THE TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT OF PRINCIPALS IN THE MANAGEMENT OF THE CURRICULUM
by
ARUNACHELLAN DAYANUNDAN PADAYACHEE
THESIS
submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree
DOCTOR EDUCATIONIS
in
EDUCATIONAL MANAGEMENT
in the
FACULTY OF EDUCATION AND NURSING
at the
RAND AFRIKAANS UNIVERSITY
PROMOTER : PROF BR GROBLER
CO-PROMOTER : PROF TC BISSCHOFF
FEBRUARY 1999
II THE TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT OF PRINCIPALS IN THE MANAGEMENT OF THE CURRICULUM
A D PADAYACHEE THE TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT OF PRINCIPALS IN THE MANAGEMENT OF THE CURRICULUM
A D PADAYACHEE
PROMOTER: PROFESSOR B R GROBLER
CO-PROMOTER: PROFESSOR T C BISSCHOFF ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I wish to express my sincere, and heartfelt thanks and gratitude to:
The Creator for his Divine intervention and for granting me the strength, courage and perseverance to complete this project..
My promoter of this thesis, Professor B R Grobler. My sincere appreciation and gratitude for his constructive criticism, encouragement, valuable support, insights and assistance and guidance throughout this study.
My co-promoter, Professor T C Bisschoff for his constant encouragement and positive support and guidance throughout this research.
Cyril Samuels, Roy Reddy and Raj Mestry for their commitment, hardwork, dedication, assistance, support and team work throughout our studies.
My parents Mr and Mrs K A Padayachee for the fountain of inspiration which they provided in directing and leading me through life.
My wife Umsha and my children Avashni, Trishanta and Dasevan for their patience, understanding and encouragement throughout my studies.
My In-Laws, Mr and Mrs Pillay for their support and blessing during my studies.
Rand Afrikaans University for their support and Mr JA Vermeulen, deputy rector for his assistance, encouragement and support.
III DEDICATION
This Thesis is dedicated to my late brother, Dr Kisten Padayachee for his inspiration and motivation throughout our interactions and to his wife Margaret and children Sherman and Winston for their courage and determination in life.
IV SINOPSIS
Voorlopige navorsing onder 'n kansmonster van Gauteng skoolhoofde en verskeie deskundiges in onderwysbestuur deur middel van vraelyste het aangetoon dat die volgende vier sleutel — komponente belangrik is om skole doeltreffend te kan bestuur :
Kurrikulumbestuur .
Bestuur van organisasiestrukture .
Bestuur van finansiele en fisiese bronne .
Bestuur van opvoeders/onderwysers .
Dit is noodsaaklik dat 'n doeltreffende skoolhoof oor die nodige vaardighede, kennis en houdings, om bogenoemde vier komponente voldoende te kan bestuur, moet beskik.
Die besondere navorsingsprojek is op die bevoegdhede wat van 'n skoolhoof vereis word om die kurrikulum doeltreffend te kan bestuur afgestem, om sodoende riglyne vir opleidings-en ontwikkelingsprogramme te verskaf. Die ontwikkelingsprogramme sal op die persepsies van die onderwysprofessie en belangrike faktore ten opsigte van skoolbestuur, gebaseer word.
In hoofstuk twee is die volgende benaderings ten opsigte van die doeltreffende bestuur van skoolhoofde bespreek :
Die bevoegdheidsbenadering wat indringende spesifikasies voorsien ten opsigte van vaardighede en kennis wat van skoolhoofde vereis word om sodoende 'n skool doeltreffend te kan bestuur. Dit sluit ook die standaarde en verskeidenheid situasies in waarin skoolhoofde hulseif moontlik kan bevind ten einde die uitvoering van hierdie take te kan bewerkstellig. Dit is veral ontwikkelings-georienteerd en maak voorsiening vir indringende assessering van onderwysbestuurders.
• Die individuele bevoegdheidsbenadering wat die klem op die diepperliggende eienskappe van 'n bestuurder laat val en wat doeltreffendheid of goeie prestasies tot gevolg sal he. Hierdie onderliggende eienskappe of vaardighede mag 'n motief, 'n eienskap, 'n vaardigheid, aspekte van die selfbeeld, 'n sosiale rol of 'n besondere kennisvlak wees wat deur die bestuurder gebruik kan word.
Die twee benaderings is gesintetiseer of geintegreer ten einde 'n kontinuum van bevoegdhede te ontwikkel wat veral bekwaamhede, motiewe en eienskappe aan die linkerkant en kennis, vaardighede en funksies aan die regter kant, beklemtoon.
Die bevoegdheidskontinuum is as raamwerk vir doeltreffende skoolhoofde gebruik om 'n bevoegdheids-gebaseerde bestuursmatriksmodel (BBM) te ontwikkel. Die BBM model inkorporeer beide die bevoegdheidsbenaderings sodat skole effektief bestuur kan word. Dit fokus op die ontwikkeling van spesifieke bevoegdhede of vaardighede om sekere take of funksies wat van 'n skoolhoof verwag word, te kan uitvoer.
Die sleutel komponente van kurrikulumbestuur, bestuur van organisasiestrukture, bestuur van finansiele en fisiese bronne en die bestuur van opvoeders vorm die basis vir die ontwikkeling van 'n sistematiese benadering tot doeltreffende skoolbestuur. Die bestuur van die kurrikulum vorm die kernkomponent en die bestuur van organisasiestrukture en sisteme, die bestuur van opvoeders en die bestuur van finansies en ander materiele bronne vorm die sleutel-aspekte wat onderlingend met mekaar verbind is. As skoolhoofde bevoeg in hierdie sleutelareas is, behoort hulle 'n skool doeltreffend te kan bestuur.
Die literatuurondersoek wat in hoofstuk drie onderneem was poog om sleutel aangeleenthede wat by die kurrikulurn betrokke is, te ondersoek. Die skool se hoof
VT oogmerk is om in leerlinge se behoeftes te voorsien en om die hoogste kwaliteit van onderwys moontlik te lewer. Sentraal tot die verwesenliking van hierdie oogmerk is dat skoolhoofde aan hul ondernemings 'n sin van samehorigheid en struktuur moet verskaf.
Dit kan nie deur 'n kurrikulumetos wat verkeerde leiding gee, behaal word nie. Die
kurrikulum vorm die fondasie van al die opvoedingsaktiwiteite en kan as die belangrikste onafhanklike veranderlike wat die doeltreffendheid van die skool bepaal, beskou word. Doeltreffende skole is moontlik waar daar 'n sterk kultuur vir skoolverbetering
teenwoordig is.
Die literatuur dui aan dat skoolhoofde deeglik oor die bestuur van die kurrikulum moet besin. Skoolhoofde moet die nodige kennis, vaardighede, houdings en waardes besit wat benodig word om die kurrikulum te bestuur. Dit is dan ook die oogmerk van hierdie proefskrif om riglyne vir 'n opleidings- en ontwilckelingsprogram vir skoolhoofde te
ontwerp wat hulle met die nodige kennis, vaardighede, houdings en waardes sal toerus sodat hulle die skoolkurrikulum doeltreffend en doelmatig sal bestuur.
Ten einde die kurrikulum doeltreffend te kan bestuur behoort skoolhoofde ten opsite van die volgende aspekte bevoegd te wees:
Daarstelling van 'n visie. Die daarstelling van 'n gesamentlike visie veroorsaak
interne beginselvastheid wat die skool die geleentheid gee om sy bronne op sleutel aktiwiteite en prosesse soos deur sy visie, missie en doelstellings uitgestippel is, toe te spits. Die daarstelling van 'n visie omvat sleutelelemente soos die skepping van
gesamentlike begrip, effektiewe kommunikasie en die bou van konsensus en gebondenheid.
Kurrikulumbeplanning. Kurrikulumbeplanning sorg dat sekere aktiwiteite en uitkomstes omskrywe en geoorloof word. Drie belangrike kurrikulumbeplannings- elemente is:
VII ❖ Kurrikulumkragte. Dit verwys na basiese oorwegings wat bestuurders, onderwysers en leerders rigting gee ten opsigte van relevante aangeleenthede tot kurrikulumbeplanning. Kurrikulumbesluite. Dit verwys na die keuses wat deur bestuurstrukture en skoolbeheerliggame gemaak word wat die eienskappe van die kurrikulum weerspieel.
Kurrikulumbestuursplanne. Dit verwys na die riglyne vir leergeleenthede wat deur die skool verskaf word en is insluitend van die organisering en instruksies van die spesifieke leerervarings wat in die behoeftes van al die leerders voorsien. Kurrikulumimplementering. Die proses van kurrikulumimplementering vereis 'n
wisselwerking tussen die skoolhoof en mense. Vier sleutelelemente wat benodig word om die kurrikulum doeltreffend te implementeer is organisering, delegering, koordinering en kontrolering. Hierdie prosesse is ontwerp om 'n bevorderlike
leeromgewing te skep en om die funksies van konsulterende en deelnemende bestuur te vergemaklik. Evaluering. Skoolhoofde behoort bewus te wees en ook verseker dat onderwysers en leerders vertroud is met die standaarde wat van hulle verwag word. Terselfdertyd moet onderwysers en leerders 'n groot verskeidenheid evalueringstelsels gebruik ten
einde die leerprogramme en aktiwiteite te evalueer.
Vervolgens is 'n gestrukureerde vraelys ontwerp om die persepsies van lede van die onderwysprofessie te verkry ten einde die belangrikheid van spesifieke bevoegdhede by skoolhoofde uit te wys om sodoende skole meer doeltreffend te kan bestuur. In hoofstuk vier word 'n beskrywing van die empiriese navorsing onderneem. Die response met betrekking tot die bestuur van opvoeders is vervolgens geanaliseer en bespreek.
Biografiese inligting wat moontlik die bevoegdhede van skoolhoofde ten opsigte van bestuur kon beinvloed is ook verkry. In hoofstuk vyf word die 100 items van die gestruktureerde vraelys aan twee opeenvolgende faktoranalitiese prosedures onderwerp.
VIII Die eerste orde faktoranalise het aangetoon dat doeltreffende bestuur op sewe onderliggende faktore gebaseer is, naamlik:
bevoegde deelnemendebestuur wat uit 36 items bestaan met 'n Cronbach-alpha- betroudbaarheidskoeffisient van 0,981;
bevoegde fasiliterendebestuur wat uit 36 items bestaan met 'n Cronbach-alpha- betroubaarheidskoeffisient van 0,973;
bevoegde kwaliteitbestuur wat uit 12 items bestaan met 'n Cronbach-alpha- betroubaarheidskoeffisient van 0,933;
bevoegde konsulterendebestuur wat 5 items bevat met 'n Cronbach-alpha- betroubaarheidskoeffisient van 0,817;
bevoegde finansielebestuur wat 5 items bevat met 'n Cronbach-alpha- betroubaarheidskoeffisient van 0,883;
bevoegde bronnebestuur wat 3 items bevat 'n Cronbach-alpha betroubaarheidskoeffisient van 0,732; en
bevoegde prestasiebestuur wat 3 items bevat met 'n Cronbach-alpha- betroubaarheidskoeffisient van 0,756.
Die sewe onderliggende faktore kan die basis vorm vir die evaluering van die belangrikheid van spesifieke bevoegdhede wat van skoolhoofde vereis word om skole doeltreffend to kan bestuur. Hierdie faktore kan verder tot twee kategorie gereduseer word, naamlik:
IX • Samewerkende (verhoudings-georienteerde) bevoegdheid
Bevoegde deelnemendebestuur, fasiliterendebestuur, konsulterendebestuur en kwaliteitsbestuur val almal in hierdie kategorie. Samewerkende bevoegdheid verwys na die interaksie tussen die bestuur, die onderwyser en die leerlinge. Skoolhoofde wat alle aandeelhouers (onderwysers en leerlinge) in besluite wat geneem moet word betrek ten opsigte van opvoedkundige belange het 'n groter kans om 'n skool doeltreffend to kan bestuur.
• Taakgeorieenteerde bevoegdheid
Bevoegde finansielebestuur, bronnebestuur en prestasiebestuur val almal in hierdie kategorie. Skoolhoofde behoort ook bevoeg te wees om hierdie take doeltreffend en suksesvol to kan uitvoer. Doeltreffende taakbestuur kan ook tot 'n doeltreffende skool aanleiding gee.
Die sewe faktore van die eerste— orde faktoranalise is as invoer vir die tweede orde prosedure gebruik. Hierdie sewe onderliggende faktore is weer tot net een faktor gereduseer naamlik:
Doeltreffende Bestuur. Dit het 'n Cronbach-alpha-betroubaarheidskoeffisient van 0,990 gehad.
Al die eerste-orde faktore was geldig met betroubaarheidskoeffisiente wat hoog genoeg was om die persepsies van opvoeders te bepaal ten opsigte van die belangrikheid van skoolhoofde se bevoegdheid in kurrikulumbestuur, bestuur van organisasiestrukture, die bestuur van finansiele en fisiese bronne en die bestuur van opvoeders.
Die faktoranalitiese prosedure is deur 'n reeks enkelveranderlike en meerveranderlike statistiese toetse opgevolg wat gedoen is om verskeie hipotese te toets ten opsigte van die persepsies van lede van die onderwysprofessie om die belangrikheid van doeltreffende bestuur te bepaal.
Op die enkelveranderlike vlak is twee onafhanklike groepe ondersoek om moontlike beduidende statistiese verskille deur die gebruik van die Student — t toets te verkry. Die verskille is verder deur middel van die analise van variansie (ANOVA) ondersoek. Waar beduidende statistiese verskille verkry is, is die verskillende pare deur middel van die Scheffe of die Dunnette T3 — toets met mekaar vergelyk.
Hotelling se T2 — toets is gebruik om moontlike verskille in die vektorgemiddeldes van die sewe faktore gesamentlik te bestudeer. Mits beduidende statistiese verskille op die meerveranderlike vlak gevind is wanneer twee onafhanklike groepe met mekaar vergelyk is, is daar verdere ondersoek deur middel van die Student — t toets ingestel. Vir twee of meer groepe is die meervoudige hipotese ondersoek deur gebruik te maak van meervoudige analise van variansie (MANOVA). Indien beduidende statistiese verskille op hierdie vlak verkry is, is die enkelvoudige verskille verder deur middel van ANOVA en die Dunnette T3 of Scheffe toetse ondersoek.
Die grondige literatuur ondersoek, tesame met die persepsies van die onderwysprofessie ten opsigte van die vraelyste en die hoe geldigheid en betroubaarheid van die vraelyste het daartoe bygedrae dat indringende bevindinge gemaak kon word. Hieruit het menige belanghebbende aanbevelings voortgevloei.
XI TABLE OF CONTENTS Acknowledgements HI Dedication IV Sinopsis V List of tables XVII List of figures XX
CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION
1.1 INTRODUCTION AND MOTIVATION 1
1.2 PROBLEM AND ITS SETTING 6 1.2.1 Motivation and background to the problem 6 1.2.2 Problem statement 7
1.3 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES 8
1.4 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 9
1.5 ASSUMPTIONS 10
1.6 CONCEPT CLARIFICATION 11 1.6.1 Competence 12 1.6.2 Competency 12 1.6.3 Training 13 1.6.4 Development 13 1.6.5 Management 14 1.6.6 Education management development 15 1.6.7 Principal 16 1.6.8 Educator 16 1.6.9 Organisational structure 17 1.6.10 Curriculum 18
1.7 EXPOSITION 19
1.8 SUMMARY 19
CHAPTER TWO KEY COMPETENCIES FOR EFFECTIVE SCHOOL MANAGEMENT
2.1 INTRODUCTION 21
2.2 COMPETENCE APPROACH AND COMPETENCY 22 APPROACH TO EFFECTIVE SCHOOL MANAGEMENT 2.2.1 Clarification of the concepts of "competence" and 24
XII "competency" 2.2.2 The competency approach to effective school 26 management 2.2.2.1 Competencies necessary in managing the curriculum 28 2.2.3 Competence approach for effective school management 39 2.2.4 A model for effective school management 42
2.3 GUIDELINES FOR EFFECTIVE TRAINING AND 49 DEVELOPMENT 2.3.1 The importance of designing training and development 51 programmes 2.3.2 Training 52 2.3.2.1 Reasons for training 52 2.3.2.2 Methods of training 53 2.3.2.3 Job descriptions 55 2.3.3 Management development 55 2.3.3.1 Development policy 56 2.3.3.2 Course content 57 2.3.3.3 Mutual support groups for principals 58 2.3.3.4 Summary: Developing training objectives 59
2.4 KEY COMPETENCIES FOR EFFECTIVE SCHOOL 62 MANAGEMENT
2.5 DEVELOPING A SYSTEMS MODEL FOR 72 EFFECTIVE SCHOOL MANAGEMENT 2.5.1 Management of the curriculum 72 2.5.2 Management of organisational structures 73 2.5.3 Management of human resources 73 2.5.4 Management of financial and physical resources 74 2.5.5 The inter-relationship of the major key components of 74 managing the school
2.6 SUMMARY 77
CHAPTER THREE MANAGING THE CURRICULUM
3.1 INTRODUCTION 79
3.2 CURRICULUM INTERPRETATION 80
3.3 MODEL FOR CURRICULUM MANAGEMENT 84 3.3.1 Vision building 93 3.3.1.1 Creating a vision 94 3.3.1.2 Communicating a vision 97 3.3.1.3 Reaching consensus and commitment 98 3.3.2 Curriculum planning 100
XIII 3.3.2.1 Curriculum forces 101 3.3.2.1.1 Implications for schools in South Africa 104 3.3.2.2 Curriculum decisions 109 3.3.2.3 Curriculum management plans 115 3.3.3 Curriculum implementation 119 3.3.3.1 Organising as a management task 123 3.3.3.1.1 Creating an organisational structure 123 3.3.3.2 Delegation 127 3.3.3.3 Co-ordinating 129 3.3.3.4 Control 132 3.3.4 Evaluation as a management task 135 3.3.4.1 Curriculum evaluation 137 3.3.4.2 Teacher evaluation 142 3.3.4.3 Student evaluation 147
3.4 SUMMARY: KEY ELEMENTS IN MANAGING THE 152 CURRICULUM
CHAPTER FOUR DESIGN OF THE RESEARCH INSTRUMENT AND EMPIRICAL INVESTIGATION
4.1 INTRODUCTION 156
4.2 RESEARCH DESIGN 157 4.2.1 The purpose of quantitative research 157 4.2.2 The relationship of the research to the subject 158
4.3 THE INSTRUMENT OF RESEARCH 158 4.3.1 The design of the questionnaire 158 4.3.2 Discussion of competent participative management as an 162 aspect of the management of the curriculum 4.3.3 Discussion of competent facilitative management as an 177 aspect of curriculum management 4.3.4 Discussion of competent quality management as an aspect 184 of the management of the curriculum
4.4 THE EMPIRICAL INVESTIGATION 193 4.4.1 Respondents 193 4.4.2 Biographical details 193 4.4.3 The research group 194 4.4.4 Return of questionnaires 195
4.5 SUMMARY 195
XIV CHAPTER FIVE THE ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION OF A SELECTED SAMPLE OF THE EMPIRICAL DATA
5.1 INTRODUCTION 196
5.2 RELIABILITY AND VALIDITY 197
5.3 HYPOTHESES 203 5.3.1 Comparison of two independent groups 203 5.3.1.1 Differences between the opinions of female and males 204 relative to effective management 5.3.1.2 Difference between the opinions of the respondents 206 concerning the gender of their principals relative to effective management 5.3.2 Comparison of three or more independent groups 207 5.3.2.1 Differences between the opinions of respondents based on 208 their mother tongue relative to effective management 5.3.2.2 Differences between the opinions of respondents based on 212 their age groups relative to effective management 5.3.2.3 Differences between the opinions of respondents based on 215 their teaching experience relative to effective management 5.3.2.4 Differences between the opinions of respondents based on 218 the experience of principals relative to effective management 5.3.2.5 Differences between the opinions of the respondents 221 based on the qualifications .of the respondents relative to effective management 5.3.2.6 Differences between the opinions of the respondents 224 based on the religious beliefs of the respondents relative to effective management 5.3.2.7 Differences between the opinions of respondents based on 226 language of instruction of the respondents relative to effective management 5.3.2.8 Differences between the opinions of the respondents 229 based on their marital status relative to effective management 5.3.2.9 Differences between the opinions of the respondents 231 based on the type of school relative to effective management 5.3.2.10 Differences between the opinions of the respondents 234 based on their post levels relative to effective management
5.4 DISCUSSION OF THE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN 237 THE FACTOR MEAN SCORES OF THE SEVEN FIRST ORDER FACTORS 5.4.1 Hypotheses 237 5.4.1.1 Comparison of two independent groups 237 5.4.1.2 Comparison of one of the three or more independent 243 groups
5.5 AN OVERVIEW OF THE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN 250 THE OTHER FACTOR MEAN SCORES IN TABLE 5.29
5.6 SUMMARY 263
CHAPTER SIX SUMMARY, FINDINGS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
6.1 INTRODUCTION 267
6.2 SUMMARY 268
6.3 FINDINGS 274 6.3.1 Findings from the literature in respect of the development 275 and training of principals in the management of the curriculum 6.3.2 Findings from the empirical analysis in respect of the 276 training and development of principals in the effective management of schools
6.4 RECOMMENDATIONS 282
6.5 CONCLUSION 289
BIBLIOGRAPHY 291 LIST OF TABLES
TABLE 1.1 Analysis of National matriculation results for 1996/97 2 TABLE 1.2 Gauteng Department of Education: Senior Certificate 2 results 1997 TABLE 2.1 Principal competencies for specific tasks 28 TABLE 2.2 Skill dimension of the NASSP principals assessment 31 centre TABLE 2.3 Information seeking as a competency 34 TABLE 2.4 Outline in comparison of competence and competency 44 processes TABLE 2.5 Management tasks 71 TABLE 3.1 82 Curriculum interpretations over a period of time TABLE 3.2 Key components of curriculum management 92 TABLE 3.3 Key elements of curriculum management planning 101 TABLE 3.4 Examples of data for curriculum decisions 113 TABLE 3.5 Criteria for curriculum decisions 114 TABLE 3.6 Illustration of a simple curriculum management plan 117 TABLE 3.7 Curriculum management plan for numeracy and 118 mathematics TABLE 3.8 Key elements of curriculum implementation 122 TABLE 3.9 Basic characteristics of some organisational structures 125 TABLE 3.10 Co-ordination of curriculum at various levels of the 131 school TABLE 3.11 Different forms of evaluation 140 Checklist of competencies for effective curriculum 141 TABLE 3.12 TABLE 3.13 Illustration of a teacher appraisal instrument 146 TABLE 3.14 148 Characteristics of different types of assessments TABLE 3.15 Relationship between specific outcomes, assessment 151 criteria, range statements and performance indicators TABLE 4.1 Items associated with the management of the curriculum 160 arranged in rank order TABLE 4.2 Distribution of responses for the management of the 161 curriculum TABLE 5.1 Hypotheses with male and female respondents as the 204 independent variable TABLE 5.2 Significance of difference between males and females 204 regarding effective management TABLE 5.3 Hypotheses with gender of principals in school as the 206 independent variable TABLE 5.4 Significance of difference between males and females 206 regarding effective management TABLE 5.5 Hypotheses with mother tongue as the independent 208 variable TABLE 5.6 Significance of difference between the mother tongue of 209 respondence regarding effective management TABLE 5.7 Hypotheses with age group as the independent variable 212
XVII TABLE 5.8 Significance of difference between age groups of 213 respondents regarding effective management TABLE 5.9 Hypotheses with teaching experience the independent 215 variable TABLE 5.10 Significance of difference between teaching experience of 216 respondents regarding effective management TABLE 5.11 Hypotheses with years as principal as the independent 218 variable TABLE 5.12 Significance of difference between experience of 219 respondents regarding effective management TABLE 5.13 Hypotheses with qualification as the independent variable 221 TABLE 5.14 Significance of difference between qualifications of 222 respondents regarding effective management TABLE 5.15 Hypotheses with religion as the independent variable 224 TABLE 5.16 Significance of difference between different religious 225 groups regarding effective management TABLE 5.17 Hypotheses with language of instruction as the 226 independent variable TABLE 5.18 Significance of difference between language of 227 instruction regarding effective management TABLE 5.19 Hypotheses with marital status as the independent 229 variable TABLE 5.20 Significance of difference between marital status 230 regarding effective management TABLE 5.21 Hypotheses with type of school as the independent 231 variable TABLE 5.22 Significance of difference between type of school 232 regarding effective management TABLE 5.23 Hypotheses with post level as the independent variable 234 TABLE 5.24 Significance of difference between post levels regarding 235 effective management TABLE 5.25 Hypotheses with male and female respondents as the 238 independent variable TABLE 5.26 Significance of difference between males and females 240 regarding effective management TABLE 5.27 Hypotheses with mother tongue respondents as the 244 independent variable TABLE 5.28 Significance of difference between mother tongue groups 245 in respect of the seven factors TABLE 5.29 Factor mean scores of the other independent groups in 256 respect of the seven first order factors
XVIII LIST OF FIGURES
FIGURE 2.1 State of equilibrium: demands and skills 35 FIGURE 2.2 A model for effective job performance 36 FIGURE 2.3 The iceberg model of competency 38 FIGURE 2.4 Key roles in the competence approach to management 41 FIGURE 2.5 Essential difference between the competence and the 43 competency approach to management FIGURE 2.6 A framework for conceptualising competencies 46 FIGURE 2.7 A competent principal seen as a continuum of 47 competencies FIGURE 2.8 A competent principal seen as a continuum of 48 competencies for managing the curriculum FIGURE 2.9 Competency-based management matrix model for 60 training and development FIGURE 2.10 Holistic approach to education management development 67 FIGURE 2.11 Systems approach for effective management of the school 75 FIGURE 3.1 Cyclic model for effective management of the curriculum 91 FIGURE 3.2 Influence of curriculum forces for schools in South Africa 108 FIGURE 3.3 Decision making structure for facilitating curriculum 111 management plan FIGURE 3.4 Critical relationship for curriculum effectiveness 120 FIGURE 3.5 Context for developing a curriculum effectiveness model 121 FIGURE 3.6 Simplified structure for effective curriculum 126 implementation FIGURE 3.7 Interaction between planning and control 133 FIGURE 3.8 Simplified model of evaluation within the context of 137 curriculum design and delivery FIGURE 3.9 Curriculum evaluation framework 138 FIGURE 5.1 Managerial grid 202
XIX CHAPTER ONE
1.1 INTRODUCTION AND MOTIVATION
The Constitution of the Republic of South Africa, 1996 (RSA, 1996(a): 14) requires that school education be transformed and democratised in accordance with fundamental values and principles. These include human dignity, non-racism, non sexism, the rule of law, accountability and transparency. The democratisation of education includes participation by parents, educators, learners and the community at large. The Governing bodies are also expected to make critical decisions on behalf of the school and to ensure that the school is managed and administered effectively and efficiently.
The provisions of the Department of Education's White Paper 1 and 2 (RSA, 1996(b)), the report of the Review Committee on School Organisation, Governance and Funding, new legislation including the South African School Act (SASA) of 1996(RSA, 1996(c)) as well as provincial policy directions point South Africa firmly towards a decentralised school based system of education management and governance with substantial decision making authority at the school level. However, while the policy framework attempts to transform education, the legacy of the past education system characterized by fragmentation and inequity in provisions, a crisis of legitimacy in many schools, the demise of a culture of learning and teaching, the relevancy of the curriculum as well as resistance to change has created substantial managerial problems at schools leading to a deterioration in the standard of education. According to Ramphele (1997:25) attempts by the government to transform the inequitable and inadequate schooling system is characterised by a failure to translate good policies into sound practice. This is further confirmed by the poor matric results of the past two years. Table 1.1 (Perkins, 1998:11) and Table 1.2 (Gauteng Department of Education, 1998:37) reflect the poor state of education in South Africa.
1 TABLE 1.1
ANALYSIS OF NATIONAL MATRICULATION RESULTS FOR 1997
PROVINCE 1996 PASS RATE 1997 PASS RATE CHANGE % % 0/0 Western Cape 80,4 76,3 -04,1 Northern Cape 69,9 63,7 -06,2 Mpumulanga 50,9 45,7 -05,2 Kwazulu Natal 61,7 54,0 -07,7 Gauteng 55,6 51,5 -04,1 North West 66,0 50,0 -16,0 Eastern Cape 49,7 46,0 -03,7 Free State 51,1 42,3 -08,8 Northern Province 37,0 31,8 -05,2 TOTAL 54,7 47,1 -07,6
Table 1.1: Table reflecting the pass rate for the senior certificate examination in the nine provinces in South Africa (Perkins, 1998: 11)
TABLE 1.2 GAUTENG DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION : SENIOR CERTIFICATE RESULTS 1997 % OBTAINED % OBTAINED SENIOR % FAIL UNIVERSITY CERTIFICATE PASS EXEMPTION PASS
47% 18% 35%
Table 1.2: Senior certificate examination results for Gauteng Department of Education-1997
2 Various journalists and educationists offered reasons and possible solutions to the crisis in education. Naidu (1998:17) in his article "What went wrong in our schools" reports that in the light of the dismal 1997 matriculation results, educationists and critics agree that urgent steps must be taken to avert a repetition and they have all criticised the legacy of Bantu Education, misdirected Government policies, lazy teachers, apathetic pupils, irrelevant curriculum and uninvolved parents for the poor performance.
According to a survey of some of the Country's top schools carried out by Powers and Woodgate (1998:17) hard work, good management, motivated staff and small classes all contribute to success of schools in turning out "star matriculants". Crawford College, Johannesburg, which in 1997 broke all its previous records, has attained top results for the fifth consecutive year. It attributes its success to a combination of handpicked teachers, dynamic leadership and keen pupils. Orange Farm Secondary School in the informal settlement on the southern outskirts of Johannesburg also obtained excellent results. It attributes its success to a combination of hard-working educators and learners and effective leadership.
Calitz (1998:14) executive officer of the South African Certification Board (SAFCERT) attributes the poor results to inadequate resources, low standards of teaching, ineffective management, poor discipline and low morale among educators and learners.
The South African Council of Educators (SACE) Chief Executive Officer, Reg Brijraj, said factors which could be responsible for poor results included a breakdown of professionalism by principals and educators, lack of resources at schools and possible apathetic attitudes towards education by learners and their communities (Naidu: 1998:17).
3 In an article "Top principals make top schools", Matseke (1998: 1) focused on the crucial role of the principal in the learning and teaching process. Effective and collaborative leadership is vital to focus attention on key managerial aspects and direct the resources of the school to achieve success. People in leadership positions have to think about what they should do to improve their lot. Naidu (1998:17) reports that the Northern Province provincial education MEC, Dr Joe Phoahla emphasised that management structures needed to be reviewed and all vacant principal posts, currently occupied by acting incumbents, should be filled as soon as possible. The article concludes with the need to train and develop both the existing and also the newly appointed principals to effectively manage organisational structures and other facets of the education management development so that improvements in the quality of learning takes place.
It is evident from the above discussion that the major areas of concern in the schooling system include the following:
poor management of schools; lack of resources; lack of commitment and dedication by learners and educators; the effects of apartheid legacy and a crisis of legitimacy; uninvolved parents; misdirected government policies; and the demise of a culture of learning and teaching.
In addressing the above issues, improving the effectiveness of school management remains one of the fundamental concerns. Perhaps one of the major changes for the principals of schools according to Sybouts and Wendel (1994: 2) has been the range of expectations placed on the position. The expectations have moved from demands of management and control to the demands for an educational leader who can foster and promote staff development, effective organisational structures, parental involvement, community support and student growth in order to succeed with these major changes and
4 expectations. Developing principals and providing them with the necessary skills and competencies becomes increasingly important as the dynamic and changing culture becomes increasingly difficult. Therefore the training and development of principals can be considered as the strategically most important process to transform education successfully.
This research therefore is concerned with the need to design training and development programmes for principals to manage schools effectively. The task of being a principal or any other educational manager is demanding, requiring energy, drive and many personal qualities. Principals, involved in the day to day management of their schools need to take time to reflect on their personal growth as leaders and managers. Preliminary research among a cross section of principals through questionnaires and various authorities in Educational Management including Poster (1981: 186); Godden, Buckland, Coombe, Dladla, Madisha, Mahanjana„ Thurlow, Ngcongo and Mclennan (1996: 36) and John (1983: 66) reveal, amongst others the following four key components to manage schools effectively namely:
Management of organisational structures. Management of the curriculum. Management of financial and other resources. Management of educators.
This particular research project focuses on the training and development of principals in the management of the curriculum. To be an effective school principal, this particular research project makes the assertion that one must have the skills, abilities, knowledge and attitudes to successfully manage the curriculum.
Having orientated the reader to the particular field of research, the motivation and background to the problem will now be discussed.
5 1.2 PROBLEM AND ITS SETTING
1.2.1 MOTIVATION AND BACKGROUND TO THE PROBLEM
The issues and debates in the previous section highlighted the major changes and range of expectations that a school principal in the South African context needs to cope with in managing schools effectively. South Africa is not the only country, which is grappling with such educational issues. According to Whitaker and Moses (1994:xi), the American education system is also at a turning point. An array of problem issues, criticisms and expectations has arisen, making schools more difficult to lead and to manage than ever before. Recurring budget shortfalls, the complex needs of learners and the cry for higher standards and achievement are only a few of the daily realities that principals face.
The difficulties of executing these managerial tasks are further compounded by the following:
A lack of capacity to handle multifaceted tasks including: democratising school governance; building learning programmes that include basic skills such as reading and writing; chairing of meetings; handling of bigger classes; controlling discipline; handling multilingual instruction; higher pupil/teacher ratios; establishment of effective communication; delegating tasks; a lack of accountability; a lack of managerial skills in conflict handling; handling dispute resolutions; handling labour issues; and
6 • lack of training in a host of other interrelated tasks.
The introduction of a new curriculum philosophy of outcome based education(OBE) with very little training and development afforded to educational management.
The lack of financial skills leading to massive corruption and financial mismanagement.
The results of the above problems and difficulties have resulted in:
low morale amongst teachers and managers; lack of trust and respect; lower productivity; lack of commitment; the absence of a culture of teaching and learning; a lack of effectiveness and efficiency; poor understanding of transformative issues as they relate to organisational development; massive movement of children from the townships to urban schools; a lack of confidence by parents in the schooling system; the lowering of standards; the mushrooming of private schools; and a mass exodus of highly skilled managers.
Having introduced and motivated the problem of this research, it is now necessary to state the problem in a more precise way.
1.2.2 PROBLEM STATEMENT
In view of the preceding information, it appears as if the research problem can be encapsulated by means of the following questions:
7 Which management competencies are necessary for the training and development of effective principals?
Which curriculum management competencies are necessary for the effective training and development of principals?
What is the perception of principals and educators in respect of the importance of effective management of the curriculum as an aspect of the training and development of competent principals?
What guidelines are necessary in order to develop a programme to train principals in the effective management of the curriculum as an aspect of the training and development of effective principals?
Having demarcated the research problem it is now necessary to state the aim of this research project.
1.3 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES
In view of the problems formulated above, the general aim of this research project is to:
Investigate the competencies necessary for the training and development of effective principals.
In order to achieve the general aim of this project the following serve as specific aims, namely to:
determine the competencies necessary to manage the curriculum effectively as an aspect of the training and development of principals;
8 ascertain the perception of principals and educators as to the importance of the effective management of the curriculum in the training and development of competent principals;
devise guidelines on developing a training and development model for principals in respect of the effective management of the curriculum as an aspect of the training and development of effective principals.
In view of the preceding problems and aim statements, the methods envisaged to research the problem training and development of principals in the effective management of the curriculum, will now be discussed.
1.4 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
The aim of this research is directed at describing principal competence with specific reference to the training and development of effective principals.
A literature survey will be used to elucidate principal competence in the South African context and how international studies could assist with the training and development of programmes so that national and international norms could be established for the effective and efficient management of the curriculum. More specifically, this thesis will concentrate on the effective management of the curriculum as an aspect of the training and development of effective principals.
To supplement the preceding literature survey an empirical study will be undertaken. A structured questionnaire will be compiled using the literature research as a basis in an effort to obtain teacher and principal opinion regarding the management of the curriculum as a facet of the development and training of effective principals. An analysis of the results of the questionnaire will be undertaken and a strategic training and development programme will be structured to support principals in managing the curriculum effectively.
9 Having discussed the research strategy a set of assumptions is made to develop a framework for the research.
1.5 ASSUMPTIONS
In order to establish the competencies required by principals and to devise training and development programmes for the effective management of the curriculum the following assumptions are made:
The school is the primary unit of change.
Significant change in educational practice takes considerable time and is the result of long range management development programmes of three to five years.
A positive, healthy school climate that includes trust, open communication, and peer support for changes in practice is essential for successful management development programmes.
People are motivated if they believe in what they are doing. It leads to better decision making, clearer communication, greater ease in delegation with the benefit of a lower need for supervision.
People find it easier to work together and to respect each other if there is greater co- operation and trust.
Those who are changing their behaviours must make personal group commitments to the new practice so that they will want to participate and learn from in-service activities.
The principal is the key to facilitating improvement in the school.
10 As adult learners, principals are motivated to learn when individual differences are recognised and when principals have some control over what and how they learn.
Members of the teaching profession when completing the questionnaire will give their true opinion and not provide answers they expect the researcher will want from them.
A strong mission statement exists when the links between the behaviour, strategy, values and purpose are clear and reinforcing, for example "It is the mission of this school to provide excellent and relevant education to our learners by educators working to the highest professional standards using knowledge, skills and attitudes that exemplify dedication and excellence in the belief that all people are valuable, capable and responsible" (Grobler, 1993: 8).
Having made the necessary assumptions, key concepts that form the focus of this research, will be clarified.
1.6 CONCEPT CLARIFICATION
Sallis (1993: 21) supports the idea that it is necessary to have a clear understanding of concepts as they may imply different things in different contexts to different people. The following concepts will be clarified:
11 1.6.1 COMPETENCE
Competence can be defined as:
The ability or skill of a person in fulfilling the professional role effectively and/or expertly (Bartlett, 1991:3); and
The possession and development of sufficient skills, knowledge, appropriate attitudes and experience for successful performance (Hyland, 1994:22-23).
Views on principal competence generally vary according to fundamental values and principles. In some instances it is related to occupational roles while for others it focuses on routine aspects of work activity. Burke (1990:12) argues that competence is based on specific activities and skills that are required to perform within an occupational area. Schemerhorn, Hunt and Osborn (1994:17) considers an effective manager as one who operates with great concern for productivity, a summative measure of the quantity and quality of work performance achieved, which also takes resource utilization into account. This concept will receive greater attention in Chapter 2.
1.6.2 COMPETENCY
According to Meyer (1996: 34) competency is the integration of knowledge, skill and value orientation, demonstrated to a defined standard in a specific context. Competencies are the underlying characteristics that enable managers to perform a job better in more situations, move often with better results. Competencies are therefore factors that distinguish the best from the rest. They are not the tasks of the job but what enables people to perform the tasks (Trotter and Ellison, 1997: 36). This concept will be further clarified in Chapter 2.
12 1.6.3 TRAINING
According to Oxford Universal Dictionary (Hawkins, 1981: 756), and The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Current English (Fowler and Fowler, 1990: 1136) training is described as a desired standard of efficiency and as a series of connected events or ideas or actions to teach and give practice in a skill or profession.
Training is a learning process that involves the acquisition of skills, concepts, rules or attitudes to increase the performance of employees (Byars and Rue, 1994:216). Training includes instruction, teaching, tuition, grounding, coaching, drilling, discipline, direction, guidance, initiation ,learning, information and skills (Urdang, 1986:1243).
Training, for the purpose of this research, refers to a deliberate effort to develop and teach specific skills, knowledge and attitudes in principals so that they can manage schools effectively.
This aspect will be discussed in greater detail in Chapter 2.
1.6.4 DEVELOPMENT
Kirkpatrick (1990 : 398), Gerber, van Dyk and Nel (1997: 503-507) and Urdang (1986: 287) describe development as growth, increasing skill level, maturity, unfolding, blossoming, improvement, build-up, uplift, betterment, transformation, strengthening, making progress, advancement, and evolvement.
The researcher is thus in agreement with Fidler and Cooper (1992: 193) who states that development goals consist of the following:
to counsel and coach principals so that they will improve their performance and develop future potential; to develop commitment to the organisation through discussion and planning;
13 to motivate principals through recognition of achievements and support; to strengthen principal/educator relations; and to diagnose individual and organisational problems.
Everard and Morris (1996:xi) states that the direction of principal development must be towards greater understanding and competence. Thus, while it may be appropriate for a programme to include the acquisition of techniques or skills, or the learning of data, it must lead to a higher level of intellectual and creative performance.
From the above it can be inferred that development is future-oriented. The process of development is primarily concerned with helping principals to acquire and improve the competencies necessary to manage schools effectively.
This concept will be discussed in greater detail in Chapter 2.
1.6.5 MANAGEMENT
Management in its broadest sense is about:
setting direction, aims and objectives; planning how progress will be made or a goal achieved; organizing available resources (people, time, materials) so that the goal can be economically achieved in the planned way; controlling the process (measuring achievement against predetermined plans and taking corrective action where appropriate); and setting and improving organizational standards (Everard and Morris, 1996:4).
The researcher therefore takes the view, as expounded by Everard and Morris (1996:xi), that a principal may be considered as one who:
knows what he or she wants to happen and causes it to happen;
14 is responsible for controlling resources and ensuring that they are put to good use; promotes effectiveness in work done, and searches for continual improvement; is accountable for the performance of the unit he or she is managing, of which he or she is a part; and sets a climate or tone conducive to enabling people to give of their best.
Bush (1995: 1) quotes Cuthbert's defininion of management as an activity involving responsibility for getting things done through other people.
Everard and Morris (1996: xii) conclude that effective school management is an approach that supports, promotes and is harmoniously related to the development of the organization.
1.6.6 EDUCATION MANAGEMENT DEVELOPMENT
According to the Report of the Task Team on Educational Management Development as initiated by Professor Bengu, Minister of National Education in South Africa (Godden et al., 1996: 27) education management development means more than training school principals. It means considering the organizational framework for education and the management ethos and style, which should characterize a school based system of education management. It combines education training and support in the context of organizational development of structures, staff development and curriculum development with the aim of improving the quality of teaching and learning.
Further Education Management Development is directed at creating an environment for effective teaching and learning and to improve performance according to the following three criteria (Godden et al., 1996:37):
Effectiveness: achieving the objectives of the school; Efficiency: improving performance and equivalents at lower cost; using resources to the best effect.
15 • Relevance: sustaining the ability to learn and adapt.
According to Gerber et al. (1997: 505) and van der Westhuizen (1994: 256) management development should be a continuous process of goal — directed exposure to various inputs which will give principals the necessary knowledge, skills and attitudes to execute their managerial tasks effectively and achieve their organisation's objectives.
1.6.7. PRINCIPAL
According to Fowler and Fowler (1990: 817) a principal is defined as the principal educator in charge of a school. Shah (1990: 24) describes a principal as one who is at the helm of affairs of the school. The principal administers and supervises the entire school operation including the physical plant, equipment and teaching resources, staff, pupils and instruction programme.
In this research, reference is made to a principal as being a person who is responsible and accountable for the management of the school. The terms head, leader, manager and principal are used synonymously in this research.
1.6.8 EDUCATOR
According to South African Council of Educators (SACE) in its CODE OF CONDUCT an educator is defined as any person who teaches, educates or trains other persons or provides professional therapy at any school, technical college or college of education or assists in rendering professional services provided by or in a department of education, and whose employment is regulated by the Educators' Employment Act (RSA, 1994) and any other person registered with the Council. In this research the terms teacher and educator will be used interchangeably.
16 It is the task of principals to manage team leaders and members effectively, that is, ensuring that work gets done properly and on time and also developing their skill by ensuring that opportunities are created to improve the quality of their work.
1.6.9 ORGANISATIONAL STRUCTURES
Godden et al. (1996:42) describes organizational structures, as the way in which duties and responsibilities are divided among organizations and institutions in the system, and among units and individuals within each institution and organization.
According to Everard and Morris (1996:150) an organization's structure embraces the organization chart, the committees, the departments, the roles, the hierarchical levels and authority, the procedures in the staff manual, the time table, and so forth.
Organizational structures establish predictable patterns of relationships among people by dividing work into distinct tasks and by coordinating the activities of their members. Organizations exert strong influence on the behaviour and attitudes of their members and on the ways in which they perform their work. Thus, the structure of an organization should be designed to allow groups of people to achieve their goals efficiently and effectively and to respond to changes in the environment in which they are working (Rondinelli, Middleton and Verspoor, 1990:119).
Structures are reflected in organization charts that show the formal relationships among units and people, the division of labour into tasks, the distribution of authority, the roles and jobs of individual members, lines of responsibility, and formal patterns of communication (Rondinelli et al.,1990: 119).
According to Basson (1991:74) the following structures exist in the school:
• task or functional structures
17 Educational structures (Compare the school time-table, extra curricular programme) Administrative structures Maintenance structures post structures authority structure responsibility structure communication structure management structure Leadership structure Authority structure Control structure remuneration structure.
1.6.10 CURRICULUM
Decisions about the curriculum content of a learning programme must necessarily be made in the context of related policy decisions. Hence they must be made in the context of the social, political and economic situations which exist in each country. According to Hills (1982: 72-80) curriculum refers to the learning of tasks set, their coherence and balance in the total school programme which in turn depends on the teaching values and goals which is further linked to the process of evaluation. The above statement not only reflects the dynamic link between the various components of the curriculum but also on the quality and values inherent in the curriculum. A significant contribution in this regard is Wiles and Bondi (1993: 31-32) who see curriculum as a set of values which are activated through a development process under the control of the school for the learners' continuous growth in personal and social competence.
Managing the curriculum is therefore directed at:
enhancing the achievement of learners;
18 improving the effectiveness of the school; and managing development and change.
The exposition of the remaining five chapters will now follow.
1.7 EXPOSITION
Having clarified the key concepts used in this research the following is an outline of the study to be pursued:
Chapter Two: The Competence / Competency Approach to effective school management and a systems approach will be developed. Guidelines for designing training and development programmes will be provided.
Chapter Three: A literature survey on principal competence in the effective management of the curriculum will be conducted.
Chapter Four: The research design, development of the research instrument and sampling will be discussed.
Chapter Five: The findings will be tabulated, analyzed and interpreted.
Chapter Six: A summary and conclusion on the findings, recommendation and reflections on the research will be done.
1.8 SUMMARY
In this chapter the critical role of the principal in managing schools was discussed. In order to promote effective management of schools it is necessary to identify the competencies required by principals to manage this process. Key components, which have been identified, include:
19 Management of the curriculum Management of organisational structures. Management of financial and physical resources. Management of educators.
The problem as perceived by principals and key persons in education that were responsible for a breakdown in the schooling system was highlighted. These included:
poor management of schools; lack of resources; lack of commitment and dedication by learners and educators; the effects of apartheid legacy and a crisis of legitimacy; uninvolved parents; misdirected government policies; and the demise of a culture of learning and teaching.
The aim of this research project was formulated. It is directed at establishing the competencies required by principals to effectively manage schools, and devising training and development programmes for the effective management of the curriculum. The training and development will be founded on the perceptions of principals and educators as to what effective school management is.
The research methodology is outlined and key concepts including training, development, competence, competencies, management, education management development, principal, educators, curriculum and organisational structures were clarified. In chapter two a competence / competency approach to effective management and a system approach model will be developed. Guidelines in designing a training and development programme to manage the curriculum effectively will also be provided.
20 CHAPTER TWO KEY COMPETENCIES FOR EFFECTIVE SCHOOL MANAGEMENT
2.1 INTRODUCTION
The first chapter of this research provides a background and motivation for the study of training and developing principals to manage the curriculum as one of the aspects of principals' competence to manage schools effectively.
The researcher will develop an approach for effective school management so that a basis can be found to support the research. In order to do this it is essential to clarify the terms competence and competencies which will place the present project into perspective and provide direction to the research. It will also assist the researcher in developing a conceptual framework that will enable him to collect, examine and analyse data. It is the intention of the researcher to develop guidelines for a training and development model for principals to manage the curriculum effectively.
In this chapter the following aspects will be addressed:
clarifiying the competence and competency approach for effective school management;
developing a model for effective school management;
designing a training and development model for principals to manage schools effectively; and
developing a systems model for effective school management.
In developing an approach for effective school management, the two main approaches namely, the competency and competence approaches will now be discussed.
21 2.2 COMPETENCE APPROACH AND COMPETENCY APPROACH TO EFFECTIVE SCHOOL MANAGEMENT
According to Squelch and Lemmer (1994:vii) the education system as a whole has been affected by the changes taking place in society. South African schools have in turn become sites for radical change. This has resulted in concerns by communities across the country for quality education and the urgency to improve the overall learner achievement. School principals are faced with situations in which effective and efficient school management requires new and improved skills, knowledge, attitudes and values to cope with a wide range of new demands and challenges. In the South African education system, these include, amongst others:
restoring the culture of teaching and learning where it does not exist and sustaining and encouraging it in schools where it does exist;
improving and maintaining high standards of education;
reshaping the curriculum to handle outcome based education(OBE) and the new system of assessments;
working more closely with parents and stakeholders and teacher unions;
coping with multicultural populations;
managing change and conflict;
coping with limited resources; and
being more accountable to the community they serve.
22 In the quest for quality education, competent principals are urgently needed to manage effectively such increasingly complex and heterogeneous tasks.
According to Trotter and Ellison (1997:2-3), while school management effectiveness has been researched over several decades across many countries, the interest in management competence in education is relatively recent. Past managerial competence went hand in hand with the possession of specific skills, abilities and knowledge. However, the complexity of school management in the present context, demands far more from these principals. It rests on the development of attitudes, values and "mindsets" that allow principals to confront, understand and deal with a wide range of forces from within and outside the school environment (Trotter and Ellison, 1997:38).
According to Edmonds (1992:206) the term "managerial competence" means many different things to many different people. One approach to competence is the ability to perform activities within an occupational area to the standards expected in employment. On closer inspection, this imperative breaks down into two major components:
What is reasonable to expect from principals? What reasonable ranges of situations are principals expected to be able to deal with?
Another approach to principal competence is to describe the characteristics of successful principals. Edmonds (1992: 206) describes this approach in terms of three dimensions, namely, what, where and how.
The 'what' dimension focuses essentially on those tasks for which a principal is responsible. Principals are likely to have as their primary responsibility the delivery of quality education. In order to do this they will have to manage educators, curriculum, structures and resources.
23 The 'where' dimension refers to the school environment in which managerial activities are performed to realise quality education.
The 'how' dimension refers to the principal who is responsible for performing specific activities for effective schooling.
In developing an understanding of the skills, knowledge, values and attitudes needed by principals to manage schools effectively, Ouston (1993:213) and Eraut (1994:179) concur with Edmonds (1992:206) when they researched two approaches used for education management, namely the :
competency approach to effective management; and
competence approach to effective management.
Detailed clarification on these two main approaches will now follow.
2.2.1 CLARIFICATION OF THE CONCEPTS OF "COMPETENCE" AND "COMPETENCY"
Various authors use the words competence and competency interchangeably. There are spelling variations that may provide a clue to the origin of a competence or competency model. According to Esp (1993: 18) and Trotter and Ellison (1997:39), the American based models speak of competency and competencies. In the United Kingdom educationists and authors use the term competence and competences.
It is however necessary to clarify the concept 'competence' and 'competency' in order to establish what skills, knowledge, attitudes and values are required by principals to manage schools effectively and efficiently.
24 According to Meyer (1996: 32) competence or competency is essentially an abstract concept. It can be defined and measured only through behaviour or performance. Hence constructs or attributes• such as drive, conceptual reasoning and flexibility are inferred from behaviour. In the context of work the problem becomes one of validity. In other words, how do we know that the various constructs in fact contribute to or are a prerequisite for required performance?
Constructs are abstract, which means that they themselves cannot be observed. So how does one research applied constructs? Constructs are constructed out of observations in the first place, which means that the observations are related to the constructs in some meaningful way. We use our empirical observations to provide information about the invisible constructs. When we measuring a concrete property, such as length, we can directly measure the property itself with a universally standardised measuring instrument. When measuring any abstract property, such as the construct of 'competence', we must measure the empirical observations that relate to the construct. That is, we cannot directly measure competence. We must measure the behaviours that we believe are related to competence (Reaves, 1992:71). It is difficult to measure the principal's commitment. There are certain behaviours related to commitment, for example, regular attendance, punctuality, and concern for learners and educators.
Trotter and Ellison (1997:36) provide a clear distinction between competence and competencies. Competence and competency are about skills and characteristics that people bring to tasks and situations and what they do that result in successful outcomes. As they involve the study of success, these concepts are very relevant to management development in schools. A simplified explanation of the difference between them is that competence is the ability to do a particular task while competency concerns the underlying characteristics, which allow a person to perform well in a variety of situations. Put simply, competence is about outputs to specified minimum standards while competency is about inputs that a person brings to a job, resulting in superior performance.
25 Eraut (1994:179) differentiates between the term 'competence', which is given a generic or holistic meaning and refers to a person's overall capacity, and the term 'competency', which refers to specific capabilities. He further elaborates that the word `competency'can be used either in a direct performance—related sense: a competency is an element of vocational competence, a performance capability needed by principals in a specified occupational area or simply to describe any piece of knowledge or skill that might be construed as relevant.
The Australian authors Gonzi, Hager and Athanasou (1993: 6) adopted a similar approach with somewhat greater clarity of definition. They used the word 'competence' in a holistic sense, noting that performance is what is directly observable, whereas competence is not directly observable, rather it is inferred from performance. The competence of professionals derives from their possessing a set of relevant attributes such as knowledge, skills and attributes. These attributes which jointly underlie competence are often referred to as competencies. One could thus for example speak of a principal as a competent problem solver if he/she possessed the competencies of asking questions, personally investigating, doing research, being able to get to the root of the problem and establishing an own method, when solving problems.
Having differentiated between the terms competence and competency, we will now illustrate the two approaches, namely, the competency approach and the competence approach to effective school management.
2.2.2 THE COMPETENCY APPROACH TO EFFECTIVE SCHOOL MANAGEMENT
Burke (1990:12) defines competency as the ability to perform activities within an occupational area to the level of performance expected in employment. It is a broad concept, which embodies the ability to transfer skills and knowledge to new situations.
26 It also involves the organisation and planning of work, innovation and coping with more routine activities and qualities of personal effectiveness in order to respond to regular and irregular occurrences in environments having different characteristics.
Hodkinson and Issit (1994: 87) and Trotter and Ellison (1997:40) both concur with Burke that competencies are the underlying characteristics that enable managers to perform a job better in more situations, more often, with better results. Competencies are therefore factors, which distinguish the best from the rest. They are not tasks of the job but what enables people to perform the tasks.
The Committee on Teacher Education Policy (COTEP, 1994:10), Meyer (1996:34) and Charlton (1993:35) also interpret competency as the exhibition of specific behaviors and attitudes being clearly demonstrated and is distinguishable from the inherent potential to perform.
Jiransinghe and Lyons (1996: 96-98) present the following set of competencies for specific tasks performed by principals in Table 2.1, followed by a brief discussion of those competencies necessary in managing the curriculum.
27 TABLE 2.1 PRINCIPAL COMPETENCIES FOR SPECIFIC TASKS
TASKS COMPETENCIES Managing People • Sensitivity • Motivating • Evaluating • Participating • Facilitating • Consulting
Managing the political environment • Political ability • Persuading and negotiating Personal skills • Commitment and values • Reasoning and judgement • Self—awareness and judgement • Projecting a favourable image and communication
2.2.2.1 COMPETENCIES NECESSARY IN MANAGING THE CURRICULUM
Sensitivity
The principal is sensitive to the needs and aspirations of the schooling community.
28 Motivating
The principal motivates and mobilizes others by promoting a system of values and principles cherished by the community.
Evaluating
The principal promotes confidence amongst staff and pupils by setting up systems to enable monitoring and evaluating of their work and progress.
Participating
The principal favours shared decision-making and is prepared to take time over decisions ensuring involvement of relevant stakeholders.
Facilitating
The principal should be skilled at facilitating group discussions, providing structure and methods for the team to get its work done, and ensuring that all members are encouraged to participate.
Consulting
The principal pays genuine attention to the opinions/feelings of educators but maintains a clear sense of task objectives and makes the final decisions.
29 Political ability
The principal is politically adept, can develop and maintain a network of contacts, and is aware of his/her own relationship to the wider political environment. The leader generates support amongst stakeholders for the school.
Persuading and negotiating
The principal is persuasive and negotiates with various interest groups, if necessary being tough minded and firm in dealing with conflicts in order to achieve a successful outcome.
Commitment and values
The principal displays commitment to the school through strength of personal beliefs, by his/her own energy and enthusiasm and by maintaining a positive morale.
Reasoning and judgement
The principal is able to reason logically, critically evaluate information received, and exercise judgement in making decisions and solving problems.
Self-awareness and development
In recognizing the need for continuous personal and professional development, the principal keeps abreast of new educational developments, actively monitors own performance, has wider interests outside the school and is able to respond to change by generating ideas for organizational renewal.
30 • Projecting a favourable image and communicating
The principal establishes visibility and credibility for the school by confidently projecting the school and its goals . The leader communicates effectively both orally and in writing, even when under pressure, adapting style according to the audience.
Another example of the competency approach is that of the North American Secondary School Principals (NASSP) approach. They have accepted a set of competencies that can be assessed by a series of exercises designed either for principals, deputy principals or heads of department (refer to Table 2.2).
TABLE 2.2: SKILL DIMENSIONS OF THE NASSP PRINCIPALS ASSESSMENT CENTRE
Twelve skill dimensions of the NASSP Principals Assessment Centre Administrative skills Problem analysis. Ability to seek out relevant data and analyse complex information to determine the important elements of a problem situation; searching for information with a purpose. Judgement. Ability to reach logical conclusions and make high quality decisions based on available information; skill in identifying educational needs and setting priorities; ability to evaluate written communications. Organisational ability. Ability to plan, schedule and control the work of others; skill in using resources in an optimal fashion; ability to deal with a volume of paper work and heavy demands on one's time. .
31 Decisiveness. Ability to recognise when a decision is required (disregarding the quality of the decision) and to act quickly. INTERPERSONAL SKILLS Leadership skills. Ability to get others involved in solving problems; ability to recognise when a group requires direction, to effectively interact with a group to guide them to accomplish a task.
Sensitivity. Ability to perceive the needs, concerns and personal problems of others; skill in resolving conflicts; tact in dealing with persons form different backgrounds; ability to deal effectively with people concerning emotional issues; knowing what information to communicate and to whom. Stress tolerance Ability to perform under pressure and during opposition; ability to think on one's feet. COMMUNICATION Oral communication. Ability to make clear oral presentation of facts or ideas. Written communication Ability to express ideas clearly in writing; to write appropriately for different audiences— educators, learners, parents and others.
OTHER DIMENSIONS Range of interests. Competence to discuss a variety of subjects — educational, political, current events, economics, etceteras; desire to actively participate in events.
Personal motivation. Need to achieve in all activities attempted; evidence that work is important in personal satisfaction; ability to be self—managing.
32 12. Educational values. Possession of a well-reasoned educational philosophy; receptiveness to new ideas and change.
A competency is usually presented as: a title; a definition; and statements of the kinds of behaviour used by successful performers (see Table 2.3).
33 TABLE 2.3: INFORMATION SEEKING AS A COMPETENCY
TITLE INFORMATION SEEKING
An active curiosity and a desire to know more about things, issues of people. Makes an effort to find out Definition more, does not accept situations at face value, goes beyond routine questions, and scans for information that may be of future use.
BEHAVIOUR STATEMENTS FOR THIS COMPETENCY
Ask questions Questions of people involved in a situation. Even in a crisis takes time to gather any available information before taking actions. Personally investigates Gets out and about and finds out from people closest to a problem. Digs deeper Probes below the surface to get to the root of problems. Contact others Approaches people who are not personally imvolved to get their perspective. Does research Make systematic efforts over a limited time period to get data; uses media and other sources to gather information. Establish own methods Employs means of gathering and using information systems, including managing by walking around and using meetings.
34
It is evident from the above discussion that competencies relate to the principal's personal qualities. Extensive research in the late 1970's by the McBer Corporation (Jiransinghe and Lyons, 1996:21) to determine those characteristics of managers which distinguished "superior performers" from "average performers" resulted in the McBer/Boyatzis approach to management. It postulates that effective action or performance will occur when three critical components concerning the job are consistent or fit together. These include:
The job requirements or demands on the individual; The characteristics or abilities which enable an individual to demonstrate appropriate actions called competencies; and The context of an organisation, encompassing internal factors such as organisational policies, procedures, mission, culture and resources and external factors such as the social, political and economic environment.
According to Loock and Grobler (1997: 37) it is essential that principals be equipped to manage schools effectively. They should have the necessary managerial skills to meet the demands imposed by schools thus ensuring a state of equilibrium between the individual and the school. This is illustrated in Figure 2.1 below.
DEMANDS ta- Arl COMPETENCIES SCHOOL INDIVIDUAL (PRINCIPAL)
Figure 2.1: State of equilibrium: Demands and Skills
35 This interaction can also be represented as in Figure 2.2 ( Boyatzis cited in Jiransinghe and Lyons, 1996:21).
E1-1-B,CTIVE SPECIFIC ACTIONS F BEHAVIOURS
Figure 2.2: A Model of effective job performance
Figure 2.2 describes several important features of competency for effective action. These include:
Competencies can be motives, traits, skills, aspects of one's self image or social role or a body of knowledge which a manager uses;
Competencies may exist within the individual at various levels, with motives and traits at the unconscious level and skills at the behavioural level; and
Competency is context dependent (given a different organisational environment, the competencies may be evident through other specific actions).
36 The above definitions and examples of competency illustrate that competencies are not so much about the details of the job but about what outstanding performers bring to the job.
The McBer/Boyatzis approach puts a great deal of effort into discovering the underlying characteristics of actions which influences the orientation and ways in which managers use their skills and knowledge.
The iceberg model in figure 2.3 highlights the fact that it is the hidden characteristics, which are more difficult to develop. These hidden characteristics are however significant factors in effective school management (Spenser and Spenser, cited in Trotter and Ellison, 1997:46).
37 VISIBLE SKILLS EASIER TO AND DEVELOP KNOWLEDGE
Water line HIDDEN MORE DIFFICULT TO DEVELOP
SELF CONCEPT ATTITUDES VALUES MOTIVES
Figure 2.3 : The iceberg model of competency
The model above assume that motives, abilities, values and attitudes:
play a causal and explanatory role in accounting for the more observable behavioral aspects;
are all theoretical entities or constructs; and
which may be more difficult to measure directly.
38 Generally speaking the McBer approach gives emphasis to those aspects of managerial behavior which would be below the water line (the underlying abilities, traits, motives, attitudes and values).
A discussion of the Competence approach for effective school management will now follow.
2.2.3 COMPETENCE APPROACH FOR EFFECTIVE SCHOOL MANAGEMENT
According to Fowler and Fowler (1983: 191) competence is the ability or the legal capacity to perform some specific task. Murphy and Broadfoot (1995: 150) describe competence as what a person knows and can do under ideal circumstances. Further, competence embraces the structure of knowledge, abilities and skills related to management and planning, negotiating and team skills, initiative and leadership, adaptability to change, self — esteem , ethics ( Partington, cited in Turner, 1996: 46).
The above definitions are also conceptualised well in the British version of the Management Charter Initiative (MCI) (Trotter and Ellison, 1997:40) which defines competence as:
the ability to perform job requirements to a specified standard, and to be able to transfer the skills and knowledge to new situations.
Similarly for a national vocational qualification (NVQ) accreditation competence is:
the ability to perform activities to the level expected within employment, that is what you are able to do in a job to satisfy specified standards (Trotter and Ellison, ibid ). It is therefore inferred that competence: can be seen as the ability to perform a specific task, or
39 • having the qualification required by law to do some particular work. An example of this would be the requirement by law that educators may only be employed in public institutions in South Africa if they are registered by a professional body such as the South African Council of Educators (SACE).
The aim of the competence approach is to set up standards of competence for the various levels of management. In adapting the NVQ and the MCI models to school management, Esp (1993:61) outlined the competence required by principles as a result of a project involving 14 local education authorities (LEA's) and some 3000 schools. This resulted in a series of key roles with associated units of competence and their elements as reflected in figure 2.4.
40
Manage school effectively by creating, maintaining, KEY reviewing and developing an PURPOSE enviroment which promotes STATMENT the culture of teaching and learning. • MANAGE MANAGE MANAGE MANAGE KEY CURRICULUM ORGANISATIONAL EDUCATORS FINANCES ROLES STRUCTURES
V V Vision building Curriculum Implementation Feedback UNITS management and planning evaluation
V • Organising the Choose Allocate work Provide ELEMENT curriculum appropriate and evaluate feedback to structures for programme. learners on coordination their performance.
Figure 2.4: Key roles in the competence approach to management
The competence approach for effective school management therefore places emphasis on the following:
identifying specific job descriptions;
41 identifying qualifications necessary to perform tasks;
setting out standards of performance and ranges of situations where they would need to be demonstrated; and
assessing the training needs based on the ability of managers to perform specific tasks to the standards expected.
The last two sections have clarified the competence and competency approach in respect of management. A framework to develop a model for effective school management will now be discussed.
2.2.4 A MODEL FOR EFFECTIVE SCHOOL MANAGEMENT
The two approaches discussed may be summarised as follows:
the competence approach which provides detailed specification of what skills and knowledge are required by the principal to perform a task well. It also reflects on the standards and range of situations in which a competent principal should be able to successfully execute those tasks. It is development orientated and provides the focus for detailed assessment for senior managers; and
the competency approach which places emphasis on the underlying characteristics of a principal which results in effective and/or superior performance in a job. These underlying characteristics or competencies may be a motive, trait, skill, aspects of one's self image or social role or a body of knowledge used by the principal.
The essential difference between these two approaches is represented in figure 2.5.
42 PERFORMANCE STANDARDS
Job Analysis Interpretation Competence approach Of key roles Competency approach
PERSONAL QUALITIES
Figure 2.5: Essential difference between the competence and the competency approach to management
The competency approach describes those competencies or personal qualities of a manager that enable him/her to be competent while the competence approach describe those functions or skills of a job at which the manager must be competent.
Table 2.4 below also reflects the comparison of competence and competency processes (Trotter and Ellison, 1997: 41).
43 TABLE 2.4: OUTLINE IN COMPARISON OF COMPETENCE AND COMPETENCY PROCESS
COMPETENCE : the ability to perform COMPETENCY : what a person brings to work to satisfactory standards a job that results in success
SPECIFIC AND TRANSFERABLE GENERIC PERSONAL COMPETENCES FOR A JOB COMPETENCIES
Set the key purpose for the job Clarify the major requirements and performance criteria for the job
Identify key roles Identify successful job performers — the best 10%
Identify key units per role Compare their characteristics and behaviour with that of other job holders
I Identify elements for each unit Formulate the key competencies
I I Specify performance criteria and the range Train people in these competencies of situations where they will need to be shown
Train and assess accordingly
44 In order to bring the two approaches together it is useful to conceptualise competent principals as either having:
Behaviours that are traits, motives, or personal qualities (example - sensitivity, forcefulness, reasoning ability); or Behaviours that are more skills-based such as outputs, deliverables or standards (example - management of resources) of which the job consists and at which principals may be competent.
Competencies may therefore be conceptualised as either a part of the principal's performance of the job as represented by the traits, motives and personal qualities or as a part of the job performed as depicted by skills, outputs and occupational standards (Jiransinghe and Lyons, 1996: 27).
Diagrammatically the above may be represented as in figure 2.6 (Jiransinghe and Lyons, 1996:28).
45
MORE OBSERVABLE COMPETENCE APPROACH: STANDARDS/FUNCTIONS
Specific Specific Specific Behaviour Behaviour Behaviour
C1 C2 C3 Skills Skills Skills Knowledge Knowledge Knowledge to• Trait Trait Traits Motive Motive Motive Quality Quality Quality
COMPETENCY APPROACH: PERSONAL QUALITIES V LESS OBSERVABLE
Figure 2.6: A framework for conceptualising competencies
The specific competencies shown along the horizontal axis for example Cl, C2, C3, etcetera are each represented as consisting of both the skills component as well as the motives and personality traits. Knowledge components are depicted alongside the skills since they are more observable than traits, motives and personal qualities.
The vertical axis indicates observability. The skills components are more observable than the trait and motive components.
46 The iceberg model as reflected figure 2.3 also reinforces the above conceptual framework. Jiransinghe and Lyons (1996:27) further suggest that behavior is best pictured as a continuum where the left end represents underlying traits/motives which are less observable and the right end represents skills/knowledge which are more observable. This is represented in figure 2.7