers the 0.2 percent area of the total area. Similarly in the case of 2007, the land features e.g. agriculture, forest, shrub, grass and riverbed have orderly their spatial coverage that are orderly represents 8.7, 273.2, 7.0, 230.2, and 0.9, km. sq. of the total area. The agriculture area have occupied the 9, forestland 57.4, shrub land 0. 7, grassland 32. 8 & riverbed 0.1 percent area of the overall area in the year of 2017.

Table 1: Areas under Land Use/Cover and Change in Land Use/Land Cover in 1997, 2007 & 2017.

1997 2007 2017 % Change in Landuse Landuse & Area Area Area 1997- 2007- 1997- Landcover (sq.km) (%) (sq.km) (%) (sq.km) (%) 2007 2017 2017 Agriculture land 63.8 11.4 48.8 8.7 50.41 9.0 23.45 -3.23 20.98 Forest 267.5 47.7 273.2 48.8 321.30 57.4 -2.14 -17.61 -20.13 shrub 40.2 7.2 7.0 1.3 3.79 0.7 82.45 46.24 90.56 Grass 187.8 33.5 230.2 41.1 183.89 32.8 -22.54 20.11 2.10 River bed 0.9 0.2 0.9 0.2 0.81 0.1 -1.06 12.21 11.28 total 560.2 100 560.2 100 560.2 100

The pace & magnitude of landuse & landcover change have a fluctuate trending because comparing three decades (1997, 2007 & 2017) the changing in spatial extension of agriculture land reflect the such condition. The comparison on change of landuse land cover in the year between "1997-2007", 23 percent area of the total agriculture land diverted into other land classes due to the trend of land abandonment and migration in the sub watershed. The total area of forest greenery coverage converted into other land classes, it estimated that about 2.14 percent of the individual coverage changed. The large amount of bush or shrub features changed it shows that 82. 45 percent of its individual area. The grassland remarkably changed during the period of 1997 and 2007, analysis 5 shows that 22.54 diverted into other land classes. The spatial coverage of riverbed also shared to other land classes.

The overall spatial coverage of agriculture land shows that 3.23 percent area has changed into the other land features during the decades of 2007 to 2017. The same things also happened and occurred in the context of forest coverage in terms of its dynamics coverage change depicting change tendency rate and it shows that 17.61 percent area of individual area has changed in the year 2007 to 2017. Similarly, the shrub land shows the changing its individual spatial coverage and it show the 46.24 percent. An about the 20.11 percent area of individual area of the grassland also changed into other land classes. The riverbed with 12.21 percent of its spaced coverage changed into other classes during this decade.

Figure 2: Change in Land Use/Land Cover in Pelma Sub Watershed in 1997, 2007 and 2017.

The decades (1997-2017), shows that the spatial coverage of agriculture estimated to be changed around 20.98 percent of its individual areas. The change portion on forest coverage with percent in 1997 that decreased in the year of 2007 has up scaled in the years between 1997 and 2017, it growth up into 20.98 percent of the total area. In the context of shrub and bush, about 90.56 percent of the total area has changed to other land features. Other land features grass and its dynamic trend with

6 pace and magnitude shows 2.10 percent area has changed (Table. 1). An analysis of changes in land use/land cover in the sub-watershed for the period 1997-2017 shows that the forest and shrub land coverage has changed, on the another hand, agriculture land come to occupy the decreased spatial coverage of the sub watershed area under barren. Grassland featured same as before one decade reflecting fluctuation trend and riverbed area including its morphological features has been changed (Table 1:).

5.2 Estimation of Soil Erosion Loss Dynamics (1997-2017)

An analysis of soil loss in the sub-watershed for the period 1997-2017 shows that the area under agriculture land has maximum soil loss rate, which followed by shrub land, grass land and forest land. The estimated total soil loss for the entire area was around 456.52 tons in 1997, 470.54 tons in 2007 and 393.38 tons in 2017. (Table. 2). The results carried out is primarily depend upon the precipitation characteristics, geo-environmental factors e.g. topographic and soil characteristics as well human- induced factors e.g. practice or crop management or conservation management. The annual soil loss in the three decades show that decades of 2007 – 2017 has maximum annual average soil erosion which, numerically shows that 6.89 (t/ha/yr.) in overall. The initial decade year 1997 shows that 4.74 (t/ha/yr.) mean erosion rate and that come to increase in the decades of 2007 to 2017, where it represents respectively found to be 6.897 & 4.92 (t/ha/yr.) annual mean erosion rate. Despite of fluctuate trending on mean erosion rate with annual soil loss in terms of (t/ha/yr.) total soil loss in the Pelma sub watershed of the East Rukum District, it is more sufficient of accelerate and promote the rate intensity of soil erosion events in the hill slopes. The agriculture land features are seems to be suffering and encountering with soil erosion events compare to the other land features because rate of erosion in terms of ton and its annual average erosion rate is highest than the others.

Table 2: Estimated Soil Erosion Rate of 1997, 2007 and 2017.

Mean Erosion Rate Landcover Landcover Area (sq.km) Annual Soil Loss (tons) (t/ha/yr)

Year 1997 2007 2017 1977(000) 2007(000) 2017(000) 1997 2007 2017 Agriculture 63.79 48.83 50.41 265.69 231.47 209.03 3.56 4.05 3.54 Forest 267.46 273.19 321.3 77.34 89.15 84.94 0.25 0.28 0.23 Grass 40.16 7.05 3.79 87.99 141.93 96.28 0.40 0.53 0.45 River Bed 187.84 230.19 183.89 0.00 1.28 0.00 0.00 1.23 0.00 Shrub 0.91 0.92 0.81 25.50 6.71 3.14 0.54 0.81 0.71 Total 560.17 560.18 560.20 456.52 470.54 393.38 4.74 6.89 4.92

Figure 3: Estimated Soil Erosion Rate in Pelma Sub Watershed in 2017.

5.3 Spatial and Temporal Distribution of Forest Fire (2000-2017). The NASA & Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) has been facilitating the record of spatial extend and seasonal magnitude of forest fire events on globally. It helps to understand that the resources and ecosystem degradation due to the forest fire hazard that correlating with the increasing drought trends and it helps to integrate the community perception towards drought and climate change. In this regard, the Pelma sub watershed also has been encountering with forest fire events since last decades e.g. evidences the MODIS recorded the rigorous and adverse impact of forest fire events on sub watershed condition and it appears that human induced activities considered as the prime driven factors conditioning the creation of forest fire events in the sub watersheds. The seasonal pattern and spatial extent of the forest burn events of the Pelma sub watershed is analyze in paragraphs.

Sixteen years duration (2000 – 2016) taken for the forest fire hazard event assessment, which is verified through the key known person having the concept of locality and ongoing situation related natural resources & environment. The forest burnt hazard events by year since 2000 up to 2016 in the sub watershed presented below figures.

Figure 4: Table Spatial extent Coverage of forest fire in the sub watershed.

2500.00 2181.74

2000.00 1742.92 1760.37 1663.43 ) 1548.52 1500.00 1307.50

909.66 960.26 1000.00 823.66 677.46 637.44 669.54 Burn Area (Hectare Area Burn 523.10 355.67 397.53 500.00 272.07 313.85

0.00 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012 2014 2016 2018 Year

Source: MODIS Satellite

The following above table ( ) shows that forest burn events and damaged coverage within the sub watershed. It is estimated that about 16744 hectare forest area has been destroyed during this time period interval. The analysis shows that a years between 2008 and 2010 have highest magnitude of fire events showing that is is about 2181.74 hectare forest has burnt and it is followed by the years similarly, 2002, 2004, 2012 and 2016..

The occurrences of forest fire is lowest in terms of spatial coverage in the year of 2003. The trending rate from the year of 2009 up to 2016, the burnt rate has increased in the year of 2016, in which it was downscaling trend ratio for burnt the forest from 2010 to 2014. It shows that the trending or occurrences time of forest fire reveals those fluctuation characteristics in the forms of upscaling and downscaling in terms of burnt spatial coverage. The facts shows that it has been direct driven factors to degradation of watershed resources and related ecosystem services and many more. On the another hand, the forest burnt helps to reduce the emission of greenhouse gas in terms of climate change trend in the little perspective as well.

The analysis of the data regarding the times frequency occurrences of forest burnt event shows that forest fire events occurred about 464 times during the year between of 2000-2016 AD. The trend of events shows that increasing trend of forest fire in the Pelma sub watershed. During the period of (2000 to 2016), a year 2004 has a highest frequency of forest fire, in which year 54 times forest fire or burnt happened and it followed by 2003 and about 49 times forest fire event occurred. On the another hand, since the year of 2005 up to 2016 frequency of forest fire has been increasing even lower than the year of 2004. The years respectively 2009, 2012 & 2016 has at least equal hazard frequencies representing 46, 47 & 45 times of occurrences.

In spatially within the sub watershed, the trending of forest fire events has been making adverse impact on northeast site around the Pelma, Hukam, Ranma and Maikot where ASHA project purposed the enhanced LAPA planning and implementation on coming fiscal years. The current wards of western parts join with Bhume and Sisne rural municipality has been encountering with forest fires having intense impact on natural resources since 2000. It is followed by current ward 10 near the adjoining border with Baglung Districts also have good intensity of forest fire events.

Figure 5: Frequency of forest burnt events by year (2000- 2016).

60 54 49 47 50 46 45

40 34

27 30 25 23

Burn Burn Times 19 17 18 20 14 14 9 10 6 7

0 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012 2014 2016 2018 Year

Source: MODIS Satellite.

The community and aged individual perception towards trend of drought and forest events came to meet the fact and evidences of forest fire or burnt events by MODIS satellite. In the case of Pelma sub watershed or Puthauttarganga Rural municipality or Rukum district, forest fire has been destroying the large amount flora fauna, Himalayan herbs, and non-timber based forest item products in terms of their cost has been damaging every year since several decades.

Figure 6: Distribution of Forest fire Hazard Map in the Sub watershed.

5.4 Land Use Adjustment The Land adjustment refers to technical term that denotes the land overused in terms of steep hill slope topography carried out correlating hill slope terrain, land capability class by (LRMP, 1986) & current extended landuse landcover. Behind these factors, the land capability classes and their coherent limitations and recommendations to use the resources is the primary principles. An analysis of land capability and current land use in the sub watershed shows that the land being over used. In watershed natural environment of fragile and slope land (land class III and land class IV having moderate to steep slope) found managed or modified into agriculture, grassland, shrub land, waterbody and barren land. In the areas where land being over used, land use adjustments are required. (Table 3; Figure 4).

Table 3: Land use Adjustment in the Pelma Sub Watershed of Puthauttarganga Rural Municipality. Pelma Rural Municipality S.N. Adjustment 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 VII on Forest_land 0.3 0.2 2 VII on Grass_land 0.2 0.7 3 VII on River_Bed

4 IV on Agriculture_land 0.6 0.7 0.9 1.2 1.4 0.5 1.8 5 IV on Forest_land 5.3 10.5 1.2 3.8 23.1 6.6 6.3 6 IV on Shurb_land 0.0 0.2 0.8 7 IV on Grass_land 5.3 6.0 4.7 5.1 4.3 0.7 13.3 8 V on Grass_land 1.3 9 VI on Agriculture_land 0.6 0.1 10 VI on Forest_land 1.6 17.4 0.4 0.7 22.9 2.2 0.0 11 VI on Grass_land 0.6 6.6 0.9 0.5 4.5 0.2 0.1 12 VI on River_Bed 0.0 0.0 13 IV on River_Bed 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 14 III on Agriculture_land 3.0 1.1 1.2 1.5 5.0 1.3 0.3 15 III on Forest_land 1.6 0.6 0.1 0.3 6.7 1.8 0.1 16 III on Shurb_land 0.2 0.1 0.1 17 III on Grass_land 1.3 1.2 0.7 0.7 1.7 0.3 0.1 18 III on River_Bed 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 19 II on Agriculture_land 20 II on Grass_land 21 II on Forest_land 22 II on River_Bed 23 V on Forest_land 2.0142 Total 19.3 45.4 10.2 14.0 74.2 13.6 23.0

Table 4: Land use Adjustment in the Pelma Sub Watershed of Puthauttarganga Rural Municipality. Pelma Rural Municipality S.N. Adjustment Grand 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 Total 1 VII on Forest_land 11.5 0.0 5.3 17.3 2 VII on Grass_land 15.3 0.3 11.4 27.9 3 VII on River_Bed 0.0 0.0 0.0 IV on 4 Agriculture_land 1.5 0.7 1.5 0.4 1.5 1.3 2.1 16.3 5 IV on Forest_land 12.8 7.1 4.2 18.6 12.5 7.5 30.0 149.5 6 IV on Shurb_land 0.2 0.3 0.0 0.0 0.8 0.4 2.8 7 IV on Grass_land 9.6 6.7 9.1 7.7 4.3 5.5 5.0 87.3 8 V on Grass_land 0.0 2.5 3.8 VI on 9 Agriculture_land 0.1 0.3 1.0 10 VI on Forest_land 15.2 14.3 19.9 19.8 2.4 6.6 2.0 125.6 11 VI on Grass_land 13.5 4.6 11.1 2.3 0.1 2.9 0.5 48.3 12 VI on River_Bed 0.0 0.0 0.0 13 IV on River_Bed 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.3 0.6

14 III on Agriculture_land 1.6 1.5 5.0 2.1 5.7 0.9 2.7 32.9 15 III on Forest_land 0.3 1.4 1.7 1.7 4.8 0.9 4.3 26.2 16 III on Shurb_land 0.3 0.3 1.0 17 III on Grass_land 0.3 0.6 3.2 1.5 3.4 0.3 0.9 16.2 18 III on River_Bed 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.1 19 II on Agriculture_land 0.0 0.0 0.2 0.2 20 II on Grass_land 0.0 0.1 0.6 0.0 0.7 21 II on Forest_land 0.2 0.0 0.3 22 II on River_Bed 0.1 0.1 23 V on Forest_land 0.1 2.1 Total 81.8 37.7 75.0 55.7 35.9 26.4 47.9 560.2

Table 3: shows the land adjustment condition of the sub watershed and spatial coverage related to adjustment case or different land capability holding amount of the current landuse landcover features.

The land capability classes IV associated with agriculture land considered as the land-overused area according to the principles and recommendation of land capability class (LRMP, 1986) because the present status of agriculture practices on hillslope do not accords the recommendations and

13 limitations of LRMP to use it. For evidences, LRMP, 1986 noted that land capability class IV is more suitable for forestry activities, timber productions, and ground cover mandatory to minimize the surface erosion. Not suitable location for agriculture activities production. Therefore, such location or spaces of agriculture land need to well sustainable management to maintain the soil productivity and minimize the impacts of climate-induced geo hazards on hillslope terrains that occurs with different ways e.g. run off surface erosion, landslide, debris flow, mass wasting.

5.5 Landslide Distribution The landslide is the general name given to the movement of rock, debris, or earth down a slope along the surface of separation by failing, sliding, or flowing (ICIMOD, 2015). The landslide refers to the processes of movement of mass of rock, debris or earth down a slope (Varness, 1978; Cruden, 1991). Landslide hazards are becoming serious issues in midhills of Nepal because it is experiencing that huge loss of human life and property and a large amount of budget spent on relief and recovery due to the landslide hazard events in midhills Nepal for the several decades (Ghimire, 2011 and Mercy Crops, 2012). There are many factors contributing to be landslide hazards e.g. topography features and characteristics, tendency of precipitation and human induced different activities. It found that Pelma sub watershed also has been experiencing with such types of circumstances, in which smallholders are losing their lands every year due to the landslide hazards and it impact indirectly appears on upstream and downstream linkage in terms of eco system vulnerability.

Table 5: Spatial Distribution of Landslide hazard areas in the Sub watershed of Puthauttarganga Rural Municipality.

S.N. Current ward No of Landslides Area in Hectare 1 1 10 4.3 2 2 5 11.3 3 3 6 2.2 4 4 2 0.81 5 5 21 21.12 6 6 5 7.7 7 7 - - 8 8 - - 9 9 - - 10 10 12 4.4 11 11 4 2.2 12 12 5 2.45 13 13 1 0.1 14 14 - - Source: Google earth Pro 2017

Table No 5: shows that distribution of spatial coverage of landslide hazard areas within the sub watershed. There are 71 landslides hazard areas including both fresh and old slides have found in

14 the sub watershed and it have 56.8 hectare spatial coverage of total area of the sub watershed. An analysis of landslide distribution in the watershed shows landslide occupies the large number in ward number no. 5 and it covers the 21.12 hectare of the sub watershed area, which is followed by ward number 2 having spatially area 11.3 hectare. The third position based on landslide hazard area occupied by ward no. 6 whereas landslide spaced up the 7.7 hectare of the total area. Similarly. Current wards orderly 3, 11 & 12 have a similar range of spaced up area with equal number of landslide patches in the sub watershed. The current wards 1 have a 10 landslide patches and have covered the 4.3 hectare of the total area. Other current wards occurrences and presences of landslide occurrences is low than the others for example there is not any landslide scars in the current wards Figure 7: Landslide Distribution in Pelma Sub watershed.

7, 8, 9 & 14. On case of current ward area, Maikot ward No. 1. have about 10 landslide scars near the down side village of Maikot and Dharagaun, in which ward No. 2 have 5 landslide hazard patches, among the others ward no. 5 is more vulnerable ward from landslide hazards and about 21 patches of landslide found in this ward. The current ward no.3. has a 6 patches or scars of landslide area.

Finally ward no. 9 & 10 has about 15 landslide hazard areas. It found that the fragile landscape, erratic rainfall, and non-environmentally friendly human activities are the major causing factors to be landslide in the sub watershed. Human activities refers to different types of activities e.g. agriculture practices without well terracing, unmanaged monsoon surface runoff, high forest dependency on up

15 site of agriculture land, infrastructure based activities. The landslide hazard occurrences and its impact directly appear on field of agriculture land.

Distribution of the landslide areas spatially located on upland, upper catchment stream site of the sub watershed and these landslide occurrences have a flood sedimentation in the downstream site of the sub watershed replacing and cutting the fertile valley cultivation land and other different human property. In this regard, the case of upstream and downstream linkage in terms of ecosystem vulnerability found here. The assessment of the distribution of landslide patches on the hill slope found that slope gradient having 20 to 55 degree and hill slope landuse landcover patches, curvature of terrain features, north and west facing slopes, drainage density within per sq. km are the major contributing factors of landslide hazards within the sub watershed. On another site that beyond the climate induced activities, road extension on hillslope causing the occurrences of landslide hazards in the sub watershed.

6. Upstream and Downstream Linkages The analysis of biophysical condition (land use/land cover, soil loss, landslide, land capability and current land use) in the sub-watershed shows that upstream and downstream linkages sites within current ward and beyond current wards within Pelma Sub Watershed (Table 4 and 5.1, 5.2 and 5.3).

Table 6: Upstream and Downstream Linkages Sites within wards of Puthauttarganga Rural municipality of Pelma Sub Watershed.

Linkage Upstream Downstream Puthauttarganga RM, Ward. No. 1: Agricultural land areas near the Arjal Down site part of Maikot village khola of Maikot village. along the river site. Landslide Other current wards 3, 4, 6, 7, 9, 12, Dharagaun village along the river 13, & 14 stream.

Puthauttarganga RM, Ward. No. 2:

Landslide No linkage of upstream and downstream site. Puthauttargana RM, Ward. No. 5:

Landslide No linkage of upstream and downstream site. Puthauttarganga RM, Ward. No. 1: Agricultural land areas near the Arjal Maikot and Dhara gaun, Pilamul khola of Maikot village. village along the river stream. Erosion Other current wards 3, 4, 6, 7, 9, 12, Around the Puchhargaun & 13, & 14 Yokharka village near the agricultural land.

Puthauttarganga RM, Ward. No. 2:

Erosion No linkage of upstream & downstream site. Puthauttarganga RM, Ward. No. 5:

Erosion No linkage of upstream & downstream site. Agricultural land areas near the Arjal Deforestation & Puthauttarganga RM, Ward. No. 1: khola of Maikot village. Forest Upper site of Maikot, Dharagaun & Other current wards 3, 4, 6, 7, 9, 12, Degradation. Pilamul village. 13, & 14

Agricultural land area of lower sites Deforestation & Puthauttarganga RM, Ward. No. 2: of Hardiwang and Pelma village. Forest Upper & down site of Pelma village. Other current wards 3, 4, 6, 7, 9, 12, Degradation 13, & 14

Agricultural land around the Hukam Deforestation & Puthauttargana RM, Ward. No. 5: & Hokla village. Forest Upper site of Hukam village. Other current wards 3, 4, 6, 7, 9, 12, Degradation. Around the Urjya village. 13, & 14

Table 7: Up & downstream linkages sites beyond the current wards based on landslide, erosion and deforestation and deforestation in Pelma watershed.

Linkage cases Upstream Sites Downstream Sites Landslide, soil erosion and Puthauttarganga Rural Sisne & Bhume Rural Deforestation & forest Municipality, ward no. 1. Municipality. degradation. Landslide, soil erosion and Puthauttarganga Rural Sisne & Bhume Rural Deforestation & forest Municipality, ward no. 2. Municipality. degradation. Landslide, soil erosion and Puthauttarganga Rural Sisne & Bhume Rural Deforestation & forest Municipality, ward no. 5. Municipality. degradation.

7. Socio-Economic Condition Assessment 7.1 Demography According to the national population census of 2011, the population of sub-watershed estimated to be around 17,932 with 3861 households. The male population estimated about 8512 and female population is 9420 of the total population. Based on former structure, Hukam VDC has around 2148 total population, Jang has about 3084 and Kol has an estimated about 3127 population, about 3777 population in the Ranmamaikot, 2098 in the Rangshi and Taksera has a 3698 total population.

Table 8: Distribution of Population and its Density on Sq. Km.

Current Population Area Density S.N Household ward Total Male Female (sq.km) (sq.km) 1 1 299 1433 680 753 19.3 74.1 2 2 186 926 474 452 45.4 20.4 3 3 133 646 311 335 10.2 63.2 4 4 156 772 407 365 14.0 55.2 5 5 332 1523 736 787 74.2 20.5 6 6 143 625 295 330 13.6 45.9 7 7 167 814 410 404 23.0 35.4 8 8 227 1252 613 639 81.9 15.3 9 9 184 1018 525 493 37.7 27.0 10 10 534 2143 967 1176 75.1 28.6 11 11 368 1555 703 852 55.7 27.9 12 12 486 2050 912 1138 35.9 57.1 13 13 221 1077 487 590 26.4 40.9 14 14 425 2098 992 1106 47.9 43.8 Total 3861 17932 8512 9420 560.2 32.0 Sources: CBS, 2011.

Population density determines pressure on land, which expressed as average number of people per square kilometer. The Average Population density of the sub watershed is 24 persons per square kilometer according to the population census 2011. The current ward No. 12 of Puthauttarganga RM has a highest pop density showing 57 per square kilometer and ward No. 8 has a lowest density with 15 persons per square kilometer.

The population density also assessed in terms of resources expansion and it presents the density of people on available resources and how the condition of interrelationship between people and resources. In the sub watersheds average density of people on agriculture land is 3 persons per hectare and in the context of forest, have a density of 1 persons contains average density on forest resources coverage per hectare. In the context of Puthauttarganga, rural municipality, ward No. 11, has the highest population density on agriculture represents 5.3 persons hectare and ward 5 has a lowest density of population on agriculture that is 3 persons per hectare. Puthauttarganga rural municipality ward, no. 7 people have a highest density on forest coverage based on the hectare and 19 the people density on forest coverage is 2 person per hectare. The density of peoples on certain area or territory can direct affect by the number of population and related sum coverage area of administrative unit as a whole. The amount and the proportion of resources or coverage of resources determine the people density in terms of resources. It shows that higher the density on agriculture and resources and it depicts the severe pressure of human into resources. The population density on with low pressures in the context of Puthauttarganga Rural municipality.

7.2 Caste and Ethnic Distribution A majority of the population in sub-watershed is of indigenous group e.g. Magar, Gurung, Thakali & Chhantyal, which followed by Dalits including Kami, Damaidholi & Sarki, Chhetries and others. Out of the total households, nearly 60.65 percent are Aadvashi Janajati, 27.4 percent are Dalit, 4.52 percent are Chhetries, 6.11 percent are Thakuri and 0.31 percent are Brahmin Hills (CBS 2011).

Table 9: Distribution of Population and its Density on Sq. Km. (Source: CBS, 2011.)

Brahmin Aadivashi S.N. Former VDCs Chhetries Thakuri Dalit other Total Hill Janajati 1 Hukam 101 31 323 1143 458 92 2148 2 Jang 479 25 675 1178 722 5 3084 3 Kol 188 62 2012 852 13 3127 4 Rangshi 15 1110 968 5 2098 5 Ranmamaikot 43 20 2575 1116 23 3777 6 Taksera 2858 797 43 3698 Total 811 56 1095 10876 4913 181 17932 Total % 4.52 0.31 6.11 60.65 27.40 1.01 100 CBS, 2011

7.3 Literacy Status The population census (2011) shows that the statistics of literacy of the former VDCs in disaggregate format such level of educations from primary to post graduate including male and female literacy rate. The statistics shows that around the 7441 number of people are literate by different level of education, in which 52.8 percent population gained the primary level education, 20.12 percent of population have been literate with lower secondary level of education. Similarly, 13.25 percent of people have literate for secondary to SLC level of education. The 10 + 2 level or equivalent to intermediate level of education gained by 3.2 percent of among literate population. The higher-level education representing graduate and postgraduate, in which 0.51 percent population is graduated, and other percent number of population mentioned as informal education level or not have a status.

Population Census 2011 shows that former VDC Ranmamaikot is accounted for the most literate VDcs than the others based on the total literate population and this VDC has 1627 population are literate including both male has about 922 and female has about 705. It followed by the Former VDCs Kol, Taksera and Jang presents respectively similar percentage of literate population e.g. 1371, 1095 and 1547 have literate persons. Rangshi & Hukam VDC reflecting same literate ratio that equal whereas male represent the 1050 number of people and female represent 751 literate population.

7.4 Gender Relation The status of the gender and social inclusion represent that same as other places of Nepal because the role and responsibilities of woman is cultural and social based defined, remarked in the Pelma sub watershed of Puthauttarganga Rural municipality. It found that diverse types of responsibilities found in filed visit e.g. such as cooking, child raising, collecting forest product, building social relationships, socialization, and so forth. This has compelled them in disadvantaged position in terms of education and improved career opportunities. Male usually takes not only most of the household decisions but also manage cash and financial activities. Position of women in household and communities is bleak. However, recent women empowerment and capacity building programs advanced by the Government agencies, NGOs and CBOs have enabled many women particularly from the poor households to cross-fortress walls of their houses and participate in the community activities such as natural resources management (Field Survey, 2018).

7.5 Usual fuel for cooking The tables related to account of sources fuel for cooking reflects that firewood used as the major fuel sources in the sub watershed area and it is numerically shows that 3832 household used firewood out of total households. The result shows that forest dependency is high in the sub watershed and it goes to meet the findings the assessment of forest cover change in terms of land use change. The using fuel sources by local community are also LP gas, Kerosene, Bio Gas & Santhi and Guitha and these fuel sources used as high valued prioritized for fuel sources. The LP gas is used by only 2 houses, kerosene is used by 3 houses and Santhi & Guitha used by 13 houses. The 8 Household have not mentioned the using fuel sources cooking.

Table 10: The Number of Household and Fuel sources for cooking.

Former VDCs Wood Kerosene LP Gas Santhi Guitha Bio Gas Not Stated Total Hukam 462 2 0 8 0 3 475 Jang 571 1 2 2 0 2 578 Kol 703 0 0 1 1 2 707 Rangsi 425 0 0 0 0 0 425 Ranmamaikot 772 0 0 1 0 1 774 Taksera 899 0 0 1 2 0 902 Total 3832 3 2 13 3 8 3861 Source: CBS, 2011.

The following above table founds that facts fuelwood is the lowest valued sources of fuel everywhere in the world. The best or the highly valued wood utilized as timber or poles for construction and for furniture of total wood supplied. Therefore, fuelwood as fuel sources would be the largest share of total wood in Nepal. Human pressures in the forms of firewood consumption as the fuel sources along the natural resources such agriculture and forestland is the direct driven factors to degradation of sub watersheds in middle hills of Nepal.

7.6 Main source of drinking water The spring sources are ultimately the major sources to providing drinking water in the mid hills area (ICIMOD, 2016; Chapagain et al., 2017). It helps to cope the crisis of drinking water sources drying up due to the climate change impact, transformation of geohydrology system due to the tectonic movement and any other types human induced activities, therefore, the review and assessment of sources of drinking water in the sub watershed level have remarkable importance here. The review of CBS statistics on sources of drinking water for this sub watershed revealed five types of drinking water sources are using in the sub watershed e.g. Tap and piped, covered well, uncovered kuwa, spout water and river stream.

Table 11: The Number of Household and Sources of drinking water.

Total Tap Covered Uncovered Spout River S.N. Former VDCs Not Stated HH Piped well well water Stream 1 Hukam 475 92 4 12 309 55 3 2 Jang 578 267 2 10 187 110 2 3 Kol 707 692 0 4 1 8 2 4 Rangsi 425 366 0 0 53 6 0 5 Ranmamaikot 774 575 1 7 180 10 1 6 Taksera 902 817 10 46 2 27 0 Total 3861 2809 17 79 732 216 8 Total with % 100 72.75 0.44 2.05 18.96 5.59 0.21 Sources: CBS, 2011.

The (table 11: ) shows that around above 72.75 percent household are using Tap or piped for drinking as the sources of drinking water. It followed by spout water sources for drinking where 18.96 percent of household is enrolled, stream and river are used as the drinking water by 5.59 percent household of total and remained other percent household have involved to use other types of drinking water e.g. covered kuwa, river and stream uncovered kuwa.

7.7 Economically active population The government of Nepal, former ministry of population and environment approved the age interval range "15 to 59" is an economically active population and it denotes the population having such age ranges can enrolled or involved for economic activities. The analysis of the account of an active population may have the better means of references for assessment of adaptive capacity of related communities for climate change based vulnerability ranking or climate change adaptation planning.

Table 12: An Account of Economically Active Population by former VDCs, Source: CBS, 2011.

S.N. Former VDCs Total Male Female Total % Male % Female % 1 Hukam 1139 547 592 11.85 48.02 51.98 2 Jang 1764 868 896 18.35 49.21 50.79 3 Kol 1661 680 981 17.28 40.94 59.06 4 Rangsi 1064 463 601 11.07 43.52 56.48

5 Ranmamaikot 2050 1019 1031 21.33 49.71 50.29 6 Taksera 1934 798 1136 20.12 41.26 58.74 7 Total 9612 4375 5237 100 8 Total in (%) 100 45.52 54.48 It shows that the sub watershed have an economically active population about around 9612, in which woman represent the 54.48 percent and male represent the 45.52 percent of the total economically active population. More than 80 percent of the total economically active population involved in agriculture land for farming activities, livestock raising and remittances received from seasonal migration to nearby cities or foreign labor is their major livelihood assets.

8. Rukum District VDCs & Pelma Sub-Watershed Climatic Vulnerability The third assessment report of IPCC have presented the conceptual framework of vulnerability, in which the IPCC report defines 'vulnerability' as "the degree to which a system is susceptible to, or unable to cope with the adverse effects of climate change, including climate variability and extremes". In this context vulnerability is a function of the character, magnitude and rate of climate variation to which a system is exposed, its sensitivity, and its adaptive capacity. Following this definition, vulnerability have defined as a function of exposure, sensitivity and adaptive capacity.

Vulnerability = f (exposure, sensitivity, adaptive capacity)………………………………………………… Eq. 1 The vulnerability function (f) have defined as Vulnerability = exposure * sensitivity * 1/adaptive capacity………………………………………………… Eq. 2 That is, vulnerability is the product of exposure, sensitivity and reciprocal of adaptive capacity.

Exposure as “the nature and degree to which a system is exposed to significant climatic variations”; UNISDR (UNISDR 2009) defines exposure as “People, property, systems, or other elements present in hazard zones that are thereby subject to potential losses.”

Sensitivity defined as “the degree to which a system is affected, either adversely or beneficially, by climate-related stimuli” (IPCC 2001, p.993, 2007, p.881);

Adaptive capacity is defined as “the ability of a system to adjust to climate change (including climate variability and extremes), to moderate the potential damage from it, to take advantage of its opportunities, or to cope with its consequences” (IPCC 2001, p. 982, 2007, p.869).

The government of Nepal and Ministry of Environment and National Adaptation Program of action (NAPA) to climate change assessed the climate change and vulnerability mapping on former VDCs level considering the parameters e.g. exposure, sensitivity & adaptive capacity recommend by the third assessment report of IPCC. Similarly, the Rukum District and pertaining VDCs have different level or ranges of climate change and vulnerability class (Table. 4:).

The former VDCs such as Hukam, Jang, Rangsi, Ranmamaikot & Taksera containing to Pelma sub watershed have classified & mapped as the high and very high range of climate change vulnerability. The 10 former VDCs e.g. Khara, Muru, Rugha, Grayala, Ghetma, Duli, Bafikot, Syalakhadi, Ranmamaikot & Hukam are highly vulnerable VDCs of climate change. The one VDCs of among VDCs Rukum that is Aathbishkot VDcs have a low or less vulnerability rank and Morabang, Musikot, & Kholagaun are moderately vulnerability of climate change. Other VDCs except having very high, less & moderate vulnerability rank these VDcs have high rank of vulnerability of Climate Change.

Table 13: Vulnerability Index of VDCs in Rukum District.

Adaptive Exposure S.N. Former VDC Sensitivity Vulnerability Index Vulnerability Rank Capacity Index 1 Baphikot 1.99 3.67 3.38 6.21 VERY HIGH 2 Syalakhadi 1.65 3.58 2.70 5.86 VERY HIGH 3 Muru 2.39 3.50 3.38 4.94 VERY HIGH 4 Ghetma 2.14 3.25 3.15 4.78 VERY HIGH 5 Khara 2.29 3.50 3.10 4.73 VERY HIGH 6 Hukam 1.87 2.83 3.03 4.60 VERY HIGH 7 Ranmamaikot 1.71 2.75 2.73 4.39 VERY HIGH 8 Rugha 2.53 3.25 3.25 4.17 VERY HIGH 9 Duli 2.09 3.17 2.68 4.06 VERY HIGH 10 Garayala 2.40 3.58 2.70 4.04 VERY HIGH 11 Chaukhabang 2.17 3.17 2.73 3.97 HIGH 12 Athbisdandagaun 2.34 3.75 2.40 3.84 HIGH 13 Bhalakcha 2.20 3.42 2.45 3.81 HIGH 14 Kol 1.48 2.92 1.93 3.78 HIGH 15 Nuwakot 2.35 3.42 2.40 3.49 HIGH 16 Arma 2.29 3.17 2.48 3.42 HIGH 17 Pipal 2.20 2.67 2.78 3.37 HIGH 18 Jhula 2.17 3.00 2.35 3.25 HIGH 19 Magma 2.48 3.33 2.35 3.16 HIGH 20 Syalapakha 2.23 2.67 2.60 3.11 HIGH 21 Pokhara 2.33 3.08 2.35 3.11 HIGH 22 Kankri 2.23 2.75 2.40 2.96 HIGH 23 Mahat 2.13 2.83 2.23 2.95 HIGH 24 Takasera 2.04 2.67 2.20 2.88 HIGH 25 Bijyashwari 2.89 2.92 2.78 2.80 HIGH 26 Simli 2.06 2.50 2.28 2.77 HIGH 27 Chunbang 2.28 3.08 2.03 2.74 HIGH 28 Rukumkot 2.53 3.00 2.28 2.70 HIGH 29 Sisne 2.18 2.58 2.25 2.66 HIGH 30 Kotjahari 2.19 2.58 2.21 2.61 HIGH 31 Ransi 1.85 2.42 1.98 2.58 HIGH

32 Purtimkanda 2.20 2.67 2.13 2.58 HIGH 33 Chhibang 2.44 2.42 2.58 2.55 HIGH 34 Gotamkot 1.84 2.50 1.80 2.44 HIGH 35 Peugha 2.05 2.17 2.30 2.43 HIGH 36 Pwang 2.39 2.75 2.05 2.36 HIGH 37 Jang 2.29 2.75 1.95 2.35 HIGH 38 Sakh 2.13 2.58 1.93 2.34 HIGH 39 Kanda 2.23 2.50 1.88 2.10 HIGH 40 Kholagaun 2.16 2.17 1.75 1.76 MEDIUM 41 Morabang 2.38 2.92 1.38 1.68 MEDIUM 42 Musikot Npa 3.56 2.67 1.98 1.48 MEDIUM 42 Athbiskot 2.44 2.33 1.03 0.98 LOW Source: RSDC, Rukum

Figures. 8. 1: Climate Change &Vulnerability Assessment Mapping of Rukum by VDCs.

9. Drivers of Pelma Sub Watershed Degradation. The watersheds of Nepal has been suffering and encountering with intensive geomorphic process e.g. erosion, landslide, gully erosion and mass wasting produced by frequent high magnitude precipitation, and turbulent river and strong stream power conditioned by steep relief features with fragile landscape properties (Nelson et al., 1980). In addition, in the recent decades growing

25 population, expansion development infrastructure have contributed to change in landuse landcover, alteration of ecosystem condition of watersheds (Mahat et al., 1987). On the same way of above mentioning fact and evidence, Pelma sub watershed has diverse types of driven factors to degradation and alteration its quality. These include a) unscientific cultivation where land capability not considered, b) destruction of natural vegetation and deforestation, c) soil erosion and d) landslide together with natural forces such as fragile geology, steep slopes, loose sandy soil and uneven distribution of rainfall with high intensity during monsoon has compounded the problems of degradation in this watershed. The following sections imparts information about each of the drivers.

9.1 Unscientific cultivation Land Capability classification produced by Land Resource Mapping Project (LRMP) has categorized Pelma watershed into six land capability classes namely Class I to Class VI and VIII. Land use in the watershed has analyzed based on landuse capability class considering its limitations, recommendations to use. According to the landuse capability class, class IV to VIII are not suitable for agriculture practice. In class II and III, agriculture can be practice with conservation measures. Class I and II are taken as land with minimal potentiality to soil erosion. According to land capability they have very few limitations when used for arable agriculture. But Class III, Class IV and Class VI requires full vegetation cover, if agriculture practiced is such classes have moderate to high risk of soil erosion and soil damage. In this sub-watershed, unscientific cultivation has been found in 1840.5 hectare land in Class III and Class IV where land capability not considered has compounded the problems of soil erosion and landslide in this watershed.

9.2 Destruction of natural vegetation and deforestation Since several last decades, growing rate of population and increasing their dynamic activities in the forms of high forest dependency for fuelwood, supply of timber items and non-timber items, expansion of agriculture land and grazing for livestock rising are direct driven factors to be destruction of natural vegetation and deforestation. The anti-reciprocal interrelationship between human and resources came to create the condition of break down the level of carrying capacity of natural resources to maintain the ecosystem balanced. The same things and issues have been ongoing on the Pelma sub watershed. Forest and shrub in the watershed meets the demands for fuel and timber of the people living in the sub-watershed and the surrounding urban areas. The demand for fuel-wood is on the rise. Pressure on the existing forest resources comes from one or a combination of the following factors; a) unsustainable harvesting of timber, b) fuel-wood collection, c) uncontrolled grazing, and d) forest fires contributed forest deforestation. The energy demand for cooking is met by burning fire wood in watershed. Firewood is the main source of energy in villages as well as urban centers. Every household collects firewood to meet its domestic needs. High dependency of people on forests for firewood. Nearly 97 percent of the population still uses firewood as main source of energy. Likewise, limited portion of the households use alternative energy sources. Grazing in the forest area is quite common and causing soil compaction and heavy damage to the natural regeneration. The intensity of such disturbances, especially near the habitation, is far beyond the carrying capacity of the forests. As development is rapidly increasing in comparison to past

26 decades, Road network is one of the major indicator of development. Road construction in steep slope, fragile rocks and soil, unscientific manner has contributed for deforestation.

9.3 Erosion and landslide: The frequency of occurrences of natural hazards events increased after the watershed began getting cleared for settlement, agriculture expansion and unscientific cultivation where land capability not considered about decades ago. The high rate of erosion and landslide poses a major threat to the settlement and land resources in sub-watershed. Major soil loss in the sub-watershed has mainly from cultivated land. It is almost equal to total soil loss in the entire sub-watershed. Total annual soil loss in the watershed found to be in decreasing order. The study found that the annual soil loss in 1997 was 456.52 ton and it increased representing 470.54 ton in 2007. In the year 2017, soil loss was 393.38 ton. Loss of soil by erosion from cultivated land has found maximum for both year 1997 and 2007. Moreover, soil erosion in forest area reveals that increasing trend.

10. Recommendations

The study suggested following programs for improving Pelma Sub-Watershed condition.

Soil and Land Conservation Program

Objective: The main objective of this program is to protect land degradation by soil erosion, landslides and improve livelihoods of people, especially the poor and vulnerable group by developing sustainable resource conservation, utilization and management system of land, water and forest resources at farm household and community incorporating concerned at sub-watershed level while maintaining the hydrological linkages of upstream and downstream.

Target Area: Soil and land conservation program will cover the following area:

Rural Municipality ward Location

Puthauttarganga Rural Municipality, ward no 1. .(Upstream) Down site part of Maikot village along the river site. Dharagaun village along the river stream.

Maikot and Dhara gaun, Pilamul village along the river stream. Around the Puchhargaun & Yokharka village near the agricultural land.

(Downstream) Agricultural land areas near the Arjal khola of Maikot village.

Puthauttarganga Rural Municipality, ward no 2. Upper site of Yamkhar village. West upper site of Hardiwaang village. Pelma village along the river stream. Jusmur village near the river stream. Hardiwaang village near the stream.

Puthauttarganga Rural Municipality, ward no 5. West & down site of Gara village. Around & Down site of Risalkot village near the stream. Upstream site of Hokla village. Upstream site of Phulbaang village. Upper site of Kajarjan village. Around the Gara village along the stream site. Around the Risalkot and Hukam village along the stream site. Around the Phulabaang & Hokla village. Around the Urjya village. Around the Nudur and Tamagar village. Around the Kajarjan village.

Programme: Soil conservation and land conservation at the sub-watershed level will be implemented based on number of affected households/area and its impact to the physical environment and downstream. This programs will be implemented to conserve water sources, increase land productivity, minimize erosion and landslide in the watershed while maintaining the hydrological linkages of the upstream and downstream.

 Enhance the capacity of the local people to plan and implement soil and land conservation activities ensuring upstream and downstream linkages  Reclaim the degraded land by appropriate vegetative and structural methods  Promote conservation farming techniques such as orchard establishment, on-farm conservation, bio-terracing, agro-forestry and others  Assist farmers in managing monsoon run-off  Assist in development and protection of water resources  Rehabilitate the erosion hot spots (severely eroded area)  Promote income generation and conservation oriented plantations of forests and grasses in degraded lands  Implement landslide bank stabilization program through bio-engineering methods

Forest Restoration

Objectives: The objective of the forest restoration is to restore, protect and conserve forest by adopting appropriate participatory forest management modality. It further will contribute to reduce soil erosion, landslides, and damages due to floods and effect of anthropogenic activities like forest resource exploitation and uncontrolled grazing in the sub-watershed.

Target Area: Forest restoration program will cover the following area:

Rural Municipality ward Location

(upstream) Upper site of Maikot, Dharagaun & Pilamul village. Puthauttarganga Rural Municipality, ward no 1.

(Downstream) Agricultural land areas near the Arjal khola of Maikot village.

(upstream) Upper & down site of Pelma village. Puthauttarganga Rural Municipality, ward no 2.

(Downstream) Agricultural land area of lower sites of Hardiwang and Pelma village. (upstream) Upper site of Hukam village. Around the Urjya village. Puthauttarganga Rural Municipality, ward no 5.

(Downstream) Agricultural land around the Hukam & Hokla village.

Programme: Forest restoration is a process which aims at regaining ecological integrity and enhancement of human well-being. This will put in place a mix of land-use practices for restoring the functions of forests across a whole watershed by a) restoring forest functionality at a sub- watershed, which translates into gaining the optimal quantity and quality of forest resources necessary for improving and maintaining people’s well-being and ecological integrity and b) strengthening the relationship between rural development, forestry and other disciplines of natural resource management and conservation approaches. The focus of the forest restoration program will be on conservation and protection of the forest in the sub-watershed. Forest resource will be managed sustainably to satisfy the needs of the community while conserving biodiversity and balancing the environmental values. Likewise, degraded forest and forest around the erosion and landslide prone area will be managed.

 Social mobilization and awareness raising of forests dependent communities and other stakeholders on watershed conservation and forest restoration  Improve the status of poorly stocked forests through natural regeneration or appropriate intervention (reforestation, plantation)  Encourage CFUGs to carry livestock assessment, estimate fodder requirement and adapt stall feeding and control grazing and rearing of improved variety livestock  Establish different on-farm agroforestry demonstration plots of different agroforestry system in government, community and private owned land to show the tree crop interactions and its resultant benefits  Promote conservation oriented energy development such as installation of micro-hydro, biogas, improved cooking stove, solar power etc.

Land Use Adjustment Program

Objectives: The objective of the land use adjustment program is to adjust and minimize soil erosion, landslides, and other damages in the sub-watershed due to unscientific cultivation and improper land use practices where land capability not considered. Target Area: Land use adjustment program will cover the following area:

Rural Municipality ward Location

Upper site of Phulawaang village. Around the Kajarjan village. Puthauttarganga Rural Municipality, ward no 1. Around the Nudun village. Down site part of Gara and Hukam village.

Puthauttarganga Rural Municipality, ward no 2. Agricultural land site of Jusmur & Hardiwang village site.

Puthauttarganga Rural Municipality, ward no 5. Upper site of Phulawaang village. Around the Kajarjan village. Around the Nudun village. Down site part of Gara and Hukam village.

Programme: Land use adjustment program at the catchment level will be implemented on the basis of number of affected households/area and its impact to the physical environment and downstream. This programs will be implemented to minimize erosion and landslide, conserve water sources and increase land productivity in the sub-watershed while maintaining the hydrological linkages of the upstream and downstream.

 Implement conservation education and extension activities aiming to create awareness of unscientific cultivation where land capability not considered and erosion problems  Promote conservation farming techniques such as orchard establishment, on-farm conservation, bio-terracing, and agro-forestry  Promote conservation pond/runoff harvesting dam  Promote agroforestry techniques such as cropping of fruit trees with medicinal and aromatic plants as well as other multiple land use techniques  Encourage and support farmers to plant fodder tree and grasses in their field without affecting their farming system  Protect agriculture land from erosion  Develop and disseminate information related to conservation agriculture, SLAT technique and agroforestry through the use of different extension media on technical, economic and environmental aspects  Implement conservation education and extension activities aiming to create awareness of erosion problems, farming practices and soil fertility management

 Encourage CFUGs to carry livestock assessment, estimate fodder requirement and adapt stall feeding and control grazing and rearing of improved variety livestock

Grazing Control and Fodder Development Program

Objective: The objective of this program is to reduce the incidence and extent of grazing on natural forests by enhancing the cultivation of improved varieties of fodder crops, grasses on private and communal land.

Target Area: Grazing control and fodder development program will cover the following area:

Rural Municipality ward Location

Puthauttarganga Rural Municipality, ward no (upstream) 1. Upper site of Maikot, Dharagaun & Pilamul village.

(Downstream) Agricultural land areas near the Arjal khola of Maikot village.

Puthauttarganga Rural Municipality, ward no (upstream) 2. Upper & down site of Pelma village.

(Downstream) Agricultural land area of lower sites of Hardiwang and Pelma village. Puthauttarganga Rural Municipality, ward no East and West site of Gara village. 5. Upper site of Hukam village. Around the Urjya village. Around the Phula waang village.

Programme: The grazing practices will be reduced by introducing better quality nutritious grasses and fodder promotion on farm land. Breed improvement for cattle will be intensified and services will be provided at door steps. Likewise, unrestricted breeding of the herds of less productive cattle will be discouraged and stall feeding and cut and carry practices will be encouraged. Cattle shed and grazing area will be developed around the trails to address the grazing pressure of temporary migratory livestock. Apart from the above, coordination between stakeholder’s agencies will be strengthened.

 Reduce pressure on the forest from cattle grazing by inducing stall feeding, controlled grazing and promoting cut and carrying practices  Promote fodder tree and grasses plantation on farm land without affecting their farming system  Strengthen coordination with municipality/rural municipality, the DLSO and other line agencies to address the grazing issues/problems

Income Generation Programme

The major purpose of income generation program is to enhance income and employment opportunities in farm and non-farm activities, especially targeted to vulnerable women, poor, disadvantage group and conflict affected people.

Target Area: Income generation program will cover the following area:

Rural Municipality ward Location

Puthauttarganga Rural Municipality, ward no (upstream) 5. Upper site of Maikot, Dharagaun & Pilamul village.

(Downstream) Agricultural land areas near the Arjal khola of Maikot village.

Puthauttarganga Rural Municipality, ward no (upstream) 5. Upper & down site of Pelma village.

Program

 Identify feasible farm and non-farm based income generating activities  Organize short term skill development training on farm and non-farm enterprises according to their interest and market potential  Establish revolving fund for effective implementation of income generating program  Mobilize FUGs resources and funds in forestry based income generating activities prioritizing especially poor and marginalized people  Provide technical and financial support to small-scale poor focused income generating programs with immediate impact on livelihood  Establish linkages with market and provide market information system  Establish linkages with different government line agencies, NGOs and international agencies to promote income generating activities

Alternative Energy Development Program

The main purpose of alternative energy development is to narrow down the gap between demand and supply of forest products by promoting the use of fuel-efficient stove, developing fuelwood substitute like biogas and increasing their supply. Efficiency in the consumption and substitution of firewood with alternative fuel will be emphasized especially targeting Dalit community and other firewood scarce area.

Target Area: Alternative energy development program will cover the following area:

Rural Municipality ward Location

Puthauttarganga Rural Municipality, ward no (upstream) 1. Upper site of Maikot, Dharagaun & Pilamul village.

(Downstream) Agricultural land areas near the Arjal khola of Maikot village.

Puthauttarganga Rural Municipality, ward no (upstream) 2. Upper & down site of Pelma village.

 Promote non-conventional energy sources such as biogas, solar and other energy  Raise plantation of fast growing short rotation site specific firewood species on government and private land particularly in degraded forest areas and community forests  Provide extension support, training and seedling transport subsidy on fuelwood plantation both in private and public land  Encourage people to use energy saving devices such as improved cooking stove  Mobilize FUGs and community based organizations in promoting alternative energy technology by providing technical, material and financial support needed  Establish linkages with national alternate energy related programs based on the local demand  Conduct pilot testing and demonstration of the community owned biogas plants in the lower economic class population in collaboration with concerned agencies  Provide subsidized financing and loan from the NGOs and financial institutions on installation of biogas 36

Program beyond Administrative Boundary Objective: The main purpose of this program is to address the linkages between the changes in the physical environment of upstream areas (land use, soil erosion, landslide etc.) and of climate change on the downstream water availability, flood and dry season flow, and erosion, sedimentation and others beyond administrative boundary maintaining the hydrological linkages of the upstream and downstream.

Target Area: Program beyond administrative boundary will cover the following area: Linkage Upstream Downstream Activities Landslide Puthauttarganga Rural Municipality, Sisne & Bhume Rural Municipality. Enhance the capacity of the local ward no. 1, 2, 5, East Rukum Other current wards 3, 4, 6, 7, 9, 12, people to plan and implement soil 13, & 14 of Puthauttarganga Rural and land conservation activities Municipality. ensuring upstream and downstream linkages Reclaim the degraded land by appropriate vegetative and structural methods Assist farmers in managing monsoon run-off Rehabilitate the landslide hot spots (severely eroded area) Promote income generation and conservation oriented plantations of forests and grasses in degraded lands Implement landslide stabilization program through bio-engineering methods

Deforestation Puthauttarganga Rural Municipality, Sisne & Bhume Rural Municipality. Improve the status of poorly stocked and Degradation ward no. 1, 2, 5, East Rukum Other current wards 3, 4, 6, 7, 9, 12, forests through natural regeneration 13, & 14 of Puthauttarganga Rural or appropriate intervention Municipality. (reforestation, plantation)

Encourage CFUGs to carry livestock assessment, estimate fodder requirement and adapt stall feeding and control grazing and rearing of improved variety livestock

Establish different on-farm agroforestry demonstration plots of different agroforestry system in government, leasehold forest community and private owned land to show the tree crop interactions and its resultant benefits Promote conservation oriented energy development such as installation of micro-hydro, biogas, improved cooking stove, solar power etc.

Soil Erosion Puthauttarganga Rural Municipality, Sisne & Bhume Rural Municipality. Reclaim the soil erosion sites by ward no. 1, 2, 5, East Rukum. Other current wards 3, 4, 6, 7, 9, 12, appropriate vegetative and structural 13, & 14 of Puthauttarganga Rural methods Municipality. Promote conservation farming techniques such as orchard establishment, on-farm conservation,

bio-terracing, agro-forestry and others Assist farmers in managing monsoon run-off Rehabilitate the erosion hot spots (severely eroded area) Promote income generation and conservation oriented plantations of forests and grasses in degraded lands and promote stall feeding practices Construction of contour bunds, terraces building, broad bed and furrow practice, soil-moisture conservation practices Management practices reduce peak discharge

11. Action Plan- Puthauttarganga 11.1 Action Plan Puthauttarganga Rural Municipality Ward No 1 Issues Action Activities Location Landslide Land conservation  Enhance the capacity of the local people to plan .(Upstream) and implement soil and land conservation activities ensuring upstream and downstream Down site part of linkages Maikot village along  Reclaim the degraded land by appropriate the river site. vegetative and structural methods

 Promote conservation farming techniques such as Dharagaun village orchard establishment, on-farm conservation, along the river bio-terracing, agro-forestry and others stream.  Assist farmers in managing monsoon run-off  Rehabilitate the landslide hot spots (severely (Downstream) eroded area)  Promote income generation and conservation Agricultural land oriented plantations of forests and grasses in areas near the Arjal degraded lands khola of Maikot  Implement landslide stabilization program village. through bio-engineering methods Sisne & Bhume Rural Municipality. Other current wards 3, 4, 6, 7, 9, 12, 13, & 14 of Puthauttarganga Rural Municipality.

Deforestation Forest restoration  Social mobilization and awareness raising of (upstream) and forest forests dependent communities and other degradation stakeholders on watershed conservation, forest Upper site of Maikot, restoration and leasehold forestry Dharagaun & Pilamul  Improve the status of poorly stocked forests village. through natural regeneration or appropriate intervention (reforestation, plantation) (Downstream)  Encourage CFUGs to carry livestock assessment, estimate fodder requirement and adapt stall Agricultural land areas feeding and control grazing and rearing of near the Arjal khola of improved variety livestock Maikot village.

 Establish different on-farm agroforestry Sisne & Bhume Rural demonstration plots of different agroforestry Municipality. system in government, leasehold forest Other current wards 3, community and private owned land to show the 4, 6, 7, 9, 12, 13, & 14 tree crop interactions and its resultant benefits of Puthauttarganga  Promote conservation oriented energy Rural Municipality. development such as installation of micro-hydro, biogas, improved cooking stove, solar power etc.

Erosion Soil Conservation  Enhance the capacity of the local people to plan (upstream) and implement soil conservation activities Maikot and Dhara ensuring upstream and downstream linkages gaun, Pilamul village  Reclaim the soil erosion sites by appropriate along the river vegetative and structural methods stream.  Promote conservation farming techniques such as Around the orchard establishment, on-farm conservation, Puchhargaun & bio-terracing, agro-forestry and others Yokharka village near  Assist farmers in managing monsoon run-off the agricultural land.  Assist in development and protection of water resources (Downstream)  Rehabilitate the erosion hot spots (severely Agricultural land eroded area) areas near the Arjal  Promote income generation and conservation khola of Maikot oriented plantations of forests and grasses in village degraded lands and promote stall feeding practices  Construction of contour bunds, terraces building, broad bed and furrow practice, soil-moisture conservation practices  Management practices reduce peak discharge

Land Use Land Use  Implement conservation education and extension Next aspect site of Over Adjustment activities aiming to create awareness of Maikot around the unscientific cultivation where land capability not Argawa village. considered and erosion problems  Promote conservation farming techniques such as Around the Yokharka orchard establishment, on-farm conservation, and Puchchargaun bio-terracing, and agro-forestry village.  Construction of contour bunds, terraces building, broad bed and soil-moisture conservation Downstream: practices Sisne & Bhume Rural  Promote conservation pond/runoff harvesting Municipality. dam Other current wards  Promote agroforestry techniques such as 3, 4, 6, 7, 9, 12, 13, & cropping of fruit trees with medicinal and 14 of aromatic plants as well as other multiple land use Puthauttarganga techniques Rural Municipality.  Encourage and support farmers to plant fodder tree and grasses in their field without affecting their farming system  Protect agriculture land from erosion  Develop and disseminate information related to conservation agriculture, SLAT technique and agroforestry through the use of different extension media on technical, economic and environmental aspects  Implement conservation education and extension activities aiming to create awareness of erosion problems, farming practices and soil fertility management

11.2 Action Plan- Puthauttarganga Rural Municipality Ward No 2. Issues Action Activities Location Landslide Land conservation  Enhance the capacity of the local people to plan Upstream: and implement soil and land conservation Upper site of Yamkhar activities ensuring upstream and downstream village. linkages  Reclaim the degraded land by appropriate West upper site of vegetative and structural methods Hardiwaang village.  Promote conservation farming techniques such as orchard establishment, on-farm conservation, Downstream: bio-terracing, agro-forestry and others Sisne & Bhume Rural  Assist farmers in managing monsoon run-off Municipality.  Rehabilitate the landslide hot spots (severely Other current wards 3, eroded area) 4, 6, 7, 9, 12, 13, & 14  Promote income generation and conservation of Puthauttarganga oriented plantations of forests and grasses in Rural Municipality. degraded lands  Implement landslide stabilization program through bio-engineering methods

Deforestation Forest restoration  Social mobilization and awareness raising of (upstream) and forest forests dependent communities and other degradation stakeholders on watershed conservation, forest Upper & down site of restoration and leasehold forestry Pelma village.  Improve the status of poorly stocked forests through natural regeneration or appropriate (Downstream) intervention (reforestation, plantation)  Encourage CFUGs to carry livestock assessment, Agricultural land area estimate fodder requirement and adapt stall of lower sites of feeding and control grazing and rearing of Hardiwang and Pelma improved variety livestock village.

Erosion Soil Conservation  Enhance the capacity of the local people to plan Upstream: and implement soil conservation activities Pelma village along ensuring upstream and downstream linkages the river stream.  Reclaim the soil erosion sites by appropriate Jusmur village near the vegetative and structural methods river stream.  Promote conservation farming techniques such as Hardiwaang village orchard establishment, on-farm conservation, near the stream. bio-terracing, agro-forestry and others  Assist farmers in managing monsoon run-off Downstream:  Assist in development and protection of water Sisne & Bhume Rural resources Municipality.  Rehabilitate the erosion hot spots (severely Other current wards 3, eroded area) 4, 6, 7, 9, 12, 13, & 14  Promote income generation and conservation of Puthauttarganga oriented plantations of forests and grasses in Rural Municipality. degraded lands and promote stall feeding practices  Construction of contour bunds, terraces building, broad bed and furrow practice, soil-moisture conservation practices  Management practices reduce peak discharge

Land Use Land Use  Implement conservation education and extension Upstream: Over Adjustment activities aiming to create awareness of Agricultural land site unscientific cultivation where land capability not considered and erosion problems of Jusmur &  Promote conservation farming techniques such as Hardiwang village site. orchard establishment, on-farm conservation,

bio-terracing, and agro-forestry  Construction of contour bunds, terraces building, Downstream: broad bed and soil-moisture conservation Sisne & Bhume Rural practices Municipality.  Promote conservation pond/runoff harvesting Other current wards 3, dam 4, 6, 7, 9, 12, 13, & 14  Promote agroforestry techniques such as of Puthauttarganga cropping of fruit trees with medicinal and Rural Municipality. aromatic plants as well as other multiple land use techniques  Encourage and support farmers to plant fodder tree and grasses in their field without affecting their farming system  Protect agriculture land from erosion  Develop and disseminate information related to conservation agriculture, SLAT technique and agroforestry through the use of different extension media on technical, economic and environmental aspects  Implement conservation education and extension activities aiming to create awareness of erosion problems, farming practices and soil fertility management

11.3 Action Plan- Puthauttarganga Rural Municipality Ward No 5 Issues Action Activities Location Landslide Land conservation  Enhance the capacity of the local people to plan Upstream: and implement soil and land conservation West & down site of Gara activities ensuring upstream and downstream village. linkages Around & Down site of  Reclaim the degraded land by appropriate Risalkot village near the vegetative and structural methods stream.  Promote conservation farming techniques such as Upstream site of Hokla orchard establishment, on-farm conservation, village. bio-terracing, agro-forestry and others Upstream site of  Assist farmers in managing monsoon run-off Phulbaang village.  Rehabilitate the landslide hot spots (severely Upper site of Kajarjan eroded area) village.  Promote income generation and conservation oriented plantations of forests and grasses in Downstream: degraded lands Sisne & Bhume Rural  Implement landslide stabilization program Municipality. through bio-engineering methods Other current wards 3, 4, 6, 7, 9, 12, 13, & 14 of Puthauttarganga Rural Municipality. Deforestation Forest restoration  Social mobilization and awareness raising of Upstream: and forest forests dependent communities and other East and West site of degradation stakeholders on watershed conservation, forest Gara village. restoration and leasehold forestry Upper site of Hukam  Improve the status of poorly stocked forests village. through natural regeneration or appropriate Around the Urjya village. intervention (reforestation, plantation) Around the Phula waang  Encourage CFUGs to carry livestock assessment, village. estimate fodder requirement and adapt stall

feeding and control grazing and rearing of Downstream: improved variety livestock Sisne & Bhume Rural  Establish different on-farm agroforestry Municipality. demonstration plots of different agroforestry Other current wards 3, 4, system in government, leasehold forest 6, 7, 9, 12, 13, & 14 of community and private owned land to show the Puthauttarganga Rural tree crop interactions and its resultant benefits Municipality.  Promote conservation oriented energy development such as installation of micro-hydro, biogas, improved cooking stove, solar power etc.

Erosion Soil Conservation  Enhance the capacity of the local people to plan Upstream: and implement soil conservation activities Around the Gara village ensuring upstream and downstream linkages along the stream site.  Reclaim the soil erosion sites by appropriate Around the Risalkot and vegetative and structural methods Hukam village along the  Promote conservation farming techniques such as stream site. orchard establishment, on-farm conservation, Around the Phulabaang bio-terracing, agro-forestry and others & Hokla village.  Assist farmers in managing monsoon run-off Around the Urjya village.  Assist in development and protection of water Around the Nudur and resources Tamagar village.  Rehabilitate the erosion hot spots (severely Around the Kajarjan eroded area) village.  Promote income generation and conservation oriented plantations of forests and grasses in Downstream: degraded lands and promote stall feeding Sisne & Bhume Rural practices Municipality.  Construction of contour bunds, terraces building, Other current wards 3, 4, broad bed and furrow practice, soil-moisture 6, 7, 9, 12, 13, & 14 of conservation practices

 Management practices reduce peak discharge Puthauttarganga Rural Municipality.

Land Use Land Use  Implement conservation education and extension Upstream: Over Adjustment activities aiming to create awareness of Upper site of Phulawaang unscientific cultivation where land capability not village. considered and erosion problems Around the Kajarjan  Promote conservation farming techniques such as village. orchard establishment, on-farm conservation, Around the Nudun bio-terracing, and agro-forestry village.  Construction of contour bunds, terraces building, Down site part of Gara broad bed and soil-moisture conservation and Hukam village. practices  Promote conservation pond/runoff harvesting Downstream: dam Sisne & Bhume Rural  Promote agroforestry techniques such as Municipality. cropping of fruit trees with medicinal and Other current wards 3, 4, aromatic plants as well as other multiple land use 6, 7, 9, 12, 13, & 14 of techniques Puthauttarganga Rural  Encourage and support farmers to plant fodder Municipality. tree and grasses in their field without affecting their farming system  Protect agriculture land from erosion  Develop and disseminate information related to conservation agriculture, SLAT technique and agroforestry through the use of different extension media on technical, economic and environmental aspects  Implement conservation education and extension activities aiming to create awareness of erosion

48 problems, farming practices and soil fertility management

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Annex 1: Land use/ land cover change methodology The methodology used in this study was summarized as shown in the flow chart Figure 7. Methodological flowchart of land use land cover change. The materials that were used for this study involve both primary and secondary data.

Primary Data:

Primary data was collected through field observation and Google Earth Image to collect the coordinates of features in the study area for ground truthing which was integrated into the Geographic Information System (GIS) environment for error matrix in order to ascertain the accuracy level of the classified images according to number of classes.

Secondary data:

For this study Landsat Satellite images of Path 143 & Figure 7 Methodological Flow chart of Land use Row 040 were acquired for three Epochs; 1996, 2006 and Land cover change 2016 were obtained from USGS an Earth Science Data Interface. It is also important to have local government boundary map and administrative map which was obtained from Department of Survey with Modified Universal Transverse Mercator. Table 10 shows the characteristics Landsat Satellite images of the study area.

Table 14: Characteristics of acquired satellite image.

S.N Image Year Sensor Resolution Date of Acquisition Bands 1 Landsat 5 1996 TM 30m 1996-01-02 7 2 Landsat 5 2006 TM 30m 2006-03-02 7 3 Landsat 8 2016 OLI/TIRS 30m 2016-04-30 11

Data Processing

This study adopts three epochs of Landsat satellite images as described in Table 1. All of the images were processed using geometric and radiometric corrections. Digital land-use maps and administrative maps of 1996 with vector structures and topographical maps of 1996 with a 1:25,000 scale also provided important information for identifying and assessing land use types. Band 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 7 were layer stacked into RGB layer for better visualization in order to ease the classification through band rationing.

Classification is a complex process that can be defined as “the ordering or arrangement of objects into groups or sets on the basis of relationships. These relationships can be based upon observable or inferred properties”. Area of Interest i.e. Sharada Watershed was extracted from the stacked image and land-use land-cover classification system was developed. The use of too many or too few landuse land-cover classification types affects the results of change analyses. Various publications have discussed land-use and-cover classification systems and have proposed appropriate classification systems for watershed research. Therefore, for this study land-use land-cover classification system was proposed for this study as shown in Table 11

Table 11: Classification scheme design for study

CODE LULC Types Descriptions 1 Forest Area covered by Trees 2 Shrub Land Closed to open shrub land (thicket), meadows, scrub, bushes 3 Grassland Small rangelands, open grasslands 4 Agricultural Land Irrigated land, Terrace land, unirrigated dry land 5 Barren Land Bare rock, bare soil, Sand 6 Waterbody Lake, Reservoirs, Ponds, rivers In this study, supervised maximum likelihood method was used for the land-use/land-cover classification. A numbers of AOIs were selected in every image for different land-use/land-cover types to develop signature for classification through visual interpretation of Google Earth Image of 2004, 2006, 2008, 2016. The accuracy of the classification results was assessed using the total accuracy and the Kappa coefficient.

Annex 2: Estimation of Soil Erosion Dynamics Methodology The methodology used to estimate soil erosion dynamics was summarized as shown in the flow chart Figure 2. Based on the rainfall storm events, DEM, soil type map, and land cover map, six parameters of the RUSLE model estimated and verified as to the reasonability of the parameter estimation results. The following equation RUSLE equation is used:

RUSLE to compute average annual soil erosion expected on upland (field) slopes: Figure 8 Methodological framework of soil erosion dynamics A = R x K x L x S x C x P

Where: A is the amount of eroded material calculated or measured in tons per hectare for a specified duration of rain. A&K has units in the time period selected for R.

R is the rain factor as a (EI30) index, which is measured by the erosive power of there in in tons per hectare hour meter or joule per square meter, As the erosive forces of rain and associated runoff;

K is the soil erodibility factor is standard erosion ton per hectare per erosivity R unit, for a specific ground with a uniform gradient of 9% 22.1 m gradient and slope length clean tilled fallow, is a measure of the inherent susceptibility of soil particles to erosion;

L is the length of slope factor, expressing the ratio of soil loss of a slope with a given length and soil loss of a slope with a standard length 22.13 m, with identical values erodibility and slope gradient;

S is the slope gradient factor expresses the ratio of soil loss specific gradient slope and soil loss of a slope gradient standard 9%, under similar conditions, define the effect of the inclination of the pending on soil loss per unit area;

C is the combined vegetation and management factor expresses soil loss ratio of an area covered and specific to a similar area but continually tilled fallow management; and

P is the practice soil conservation factor that expresses the ratio of soil loss from an area with coverage and specific management, such as contour plowing, strip cropping or terraces, one with tillage for the slope.

Annex 3 Spatial and Temporal Distribution of Forest Fires Methodology Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) active fire datasets were extracted through FIRMS (ftp://ba1.geog.umd.edu/Collection51) in Shape (*.shp) format) dated from 2000 to 2016 A.D. Digital layer of Watershed overlapped over the fire datasets and clipped the dataset of the watershed. Area for each polygon according to year (or month) basis was calculated to identify the magnitude for each year. To identify the temporal distribution, centroid point for each polygon was calculated using ArcGIS and point for each year/month was counted.

Annex 4 Land Use Adjustment Methodology The land use adjustment map is produced by overlaying a present land use map on a land capability map. The used methodology was summarized as shown in the flow chart figure.

Figure 9: Methodological Framework of Land Use Adjustment