PERCEPTIONS OF DIVINITY THE CHANGING CHARACTERS OF ROMAN VENUS Frances Brealey 29001509 2014 A thesis submitted to the University of Wales Trinity Saint David in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts Master’s Degrees by Examination and Dissertation Declaration Form. 1. This work has not previously been accepted in substance for any degree and is not being concurrently submitted in candidature for any degree. Name: Frances Elizabeth Brealey Date: 20th March 2014 2. This dissertation is being submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts Name: Frances Elizabeth Brealey Date: 20th March 2014 3. This dissertation is the result of my own independent work/investigation, except where otherwise stated. Other sources are acknowledged by footnotes giving explicit references. A bibliography is appended. Name: Frances Elizabeth Brealey Date: 20th March 2014 4. I hereby give consent for my dissertation, if accepted, to be available for photocopying, inter- library loan, and for deposit in the University’s digital repository Name: Frances Elizabeth Brealey Date: 20th March 2014 Supervisor’s Declaration. I am satisfied that this work is the result of the student’s own efforts. Signed: …………………………………………………………………………... Date: …………….......................................................................................... Contents Abstract iii Acknowledgements iv List of Figures v Introduction 1 Chapter 1 The Gods of the Romans: The Changing Paradigm 5 1.1 The Old Paradigm: Primitivism and Foreign Influence 5 1.2 The Old Paradigm: Formalism and Decline 10 1.3 Challenging the Old Paradigm: The Re-evaluation of Roman Religion 12 1.4 The Significance of Gender 19 Chapter 2 Four 'foreign goddesses': Influential Characters? 23 2.1 Introduction 23 2.2 The Influence of Aphrodite 24 2.3 The Influence of Etruscan Turan 32 2.4 The Influence of Isis 38 2.5 The Influence of the Anatolian Mother, Cybele 42 2.6 Aeneas, Son of Venus 46 2.7 Summary 49 Chapter 3 Characters of the Goddess: Venus at Rome 52 3.1 Introduction 52 3.2 The Character of the Earliest Roman Venus 54 3.3 Obsequens and Verticordia, a Women's Goddess? 57 3.4 Venus, Goddess of Love 63 i 3.5 Venus Erycina, a Foreign Goddess? 66 3.6 Summary 69 Chapter 4 Mother and Protector of Rome: The Politicising of Venus 71 4.1 Introduction 71 4.2 Venus as Protector 72 4.3 Augustan Venus, the Mother of the Empire 79 4.4 Venus in the Augustan Poets 87 4.5 Venus, Goddess of War? 90 4.6 Summary 92 Conclusions: Recognising Venus 95 Bibliography 100 ii Abstract This dissertation examines how at Rome the characters of the goddess Venus changed from the fourth century BC to the first century AD. It is argued that the different ways in which she was perceived, and the associations, powers and responsibilities she was assigned, were significant for the Romans’ engagement with the goddess during the Republic and early Empire. A discussion of some theories of Roman religion since the nineteenth century shows how these views and their subsequent re-evaluation have influenced understandings of Venus. The belief that the Romans of this period took little interest in the characters of their gods is challenged, though it is suggested that traces of this remain as negative preconceptions in some modern approaches. Earlier theories of Roman religion saw the identities of the gods as late Greek imports. Four foreign goddesses known at Rome during the Republic (Aphrodite, Turan, Isis and Cybele) are examined to discover how their characters were represented and in what ways these might have influenced the character of Venus at Rome. The extent to which they were ‘mother’ or ‘women’s’ goddesses, and whether they and Venus had similar connections with fertility and childbirth are discussed. Evidence for the different representations of the character of Venus is drawn from a variety of sources including art, literature, numismatics and epigraphy. The changing characters are discussed in relation to women’s engagement with her and both external influence and internal developments are shown to have shaped perceptions of the goddess. In the Late Republic the role of Venus as protector and ancestor is demonstrated to have grown in significance through her connection with Aeneas, whilst during the Principate her popularity enabled her to be used in support of Augustan values. iii Acknowledgements Dr David Noy gave advice at the outset of this project, and Dr Ralph Haeussler kindly agreed to take on the supervision of the dissertation even before he had arrived in Lampeter. My employers, Bristol Baptist College, generously awarded me study leave, and colleagues, friends and family have provided much encouragement during the writing of this dissertation. Libraries in Bristol, Lampeter and Oxford have all furnished useful resources. Dr Richard de Puma graciously gave permission for the use of his drawing of an Etruscan mirror. I am grateful to them all. However this dissertation is dedicated to the memory of the late Anthony Brothers, lecturer in Classics at Lampeter from 1964 – 2009; who introduced me to what was then St David's University College, and who first taught me about Roman religion. iv List of Figures 1. Vessel depicting the meeting of Helen and Paris © Trustees of the British Museum. 2. Detail of krater depicting Aphrodite, Helen and Menelaus, Louvre, Paris. 3. Roman copy of the Aphrodite of Knidos. Digital image courtesy of the John Paul Getty Museum’s Open Content Programme 4. Roman statuette of Crouching Venus © Trustees of the British Museum. 5. Relief from Ludovisi Throne depicting flute player. Museo Nazionale Romano Palazzo Altemps, Rome. © Marie-Lan Nguyen 6. Relief from Ludovisi Throne of woman making an offering. Museo Nazionale Romano di Palazzo Altemps, Rome. © Marie-Lan Nguyen 7. Etruscan mirror depicting the Judgement of Paris. © Trustees of the British Museum. 8. Etruscan mirror depicting the Judgement of Paris. Indiana University Art Museum, Bloomington. Drawing by R. De Puma. 9. Egyptian statuette of Isis suckling Horus © Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York. www.metmuseum.org 10. Roman statuette of Isis/Tyche © Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York. www.metmuseum.org 11. Roman statue of Cybele. Ny Carlsberg Glypotek, Copenhagen. Photographer: Ole Haupt. 12. Roman coin depicting Cybele. RRC 385.4.10 © Trustees of the British Museum. 13. Attic vessel depicting Aeneas and Anchises. Louvre, Paris. Photograph in the public domain. 14. Coin depicting Venus and Cupid. RRC 313.1.50. © Trustees of the British Museum. 15. Gold coin of Sulla depicting Venus and Cupid. RRC 359.1.1 © Trustees of the British Museum. 16. Coin of Julius Caesar depicting Venus and Aeneas. RRC 458.1.8. © Trustees of the British Museum. v 17. Coin of Julius Caesar depicting Venus. RRC 480.17.4 © Trustees of the British Museum. 18. Coin of Octavian depicting Venus. Image AN00632966 © Trustees of the British Museum. 19. Coin of Octavian depicting Venus. BMC Augustus 609 © Trustees of the British Museum. 20. Coin of Cleopatra depicting her as Venus. CM BMC Cleopatra VII 2 © Trustees of the British Museum. 21. Statue of Augustus with Cupid. Vatican Museums. 22. Cameo of Livia as Venus. Digital image courtesy of the John Paul Getty Museum’s Open Content Programme 23. A relief on the Ara Pacis. Museo dell’Ara Pacis, Rome. Photograph in the public domain. 24. Statue of Maria Furnilla as Venus. Ny Carlsberg Glypotek, Copenhagen. Photographer: Ole Haupt. 25. Relief depicting Venus Genetrix and Mars Ultor. Algiers Archeological Museum. vi Introduction Venus is popularly identified as the goddess of love and most frequently appears today as a symbol of sexual attraction. 1 Representing feminine seductiveness, she remains a favourite subject for artists.2 But was the same simple equation ‘Venus = love’ all that the Romans knew? What were the different guises in which they recognized her? This dissertation examines the changing characters of the goddess at Rome, from the fourth century BC to the first century AD. Here by character is meant how she was perceived, and the way her powers and spheres of responsibility were represented. A study of the character of one of the gods in this period of Roman history needs to begin with a consideration of past and present approaches to religion at Rome. This is because, as Feeney points out, ‘according to the long- dominant models of Roman religion, the problems of the gods as entities, and of how to represent or engage with them, did not seem very pressing [to the Romans]’.3 The first chapter therefore examines theories of primitivism and conservatism, formalism and decline, and understandings of divine gender. All of these earlier models down-played the significance of individual gods in Roman religion, and denied the importance of their characters. The rejection of these theories and the re-evaluation which has taken place in recent decades 1 The term gods will be used generically, and interchangeably with deities, and does not necessarily indicate male gender. When deities of one gender only are intended this will be made clear. 2 Grigson, 1978: 228 provides a range of examples. Though his book is subtitled, The birth, triumph, death and return of Aphrodite, he acknowledges ‘that her pretty Greek name never triumphed in the western world’. References to works of ancient writers mentioned or quoted are given within the text. All other references are in the footnotes. 3 1998: 76. 1 will be discussed, but it will be suggested that, despite these developments, traces of the attitudes embodied in the old approaches still endure. A number of key questions arise from the discussion in chapter one. These include the importance to the Romans of the diverse character(s) of Venus, the significance of foreign and other influences in forming those characters, and the connection between character in general and gender in particular and the way the Romans engaged with the goddess.