THE TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT OF PRINCIPALS IN THE MANAGEMENT OF THE CURRICULUM
by
ARUNACHELLAN DAYANUNDAN PADAYACHEE
THESIS
submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree
DOCTOR EDUCATIONIS
in
EDUCATIONAL MANAGEMENT
in the
FACULTY OF EDUCATION AND NURSING
at the
RAND AFRIKAANS UNIVERSITY
PROMOTER : PROF BR GROBLER
CO-PROMOTER : PROF TC BISSCHOFF
FEBRUARY 1999
II THE TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT OF PRINCIPALS IN THE MANAGEMENT OF THE CURRICULUM
A D PADAYACHEE THE TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT OF PRINCIPALS IN THE MANAGEMENT OF THE CURRICULUM
A D PADAYACHEE
PROMOTER: PROFESSOR B R GROBLER
CO-PROMOTER: PROFESSOR T C BISSCHOFF ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I wish to express my sincere, and heartfelt thanks and gratitude to:
The Creator for his Divine intervention and for granting me the strength, courage and perseverance to complete this project..
My promoter of this thesis, Professor B R Grobler. My sincere appreciation and gratitude for his constructive criticism, encouragement, valuable support, insights and assistance and guidance throughout this study.
My co-promoter, Professor T C Bisschoff for his constant encouragement and positive support and guidance throughout this research.
Cyril Samuels, Roy Reddy and Raj Mestry for their commitment, hardwork, dedication, assistance, support and team work throughout our studies.
My parents Mr and Mrs K A Padayachee for the fountain of inspiration which they provided in directing and leading me through life.
My wife Umsha and my children Avashni, Trishanta and Dasevan for their patience, understanding and encouragement throughout my studies.
My In-Laws, Mr and Mrs Pillay for their support and blessing during my studies.
Rand Afrikaans University for their support and Mr JA Vermeulen, deputy rector for his assistance, encouragement and support.
III DEDICATION
This Thesis is dedicated to my late brother, Dr Kisten Padayachee for his inspiration and motivation throughout our interactions and to his wife Margaret and children Sherman and Winston for their courage and determination in life.
IV SINOPSIS
Voorlopige navorsing onder 'n kansmonster van Gauteng skoolhoofde en verskeie deskundiges in onderwysbestuur deur middel van vraelyste het aangetoon dat die volgende vier sleutel — komponente belangrik is om skole doeltreffend te kan bestuur :
Kurrikulumbestuur .
Bestuur van organisasiestrukture .
Bestuur van finansiele en fisiese bronne .
Bestuur van opvoeders/onderwysers .
Dit is noodsaaklik dat 'n doeltreffende skoolhoof oor die nodige vaardighede, kennis en houdings, om bogenoemde vier komponente voldoende te kan bestuur, moet beskik.
Die besondere navorsingsprojek is op die bevoegdhede wat van 'n skoolhoof vereis word om die kurrikulum doeltreffend te kan bestuur afgestem, om sodoende riglyne vir opleidings-en ontwikkelingsprogramme te verskaf. Die ontwikkelingsprogramme sal op die persepsies van die onderwysprofessie en belangrike faktore ten opsigte van skoolbestuur, gebaseer word.
In hoofstuk twee is die volgende benaderings ten opsigte van die doeltreffende bestuur van skoolhoofde bespreek :
Die bevoegdheidsbenadering wat indringende spesifikasies voorsien ten opsigte van vaardighede en kennis wat van skoolhoofde vereis word om sodoende 'n skool doeltreffend te kan bestuur. Dit sluit ook die standaarde en verskeidenheid situasies in waarin skoolhoofde hulseif moontlik kan bevind ten einde die uitvoering van hierdie take te kan bewerkstellig. Dit is veral ontwikkelings-georienteerd en maak voorsiening vir indringende assessering van onderwysbestuurders.
• Die individuele bevoegdheidsbenadering wat die klem op die diepperliggende eienskappe van 'n bestuurder laat val en wat doeltreffendheid of goeie prestasies tot gevolg sal he. Hierdie onderliggende eienskappe of vaardighede mag 'n motief, 'n eienskap, 'n vaardigheid, aspekte van die selfbeeld, 'n sosiale rol of 'n besondere kennisvlak wees wat deur die bestuurder gebruik kan word.
Die twee benaderings is gesintetiseer of geintegreer ten einde 'n kontinuum van bevoegdhede te ontwikkel wat veral bekwaamhede, motiewe en eienskappe aan die linkerkant en kennis, vaardighede en funksies aan die regter kant, beklemtoon.
Die bevoegdheidskontinuum is as raamwerk vir doeltreffende skoolhoofde gebruik om 'n bevoegdheids-gebaseerde bestuursmatriksmodel (BBM) te ontwikkel. Die BBM model inkorporeer beide die bevoegdheidsbenaderings sodat skole effektief bestuur kan word. Dit fokus op die ontwikkeling van spesifieke bevoegdhede of vaardighede om sekere take of funksies wat van 'n skoolhoof verwag word, te kan uitvoer.
Die sleutel komponente van kurrikulumbestuur, bestuur van organisasiestrukture, bestuur van finansiele en fisiese bronne en die bestuur van opvoeders vorm die basis vir die ontwikkeling van 'n sistematiese benadering tot doeltreffende skoolbestuur. Die bestuur van die kurrikulum vorm die kernkomponent en die bestuur van organisasiestrukture en sisteme, die bestuur van opvoeders en die bestuur van finansies en ander materiele bronne vorm die sleutel-aspekte wat onderlingend met mekaar verbind is. As skoolhoofde bevoeg in hierdie sleutelareas is, behoort hulle 'n skool doeltreffend te kan bestuur.
Die literatuurondersoek wat in hoofstuk drie onderneem was poog om sleutel aangeleenthede wat by die kurrikulurn betrokke is, te ondersoek. Die skool se hoof
VT oogmerk is om in leerlinge se behoeftes te voorsien en om die hoogste kwaliteit van onderwys moontlik te lewer. Sentraal tot die verwesenliking van hierdie oogmerk is dat skoolhoofde aan hul ondernemings 'n sin van samehorigheid en struktuur moet verskaf.
Dit kan nie deur 'n kurrikulumetos wat verkeerde leiding gee, behaal word nie. Die
kurrikulum vorm die fondasie van al die opvoedingsaktiwiteite en kan as die belangrikste onafhanklike veranderlike wat die doeltreffendheid van die skool bepaal, beskou word. Doeltreffende skole is moontlik waar daar 'n sterk kultuur vir skoolverbetering
teenwoordig is.
Die literatuur dui aan dat skoolhoofde deeglik oor die bestuur van die kurrikulum moet besin. Skoolhoofde moet die nodige kennis, vaardighede, houdings en waardes besit wat benodig word om die kurrikulum te bestuur. Dit is dan ook die oogmerk van hierdie proefskrif om riglyne vir 'n opleidings- en ontwilckelingsprogram vir skoolhoofde te
ontwerp wat hulle met die nodige kennis, vaardighede, houdings en waardes sal toerus sodat hulle die skoolkurrikulum doeltreffend en doelmatig sal bestuur.
Ten einde die kurrikulum doeltreffend te kan bestuur behoort skoolhoofde ten opsite van die volgende aspekte bevoegd te wees:
Daarstelling van 'n visie. Die daarstelling van 'n gesamentlike visie veroorsaak
interne beginselvastheid wat die skool die geleentheid gee om sy bronne op sleutel aktiwiteite en prosesse soos deur sy visie, missie en doelstellings uitgestippel is, toe te spits. Die daarstelling van 'n visie omvat sleutelelemente soos die skepping van
gesamentlike begrip, effektiewe kommunikasie en die bou van konsensus en gebondenheid.
Kurrikulumbeplanning. Kurrikulumbeplanning sorg dat sekere aktiwiteite en uitkomstes omskrywe en geoorloof word. Drie belangrike kurrikulumbeplannings- elemente is:
VII ❖ Kurrikulumkragte. Dit verwys na basiese oorwegings wat bestuurders, onderwysers en leerders rigting gee ten opsigte van relevante aangeleenthede tot kurrikulumbeplanning. Kurrikulumbesluite. Dit verwys na die keuses wat deur bestuurstrukture en skoolbeheerliggame gemaak word wat die eienskappe van die kurrikulum weerspieel.
Kurrikulumbestuursplanne. Dit verwys na die riglyne vir leergeleenthede wat deur die skool verskaf word en is insluitend van die organisering en instruksies van die spesifieke leerervarings wat in die behoeftes van al die leerders voorsien. Kurrikulumimplementering. Die proses van kurrikulumimplementering vereis 'n
wisselwerking tussen die skoolhoof en mense. Vier sleutelelemente wat benodig word om die kurrikulum doeltreffend te implementeer is organisering, delegering, koordinering en kontrolering. Hierdie prosesse is ontwerp om 'n bevorderlike
leeromgewing te skep en om die funksies van konsulterende en deelnemende bestuur te vergemaklik. Evaluering. Skoolhoofde behoort bewus te wees en ook verseker dat onderwysers en leerders vertroud is met die standaarde wat van hulle verwag word. Terselfdertyd moet onderwysers en leerders 'n groot verskeidenheid evalueringstelsels gebruik ten
einde die leerprogramme en aktiwiteite te evalueer.
Vervolgens is 'n gestrukureerde vraelys ontwerp om die persepsies van lede van die onderwysprofessie te verkry ten einde die belangrikheid van spesifieke bevoegdhede by skoolhoofde uit te wys om sodoende skole meer doeltreffend te kan bestuur. In hoofstuk vier word 'n beskrywing van die empiriese navorsing onderneem. Die response met betrekking tot die bestuur van opvoeders is vervolgens geanaliseer en bespreek.
Biografiese inligting wat moontlik die bevoegdhede van skoolhoofde ten opsigte van bestuur kon beinvloed is ook verkry. In hoofstuk vyf word die 100 items van die gestruktureerde vraelys aan twee opeenvolgende faktoranalitiese prosedures onderwerp.
VIII Die eerste orde faktoranalise het aangetoon dat doeltreffende bestuur op sewe onderliggende faktore gebaseer is, naamlik:
bevoegde deelnemendebestuur wat uit 36 items bestaan met 'n Cronbach-alpha- betroudbaarheidskoeffisient van 0,981;
bevoegde fasiliterendebestuur wat uit 36 items bestaan met 'n Cronbach-alpha- betroubaarheidskoeffisient van 0,973;
bevoegde kwaliteitbestuur wat uit 12 items bestaan met 'n Cronbach-alpha- betroubaarheidskoeffisient van 0,933;
bevoegde konsulterendebestuur wat 5 items bevat met 'n Cronbach-alpha- betroubaarheidskoeffisient van 0,817;
bevoegde finansielebestuur wat 5 items bevat met 'n Cronbach-alpha- betroubaarheidskoeffisient van 0,883;
bevoegde bronnebestuur wat 3 items bevat 'n Cronbach-alpha betroubaarheidskoeffisient van 0,732; en
bevoegde prestasiebestuur wat 3 items bevat met 'n Cronbach-alpha- betroubaarheidskoeffisient van 0,756.
Die sewe onderliggende faktore kan die basis vorm vir die evaluering van die belangrikheid van spesifieke bevoegdhede wat van skoolhoofde vereis word om skole doeltreffend to kan bestuur. Hierdie faktore kan verder tot twee kategorie gereduseer word, naamlik:
IX • Samewerkende (verhoudings-georienteerde) bevoegdheid
Bevoegde deelnemendebestuur, fasiliterendebestuur, konsulterendebestuur en kwaliteitsbestuur val almal in hierdie kategorie. Samewerkende bevoegdheid verwys na die interaksie tussen die bestuur, die onderwyser en die leerlinge. Skoolhoofde wat alle aandeelhouers (onderwysers en leerlinge) in besluite wat geneem moet word betrek ten opsigte van opvoedkundige belange het 'n groter kans om 'n skool doeltreffend to kan bestuur.
• Taakgeorieenteerde bevoegdheid
Bevoegde finansielebestuur, bronnebestuur en prestasiebestuur val almal in hierdie kategorie. Skoolhoofde behoort ook bevoeg te wees om hierdie take doeltreffend en suksesvol to kan uitvoer. Doeltreffende taakbestuur kan ook tot 'n doeltreffende skool aanleiding gee.
Die sewe faktore van die eerste— orde faktoranalise is as invoer vir die tweede orde prosedure gebruik. Hierdie sewe onderliggende faktore is weer tot net een faktor gereduseer naamlik:
Doeltreffende Bestuur. Dit het 'n Cronbach-alpha-betroubaarheidskoeffisient van 0,990 gehad.
Al die eerste-orde faktore was geldig met betroubaarheidskoeffisiente wat hoog genoeg was om die persepsies van opvoeders te bepaal ten opsigte van die belangrikheid van skoolhoofde se bevoegdheid in kurrikulumbestuur, bestuur van organisasiestrukture, die bestuur van finansiele en fisiese bronne en die bestuur van opvoeders.
Die faktoranalitiese prosedure is deur 'n reeks enkelveranderlike en meerveranderlike statistiese toetse opgevolg wat gedoen is om verskeie hipotese te toets ten opsigte van die persepsies van lede van die onderwysprofessie om die belangrikheid van doeltreffende bestuur te bepaal.
Op die enkelveranderlike vlak is twee onafhanklike groepe ondersoek om moontlike beduidende statistiese verskille deur die gebruik van die Student — t toets te verkry. Die verskille is verder deur middel van die analise van variansie (ANOVA) ondersoek. Waar beduidende statistiese verskille verkry is, is die verskillende pare deur middel van die Scheffe of die Dunnette T3 — toets met mekaar vergelyk.
Hotelling se T2 — toets is gebruik om moontlike verskille in die vektorgemiddeldes van die sewe faktore gesamentlik te bestudeer. Mits beduidende statistiese verskille op die meerveranderlike vlak gevind is wanneer twee onafhanklike groepe met mekaar vergelyk is, is daar verdere ondersoek deur middel van die Student — t toets ingestel. Vir twee of meer groepe is die meervoudige hipotese ondersoek deur gebruik te maak van meervoudige analise van variansie (MANOVA). Indien beduidende statistiese verskille op hierdie vlak verkry is, is die enkelvoudige verskille verder deur middel van ANOVA en die Dunnette T3 of Scheffe toetse ondersoek.
Die grondige literatuur ondersoek, tesame met die persepsies van die onderwysprofessie ten opsigte van die vraelyste en die hoe geldigheid en betroubaarheid van die vraelyste het daartoe bygedrae dat indringende bevindinge gemaak kon word. Hieruit het menige belanghebbende aanbevelings voortgevloei.
XI TABLE OF CONTENTS Acknowledgements HI Dedication IV Sinopsis V List of tables XVII List of figures XX
CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION
1.1 INTRODUCTION AND MOTIVATION 1
1.2 PROBLEM AND ITS SETTING 6 1.2.1 Motivation and background to the problem 6 1.2.2 Problem statement 7
1.3 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES 8
1.4 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 9
1.5 ASSUMPTIONS 10
1.6 CONCEPT CLARIFICATION 11 1.6.1 Competence 12 1.6.2 Competency 12 1.6.3 Training 13 1.6.4 Development 13 1.6.5 Management 14 1.6.6 Education management development 15 1.6.7 Principal 16 1.6.8 Educator 16 1.6.9 Organisational structure 17 1.6.10 Curriculum 18
1.7 EXPOSITION 19
1.8 SUMMARY 19
CHAPTER TWO KEY COMPETENCIES FOR EFFECTIVE SCHOOL MANAGEMENT
2.1 INTRODUCTION 21
2.2 COMPETENCE APPROACH AND COMPETENCY 22 APPROACH TO EFFECTIVE SCHOOL MANAGEMENT 2.2.1 Clarification of the concepts of "competence" and 24
XII "competency" 2.2.2 The competency approach to effective school 26 management 2.2.2.1 Competencies necessary in managing the curriculum 28 2.2.3 Competence approach for effective school management 39 2.2.4 A model for effective school management 42
2.3 GUIDELINES FOR EFFECTIVE TRAINING AND 49 DEVELOPMENT 2.3.1 The importance of designing training and development 51 programmes 2.3.2 Training 52 2.3.2.1 Reasons for training 52 2.3.2.2 Methods of training 53 2.3.2.3 Job descriptions 55 2.3.3 Management development 55 2.3.3.1 Development policy 56 2.3.3.2 Course content 57 2.3.3.3 Mutual support groups for principals 58 2.3.3.4 Summary: Developing training objectives 59
2.4 KEY COMPETENCIES FOR EFFECTIVE SCHOOL 62 MANAGEMENT
2.5 DEVELOPING A SYSTEMS MODEL FOR 72 EFFECTIVE SCHOOL MANAGEMENT 2.5.1 Management of the curriculum 72 2.5.2 Management of organisational structures 73 2.5.3 Management of human resources 73 2.5.4 Management of financial and physical resources 74 2.5.5 The inter-relationship of the major key components of 74 managing the school
2.6 SUMMARY 77
CHAPTER THREE MANAGING THE CURRICULUM
3.1 INTRODUCTION 79
3.2 CURRICULUM INTERPRETATION 80
3.3 MODEL FOR CURRICULUM MANAGEMENT 84 3.3.1 Vision building 93 3.3.1.1 Creating a vision 94 3.3.1.2 Communicating a vision 97 3.3.1.3 Reaching consensus and commitment 98 3.3.2 Curriculum planning 100
XIII 3.3.2.1 Curriculum forces 101 3.3.2.1.1 Implications for schools in South Africa 104 3.3.2.2 Curriculum decisions 109 3.3.2.3 Curriculum management plans 115 3.3.3 Curriculum implementation 119 3.3.3.1 Organising as a management task 123 3.3.3.1.1 Creating an organisational structure 123 3.3.3.2 Delegation 127 3.3.3.3 Co-ordinating 129 3.3.3.4 Control 132 3.3.4 Evaluation as a management task 135 3.3.4.1 Curriculum evaluation 137 3.3.4.2 Teacher evaluation 142 3.3.4.3 Student evaluation 147
3.4 SUMMARY: KEY ELEMENTS IN MANAGING THE 152 CURRICULUM
CHAPTER FOUR DESIGN OF THE RESEARCH INSTRUMENT AND EMPIRICAL INVESTIGATION
4.1 INTRODUCTION 156
4.2 RESEARCH DESIGN 157 4.2.1 The purpose of quantitative research 157 4.2.2 The relationship of the research to the subject 158
4.3 THE INSTRUMENT OF RESEARCH 158 4.3.1 The design of the questionnaire 158 4.3.2 Discussion of competent participative management as an 162 aspect of the management of the curriculum 4.3.3 Discussion of competent facilitative management as an 177 aspect of curriculum management 4.3.4 Discussion of competent quality management as an aspect 184 of the management of the curriculum
4.4 THE EMPIRICAL INVESTIGATION 193 4.4.1 Respondents 193 4.4.2 Biographical details 193 4.4.3 The research group 194 4.4.4 Return of questionnaires 195
4.5 SUMMARY 195
XIV CHAPTER FIVE THE ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION OF A SELECTED SAMPLE OF THE EMPIRICAL DATA
5.1 INTRODUCTION 196
5.2 RELIABILITY AND VALIDITY 197
5.3 HYPOTHESES 203 5.3.1 Comparison of two independent groups 203 5.3.1.1 Differences between the opinions of female and males 204 relative to effective management 5.3.1.2 Difference between the opinions of the respondents 206 concerning the gender of their principals relative to effective management 5.3.2 Comparison of three or more independent groups 207 5.3.2.1 Differences between the opinions of respondents based on 208 their mother tongue relative to effective management 5.3.2.2 Differences between the opinions of respondents based on 212 their age groups relative to effective management 5.3.2.3 Differences between the opinions of respondents based on 215 their teaching experience relative to effective management 5.3.2.4 Differences between the opinions of respondents based on 218 the experience of principals relative to effective management 5.3.2.5 Differences between the opinions of the respondents 221 based on the qualifications .of the respondents relative to effective management 5.3.2.6 Differences between the opinions of the respondents 224 based on the religious beliefs of the respondents relative to effective management 5.3.2.7 Differences between the opinions of respondents based on 226 language of instruction of the respondents relative to effective management 5.3.2.8 Differences between the opinions of the respondents 229 based on their marital status relative to effective management 5.3.2.9 Differences between the opinions of the respondents 231 based on the type of school relative to effective management 5.3.2.10 Differences between the opinions of the respondents 234 based on their post levels relative to effective management
5.4 DISCUSSION OF THE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN 237 THE FACTOR MEAN SCORES OF THE SEVEN FIRST ORDER FACTORS 5.4.1 Hypotheses 237 5.4.1.1 Comparison of two independent groups 237 5.4.1.2 Comparison of one of the three or more independent 243 groups
5.5 AN OVERVIEW OF THE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN 250 THE OTHER FACTOR MEAN SCORES IN TABLE 5.29
5.6 SUMMARY 263
CHAPTER SIX SUMMARY, FINDINGS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
6.1 INTRODUCTION 267
6.2 SUMMARY 268
6.3 FINDINGS 274 6.3.1 Findings from the literature in respect of the development 275 and training of principals in the management of the curriculum 6.3.2 Findings from the empirical analysis in respect of the 276 training and development of principals in the effective management of schools
6.4 RECOMMENDATIONS 282
6.5 CONCLUSION 289
BIBLIOGRAPHY 291 LIST OF TABLES
TABLE 1.1 Analysis of National matriculation results for 1996/97 2 TABLE 1.2 Gauteng Department of Education: Senior Certificate 2 results 1997 TABLE 2.1 Principal competencies for specific tasks 28 TABLE 2.2 Skill dimension of the NASSP principals assessment 31 centre TABLE 2.3 Information seeking as a competency 34 TABLE 2.4 Outline in comparison of competence and competency 44 processes TABLE 2.5 Management tasks 71 TABLE 3.1 82 Curriculum interpretations over a period of time TABLE 3.2 Key components of curriculum management 92 TABLE 3.3 Key elements of curriculum management planning 101 TABLE 3.4 Examples of data for curriculum decisions 113 TABLE 3.5 Criteria for curriculum decisions 114 TABLE 3.6 Illustration of a simple curriculum management plan 117 TABLE 3.7 Curriculum management plan for numeracy and 118 mathematics TABLE 3.8 Key elements of curriculum implementation 122 TABLE 3.9 Basic characteristics of some organisational structures 125 TABLE 3.10 Co-ordination of curriculum at various levels of the 131 school TABLE 3.11 Different forms of evaluation 140 Checklist of competencies for effective curriculum 141 TABLE 3.12 TABLE 3.13 Illustration of a teacher appraisal instrument 146 TABLE 3.14 148 Characteristics of different types of assessments TABLE 3.15 Relationship between specific outcomes, assessment 151 criteria, range statements and performance indicators TABLE 4.1 Items associated with the management of the curriculum 160 arranged in rank order TABLE 4.2 Distribution of responses for the management of the 161 curriculum TABLE 5.1 Hypotheses with male and female respondents as the 204 independent variable TABLE 5.2 Significance of difference between males and females 204 regarding effective management TABLE 5.3 Hypotheses with gender of principals in school as the 206 independent variable TABLE 5.4 Significance of difference between males and females 206 regarding effective management TABLE 5.5 Hypotheses with mother tongue as the independent 208 variable TABLE 5.6 Significance of difference between the mother tongue of 209 respondence regarding effective management TABLE 5.7 Hypotheses with age group as the independent variable 212
XVII TABLE 5.8 Significance of difference between age groups of 213 respondents regarding effective management TABLE 5.9 Hypotheses with teaching experience the independent 215 variable TABLE 5.10 Significance of difference between teaching experience of 216 respondents regarding effective management TABLE 5.11 Hypotheses with years as principal as the independent 218 variable TABLE 5.12 Significance of difference between experience of 219 respondents regarding effective management TABLE 5.13 Hypotheses with qualification as the independent variable 221 TABLE 5.14 Significance of difference between qualifications of 222 respondents regarding effective management TABLE 5.15 Hypotheses with religion as the independent variable 224 TABLE 5.16 Significance of difference between different religious 225 groups regarding effective management TABLE 5.17 Hypotheses with language of instruction as the 226 independent variable TABLE 5.18 Significance of difference between language of 227 instruction regarding effective management TABLE 5.19 Hypotheses with marital status as the independent 229 variable TABLE 5.20 Significance of difference between marital status 230 regarding effective management TABLE 5.21 Hypotheses with type of school as the independent 231 variable TABLE 5.22 Significance of difference between type of school 232 regarding effective management TABLE 5.23 Hypotheses with post level as the independent variable 234 TABLE 5.24 Significance of difference between post levels regarding 235 effective management TABLE 5.25 Hypotheses with male and female respondents as the 238 independent variable TABLE 5.26 Significance of difference between males and females 240 regarding effective management TABLE 5.27 Hypotheses with mother tongue respondents as the 244 independent variable TABLE 5.28 Significance of difference between mother tongue groups 245 in respect of the seven factors TABLE 5.29 Factor mean scores of the other independent groups in 256 respect of the seven first order factors
XVIII LIST OF FIGURES
FIGURE 2.1 State of equilibrium: demands and skills 35 FIGURE 2.2 A model for effective job performance 36 FIGURE 2.3 The iceberg model of competency 38 FIGURE 2.4 Key roles in the competence approach to management 41 FIGURE 2.5 Essential difference between the competence and the 43 competency approach to management FIGURE 2.6 A framework for conceptualising competencies 46 FIGURE 2.7 A competent principal seen as a continuum of 47 competencies FIGURE 2.8 A competent principal seen as a continuum of 48 competencies for managing the curriculum FIGURE 2.9 Competency-based management matrix model for 60 training and development FIGURE 2.10 Holistic approach to education management development 67 FIGURE 2.11 Systems approach for effective management of the school 75 FIGURE 3.1 Cyclic model for effective management of the curriculum 91 FIGURE 3.2 Influence of curriculum forces for schools in South Africa 108 FIGURE 3.3 Decision making structure for facilitating curriculum 111 management plan FIGURE 3.4 Critical relationship for curriculum effectiveness 120 FIGURE 3.5 Context for developing a curriculum effectiveness model 121 FIGURE 3.6 Simplified structure for effective curriculum 126 implementation FIGURE 3.7 Interaction between planning and control 133 FIGURE 3.8 Simplified model of evaluation within the context of 137 curriculum design and delivery FIGURE 3.9 Curriculum evaluation framework 138 FIGURE 5.1 Managerial grid 202
XIX CHAPTER ONE
1.1 INTRODUCTION AND MOTIVATION
The Constitution of the Republic of South Africa, 1996 (RSA, 1996(a): 14) requires that school education be transformed and democratised in accordance with fundamental values and principles. These include human dignity, non-racism, non sexism, the rule of law, accountability and transparency. The democratisation of education includes participation by parents, educators, learners and the community at large. The Governing bodies are also expected to make critical decisions on behalf of the school and to ensure that the school is managed and administered effectively and efficiently.
The provisions of the Department of Education's White Paper 1 and 2 (RSA, 1996(b)), the report of the Review Committee on School Organisation, Governance and Funding, new legislation including the South African School Act (SASA) of 1996(RSA, 1996(c)) as well as provincial policy directions point South Africa firmly towards a decentralised school based system of education management and governance with substantial decision making authority at the school level. However, while the policy framework attempts to transform education, the legacy of the past education system characterized by fragmentation and inequity in provisions, a crisis of legitimacy in many schools, the demise of a culture of learning and teaching, the relevancy of the curriculum as well as resistance to change has created substantial managerial problems at schools leading to a deterioration in the standard of education. According to Ramphele (1997:25) attempts by the government to transform the inequitable and inadequate schooling system is characterised by a failure to translate good policies into sound practice. This is further confirmed by the poor matric results of the past two years. Table 1.1 (Perkins, 1998:11) and Table 1.2 (Gauteng Department of Education, 1998:37) reflect the poor state of education in South Africa.
1 TABLE 1.1
ANALYSIS OF NATIONAL MATRICULATION RESULTS FOR 1997
PROVINCE 1996 PASS RATE 1997 PASS RATE CHANGE % % 0/0 Western Cape 80,4 76,3 -04,1 Northern Cape 69,9 63,7 -06,2 Mpumulanga 50,9 45,7 -05,2 Kwazulu Natal 61,7 54,0 -07,7 Gauteng 55,6 51,5 -04,1 North West 66,0 50,0 -16,0 Eastern Cape 49,7 46,0 -03,7 Free State 51,1 42,3 -08,8 Northern Province 37,0 31,8 -05,2 TOTAL 54,7 47,1 -07,6
Table 1.1: Table reflecting the pass rate for the senior certificate examination in the nine provinces in South Africa (Perkins, 1998: 11)
TABLE 1.2 GAUTENG DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION : SENIOR CERTIFICATE RESULTS 1997 % OBTAINED % OBTAINED SENIOR % FAIL UNIVERSITY CERTIFICATE PASS EXEMPTION PASS
47% 18% 35%
Table 1.2: Senior certificate examination results for Gauteng Department of Education-1997
2 Various journalists and educationists offered reasons and possible solutions to the crisis in education. Naidu (1998:17) in his article "What went wrong in our schools" reports that in the light of the dismal 1997 matriculation results, educationists and critics agree that urgent steps must be taken to avert a repetition and they have all criticised the legacy of Bantu Education, misdirected Government policies, lazy teachers, apathetic pupils, irrelevant curriculum and uninvolved parents for the poor performance.
According to a survey of some of the Country's top schools carried out by Powers and Woodgate (1998:17) hard work, good management, motivated staff and small classes all contribute to success of schools in turning out "star matriculants". Crawford College, Johannesburg, which in 1997 broke all its previous records, has attained top results for the fifth consecutive year. It attributes its success to a combination of handpicked teachers, dynamic leadership and keen pupils. Orange Farm Secondary School in the informal settlement on the southern outskirts of Johannesburg also obtained excellent results. It attributes its success to a combination of hard-working educators and learners and effective leadership.
Calitz (1998:14) executive officer of the South African Certification Board (SAFCERT) attributes the poor results to inadequate resources, low standards of teaching, ineffective management, poor discipline and low morale among educators and learners.
The South African Council of Educators (SACE) Chief Executive Officer, Reg Brijraj, said factors which could be responsible for poor results included a breakdown of professionalism by principals and educators, lack of resources at schools and possible apathetic attitudes towards education by learners and their communities (Naidu: 1998:17).
3 In an article "Top principals make top schools", Matseke (1998: 1) focused on the crucial role of the principal in the learning and teaching process. Effective and collaborative leadership is vital to focus attention on key managerial aspects and direct the resources of the school to achieve success. People in leadership positions have to think about what they should do to improve their lot. Naidu (1998:17) reports that the Northern Province provincial education MEC, Dr Joe Phoahla emphasised that management structures needed to be reviewed and all vacant principal posts, currently occupied by acting incumbents, should be filled as soon as possible. The article concludes with the need to train and develop both the existing and also the newly appointed principals to effectively manage organisational structures and other facets of the education management development so that improvements in the quality of learning takes place.
It is evident from the above discussion that the major areas of concern in the schooling system include the following:
poor management of schools; lack of resources; lack of commitment and dedication by learners and educators; the effects of apartheid legacy and a crisis of legitimacy; uninvolved parents; misdirected government policies; and the demise of a culture of learning and teaching.
In addressing the above issues, improving the effectiveness of school management remains one of the fundamental concerns. Perhaps one of the major changes for the principals of schools according to Sybouts and Wendel (1994: 2) has been the range of expectations placed on the position. The expectations have moved from demands of management and control to the demands for an educational leader who can foster and promote staff development, effective organisational structures, parental involvement, community support and student growth in order to succeed with these major changes and
4 expectations. Developing principals and providing them with the necessary skills and competencies becomes increasingly important as the dynamic and changing culture becomes increasingly difficult. Therefore the training and development of principals can be considered as the strategically most important process to transform education successfully.
This research therefore is concerned with the need to design training and development programmes for principals to manage schools effectively. The task of being a principal or any other educational manager is demanding, requiring energy, drive and many personal qualities. Principals, involved in the day to day management of their schools need to take time to reflect on their personal growth as leaders and managers. Preliminary research among a cross section of principals through questionnaires and various authorities in Educational Management including Poster (1981: 186); Godden, Buckland, Coombe, Dladla, Madisha, Mahanjana„ Thurlow, Ngcongo and Mclennan (1996: 36) and John (1983: 66) reveal, amongst others the following four key components to manage schools effectively namely:
Management of organisational structures. Management of the curriculum. Management of financial and other resources. Management of educators.
This particular research project focuses on the training and development of principals in the management of the curriculum. To be an effective school principal, this particular research project makes the assertion that one must have the skills, abilities, knowledge and attitudes to successfully manage the curriculum.
Having orientated the reader to the particular field of research, the motivation and background to the problem will now be discussed.
5 1.2 PROBLEM AND ITS SETTING
1.2.1 MOTIVATION AND BACKGROUND TO THE PROBLEM
The issues and debates in the previous section highlighted the major changes and range of expectations that a school principal in the South African context needs to cope with in managing schools effectively. South Africa is not the only country, which is grappling with such educational issues. According to Whitaker and Moses (1994:xi), the American education system is also at a turning point. An array of problem issues, criticisms and expectations has arisen, making schools more difficult to lead and to manage than ever before. Recurring budget shortfalls, the complex needs of learners and the cry for higher standards and achievement are only a few of the daily realities that principals face.
The difficulties of executing these managerial tasks are further compounded by the following:
A lack of capacity to handle multifaceted tasks including: democratising school governance; building learning programmes that include basic skills such as reading and writing; chairing of meetings; handling of bigger classes; controlling discipline; handling multilingual instruction; higher pupil/teacher ratios; establishment of effective communication; delegating tasks; a lack of accountability; a lack of managerial skills in conflict handling; handling dispute resolutions; handling labour issues; and
6 • lack of training in a host of other interrelated tasks.
The introduction of a new curriculum philosophy of outcome based education(OBE) with very little training and development afforded to educational management.
The lack of financial skills leading to massive corruption and financial mismanagement.
The results of the above problems and difficulties have resulted in:
low morale amongst teachers and managers; lack of trust and respect; lower productivity; lack of commitment; the absence of a culture of teaching and learning; a lack of effectiveness and efficiency; poor understanding of transformative issues as they relate to organisational development; massive movement of children from the townships to urban schools; a lack of confidence by parents in the schooling system; the lowering of standards; the mushrooming of private schools; and a mass exodus of highly skilled managers.
Having introduced and motivated the problem of this research, it is now necessary to state the problem in a more precise way.
1.2.2 PROBLEM STATEMENT
In view of the preceding information, it appears as if the research problem can be encapsulated by means of the following questions:
7 Which management competencies are necessary for the training and development of effective principals?
Which curriculum management competencies are necessary for the effective training and development of principals?
What is the perception of principals and educators in respect of the importance of effective management of the curriculum as an aspect of the training and development of competent principals?
What guidelines are necessary in order to develop a programme to train principals in the effective management of the curriculum as an aspect of the training and development of effective principals?
Having demarcated the research problem it is now necessary to state the aim of this research project.
1.3 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES
In view of the problems formulated above, the general aim of this research project is to:
Investigate the competencies necessary for the training and development of effective principals.
In order to achieve the general aim of this project the following serve as specific aims, namely to:
determine the competencies necessary to manage the curriculum effectively as an aspect of the training and development of principals;
8 ascertain the perception of principals and educators as to the importance of the effective management of the curriculum in the training and development of competent principals;
devise guidelines on developing a training and development model for principals in respect of the effective management of the curriculum as an aspect of the training and development of effective principals.
In view of the preceding problems and aim statements, the methods envisaged to research the problem training and development of principals in the effective management of the curriculum, will now be discussed.
1.4 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
The aim of this research is directed at describing principal competence with specific reference to the training and development of effective principals.
A literature survey will be used to elucidate principal competence in the South African context and how international studies could assist with the training and development of programmes so that national and international norms could be established for the effective and efficient management of the curriculum. More specifically, this thesis will concentrate on the effective management of the curriculum as an aspect of the training and development of effective principals.
To supplement the preceding literature survey an empirical study will be undertaken. A structured questionnaire will be compiled using the literature research as a basis in an effort to obtain teacher and principal opinion regarding the management of the curriculum as a facet of the development and training of effective principals. An analysis of the results of the questionnaire will be undertaken and a strategic training and development programme will be structured to support principals in managing the curriculum effectively.
9 Having discussed the research strategy a set of assumptions is made to develop a framework for the research.
1.5 ASSUMPTIONS
In order to establish the competencies required by principals and to devise training and development programmes for the effective management of the curriculum the following assumptions are made:
The school is the primary unit of change.
Significant change in educational practice takes considerable time and is the result of long range management development programmes of three to five years.
A positive, healthy school climate that includes trust, open communication, and peer support for changes in practice is essential for successful management development programmes.
People are motivated if they believe in what they are doing. It leads to better decision making, clearer communication, greater ease in delegation with the benefit of a lower need for supervision.
People find it easier to work together and to respect each other if there is greater co- operation and trust.
Those who are changing their behaviours must make personal group commitments to the new practice so that they will want to participate and learn from in-service activities.
The principal is the key to facilitating improvement in the school.
10 As adult learners, principals are motivated to learn when individual differences are recognised and when principals have some control over what and how they learn.
Members of the teaching profession when completing the questionnaire will give their true opinion and not provide answers they expect the researcher will want from them.
A strong mission statement exists when the links between the behaviour, strategy, values and purpose are clear and reinforcing, for example "It is the mission of this school to provide excellent and relevant education to our learners by educators working to the highest professional standards using knowledge, skills and attitudes that exemplify dedication and excellence in the belief that all people are valuable, capable and responsible" (Grobler, 1993: 8).
Having made the necessary assumptions, key concepts that form the focus of this research, will be clarified.
1.6 CONCEPT CLARIFICATION
Sallis (1993: 21) supports the idea that it is necessary to have a clear understanding of concepts as they may imply different things in different contexts to different people. The following concepts will be clarified:
11 1.6.1 COMPETENCE
Competence can be defined as:
The ability or skill of a person in fulfilling the professional role effectively and/or expertly (Bartlett, 1991:3); and
The possession and development of sufficient skills, knowledge, appropriate attitudes and experience for successful performance (Hyland, 1994:22-23).
Views on principal competence generally vary according to fundamental values and principles. In some instances it is related to occupational roles while for others it focuses on routine aspects of work activity. Burke (1990:12) argues that competence is based on specific activities and skills that are required to perform within an occupational area. Schemerhorn, Hunt and Osborn (1994:17) considers an effective manager as one who operates with great concern for productivity, a summative measure of the quantity and quality of work performance achieved, which also takes resource utilization into account. This concept will receive greater attention in Chapter 2.
1.6.2 COMPETENCY
According to Meyer (1996: 34) competency is the integration of knowledge, skill and value orientation, demonstrated to a defined standard in a specific context. Competencies are the underlying characteristics that enable managers to perform a job better in more situations, move often with better results. Competencies are therefore factors that distinguish the best from the rest. They are not the tasks of the job but what enables people to perform the tasks (Trotter and Ellison, 1997: 36). This concept will be further clarified in Chapter 2.
12 1.6.3 TRAINING
According to Oxford Universal Dictionary (Hawkins, 1981: 756), and The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Current English (Fowler and Fowler, 1990: 1136) training is described as a desired standard of efficiency and as a series of connected events or ideas or actions to teach and give practice in a skill or profession.
Training is a learning process that involves the acquisition of skills, concepts, rules or attitudes to increase the performance of employees (Byars and Rue, 1994:216). Training includes instruction, teaching, tuition, grounding, coaching, drilling, discipline, direction, guidance, initiation ,learning, information and skills (Urdang, 1986:1243).
Training, for the purpose of this research, refers to a deliberate effort to develop and teach specific skills, knowledge and attitudes in principals so that they can manage schools effectively.
This aspect will be discussed in greater detail in Chapter 2.
1.6.4 DEVELOPMENT
Kirkpatrick (1990 : 398), Gerber, van Dyk and Nel (1997: 503-507) and Urdang (1986: 287) describe development as growth, increasing skill level, maturity, unfolding, blossoming, improvement, build-up, uplift, betterment, transformation, strengthening, making progress, advancement, and evolvement.
The researcher is thus in agreement with Fidler and Cooper (1992: 193) who states that development goals consist of the following:
to counsel and coach principals so that they will improve their performance and develop future potential; to develop commitment to the organisation through discussion and planning;
13 to motivate principals through recognition of achievements and support; to strengthen principal/educator relations; and to diagnose individual and organisational problems.
Everard and Morris (1996:xi) states that the direction of principal development must be towards greater understanding and competence. Thus, while it may be appropriate for a programme to include the acquisition of techniques or skills, or the learning of data, it must lead to a higher level of intellectual and creative performance.
From the above it can be inferred that development is future-oriented. The process of development is primarily concerned with helping principals to acquire and improve the competencies necessary to manage schools effectively.
This concept will be discussed in greater detail in Chapter 2.
1.6.5 MANAGEMENT
Management in its broadest sense is about:
setting direction, aims and objectives; planning how progress will be made or a goal achieved; organizing available resources (people, time, materials) so that the goal can be economically achieved in the planned way; controlling the process (measuring achievement against predetermined plans and taking corrective action where appropriate); and setting and improving organizational standards (Everard and Morris, 1996:4).
The researcher therefore takes the view, as expounded by Everard and Morris (1996:xi), that a principal may be considered as one who:
knows what he or she wants to happen and causes it to happen;
14 is responsible for controlling resources and ensuring that they are put to good use; promotes effectiveness in work done, and searches for continual improvement; is accountable for the performance of the unit he or she is managing, of which he or she is a part; and sets a climate or tone conducive to enabling people to give of their best.
Bush (1995: 1) quotes Cuthbert's defininion of management as an activity involving responsibility for getting things done through other people.
Everard and Morris (1996: xii) conclude that effective school management is an approach that supports, promotes and is harmoniously related to the development of the organization.
1.6.6 EDUCATION MANAGEMENT DEVELOPMENT
According to the Report of the Task Team on Educational Management Development as initiated by Professor Bengu, Minister of National Education in South Africa (Godden et al., 1996: 27) education management development means more than training school principals. It means considering the organizational framework for education and the management ethos and style, which should characterize a school based system of education management. It combines education training and support in the context of organizational development of structures, staff development and curriculum development with the aim of improving the quality of teaching and learning.
Further Education Management Development is directed at creating an environment for effective teaching and learning and to improve performance according to the following three criteria (Godden et al., 1996:37):
Effectiveness: achieving the objectives of the school; Efficiency: improving performance and equivalents at lower cost; using resources to the best effect.
15 • Relevance: sustaining the ability to learn and adapt.
According to Gerber et al. (1997: 505) and van der Westhuizen (1994: 256) management development should be a continuous process of goal — directed exposure to various inputs which will give principals the necessary knowledge, skills and attitudes to execute their managerial tasks effectively and achieve their organisation's objectives.
1.6.7. PRINCIPAL
According to Fowler and Fowler (1990: 817) a principal is defined as the principal educator in charge of a school. Shah (1990: 24) describes a principal as one who is at the helm of affairs of the school. The principal administers and supervises the entire school operation including the physical plant, equipment and teaching resources, staff, pupils and instruction programme.
In this research, reference is made to a principal as being a person who is responsible and accountable for the management of the school. The terms head, leader, manager and principal are used synonymously in this research.
1.6.8 EDUCATOR
According to South African Council of Educators (SACE) in its CODE OF CONDUCT an educator is defined as any person who teaches, educates or trains other persons or provides professional therapy at any school, technical college or college of education or assists in rendering professional services provided by or in a department of education, and whose employment is regulated by the Educators' Employment Act (RSA, 1994) and any other person registered with the Council. In this research the terms teacher and educator will be used interchangeably.
16 It is the task of principals to manage team leaders and members effectively, that is, ensuring that work gets done properly and on time and also developing their skill by ensuring that opportunities are created to improve the quality of their work.
1.6.9 ORGANISATIONAL STRUCTURES
Godden et al. (1996:42) describes organizational structures, as the way in which duties and responsibilities are divided among organizations and institutions in the system, and among units and individuals within each institution and organization.
According to Everard and Morris (1996:150) an organization's structure embraces the organization chart, the committees, the departments, the roles, the hierarchical levels and authority, the procedures in the staff manual, the time table, and so forth.
Organizational structures establish predictable patterns of relationships among people by dividing work into distinct tasks and by coordinating the activities of their members. Organizations exert strong influence on the behaviour and attitudes of their members and on the ways in which they perform their work. Thus, the structure of an organization should be designed to allow groups of people to achieve their goals efficiently and effectively and to respond to changes in the environment in which they are working (Rondinelli, Middleton and Verspoor, 1990:119).
Structures are reflected in organization charts that show the formal relationships among units and people, the division of labour into tasks, the distribution of authority, the roles and jobs of individual members, lines of responsibility, and formal patterns of communication (Rondinelli et al.,1990: 119).
According to Basson (1991:74) the following structures exist in the school:
• task or functional structures
17 Educational structures (Compare the school time-table, extra curricular programme) Administrative structures Maintenance structures post structures authority structure responsibility structure communication structure management structure Leadership structure Authority structure Control structure remuneration structure.
1.6.10 CURRICULUM
Decisions about the curriculum content of a learning programme must necessarily be made in the context of related policy decisions. Hence they must be made in the context of the social, political and economic situations which exist in each country. According to Hills (1982: 72-80) curriculum refers to the learning of tasks set, their coherence and balance in the total school programme which in turn depends on the teaching values and goals which is further linked to the process of evaluation. The above statement not only reflects the dynamic link between the various components of the curriculum but also on the quality and values inherent in the curriculum. A significant contribution in this regard is Wiles and Bondi (1993: 31-32) who see curriculum as a set of values which are activated through a development process under the control of the school for the learners' continuous growth in personal and social competence.
Managing the curriculum is therefore directed at:
enhancing the achievement of learners;
18 improving the effectiveness of the school; and managing development and change.
The exposition of the remaining five chapters will now follow.
1.7 EXPOSITION
Having clarified the key concepts used in this research the following is an outline of the study to be pursued:
Chapter Two: The Competence / Competency Approach to effective school management and a systems approach will be developed. Guidelines for designing training and development programmes will be provided.
Chapter Three: A literature survey on principal competence in the effective management of the curriculum will be conducted.
Chapter Four: The research design, development of the research instrument and sampling will be discussed.
Chapter Five: The findings will be tabulated, analyzed and interpreted.
Chapter Six: A summary and conclusion on the findings, recommendation and reflections on the research will be done.
1.8 SUMMARY
In this chapter the critical role of the principal in managing schools was discussed. In order to promote effective management of schools it is necessary to identify the competencies required by principals to manage this process. Key components, which have been identified, include:
19 Management of the curriculum Management of organisational structures. Management of financial and physical resources. Management of educators.
The problem as perceived by principals and key persons in education that were responsible for a breakdown in the schooling system was highlighted. These included:
poor management of schools; lack of resources; lack of commitment and dedication by learners and educators; the effects of apartheid legacy and a crisis of legitimacy; uninvolved parents; misdirected government policies; and the demise of a culture of learning and teaching.
The aim of this research project was formulated. It is directed at establishing the competencies required by principals to effectively manage schools, and devising training and development programmes for the effective management of the curriculum. The training and development will be founded on the perceptions of principals and educators as to what effective school management is.
The research methodology is outlined and key concepts including training, development, competence, competencies, management, education management development, principal, educators, curriculum and organisational structures were clarified. In chapter two a competence / competency approach to effective management and a system approach model will be developed. Guidelines in designing a training and development programme to manage the curriculum effectively will also be provided.
20 CHAPTER TWO KEY COMPETENCIES FOR EFFECTIVE SCHOOL MANAGEMENT
2.1 INTRODUCTION
The first chapter of this research provides a background and motivation for the study of training and developing principals to manage the curriculum as one of the aspects of principals' competence to manage schools effectively.
The researcher will develop an approach for effective school management so that a basis can be found to support the research. In order to do this it is essential to clarify the terms competence and competencies which will place the present project into perspective and provide direction to the research. It will also assist the researcher in developing a conceptual framework that will enable him to collect, examine and analyse data. It is the intention of the researcher to develop guidelines for a training and development model for principals to manage the curriculum effectively.
In this chapter the following aspects will be addressed:
clarifiying the competence and competency approach for effective school management;
developing a model for effective school management;
designing a training and development model for principals to manage schools effectively; and
developing a systems model for effective school management.
In developing an approach for effective school management, the two main approaches namely, the competency and competence approaches will now be discussed.
21 2.2 COMPETENCE APPROACH AND COMPETENCY APPROACH TO EFFECTIVE SCHOOL MANAGEMENT
According to Squelch and Lemmer (1994:vii) the education system as a whole has been affected by the changes taking place in society. South African schools have in turn become sites for radical change. This has resulted in concerns by communities across the country for quality education and the urgency to improve the overall learner achievement. School principals are faced with situations in which effective and efficient school management requires new and improved skills, knowledge, attitudes and values to cope with a wide range of new demands and challenges. In the South African education system, these include, amongst others:
restoring the culture of teaching and learning where it does not exist and sustaining and encouraging it in schools where it does exist;
improving and maintaining high standards of education;
reshaping the curriculum to handle outcome based education(OBE) and the new system of assessments;
working more closely with parents and stakeholders and teacher unions;
coping with multicultural populations;
managing change and conflict;
coping with limited resources; and
being more accountable to the community they serve.
22 In the quest for quality education, competent principals are urgently needed to manage effectively such increasingly complex and heterogeneous tasks.
According to Trotter and Ellison (1997:2-3), while school management effectiveness has been researched over several decades across many countries, the interest in management competence in education is relatively recent. Past managerial competence went hand in hand with the possession of specific skills, abilities and knowledge. However, the complexity of school management in the present context, demands far more from these principals. It rests on the development of attitudes, values and "mindsets" that allow principals to confront, understand and deal with a wide range of forces from within and outside the school environment (Trotter and Ellison, 1997:38).
According to Edmonds (1992:206) the term "managerial competence" means many different things to many different people. One approach to competence is the ability to perform activities within an occupational area to the standards expected in employment. On closer inspection, this imperative breaks down into two major components:
What is reasonable to expect from principals? What reasonable ranges of situations are principals expected to be able to deal with?
Another approach to principal competence is to describe the characteristics of successful principals. Edmonds (1992: 206) describes this approach in terms of three dimensions, namely, what, where and how.
The 'what' dimension focuses essentially on those tasks for which a principal is responsible. Principals are likely to have as their primary responsibility the delivery of quality education. In order to do this they will have to manage educators, curriculum, structures and resources.
23 The 'where' dimension refers to the school environment in which managerial activities are performed to realise quality education.
The 'how' dimension refers to the principal who is responsible for performing specific activities for effective schooling.
In developing an understanding of the skills, knowledge, values and attitudes needed by principals to manage schools effectively, Ouston (1993:213) and Eraut (1994:179) concur with Edmonds (1992:206) when they researched two approaches used for education management, namely the :
competency approach to effective management; and
competence approach to effective management.
Detailed clarification on these two main approaches will now follow.
2.2.1 CLARIFICATION OF THE CONCEPTS OF "COMPETENCE" AND "COMPETENCY"
Various authors use the words competence and competency interchangeably. There are spelling variations that may provide a clue to the origin of a competence or competency model. According to Esp (1993: 18) and Trotter and Ellison (1997:39), the American based models speak of competency and competencies. In the United Kingdom educationists and authors use the term competence and competences.
It is however necessary to clarify the concept 'competence' and 'competency' in order to establish what skills, knowledge, attitudes and values are required by principals to manage schools effectively and efficiently.
24 According to Meyer (1996: 32) competence or competency is essentially an abstract concept. It can be defined and measured only through behaviour or performance. Hence constructs or attributes• such as drive, conceptual reasoning and flexibility are inferred from behaviour. In the context of work the problem becomes one of validity. In other words, how do we know that the various constructs in fact contribute to or are a prerequisite for required performance?
Constructs are abstract, which means that they themselves cannot be observed. So how does one research applied constructs? Constructs are constructed out of observations in the first place, which means that the observations are related to the constructs in some meaningful way. We use our empirical observations to provide information about the invisible constructs. When we measuring a concrete property, such as length, we can directly measure the property itself with a universally standardised measuring instrument. When measuring any abstract property, such as the construct of 'competence', we must measure the empirical observations that relate to the construct. That is, we cannot directly measure competence. We must measure the behaviours that we believe are related to competence (Reaves, 1992:71). It is difficult to measure the principal's commitment. There are certain behaviours related to commitment, for example, regular attendance, punctuality, and concern for learners and educators.
Trotter and Ellison (1997:36) provide a clear distinction between competence and competencies. Competence and competency are about skills and characteristics that people bring to tasks and situations and what they do that result in successful outcomes. As they involve the study of success, these concepts are very relevant to management development in schools. A simplified explanation of the difference between them is that competence is the ability to do a particular task while competency concerns the underlying characteristics, which allow a person to perform well in a variety of situations. Put simply, competence is about outputs to specified minimum standards while competency is about inputs that a person brings to a job, resulting in superior performance.
25 Eraut (1994:179) differentiates between the term 'competence', which is given a generic or holistic meaning and refers to a person's overall capacity, and the term 'competency', which refers to specific capabilities. He further elaborates that the word `competency'can be used either in a direct performance—related sense: a competency is an element of vocational competence, a performance capability needed by principals in a specified occupational area or simply to describe any piece of knowledge or skill that might be construed as relevant.
The Australian authors Gonzi, Hager and Athanasou (1993: 6) adopted a similar approach with somewhat greater clarity of definition. They used the word 'competence' in a holistic sense, noting that performance is what is directly observable, whereas competence is not directly observable, rather it is inferred from performance. The competence of professionals derives from their possessing a set of relevant attributes such as knowledge, skills and attributes. These attributes which jointly underlie competence are often referred to as competencies. One could thus for example speak of a principal as a competent problem solver if he/she possessed the competencies of asking questions, personally investigating, doing research, being able to get to the root of the problem and establishing an own method, when solving problems.
Having differentiated between the terms competence and competency, we will now illustrate the two approaches, namely, the competency approach and the competence approach to effective school management.
2.2.2 THE COMPETENCY APPROACH TO EFFECTIVE SCHOOL MANAGEMENT
Burke (1990:12) defines competency as the ability to perform activities within an occupational area to the level of performance expected in employment. It is a broad concept, which embodies the ability to transfer skills and knowledge to new situations.
26 It also involves the organisation and planning of work, innovation and coping with more routine activities and qualities of personal effectiveness in order to respond to regular and irregular occurrences in environments having different characteristics.
Hodkinson and Issit (1994: 87) and Trotter and Ellison (1997:40) both concur with Burke that competencies are the underlying characteristics that enable managers to perform a job better in more situations, more often, with better results. Competencies are therefore factors, which distinguish the best from the rest. They are not tasks of the job but what enables people to perform the tasks.
The Committee on Teacher Education Policy (COTEP, 1994:10), Meyer (1996:34) and Charlton (1993:35) also interpret competency as the exhibition of specific behaviors and attitudes being clearly demonstrated and is distinguishable from the inherent potential to perform.
Jiransinghe and Lyons (1996: 96-98) present the following set of competencies for specific tasks performed by principals in Table 2.1, followed by a brief discussion of those competencies necessary in managing the curriculum.
27 TABLE 2.1 PRINCIPAL COMPETENCIES FOR SPECIFIC TASKS
TASKS COMPETENCIES Managing People • Sensitivity • Motivating • Evaluating • Participating • Facilitating • Consulting
Managing the political environment • Political ability • Persuading and negotiating Personal skills • Commitment and values • Reasoning and judgement • Self—awareness and judgement • Projecting a favourable image and communication
2.2.2.1 COMPETENCIES NECESSARY IN MANAGING THE CURRICULUM
Sensitivity
The principal is sensitive to the needs and aspirations of the schooling community.
28 Motivating
The principal motivates and mobilizes others by promoting a system of values and principles cherished by the community.
Evaluating
The principal promotes confidence amongst staff and pupils by setting up systems to enable monitoring and evaluating of their work and progress.
Participating
The principal favours shared decision-making and is prepared to take time over decisions ensuring involvement of relevant stakeholders.
Facilitating
The principal should be skilled at facilitating group discussions, providing structure and methods for the team to get its work done, and ensuring that all members are encouraged to participate.
Consulting
The principal pays genuine attention to the opinions/feelings of educators but maintains a clear sense of task objectives and makes the final decisions.
29 Political ability
The principal is politically adept, can develop and maintain a network of contacts, and is aware of his/her own relationship to the wider political environment. The leader generates support amongst stakeholders for the school.
Persuading and negotiating
The principal is persuasive and negotiates with various interest groups, if necessary being tough minded and firm in dealing with conflicts in order to achieve a successful outcome.
Commitment and values
The principal displays commitment to the school through strength of personal beliefs, by his/her own energy and enthusiasm and by maintaining a positive morale.
Reasoning and judgement
The principal is able to reason logically, critically evaluate information received, and exercise judgement in making decisions and solving problems.
Self-awareness and development
In recognizing the need for continuous personal and professional development, the principal keeps abreast of new educational developments, actively monitors own performance, has wider interests outside the school and is able to respond to change by generating ideas for organizational renewal.
30 • Projecting a favourable image and communicating
The principal establishes visibility and credibility for the school by confidently projecting the school and its goals . The leader communicates effectively both orally and in writing, even when under pressure, adapting style according to the audience.
Another example of the competency approach is that of the North American Secondary School Principals (NASSP) approach. They have accepted a set of competencies that can be assessed by a series of exercises designed either for principals, deputy principals or heads of department (refer to Table 2.2).
TABLE 2.2: SKILL DIMENSIONS OF THE NASSP PRINCIPALS ASSESSMENT CENTRE
Twelve skill dimensions of the NASSP Principals Assessment Centre Administrative skills Problem analysis. Ability to seek out relevant data and analyse complex information to determine the important elements of a problem situation; searching for information with a purpose. Judgement. Ability to reach logical conclusions and make high quality decisions based on available information; skill in identifying educational needs and setting priorities; ability to evaluate written communications. Organisational ability. Ability to plan, schedule and control the work of others; skill in using resources in an optimal fashion; ability to deal with a volume of paper work and heavy demands on one's time. .
31 Decisiveness. Ability to recognise when a decision is required (disregarding the quality of the decision) and to act quickly. INTERPERSONAL SKILLS Leadership skills. Ability to get others involved in solving problems; ability to recognise when a group requires direction, to effectively interact with a group to guide them to accomplish a task.
Sensitivity. Ability to perceive the needs, concerns and personal problems of others; skill in resolving conflicts; tact in dealing with persons form different backgrounds; ability to deal effectively with people concerning emotional issues; knowing what information to communicate and to whom. Stress tolerance Ability to perform under pressure and during opposition; ability to think on one's feet. COMMUNICATION Oral communication. Ability to make clear oral presentation of facts or ideas. Written communication Ability to express ideas clearly in writing; to write appropriately for different audiences— educators, learners, parents and others.
OTHER DIMENSIONS Range of interests. Competence to discuss a variety of subjects — educational, political, current events, economics, etceteras; desire to actively participate in events.
Personal motivation. Need to achieve in all activities attempted; evidence that work is important in personal satisfaction; ability to be self—managing.
32 12. Educational values. Possession of a well-reasoned educational philosophy; receptiveness to new ideas and change.
A competency is usually presented as: a title; a definition; and statements of the kinds of behaviour used by successful performers (see Table 2.3).
33 TABLE 2.3: INFORMATION SEEKING AS A COMPETENCY
TITLE INFORMATION SEEKING
An active curiosity and a desire to know more about things, issues of people. Makes an effort to find out Definition more, does not accept situations at face value, goes beyond routine questions, and scans for information that may be of future use.
BEHAVIOUR STATEMENTS FOR THIS COMPETENCY
Ask questions Questions of people involved in a situation. Even in a crisis takes time to gather any available information before taking actions. Personally investigates Gets out and about and finds out from people closest to a problem. Digs deeper Probes below the surface to get to the root of problems. Contact others Approaches people who are not personally imvolved to get their perspective. Does research Make systematic efforts over a limited time period to get data; uses media and other sources to gather information. Establish own methods Employs means of gathering and using information systems, including managing by walking around and using meetings.
34
It is evident from the above discussion that competencies relate to the principal's personal qualities. Extensive research in the late 1970's by the McBer Corporation (Jiransinghe and Lyons, 1996:21) to determine those characteristics of managers which distinguished "superior performers" from "average performers" resulted in the McBer/Boyatzis approach to management. It postulates that effective action or performance will occur when three critical components concerning the job are consistent or fit together. These include:
The job requirements or demands on the individual; The characteristics or abilities which enable an individual to demonstrate appropriate actions called competencies; and The context of an organisation, encompassing internal factors such as organisational policies, procedures, mission, culture and resources and external factors such as the social, political and economic environment.
According to Loock and Grobler (1997: 37) it is essential that principals be equipped to manage schools effectively. They should have the necessary managerial skills to meet the demands imposed by schools thus ensuring a state of equilibrium between the individual and the school. This is illustrated in Figure 2.1 below.
DEMANDS ta- Arl COMPETENCIES SCHOOL INDIVIDUAL (PRINCIPAL)
Figure 2.1: State of equilibrium: Demands and Skills
35 This interaction can also be represented as in Figure 2.2 ( Boyatzis cited in Jiransinghe and Lyons, 1996:21).
E1-1-B,CTIVE SPECIFIC ACTIONS F BEHAVIOURS
Figure 2.2: A Model of effective job performance
Figure 2.2 describes several important features of competency for effective action. These include:
Competencies can be motives, traits, skills, aspects of one's self image or social role or a body of knowledge which a manager uses;
Competencies may exist within the individual at various levels, with motives and traits at the unconscious level and skills at the behavioural level; and
Competency is context dependent (given a different organisational environment, the competencies may be evident through other specific actions).
36 The above definitions and examples of competency illustrate that competencies are not so much about the details of the job but about what outstanding performers bring to the job.
The McBer/Boyatzis approach puts a great deal of effort into discovering the underlying characteristics of actions which influences the orientation and ways in which managers use their skills and knowledge.
The iceberg model in figure 2.3 highlights the fact that it is the hidden characteristics, which are more difficult to develop. These hidden characteristics are however significant factors in effective school management (Spenser and Spenser, cited in Trotter and Ellison, 1997:46).
37 VISIBLE SKILLS EASIER TO AND DEVELOP KNOWLEDGE
Water line HIDDEN MORE DIFFICULT TO DEVELOP
SELF CONCEPT ATTITUDES VALUES MOTIVES
Figure 2.3 : The iceberg model of competency
The model above assume that motives, abilities, values and attitudes:
play a causal and explanatory role in accounting for the more observable behavioral aspects;
are all theoretical entities or constructs; and
which may be more difficult to measure directly.
38 Generally speaking the McBer approach gives emphasis to those aspects of managerial behavior which would be below the water line (the underlying abilities, traits, motives, attitudes and values).
A discussion of the Competence approach for effective school management will now follow.
2.2.3 COMPETENCE APPROACH FOR EFFECTIVE SCHOOL MANAGEMENT
According to Fowler and Fowler (1983: 191) competence is the ability or the legal capacity to perform some specific task. Murphy and Broadfoot (1995: 150) describe competence as what a person knows and can do under ideal circumstances. Further, competence embraces the structure of knowledge, abilities and skills related to management and planning, negotiating and team skills, initiative and leadership, adaptability to change, self — esteem , ethics ( Partington, cited in Turner, 1996: 46).
The above definitions are also conceptualised well in the British version of the Management Charter Initiative (MCI) (Trotter and Ellison, 1997:40) which defines competence as:
the ability to perform job requirements to a specified standard, and to be able to transfer the skills and knowledge to new situations.
Similarly for a national vocational qualification (NVQ) accreditation competence is:
the ability to perform activities to the level expected within employment, that is what you are able to do in a job to satisfy specified standards (Trotter and Ellison, ibid ). It is therefore inferred that competence: can be seen as the ability to perform a specific task, or
39 • having the qualification required by law to do some particular work. An example of this would be the requirement by law that educators may only be employed in public institutions in South Africa if they are registered by a professional body such as the South African Council of Educators (SACE).
The aim of the competence approach is to set up standards of competence for the various levels of management. In adapting the NVQ and the MCI models to school management, Esp (1993:61) outlined the competence required by principles as a result of a project involving 14 local education authorities (LEA's) and some 3000 schools. This resulted in a series of key roles with associated units of competence and their elements as reflected in figure 2.4.
40
Manage school effectively by creating, maintaining, KEY reviewing and developing an PURPOSE enviroment which promotes STATMENT the culture of teaching and learning. • MANAGE MANAGE MANAGE MANAGE KEY CURRICULUM ORGANISATIONAL EDUCATORS FINANCES ROLES STRUCTURES
V V Vision building Curriculum Implementation Feedback UNITS management and planning evaluation
V • Organising the Choose Allocate work Provide ELEMENT curriculum appropriate and evaluate feedback to structures for programme. learners on coordination their performance.
Figure 2.4: Key roles in the competence approach to management
The competence approach for effective school management therefore places emphasis on the following:
identifying specific job descriptions;
41 identifying qualifications necessary to perform tasks;
setting out standards of performance and ranges of situations where they would need to be demonstrated; and
assessing the training needs based on the ability of managers to perform specific tasks to the standards expected.
The last two sections have clarified the competence and competency approach in respect of management. A framework to develop a model for effective school management will now be discussed.
2.2.4 A MODEL FOR EFFECTIVE SCHOOL MANAGEMENT
The two approaches discussed may be summarised as follows:
the competence approach which provides detailed specification of what skills and knowledge are required by the principal to perform a task well. It also reflects on the standards and range of situations in which a competent principal should be able to successfully execute those tasks. It is development orientated and provides the focus for detailed assessment for senior managers; and
the competency approach which places emphasis on the underlying characteristics of a principal which results in effective and/or superior performance in a job. These underlying characteristics or competencies may be a motive, trait, skill, aspects of one's self image or social role or a body of knowledge used by the principal.
The essential difference between these two approaches is represented in figure 2.5.
42 PERFORMANCE STANDARDS
Job Analysis Interpretation Competence approach Of key roles Competency approach
PERSONAL QUALITIES
Figure 2.5: Essential difference between the competence and the competency approach to management
The competency approach describes those competencies or personal qualities of a manager that enable him/her to be competent while the competence approach describe those functions or skills of a job at which the manager must be competent.
Table 2.4 below also reflects the comparison of competence and competency processes (Trotter and Ellison, 1997: 41).
43 TABLE 2.4: OUTLINE IN COMPARISON OF COMPETENCE AND COMPETENCY PROCESS
COMPETENCE : the ability to perform COMPETENCY : what a person brings to work to satisfactory standards a job that results in success
SPECIFIC AND TRANSFERABLE GENERIC PERSONAL COMPETENCES FOR A JOB COMPETENCIES
Set the key purpose for the job Clarify the major requirements and performance criteria for the job
Identify key roles Identify successful job performers — the best 10%
Identify key units per role Compare their characteristics and behaviour with that of other job holders
I Identify elements for each unit Formulate the key competencies
I I Specify performance criteria and the range Train people in these competencies of situations where they will need to be shown
Train and assess accordingly
44 In order to bring the two approaches together it is useful to conceptualise competent principals as either having:
Behaviours that are traits, motives, or personal qualities (example - sensitivity, forcefulness, reasoning ability); or Behaviours that are more skills-based such as outputs, deliverables or standards (example - management of resources) of which the job consists and at which principals may be competent.
Competencies may therefore be conceptualised as either a part of the principal's performance of the job as represented by the traits, motives and personal qualities or as a part of the job performed as depicted by skills, outputs and occupational standards (Jiransinghe and Lyons, 1996: 27).
Diagrammatically the above may be represented as in figure 2.6 (Jiransinghe and Lyons, 1996:28).
45
MORE OBSERVABLE COMPETENCE APPROACH: STANDARDS/FUNCTIONS
Specific Specific Specific Behaviour Behaviour Behaviour
C1 C2 C3 Skills Skills Skills Knowledge Knowledge Knowledge to• Trait Trait Traits Motive Motive Motive Quality Quality Quality
COMPETENCY APPROACH: PERSONAL QUALITIES V LESS OBSERVABLE
Figure 2.6: A framework for conceptualising competencies
The specific competencies shown along the horizontal axis for example Cl, C2, C3, etcetera are each represented as consisting of both the skills component as well as the motives and personality traits. Knowledge components are depicted alongside the skills since they are more observable than traits, motives and personal qualities.
The vertical axis indicates observability. The skills components are more observable than the trait and motive components.
46 The iceberg model as reflected figure 2.3 also reinforces the above conceptual framework. Jiransinghe and Lyons (1996:27) further suggest that behavior is best pictured as a continuum where the left end represents underlying traits/motives which are less observable and the right end represents skills/knowledge which are more observable. This is represented in figure 2.7
Left Right 41 COMPETENCIES BALANCE BETWEENBETWEEN KNOW TRAITS MOTIVES SOCIAL SKILLS LEDGE OUTPUTS ROLE AND SKILLS FUNCTION TRAITS
Figure 2.7: A competent principal seen as a continuum of competencies.
The McBer approach for competent principals as depicted in figure 2.7 utilizes the continuum of competencies where the left extremity focuses on traits and motives and the right extremity focuses on skills and knowledge.
A model for developing competent principals may be drawn depicting a given behaviour at any point along this continuum. The model may be characterised by behaviours which are equally skills and traits - based, while another may consist of behaviours in a ratio of 70% traits and 30% skills based.
The management of curriculum issues may be considered as highly visionary and requires high motivation and inspiration in driving the vision of the school. Principals who are highly committed and have strong personal motives and traits in driving the ethos of the school may be considered to be competent in managing the curriculum. The model for the
47
management of the curriculum would therefore gravitate towards the left extremity of the continuum. Figure 2.8 illustrates this model.
TRAITS MOTIVES SOCIAL BALANCE KNOWL SKILLS OUTPUTS ROLE BETWEEN EDGE FUNCTION SKILLS AND TRAITS
HIGHER PERSONAL TRAITS LOWER SKILLS
Figure 2.8: A competent principal seen as a continuum of competencies for managing curriculum
The the above conceptual framework for developing a model for competent principals may be summarised as follows:
Identify the action / behaviour that principals require to manage schools effectively;
Identify the degree of observability of the action / behaviour on the continuum;
The degrees of observability will determine the ratio of personal traits and motives with performance outcomes;
Highly observable behaviour will determine programmes that focuses with training and development programmes of skills and knowledge; and
48 • Less observable actions will determine training and development programmes that focus on changing attitudes, values and abilities.
The above discussion may be depicted as a matrix model for training and development. It is now necessary to discuss the design of training and development programmes to precede the discussion on the CMM (competent - based management matrix model).
2.3 GUIDELINES FOR DEVELOPING A MODEL FOR EFFECTIVE TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT
For far too long in education, principals have managed schools by looking over their shoulders, drawing from what they have learnt from their predecessors, managing through ad hoc or trial and error modes of operating (Ramsey cited in Shah, 1990:6). There are those principals who are "shallow coping" in managing schools. Pressures such as better qualified educators, educators' assertiveness as professionals, the demands for autonomy, the broadening of the curriculum, the need to manage diminishing resources, coping with education technology and principals subjected to community and political pressures are among the pressing trends which increase the cry for management development (Shah, 1990:6).
Dependence on experience alone is an inadequate foundation for principals to manage schools effectively. The development of work—related and management trends can no longer be regarded as an appendage but an essential provision for the personal growth of principals and organisational development. Schools can learn from industrial management since they have a good reputation for the systematic development in management skills (Everard and Morris, 1985:10). Most skills applied in industrial management are with adaptation transferable to the training of principals.
This research is motivated by a need to address the many managerial problems experienced by principals in their quest for effective school management. Thus there is a
49 dire need for the training and professional development of principals to facilitate effective management.
According to Shah (1990:9) management development, during the past decade, has received considerable attention in England with courses being provided by the Department of Education and Science (DES) together with Local Education Authority (LEA), The Northwest Educational Centre and the Inner London Education Authority (ILEA). Preparatory programmes for educational management also show promising development in the United States. So vital is the need for training for principal management responsibility that countries such as France and Sweden now have compulsory development programmes for newly appointed heads while the Netherlands, Norway and Denmark offer nationally funded courses which attract eager participation by heads (Shah, 1990:10).
National initiatives for on—the—job training and development in South Africa are still in the stage of infancy. A few local universities such as the Rand Afrikaans University have included management modules in their Bachelor of Education and Master of Education degrees for heads of departments, deputy principals and principals.
The view is widely held that the principal holds the key to school effectiveness (Sergiovanni, 1984: 6-8). The principal's managerial role is changing. The demands being made on schools is beginning to change the traditional role model of paternalistic — autocratic leadership to one of managing personnel and the organisation both in the internal interrelatedness and links with external groups. The changing role of the principalship poses new challenges and underscores the need for development in managerial skills (Shah, 1990: 11).
Currently there is a search for management development approaches, techniques and course content which will enhance the effectiveness of school management. Any research focusing on the principal's role as the critical variable for school effectiveness and
50 advancing support for the professional development of principals within the context of South African schools will contribute to the limited local literature in this field.
The importance of designing training and development programmes will now be discussed.
2.3.1 THE IMPORTANCE OF DESIGNING TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMMES
Educational managers have for many decades relied on qualities of personality and intuition in managing schools. Certain basic personality traits such as intelligence and the ability to work hard are undeniably important prerequisites, but cannot in themselves make a principal effective. Experience on-the-job does not appear to hold the key to effective school leadership (Everard and Morris, 1996:6-8). It will be necessary for modern principals to learn new management skills and techniques.
A balance between theory and practice underpins effective management (Dean, 1995:13). From this perspective the study has pragmatic value for practicing principals and potential incumbents. While the theoretical framework should serve as a basis for experienced principals to reflect their present practice and influence their own growth, aspiring principals should find value in the theory to gain insight into skills essential for principals to manage schools effectively.
The design of training programmes will now be discussed.
2.3.2 TRAINING
Gerber et al. (1997:461) defines training as the use of specific means to inculcate specific learning techniques that can be identified and continually improved upon. Training is therefore a deliberate effort to teach specific skills, knowledge or attitudes to serve a specific purpose. The purpose of training is to enable the learner to apply knowledge,
51 skills and attitudes in order to achieve the objectives of the organisation , and it should result in the trainees being able to do a specific job effectively, either directly or soon after training.
2.3.2.1 REASONS FOR TRAINING
Beach (1985:244) and Gerber et al. (1997:480) outline the reasons for effective training for any organisation as follows:
Training gives principals direction to manage their schools effectively and also to acquaint them with the working environment, thereby aiding them to become productive more rapidly.
In view of the apartheid legacy, many principals have not been trained adequately to manage schools effectively. Intensive training is needed to provide the human resources that are necessary for educational institutions to be effective.
Proper training enables principals to raise their level or performance, and as a result, output increases and quality improves.
There are different methods of training that could be selected and implemented.
2.3.2.2 METHODS OF TRAINING
Several educationalists and researches identified the much—needed areas of training for school principals. Among them Olivers and Amistead (cited in Shah, 1990:7) in a survey designed to gain insights into principal's in—service needs in California, found the following:
building school climate through sound human relations;
52 objective systems of personnel evaluation; team building through interpersonal relations and taking educators needs and feelings into account; effective communication within the school and external agencies; and staff development through constructive supervision.
Rebore (1982: 179-180) advocates the following three methods of training, namely, on- the—job, off-the-job, and apprenticeship training:
On-the-job training takes place at school and in all probability this method is also the most effective means of training. It is the simplest form of training to organise, and least costly to operate. Principals learn in the actual situation. They learn by doing. Off-the-job training also referred to as in-service training includes various kinds of programmes, such as lectures, seminars, workshops, case studies, programmed instruction, and simulations. Usually the department of education and education consultants will organise and conduct these training sessions.
At its most generalised level the in-service education and training of principals (INSET) has been defined as professional development activities engaged in by principals to enhance their knowledge, skills and attitudes in order to manage schools more effectively (Brown and Earley as cited in Bush and West-Burnham, 1994:285).
In-service education must become an essential and mandatory part of the principals' continuous development in school management rather than remedial appendages for ineffective performance. In-service training aims at promoting the professional growth of principals so that they may manage schools more effectively and also be exposed and respond to educational change and innovation. The purpose of all forms of in-service training is to bring about the improvement and development of the entire teaching corps in a particular school system. All the members of a professional group regard this as an integral part of their task to keep up to date in their professional field. This will not only
53 increase the individual professional's self image, and, at the same time, his/her effectiveness in the management of schools, but will also heighten the status and esteem of the entire occupational group in the eyes of the community (van der Westhuizen, 1994:275).
• Apprenticeship training is a method of training whereby a trainee understudies a master worker for a given period of time or until the trainee acquires the necessary skills. Apprenticeships are common in the skilled trades but they have seldom been used in education development programmes.
Camp, Blanchard and Huszcszo (1986:4) summarise the key elements of training as follows:
Training is closely linked to staff development. The purpose of training principals is to develop them so that they are competent in managing schools effectively. It is only through development that an understanding of the requisite skills for school leadership can be acquired.
In order to devise a training programme for principals it is essential to establish their job description.
2.3.2.3 JOB DESCRIPTIONS
It is hardly possible to develop principals who are uncertain about their job descriptions, both administratively and professionally. The department of education should clarify the job description of principals, a major part of which relates to dealing with people — educators, administrative clerks, support staff, learners, parents, education authorities, other institutions and the broader community.
54 The complexity of role expectations, which range from maintaining the physical plant and performing routine administrative tasks to the highly professional role of evaluating and supporting educators in their work, is such that principals are caught up in the activity syndrome and end up expending more energy on minor tasks (Shah, 1990: 11).
It has been established that there are four key functions which principals should be competent in, namely:
Management of the curriculum. Management of organisational structures. Management of educators. Management of financial and physical resources.
The principal is the key figure in school improvement. It is necessary for principals to engage in life long professional development programmes and as such management development will now be considered.
2.3.3 MANAGEMENT DEVELOPMENT
Randomly selected induction seminars, development seminars, conferences and workshops can hardly sustain the demanding needs of being a principal (Bailey, 1987:14).
There should be a comprehensive and explicit policy for management development aimed at principals managing schools effectively.
2.3.3.1 DEVELOPMENT POLICY
The policy should be drawn up by the school management team in consultation with the department of education.
55 The policy may include the following factors (Shah, 1990:411):
identification of those who should provide the course; coordination of the course when the education authorities and other institutions such as the universities, colleges of education, commerce and industry are involved in the provision of courses; establishment of a common understanding which promotes course design, its purpose and organisation; determination of the methods which shall be used for assessing principals' needs; identification of the persons who shall be responsible for assessing the needs; identification of the persons who will select and develop course leaders; determination of the methods of providing on-the-job support for principals who have attended the courses; development of a system for evaluating all the courses which have been conducted; and budgeting of funds and provision of other resources, which are required for staff development.
Once a staff development policy has been drawn up it is essential for those assigned the task of providing training and development programmes to determine the course content of the management development programmes.
2.3.3.2 COURSE CONTENT
The content of management development programmes should avoid making principals into stereotype administrators. Management development is increasingly concentrating on shaping and improving the skills, knowledge and attitudes of principals so that they can manage schools effectively (Main, 1985: 2- 3).
56 In the management of any organisation the effective development of human resources is the main activity of personnel management (Van Niekerk cited in Shah, 1990:412). The person grows within the organisation and initiates and sustains organisational renewal with the new knowledge and skills acquired. Personnel development can only take place in its interrelatedness with organisational problems and issues.
According to Shah (1990:413) course content should bear the following in mind:
The course should be systematically planned, long-range with short and long term goals. Each course should be viewed as part of a total package aimed at bringing about sustained change in practice.
The course should include objectives for both individual personal growth as well as the advancement in corporate professional competence. It is suggested that principals should be encouraged to re-examine and re-appraise their own ideas, convictions, attitudes, prejudices and practices and build their own code of philosophy and practice and acquire techniques and skills through which this philosophy can be expressed in action. This initial trust should be directed towards personal growth because any change that occurs will depend on the willingness of the individual to change. Once a principal sees himself/herself as a changing, growing person, he/she will seize opportunities to influence his/her own growth and recognise his/her shortcomings as indicators for growth and development rather than a source of defensiveness to his colleagues and superiors.
Lectures and conferences are the least effective techniques for professional development. Development is best achieved by group or individual experiences in which the individual plays an active part. The workshop remains the primary vehicle for in-service activities. Workshop is defined as "a group of people participating in structured activities during a specified period of time to accomplish predetermined
57 goals and tasks which leads to new understandings and changes in professional behaviour (Wood, Thomson and Rullel, 1981:73)".
o Courses should be designed to develop specific job related managerial skills and techniques. Courses with objectives may enhance the principal's self-concept and promote self-realisation and self-actualisation.
There are other methods that can be used in the development of principals so that they can manage schools effectively. Mutual support groups are but one example and this is discussed below.
2.3.3.3 MUTUAL SUPPORT GROUPS FOR PRINCIPALS
Lack of collegiality with other principals in professional development leads to isolation and this may retard development. There are benefits in fostering personally and professionally supportive relationships among principals (Blumberg and Greenfield, 1980:225).
All principals have special resources and sharing these resources will contribute to greater professionalism. Principals could be organised by the department of education into various groupings for professional development activities. Professional partnerships between principals could lend support in the resolution of day to day school problems.
2.3.3.4 SUMMARY: DEVELOPING TRAINING OBJECTIVES
According to Nowack ( 1991:72-73) the questionnaire findings and focus group summaries can be instrumental in determining the final training objectives. Each objective should be tied to one or more of the dimensions defined in the questionnaire. For example, if delegating, planning, and interpersonal sensitivity emerge for the questionnaire as true
58 training needs for a particular job, trainers should develop specific objectives based on those needs. Each objective should include the following:
a description of what a trainee should be able to know, do, or feel after training ; the conditions under which a trainee will demonstrate the skills, knowledge, or feelings targeted in training ; and the criteria for identifying the successful transfer of training over time.
When trainees and managers perceive greater proficiency on the job several months after training, it offers some evidence that the training content has been successfully transferred to the job (Nowack, 1991 : 73).
A competency- based management matrix model (CM1V1) as illustrated in figure 2.9 can be used to identify training needs for principals.
59 TASKS, FUNCTIONS AND PERFORMANCE COMPETENCIES OUTCOMES
DEVELOP A DEVELOP A MANAGE VISION FOR THE POLICY FOR CULTURAL SCHOOL ASSESSMENT DIVERSITY T ABILITY TO INSPIRATION INITIATE THE MOTIVATE R INITIATE PROVIDED TO DEVELOPMENT TEACHERS AND A I INSPIRE DEVELOP A VISION OF AN LEARNERS TO T MOTIVATE FOR THE SCHOOLS ASSESSMENT DEVELOP S INSTRUMENT RESPECT FOR FOR LEARNERS DIFFERENT A CULTURES N ABILITY TO INVOLVE ALL DEVELOP A PLAN ACTIVITIES D PLAN STAKEHOLDERS IN MANAGEMENT WHICH REFLECTS M VISION BUILDING PLAN TO RESPECT AND 0 FACILITATE UNDERSTANDING T ASSESSMENT OF DIFFERENT I PROCEDURE CULTURES V ABILITY TO ABILITY TO MONITOR POLICY E MONITOR AND/ MONITOR TO ENSURE S OR EVALUATE WHETHER RESPECT FOR ACTIVITIES ARE IN DIFFERENT ACCORDANCE CULTURES WITH VISION
Figure 2.9: Competency-based matrix model for training and development
The competency-based management matrix model (CMM) for competent principals incorporates both the competence and the competency approaches for managing effective schools. It focuses on the development of specific competencies and abilities to perform the tasks/functions required of the principals to manage schools effectively.
A process on CNEVI model for training and developing competent principals to manage effective schools is set out below.
60 Step 1: List tasks and challenges
Identify the following key tasks/functions required of the principal to manage the curriculum:
Define a vision for the school. Develop a policy for assessment. Manage cultural diversity.
The above tasks are depicted on the top horizontal axis of the CMM model.
Step 2: Cluster the competencies needed
Identify the competencies and abilities that principals require to accomplish the identified tasks for example, ability to initiate, inspire and motivate. These competencies are clustered on the vertical axis of the CMM model.
Step 3: .Identify strengths and weaknesses
Principals should identify those competencies, which they consider their strengths in and those competencies where training is required.
Step 4: Training and development
Consider the CMIM model and set out priorities for planning and development of training programmes to develop competent principals. In this context it is crucial that the principal's management development programme:
be planned and coordinated;
61 directly relates to the competency development needs identified as a result of the competence assessment; consists of an 'action plan' with measurable outputs; is designed to address issues pertinent to school development, that is the school development plan; and is conceived as part of an ongoing policy of improvement (Jiransinghe and Lyons, 1996: 109).
The CMM model may be used effectively for the following purposes:
developing the job description of school managers; selecting and promoting school managers; defining training needs ; and planning management training and development programmes.
The CMM model for effective schools has been discussed. This model will be used in this research to review literature on the key competencies needed by principals to manage organisational structures effectively. Thus the model will be discussed and duly completed towards the end of chapter three.
2.4 KEY COMPETENCIES FOR EFFECTIVE SCHOOL MANAGEMENT
Principals have a multifaceted and onerous task of establishing an environment that is conducive to effective schooling. The role of principals is further complicated by external factors, which they have no control over. Negotiated contracts, for example, may include provisions pertaining to class size, employee discipline, grievances, leave for educators, teaching loads which principals need to manage within constantly diminishing resources. The pace of change and the need to be adaptable and responsive to local circumstances require that principals develop new skills, attitudes and values. They must be capable of providing leadership for teams and be able to interact harmoniously with communities and
62 stakeholders both inside and outside the system. They must also be able to manage and use information to promote efficiency and support democratic governance structures. Thus the task of being a principal is demanding and challenging, requiring energy, drive and many personal skills and attributes (qualities) to manage schools effectively.
If the school is the focus for improvement, principals have the key role in designing, developing, monitoring and evaluating these improvements. It is evident that principals should possess skills, knowledge, attitudes and values to manage their schools effectively and efficiently. Many experienced principals have left the profession for many reasons, amongst others, being offered the lucrative Voluntary Services Package (VSP). Presently a number of educators who have very little management qualfications and experience have replaced these experienced principals. It is thus necessary to provide the principals with the necessary skills, knowledge and attitudes through a development and training programme so that they can manage their schools effectively.
Principals are in the frontline of the battle to create an environment for quality education. School principals in South Africa worked under the most difficult conditions during the transformation process in education. They are often not well — prepared for the tasks they must undertake and not given sufficient training to perform these tasks. At the very least, a competent principal will be able to (Commonwealth Secretariat, 1993: I):
manage and deploy organisational structures and resources efficiently; allocate school accommodation appropriately; ensure satisfactory standards of maintenance and cleanliness of school facilities; organise staff development in school; guide curriculum implementation and change; and create a professional ethos within the school by involving staff members in decision— making.
63 Sybouts and Wendel (1994:31) maintain that the principal should be responsible for the following:
Maintaining the administration and supervision of the schools to which they have been assigned. Providing leadership to students, teachers, staff members, and parents or guardians. Providing instructional leadership to the teachers. They shall inform teachers of their duties and responsibilities, work cooperatively with the teaching staff, and schedule and conduct faculty meetings. Assisting in the development of the curriculum. Appraising and evaluating the curriculum. Making recommendations for the hiring of teachers and staff members. Assigning duties to the teaching staff Maintaining a comprehensive program of in - service training for teachers. Employing substitute teachers for teachers who are absent. Classifying, promoting, or retaining of students within their buildings. Promoting an effective system of student guidance. Overseeing the attendance, conduct, and health of students. Maintaining good public relations with the community. Supervising records keeping for the school building. Ensuring the care of the school buildings, grounds, furniture, and other property of the school. Ensuring the proper requisitioning of supplies, equipment, and teaching aids for the educational programme. Fulfilling other duties as may be assigned.
Furthermore, Sybouts and Wendel (1994: 15) stress the fact that principals have the responsibility of making certain that teachers and other staff members complete specific tasks. The principal should:
64 co-ordinate, direct and support the working of others by defining objectives; evaluate performance; provide resources: human, financial and material; build a positive climate; foster positive school — community relations; schedule work programmes; keep records; resolve conflicts; handle student problems; work with the Department of Education officials; and manage the school smoothly on a day—to—day basis.
The above reflects a comprehensive list of responsibilities for principals. Thus, the principal would be in a diverse managerial position; on the one hand as manager of a public institution, having to adhere to administrative and legal regulations and on the other hand, a professional educator with original and discretionary powers with regard to professional activities and responsibility to the educational authorities (Oosthuizen cited in Loock and Grobler, 1997: 35).
According to Godden et al. (1996: 9) building the competencies of individual managers, require a shift in emphasis from training the individual towards support for individual development within the context of organisational development. Loock and Grobler (1997: 36) concur with Godden et al. and add that development is dependent on the exposure to the necessary knowledge, skills and attitude for managing schools. Individual and organisational needs should be considered. Education management development can be seen as a process whereby the achievement of organisational goals and the meeting of individual development needs become harmonised. Management development is placed within the context of whole—school management and becomes an integral part of day-to— day management of schools.
65 Various authors and educationists have identified key functions that principals require in managing their schools effectively:
The following five key components which provided the framework for education management have been identified by Godden et al. (1996:36) after extensive research and interaction with organisations and unions both internationally and in South Africa:
Strategic Direction Human Resources Infrastructure and other resources Organisational structure and systems Networking, partnership and communication.
This holistic approach to education management and development is reflected in figure 2.10 (Godden et al., 1996:36).
66 ORGANISATIONAL STRUCTURES STRATEGIC DIRECTION AND SYSTEMS Improved access and quality delivery of quality education Awareness organisational structures Leadership issues provincial centers for EMD Governance and management systems management information systems Research and development quality assurance systems
A HOLISTIC NETWORKING, APPROACH TO PARTNERSHIP AND HUMAN EDUCATION COMMUNICATION RESOURCES MANAGEMENT Creating and Empowering DEVELOPMENT supporting a web people Vibrant NGO Developing community competencies Enabling Recognising partnerships competence communication Training and supporting techniques
INFRACTURAL AND OTHER RESOURCES Material and physical resources Improving allocation and use of resources Accessing additional resources Material collection and development
Figure 2.10: Holistic approach to education management development
Godden et al.(1996:38) suggest that the thrust of the above framework is capacity building - developing the ability of schools and individuals to perform effectively and consistently.
67 The Australian principal's Association in an unpublished article, "Leaders and their learning", identified the following aspects necessary for principals to manage schools effectively:
educational leadership; organisational leadership; educational management; cultural leadership; political leadership; and reflective leadership.
Poster (1981:186) on the other hand identified the following key components for effective management namely:
managing policy; managing learning; managing people; managing resources; and personal development
Atkins (cited in Tomlinson,1992:170) in turn identifies what he calls the "five key accountabilities" which are:
financial management; school pressures and environment; administration (office systems and procedures); marketing and Fund-raising; and support to personal recruitment procedures.
68 John (1983:66) grouped skills required by principals into the following categories:
curriculum development; resource development; professional tutor and evaluation assessment; and examinations.
Emerson and Goddard (1993: 14-15) outline the role of the principal as follows:
providing professional leadership; managing the school as a community; managing the learning of pupils; managing the staff; managing external relations; setting standards; and evaluating the processes and outcomes.
The following critical skills, knowledge and attitudes were considered to be important by principals, educational leaders and educators in several interviews and discussions with them:
human resource development; administration and development; curriculum development; strategic direction: building the capacity to set the course for schools within the context of agreed values and principles which will guide them and keep them on course; organisational structures and systems: building the capacity to develop and deliver quality education through effective structures and procedures; human resources: developing people at all levels of educational services;
69 infrastructural and other resources: developing the basic infrastructure for decision making, and providing adequate technical, financial and material back-up; and networking, partnerships and communication: linking institutions, people, resources and interest groups inside and outside the country.
Sybouts and Wendel (1994:31) emphasises the following critical functions and tasks of the principals:
instruction and curriculum development; pupil personnel services; staff personal services; community — school leadership; the physical plant and transportation services; organisation, structure, and co-ordination; school finance and business management; activities; and effectiveness attainment.
The key purpose of managers is to achieve the organisation's objectives and continuously improve its performance. Table 2.5 below as found in the "Management Charter Initiative 1992" (Warner and Crosthwaite, 1995: 137; Eraut, 1994: 189; Edmonds, 1992: 207) defines what a manager should be able to do.
70 TABLE 2.5 MANAGEMENT TASKS Manage operations Unit 1 Initiate and implement change improvement in services, products and systems Unit 2 Monitors, maintains and improves service and product delivery Manage finance Unit 3 Monitor and control the use of resources Unit 4 Secure effective resource allocation for activities and projects Manage people Unit 5 Recruit and select personnel Unit 6 Develop teams, individuals and self to enhance performance Unit 7 Plan, allocate and evaluate work carried out by teams, individuals and self Unit 8 Create, maintain and enhance effective working relationships Manage information Unit 9 Seek, evaluate and organize information for action Unit 10 Exchange information to solve problems and make decisions
(Source: Management Charter Initiative, 1992)
The group undertaking the present research project analysed the above functions and by regrouping such categories as managing learning, managing organisational structures, managing people, curriculum development, examination and assessment, managing
71 resources and meeting customer needs has identified the following FOUR key components that principals should have in managing schools effectively:
management of the curriculum;
management of organisational structures;
management of educators; and
management of physical and financial resources.
The four key components that principals require to manage schools effectively have been identified by analysing current literature and from discussions with educators at all levels. A systems model for effective school management based on the above four key components will now be developed.
2.5 DEVELOPING A SYSTEMS MODEL FOR EFFECTIVE SCHOOL MANAGEMENT
According to Godden et al. (1996: 38 — 50) the central thrust of the framework is capacity building. This implies developing the ability of institutions and managers to perform effectively and consistently. The following four key components constitute a holistic framework for changing education management practice in South Africa, and ultimately for improving the quality of teaching and learning in our schools. Principals are required to be competent in these four key areas to manage their schools effectively.
2.5.1 MANAGEMENT OF THE CURRICULUM
The interpretation of curriculum by Wiles and Bondi (1993:31-32) and English and Larson (1996: v) provide the basis for conceptualising curriculum management. It is considered a
72 deliberately planned structure that is directed at the acquisition of knowledge and skills, related subject matter, mastering of facts, information and inquiry skills, and, the development of attitudes and values that emphasises interpersonal competencies, social— solving skills and equity. It is therefore directed at building capacity to set course for schools within the context of agreed values and principles, which will guide learners, educators, management and broad schooling community and keep them on course. Managing the curriculum is therefore a comprehensive process concerning all aspects of the school and classroom activity in respect of which choices regarding teacher/learning methods, attitudes, organisational structure, procedures and resources are made.
2.5.2 MANAGEMENT OF ORGANISATIONAL STRUCTURES
In order to provide education of a high standard, it is necessary to build the capacity of organisations and institutions to structure themselves appropriately, to design and set in place effective patterns of work, administrative processes and procedures at all levels, to plan and implement their objectives, and to establish predictable patterns of relationships among people by dividing work into distinct tasks and by coordinating the activities of their members . Organizations exert strong influence on the behaviour and attitudes of their members and on the ways in which they perform their work. Thus, the structure of an organization should be participative, consultative and facilitative in nature in order to allow teams of people to achieve their goals efficiently and effectively and to respond to changes in the environment in which they are working ( Rondinelli et al., 1990:119).
2.5.3 MANAGEMENT OF HUMAN RESOURCES
At the heart of any organisation, are its people, its human resources. For an organisation to function effectively, it is clear that the staff need to be motivated and skilled towards achieving the goals of the organisation. Human Resource development involves a number of aspects including planning, selection and placement, orientation, training and development and performance appraisal, all of which contribute towards the development
73 of a team of committed staff, with necessary skills and knowledge to perform adequately in the organisation.
2.5.4 MANAGEMENT OF FINANCIAL AND PHYSICAL RESOURCES
Developing the basic infrastructure for decision making, and providing adequate technical, financial and material back-up involves appropriate working environments for students, teachers and governing bodies in particular, adequate physical and material resources and the allocation of funds. Capacity building requires money. But financial resources alone will not build capacity. It is how they are used that will ultimately determines whether the education system achieves higher levels of performance.
2.5.5 THE INTER-RELATIONSHIP OF THE MAJOR KEY COMPONENTS OF MANAGING THE SCHOOL
Achieving curriculum coherence is the key issue facing principals in schools (Bush and West-Burnham, 1994: 151). Curriculum provides the basis on which beliefs and values are translated into action. Managing the curriculum is therefore a comprehensive process covering all aspects of the school and classroom activity in respect of which choices regarding teaching methods, choice of subject content and procedures are made. Educators are required to translate the curriculum and to put it into action. Managing the educators will ensure that the organisation achieves its goals and objectives. The school will develop organisational structures and systems to ensure that the curriculum is effectively implemented. Furthermore, financial resources and other material resources will be utilised to ensure success in the implementation of the curriculum. Managing resources (human and financial) and organisational structures are prerequisites for schools to manage the curriculum effectively. Figure 2.13 reflects the key components that principals require to manage schools effectively.
74 LEARN O ERS z a. O 0
() 4•INi SO*
Figure 2.11: Systems approach for the effective management of school.
Figure 2.11 depicts a systems approach for the effective management of schools. It clearly illustrates the various key components listed above and how they are inter—connected so that principals can manage their schools effectively. It also reveals that the learners at school is the focus and that principals should be competent in the management of the curriculum, organisational structures, educators and financial resources in order to provide quality education to the learners. The school in its attempt to achieve its educational goals is confronted by a number of external forces (Bush and West — Burnham, 1994: 16 — 17) namely:
75 political forces are the major contributors to the canon of educational management in the area of policy making and the relationships with stakeholders such as trade unions; social force has been an element in the evolution of educational management most notably in the area of organisational theory. The influences of the human—relations approach and systems—based analysis of organisational life have been crucial in the development of methodologies for research in educational management; policies of educational authorities have a strong influence in the educational management of schools. Many of the issues surrounding educators such as teacher employment, teacher appraisal and conditions of service have an influence on the management of schools; technological forces have an influence in the educational management of schools. Principals should provide their learners with a well—balanced education and develop skills and knowledge so that the learners who complete their schooling can apply it in commerce and industry. economic forces have serious implications for the effective management of educational institutions. A very pertinent example is the budgetary constraints imposed by the department on schools in South Africa to retrench and deploy educators; and international forces have a strong influence on educational management. In a recent international survey the South African learners were rated the lowest in mathematics and science. South Africa was at the bottom of the class in every category, its teenagers woefully ill-equipped for the demands of a hi-tech global economy (Anon, 1996: 1). This demonstrates the poor state of education in the country and has serious implication for principals to provide quality education to learners.
76 2.6 SUMMARY
In this chapter two approaches to effective management of schools for principals were discussed. These include:
The competence approach that provides detailed specification of what skills / knowledge is required by the principal to perform a task well. It also reflects on the standards and range of situations in which a competent principal should be able to successfully execute these tasks. It is developmental orientated and provides a focus for detailed assessment for managers.
The competency approach that places emphasis on the underlying characteristics of a manager, which results in effective and / or superior performance in a job. These underlying characteristics or competencies may be motive, trait, skill, aspects of one's self—image or social role or a body of knowledge used by a manager.
These two approaches were merged in developing a continuum where the left extremities focused on traits, motives, qualities while the right extremities emphasises knowledge, skills and functions. Using the framework of the continuum of competencies for effective principals a model called the competency based management matrix model (CMM) was discussed. The matrix model for competent principals incorporates both the competence approach and the competency approach to manage schools effectively. It focuses on the development of specific competencies or abilities to perform tasks / functions required of principals to manage schools effectively.
From the above it is evident that South African principals will require training in all aspects of management, especially in the four key functions identified, namely:
Management of the curriculum. Management of organizational structures.
77 Management of educators. Management of financial and physical resources.
These four components formed the basis in developing a systems approach to effective management of schools. The management of the curriculum is the core component and the management of organisational structures and systems, the management of educators and the management of finances and other material resources are key aspects that are inter —related. If principals are competent in these key areas then they can manage their schools effectively.
This research deals specifically with the training and development of principals in the management of the curriculum. In managing the curriculum effectively principals should be competent in the following areas :
Building a vision. Curriculum planning. Curriculum implementation. Evaluation.
In chapter three a literature survey will be undertaken. This chapter will clearly outline the key issues that are required of principals to manage the curriculum effectively.
78 CHAPTER THREE
3.1 INTRODUCTION
The second chapter of this research focussed on developing an approach and a model for effective school management. A matrix model for competent principals, which incorporates both the competence and the competency approach for managing effective schools, focussed on the development of specific competencies or abilities to perform task and functions and personal skills and traits that are required to manage schools effectively. The competency-based management matrix model (CMM) has also been shown to be a useful guide in developing training and development programmes for principals.
Research from the literature related to components for effective school management indicates that four key components may be identified. These include:
management of the curriculum;
management of organisational structures;
management of educators; and
management of physical and financial resources.
In this chapter management of the curriculum is researched by considering important elements of curriculum management and examining various definitions of curriculum. Focus shall therefore be on identifying and analysing the following:
curriculum interpretation; and
key elements for effective management of the curriculum as a core process in managing schools.
79 Analysing key interpretations of curriculum shall now follow.
3.2 CURRICULUM INTERPRETATION
Effective principals offer their institutions a sense of coherence and structure (refer to section 2.3.1). Principals are expected to provide and deliver excellent quality learning experiences for learners. How these are achieved is central to effective management of the curriculum. Principals can achieve this on the basis of extensive knowledge and a persistent willingness, individually and collectively, to pay attention to quality, particularly the quality of pupils' learning experiences.
While curriculum coherence is the key issue in managing the curriculum, the amorphous nature of the curriculum according to Bush (1994:151) has given rise to several interpretations depending on the philosophical beliefs and values of society. In order to develop a better understanding of the management of the curriculum it is first necessary to clarify the term "curriculum interpretation".
Oliva (1997:4) lists a number of interpretations of curriculum generally used over the past decades. These include:
Curriculum is that which is taught at school.
Curriculum is a set of subjects.
Curriculum is content.
Curriculum is a programme of studies.
Curriculum is a set of materials.
Curriculum is a sequence of courses.
Curriculum is a set of performance objectives.
80 Curriculum is a course of study.
Curriculum is everything that goes on in schools, including extra curricular activities, guidance and interpersonal relationships.
Curriculum is that which is taught both inside and outside of a school.
Curriculum is everything that is planned by school personnel.
Curriculum is a series of experiences which learners undergo in schools.
Curriculum is that which an individual learner experiences as a result of schooling.
Print (1993: 8) summarises several well-known definitions that have considerable influence in managing the curriculum. These are reflected in table 3.1.
81 TABLE 3.1: CURRICULUM INTERPRETATIONS OVER A PERIOD OF TIME
EDUCATIONISTS DEFINITIONS OF CURRICULUM Ralph Tyler (1949) All the learning of learners which is planned by and directed to attain the goals of the school. D.K Wheeler (1967) Planned experiences offered to the learners under the guidance of the school. E Eisner (1979) Conceived as a series of planned events which are intended to have educational consequences. G. Saylor, W Plan for providing sets of learning opportunities Alexander, A. Arthur for people to be educated. (1981) M. Skilbeck (1984) Learning experiences for learners which are goal orientated, planned and designed for learning and implementation in the school environment. A. Giatthorn (1987) Plans made for guiding learning J Wiles and J Bondi Goal or a set of values which are activated through a developmental process.
Doll (1996: 15) defined curriculum of schools as the formal and informal content and processes by which learners gain knowledge and understanding, develop skills, and alter attitudes, appreciations and values under the support and guidance of the
management .
While Franklin Bobbit (Oliva; 1997: 5) and Doll (1996: 15) conceptualises curriculum in a narrower sense, Wiles and Bondi (1993: 31) and Tanner and tanner (1995:189) provide a broader conception which includes the entire school. Wiles and Bondi not only described curriculum as a plan for learning but also saw curriculum as a set of values which are activated through a development process culminating in classroom activities.
82 The interpretation of the curriculum by Wiles and Bondi (1993: 31-32) provides the basis for conceptualising curriculum management on a much broader scale. English and Larson (1996: v) support the idea of representing the curriculum as all the paper that a principal may use to guide the management of learning. That collectively includes lesson plans, textbooks, broad policies, learner guides, evaluation and feedback, parental inputs, colleague reviews and provincial and national standards and policies. All these are directed at the act of teaching and learning.
Curriculum, according to English and Larson (1996: 5), therefore provides the framework for:
a system of values that provide meaning for society;
focus and connectivity for complex learning;
creating boundaries for the school in terms of the service it provides and gives consistency to activities;
educating learners within generally acceptable social framework; and
providing a method to manage the school, guide it, shape it and improve it.
Taking cognisance of the above discussion and considering the approach for effective management discussed in chapter two the researcher has conceptualised curriculum as follows:
Curriculum is defined as a deliberately planned structure that is directed at the acquisition of knowledge and skills related to subject matter, mastery of facts, information and inquiry skills, and the development of attitudes and values that emphasises interpersonal competencies, social problem solving skills and equity. It is therefore directed at building the capacity to set the course for schools within the context of agreed values and principles which will guide the learners and educators and keep them on course.
83 The above definition argues that a curriculum consists of
planned learning experiences,
directed at acquisition of skills, knowledge, values and principles,
which guide learners and educators,
within the context of social norms and standards.
Having conceptualised and defined the curriculum to include all the experiences offered to learners under the direction of the school, the researcher shall focus more closely on designing a model for curriculum management of schools.
3.3 A MODEL FOR CURRICULUM MANAGEMENT
The previous section conceptualised curriculum as a planned structure that guides the work of the school. Its purpose is to enable the school to function within boundaries more effectively and over time more efficiently. Effective management of the curriculum can therefore accomplish goals by:
clarifying school boundaries;
defining the nature of work to be done;
aligning major learning and teaching tasks to be co-ordinated and accomplished;
defining standards by which work is measured or assessed;
defining evaluating procedures; and
providing feedback.
84 Since schools can be visualised as a social system and the curriculum is based on underlying assumptions, curriculum management can be a radical activity. It can become the basis upon which desirable social changes are conceptualised and brought into the school to embrace a different kind of general social response. Curriculum management is therefore not a neutral activity. Society, state, customs and traditions, laws and policies rest on fundamental clusters of values. Every curriculum is embedded in values. The purpose of the school curriculum, in attempting to achieve its goal, is therefore significantly affected by a range of political, social and economic factors. Principals need to understand the context in which schools are managed in order to develop coherence and support community values.
Two energy drivers that have been particularly evident in the nineties have been identified and will be discussed to illustrate the effect of the above factors:
Socially critical education: For principals to manage socio-cultural change it has to assist educators and learners to face uncertainty and breakdown of meaning while at the same time identifying new modes of understanding (Hicks and Holden, 1995: 142). Such an approach requires open and new insights and a preparation by principals to leave outmoded practices behind and establish new ways of learning. Hicks (1995: 143) quoting John Fien writes:
The socially critical orientation in education is founded upon a belief in the need for the curriculum to play a role, along with other social institutions and agencies in creating a just and democratic society. Recognising that the curriculum cannot be ideologically neutral, the socially critical orientation is committed to active curriculum initiation aimed at promoting social justice, equality and democracy.
Curriculum for sustainability: Curriculum for sustainability is not the sole function of the environmental educator or scientist although each contributes significantly towards creating a learning environment which is future orientated. The need to ensure that skills and expertise of each sector of the school is
85 managed is therefore fundamental in reinforcing schooling to meet future demands. Schools should not only be accessed by more learners but need to focus on changed content as well. This requires an environmental curriculum linked to social transformation. The environmental curriculum assists learners and educators to understand the natural world and to live in harmony with it. Social transformation has a great influence in understanding human behaviour and an appreciation of cultural diversity.
These processes therefore need to assist principals and educators in developing attitudes and forms of behaviour that is in keeping with changed conditions and which will also be informed by national and international views about participation, commitment, accountability, interdependence and interconnections.
Marsh and Morris (1991: 3-4) also cite some important factors which influence the management of the curriculum. These include:
political factors;
national identity and unity; and
influence of language, culture and religion.
It is therefore evident that different societies give different emphasis to educational goals and have different perceptions of what should be taught and how it should be presented. This often creates tensions in schools. Examples of these abound in schools throughout the world. Some of these include (Marsh, 1991 :51):
Indonesia, where the tension is between promoters of Islamic revival and the Secularists;
Singapore, where the tensions is evident between recent attempts to promote Confucian values in a highly technocratic society;
86 China, where major political changes have resulted in rapid change to the curriculum content; and
Korea, where the promotion of national pride was included in the curriculum.
It is evident that the curriculum becomes the arena for fiercely contested values and needs to be managed effectively to successfully achieve its goal. South Africa has not escaped these tensions. The debate around Curriculum 2005 clearly reflected this. Given the nature and social diversity of South Africa, the selection of values is one of constant tension. In developing a curriculum management model for schools cognisance therefore needs to be taken of the contents of the National Education Policy Act, No 27 of 1996 as published by the minister of education, Professor S Bengu (RSA, 1996(c).
Section 3 of the National Education Policy Act, No 27 of 1996 (RSA , 1996(c):1033- 1035) states that the minister shall determine national education policy which includes amongst others:
curriculum frameworks, core syllabus and education programmes;
learning standards, examinations and certification of qualifications;
language policy; and
education support service including health, welfare, career and vocational development, counselling and guidance for education institution.
Section 4 of the National Education Policy Act of 1996 (RSA, 1996(c): 1035-1037) provides the principles for which the policy is directed at:
The rights of every person: to protection against unfair discrimination; to basic education and equal access;
87 to be instructed in the language of his choice where this is reasonably practical; to the freedom of conscience, religion, thought, beliefs, opinion, expression and association; and to use the language and participate in the cultural life of his or her choice.
Creating an education system that contributes to the full development of each student and to the moral, social, cultural, political and economic development of the nation.
Achieving equitable education opportunities and the redress of past inequities in education provision.
Providing opportunities for life long learning.
Achieving an integrated approach to education.
Promoting a culture of respect for learning and teaching.
Cultivating skills, disciplines and capacities.
Encouraging independent and critical thought.
Promoting enquiry and research.
Enhancing quality and innovation through systematic monitoring and evaluating education provision.
Encouraging broad public participation.
An analysis of the above objectives demonstrates the state's intention of devolving authority to the level of the school. School principals therefore have an important task of creating self-managing schools based on fundamental principles and values as
88 contained in the National Education Policy Act, No 27 of 1996 (RSA, 1996(c). These principles are further clarified in the South African Schools Act, No 84 of 1996 (RSA, 1996(b): Section 11-25).
In managing the above processes, principals are entrusted with the task of developing school — based policy directed at:
developing a vision based on the fundamental rights of every person in respect of unfair discrimination, respect for language, freedom of conscience, religious beliefs, opinion, expression, culture and gender;
planning the curriculum to ensure full development of each learner, creating opportunities to redress past inequalities and life long learning;
integrating education and training and promoting a culture of learning and teaching;
cultivating skills and disciplines which promote a culture of respect, independent and critical thinking, inquiry research and innovation; and
providing a means of systematic monitoring and evaluating education provision.
Analysis of the above key functions shows that the following key elements should be included for effective management of the curriculum:
Vision building.
Curriculum planning.
Curriculum implementation.
Evaluation.
89 The above framework is also supported by English and Larson (1996: 13) where curriculum management is seen as a central concept comprising of the major dimension of design and delivery. According to English and Larson (1996: 14) design refers to:
construction of the curriculum; and
curriculum development;
and delivery refers to:
implementation of curriculum design; and
feedback and evaluation.
Earlier writers such as Zias (1976: 24) also clearly articulated the importance of designing a curriculum based on fundamental values and principles such as:
the nature of society;
the nature of man;
the aims of education; and
the nature of learning activities.
Values and principles which have emerged to assume great importance worldwide and which play a particular role in managing the curriculum in South Africa includes issues of race, class, gender and redress. The need to design a school curriculum based on fundamental values should therefore not be underestimated. The model of curriculum management provided by English and Larson (1996: 14) may be adapted to take cognisance of the principles and content of the National Education Policy Act, No27 of 1996 (RSA, 1996(c): 1035-1037).
90 Figure 3.1 illustrates the model for curriculum management that shall be used in this research.
Figure3.1: Cyclic model for the effective management of the curriculum
Figure 3.1 reflects the cyclic nature of key elements in managing the school curriculum effectively. It should be noted that although vision building would be considered to be a reasonable starting point, the nature and evolution of the school would determine the starting point of the cycle. Further it is understood that the interaction between these key elements indicates that different programmes running concurrently at the school would be at different stages of management. Table 3.2 further exemplifies the essence of the model for principals.
91 TABLE 3.2: KEY COMPONENTS OF CURRICULUM MANAGEMENT
VISION BUILDING Effective management of the curriculum brings about D internal consistency and enables the school to focus E its resources on essential activities and processes as S outlined by its vision, mission and goals. I CURICULUM Curriculum planning defines and legitimises some G PLANNING activities and outcomes by providing a description of N methods, processes and activities. Curriculum planning is therefore the specification and the utilisation of resources necessary for effective teaching and learning. CURRICULUM The designing of a curriculum framework acts as a IMPLEMENTATION means and a rationale through which principals can D co — ordinate educational experiences and teaching E (Potter and Fraser, 1994: 43). It provides full L educational, social and moral justification of not just I educational outcomes but also educational processes V through which learners progress. The teaching and E learning situation should lead to optimal learning by R identifying and utilising teaching strategies which Y will ensure maximal teacher and learner participation CURRICULUM Effective managers need to be aware of and ensure EVALUATION that teachers and learners are familiar with standards expected of them and are able to utilise a wide variety of evaluation systems to evaluate the success of the programmes and activities.
Figure 3.1 and Table 3.2 identifies key elements of design and delivery which are considered important aspects in ensuring effective management of the curriculum in schools. During this process principals create an educational vision shared between and among educators, learners and the broader schooling community that have a reasonable chance of success. Neal (1996: 140) maintains that principals can eliminate many potential problems, have greater peace of mind and maximise the potential of success by thoroughly thinking out and planning the school curriculum. These conceptual ideas are then implemented in the teaching and learning
92 environment where they are tested, refined and modified through a thorough process of evaluation.
Having outlined the key elements in managing the curriculum, each element will be discussed in greater depth.
3.3.1 VISION BUILDING
Principals, educators and learners will in the next century need to know how to create a society that harnesses the energy of the sun, conserve energy, preserve bio-diversity, protect soil and forests, develop sustainable local economies, restore the damage inflicted on the earth and create an environment that is sensitive to and develop respect for the diversity of languages, religions, values, beliefs and cultures. The curriculum therefore needs to focus clearly on the future.
Donella Meadows (Hicks and Holden, 1995: 138) considers visioning as imagining at first generally and then with increasing specificity what the schooling community really wants. It therefore involves removing all assumed constraints and past disappointments and allowing the mind to delve upon the noble, uplifting and treasured dreams for the school.
Vision building therefore offers direction and energy because it harnesses deep aspirations. Direction and energy lead to effective work and action which in turn lead to modification to broaden and strengthen the vision. The test of the vision of the school is whether it speaks to the people's heart and to their sense of compassion and justice.
Hicks and Holden (1995, 138-139) reinforce the above sentiments by expressing that we cannot build a future we cannot imagine. It is therefore necessary for principals to create for themselves a realistic, compelling and engaging vision of the future. If our collective visualisation of the future is weak and fragmented then the capacity of the school to create a vibrant learning and teaching environment will be considerably diminished.
93 Senge (1990:206) indicates forcefully that vision for an organisation is vital for it provides the focus and energy for learning. When people truly share a vision, they are connected, bound together by a common aspiration.
Sergiovanni (1990: 55) identifies a number of stages for building a vision for effective schools. These include:
Creating a vision.
Communicating a vision.
Reaching consensus and commitment.
Discussion on the key stages on vision building shall now follow.
3.3.1.1 CREATING A VISION
Principals have a responsibility, even an obligation to talk openly and frequently about their beliefs and commitments, their hopes and dreams and their values and ideals. They are the ones who are responsible for starting the dialogue about what the curriculum stands for, what they believe in and about where the school should be heading. Principals need to develop the capacity to create and communicate a compelling vision of a desired state of affairs, a shared vision that clarifies and induces commitment to the future (Sergiovanni, 1990: 57) (see question B4, annexure B).
According to Stacey (1996: 15) vision building is inevitably "messy"; it involves differences, conflict, fantasy and emotions; it stirs up anger, envy and depression. Fuller and Snyder (1992: 215) reinforces this perception by describing it as a "sticky" situation. Principals therefore need to remove the "mess" by inspiring educators and learners to follow a common vision, share the same culture and pool together their energy and drive to fulfill the goals of the schooling community. Hargreaves and Fullan (1998: 110) argues further that the principals task is to combat cultures of fear
94 and hopelessness. This can be achieved by developing a strong collaborative culture among members of the staff and with the schooling community.
Havel (1993: 68) also observed forcefully that vision building and hope is not the conviction that something will turn out well, but the certainty that something makes sense, regardless of how it turns out. It is hope above all that gives strength to live and to continually try new things, even in desperate conditions.
Hargreaves and Fullan (1998: 110) argue further that the task of principals is to combat cultures of fear and hopelessness. This can be achieved by developing strong collaborative cultures among staff and the schooling community.
Fullan (1997: 33) sums up the concept of vision building aptly in his book "What's worth fighting for in the principalship" by asserting that vision building cuts through the tendency to blame others, provides a sense of direction for starting small but thinking big, provides focus, checks random activity, gives direction for decisions and above all permeates the school with values and informs both "what" and "how" things are done.
According to Holmes (1993:9) an effective school leader embraces a wide range of cultures and practices from relatively autocratic to relatively democratic. What characterises successful school leadership is not one particular style or method but a consistent commitment to a few, very important principles which creates an inspiring sense of purpose that drives the school. Examples of visions which have the potential to relate to a vision of the future is reflected below (Holmes, 1993:23):
This school believes in enabling each and every pupil to achieve their maximum potential performance in all aspects of the school life. This school is helping to form future citizens with a range of skills, knowledge and attributes necessary to taking a full part in a modern and fast changing society.
95 We believe in equality of opportunities in our school; all pupils have access to the full range of learning opportunities regardless of their gender, ethnic of physical ability. The school expects and requires the highest standard of behaviour and mutual respect for all pupils. Acts of violence and intolerance and any behaviour which prevents other pupils from learning are not acceptable.
Each of the above statements creates a specific school climate which is directed at a deep rooted sentiments which must relate to a specific schooling community. In order to sustain the vision Holmes (1993:33) suggest the following implementation strategies: Principals should question themselves frequently and harshly about their own values and visions and those of their school. The vision should be articulated in simple terms to the staff, parents and learners. Principals need to be clear about what is negotiable and what is not negotiable. Principals should welcome and encourage debate about values in their school. The life of the school must embody the vision and bring it alive. Put learners at the heart of the school. Ensure that priorities of the principal and teachers reflect the purpose of the school In managing people, build an effective team who shares the vision of the school in order to create a good climate for learning and teaching.
Nias, Southworth and Campbell (1992: 236) aptly state that principals need to create an environment in which the staff learns about the beliefs and values which underpin their school and then acquire the knowledge and skills to support the vision collectively and individually.
The curriculum leader therefore has significant influence over how educational programmes are organised and controlled. By co-ordinating tasks, communications, resource allocation and evaluating the curriculum the principal as the leader sets the tone for the school and channels its activities.
96 Creating a vision is therefore an important dimension of principalship and must reflect the hopes and dreams, the needs and interests and the values and beliefs of the entire schooling community.
The above discussion reflects the importance of creating a vision based on a shared understanding of the purpose of the school in managing the curriculum. A communication strategy, which shall now be discussed, needs to be developed to ensure collective responsibility for the realisation of the vision.
3.3.1.2 COMMUNICATING A VISION
Communicating the vision to those who are responsible for the delivery of quality education and those who would be affected by the vision is critical in ensuring successful fulfillment of the purpose of the curriculum (see question B8, annexure B). They need to know why they exist and what they are trying to do. An effective communication strategy would enable the school to be transformed from a secular place to a sacred institution (Sergiovanni, 1990: 57). A vision well communicated has the potential to provide the framework which:
enables daily routine activities to take on a special meaning and significance;
allows norms and standards to be established for what is acceptable and what is unacceptable; and
creates an identity for quality service and excellence.
Communication of the vision according to Block, (1987: 124) strives to achieve the following:
depth — the degree to which the vision statement is understood by all and personally held by the principal;
97 clarity — creating specific images of the curriculum which drives the entire schooling community; and
responsibility — involves moving away from hopelessness to active ownership by the schooling community.
In conducting extensive research on effective schools, Wohlstetter, Van Kirk, Robertson and Mohrman (1998:20-22) concluded that effective schools generally had strong communication structures that facilitated:
dissemination and collection of information used to facilitate priorities for improved teaching and learning; multiple mechanisms for communicating to all stakeholders; and quick dissemination which ensured that all stakeholders were aware of decisions being made.
Communication of the vision is a dynamic process in which the vision of the school is shaped and reshaped as principals and educators try to bring about improvement.
3.3.1.3 REACHING CONSENSUS AND CONLMITMENT
The building of a vision should not be construed as a strategic plan or a road map that reflects every turn. It should be viewed as a compass that points the direction to be taken, that inspires enthusiasm and that allows educators and learners to buy into and take part in shaping the way that will constitute the schools mission. The fleshing out of the vision requires the building of a shared consensus. Consensus about purpose and beliefs creates a powerful force that binds people together around common themes and a sense of what is important. In this way a clear mission is developed with all those who are affected by the activities of the school (see question B99, annexure B). Whitaker and Moses (1994: xi) concurs with these sentiments by stating that developments can most effectively occur through collaborative effort of teachers, parents and community members around a shared vision of greatness for what the school can and should become.
98 A binding agreement needs to emerge that provides the basis for decisions and actions. When the value of the vision and mission is present educators and learners will respond with increased motivation and commitment to their daily tasks. Reaching consensus of the vision and mission are most likely to have the greatest influence when they contain the following characteristics (Sergiovanni, 1990: 60):
They are clear enough so that you know what you are achieving.
They are accessible enough so that they can be achieved with existing resources.
They are important enough to reflect the core values and beliefs that are shared by those affected.
They are powerful enough that they can inspire and touch people.
They are focussed enough so that it is clear as to what is important and what is not.
They are coherent to ensure that activities are aligned.
They encourage cooperation and encourage people to work together.
They are difficult enough to evoke challenge.
They are resilient enough to stand the test of time.
Fullan (1997: 35) emphasises that the above guidelines facilitates commitment to both the content of the vision and to the process of vision building and implementation. . The process of curriculum planning shall now be discussed.
99 3.3.2 CURRICULUM PLANNING
Chapter one highlighted the multifaceted problems and challenges facing principals in managing schools. Reactions range from complete disillusion in the schooling system to warm acceptance in respect of transformation. These criticisms are indeed treacherous. Principals reactions to these criticisms could be to flow with the tide or to take responsibility to direct the activities of their schools and in so doing to take control of their own destination. Sybouts (1992:15) maintains that unless the principal has the capacity to plan the activities of the school, the school will not succeed in establishing an effective schooling environment. Principals must develop the capacity for self-renewal. They need to deal with challenges by re-examining what they have been doing and by reshaping it to new circumstances. According to Zumwalt (1989: 176) planning of the curriculum provides structure, order and direction. It also provides a framework for co-operative working.
Curriculum planning can therefore be conceptualised as an analysis of the curriculum goals or intent (what is expected to be achieved) and organising and sequencing activities for the process of delivering quality education.
Curriculum planning therefore involves identifying individuals, teams and/or committees who make decisions regarding curriculum activities. It also involves modifying and/or changing existing programmes to ensure that the curriculum is relevant and arranging specific learning programmes for educators and teachers. Curriculum planning is therefore a process whereby arrangements of learning opportunities or curriculum plans are created.
The above discussion identifies 3 basic processes for school based curriculum planning. Table 3.2 identifies and provides an explanation for each process in curriculum planning.
100 TABLE 3.3: KEY ELEMENTS OF CURRICULUM MANAGEMENT PLANNING
COMPONENTS IN DESCRIPTION CURRICULUM PLANNING Curriculum forces Refers to the learners, social values, structures and demands, functions and goals of the curriculum; it takes cognisance of the nature of knowledge and the process of learning; it includes basic consideration which guides educators and learners in matters relevant to curriculum planning. Curriculum Refers to decisions that are made by management decisions structures and school governing bodies that reflect the characteristics of the curriculum including organisation and selection of curriculum content and instructions for groups and individuals. Curriculum Refers to the guidelines for learning opportunities management plans provided by the school and includes arrangements for the organisation of the curriculum and instructions for the use of learning resources and for specific learning experiences of specific groups of learners and individuals.
Greater in-depth discussion on each of the components reflected in table 3.2 shall now follow.
3.3.2.1 CURRICULUM FORCES
Vision building, which was identified as a key process in designing the school curriculum, demonstrated the importance or creating a shared vision which reflects the values, hopes, dreams, needs and interests of an entire community. It also takes on
101 a special meaning in establishing norms and standards for the school. These factors, or forces, as we shall refer to them, are fundamental in establishing coherence and alignment between the aspirations of the schooling community and the goals of the school.
Curriculum forces can therefore be regarded as the basic building blocks on which the curriculum of the school is based and gives meaning to the activities that take place at the school. This conceptualisation is supported by Print (1993: 106) in defining elements of the curriculum as essential building blocks which curriculum planners organise in order to produce the curriculum that they wish to construct. Curriculum planners are therefore influenced by various forces that assist in accounting for different designs that emerge in schools. Some of these include:
EXTERNAL CURRICULUM FORCES:
Cultural and social expectations: Refers to changes in society such as unemployment patterns, societal values, economic patterns, community expectations, level of parental literacy and numeracy.
Educational system requirements and challenges: Includes systematic influences such as policy requirements, enquiry reports and external examinations.
Changing nature of content: Constant revision to update development within the school such as technology development, outcome-based education and new literature.
Teacher support systems: Refers to the variety of external support systems which can contribute to enhancing teaching and learning strategies such as content updates, evaluation techniques, subject advisory services, tertiary institutions, teacher colleges, unions and professional associations.
102 Resources: Availability and flow of resources into schools from departmental institutions and other sources.
INTERNAL CURRICULUM FORCES:
Learners: Planning requires accurate information on learners' ability, physical and psychological development, aptitudes, emotional and social development, educational needs, language requirements, cultural needs and religious values.
Educators: Information related to the skills, experience and teaching styles are necessary to facilitate the development of plans for the school.
School ethos: The school climate and the environment is a significant factor in influencing the curriculum and includes issues of participation, collaborative team work, power distribution, social cohesiveness, operational procedures and professional cohesiveness.
Material requirements: Refers to the resources such as equipment, books, stationery, land, vehicles and financial resources which the school has and needs to be managed.
Perceived problems: Constitute a major stimulus for change emanating from the needs of the school.
The above framework reflects the multiplicity of curriculum forces that influence the designing of a curriculum and which principals need to take cognisance of in managing the curriculum. This framework shall be used as a basis to reflect on curriculum forces that need to be considered in planning a school curriculum as they form the basis of schooling in South Africa.
103 3.3.2.1.1 IMPLICATIONS FOR SCHOOLS IN SOUTH AFRICA
The Constitution of the Republic of South Africa (RSA, 1996(a)), the South African Schools Act (RSA, 1996(b) and the South African Qualifications Act (RSA, 1996(d)) provide the basis of curriculum forces that have a profound influence on the development of school curriculum plans for South African Schools. The following curriculum forces as reflected in the curriculum framework for general and further education (National Department of Education, 1995(a)) and the foundation phase learning programmes (National Department of Education, 1997(a); 1997(b); 1997(c) and 1997(d) need to be considered seriously in order to create a schooling environment that provides quality education for all the people of South Africa within a democratic environment:
Vision for learning and teaching: Education is directed at producing people who are literate, creative and productive human beings, leading productive, self- fulfilled lives in a country free of violence, discrimination and prejudice. Development is envisaged as empowering people to participate effectively in all the processes of a democratic society, and to excel in fields like human and natural resource development, human and natural sciences, the arts and technology.
Mission for learning and teaching: The primary task of the school is to create a just and equitable schooling system which will provide education which is relevant and of a high quality to all learners, irrespective of race, colour, gender, age, religion or language.
Principles informing curriculum planning
Participation and ownership: Parents and guardians share the prime responsibility for the education of their children. Educators should be equal partners in curriculum and material development and stakeholders have a major responsibility in helping to determine how learners should be prepared for adult life.
104 Accountability and transparency: Schooling needs to take cognisance of continually changing demands and at the same time be accountable, transparent and open to public scrutiny.
Affordability, sustainability and capacity building: Principals need to consider critical needs to redress the unequal levels of education received between institutions, the use of new technology in the learning and teaching environment and cost effectiveness. The creation of opportunities to facilitate teacher development and capacity building to further enhance the autonomy and professionalism should be given priority.
Principles informing curriculum design:
Human resource development: Schools play a critical role in training and preparing learners to become successful citizens by creating a strong foundation where learners have the desire and ability to continue to learn, to apply and to develop new knowledge, skills, abilities and technologies, to accept responsibilities for personal performance and to work co-operatively.
Learner-centredness: Development of curriculum material should put learners first by recognising and building on their knowledge, skills, abilities and experience and responding to their needs. Different groups of learners with different learning styles and different rates of learning need to be acknowledged and accommodated both in the learning and teaching situation and in the attainment of qualifications. The ways in which different cultural values and lifestyles affect the construction of knowledge should also be acknowledged and incorporated in the development and implementation of learning programmes. The curriculum needs to motivate learners by providing positive learning experiences, by affirming their worth and demonstrating respect for their various languages, cultures and personal circumstances.
105 Relevance: The curriculum should be relevant and appropriate to the current and anticipated future needs of the individual as an active, social, political and economic participant in the country. Learning programmes should therefore enable learners to become technologically literate and become environmentally aware and responsible. In the planning of the curriculum cognisance should also be taken of differing ages, genders, geographical and demographic locations, cultures, languages and religious beliefs. The selection of topics for learning and teaching and of teaching approaches and methods need, for example, to reflect sensitivity to all of these. Learners should be able to recognise the uniqueness of our multicultural situation and potential for the development of a culture as a unique South African.
Integration: An integrated approach to education and training implies a view of learning that rejects a rigid division between academic and applied knowledge, theory and practice and knowledge and skills.
Differentiation, redress and learner support: Learning programmes should facilitate the creation of opportunities for all learners, including those who are disabled, to strive towards the attainment of similar learning outcomes and achievements. Learners should therefore be given the opportunity of coping with demanding performance standards at their own pace.
Nation building and non-discrimination: Schooling should promote the development of a national identity and an awareness of South Africa's role and responsibility with regard to Africa and the rest of the world. Learning programmes should therefore encourage the development of:
mutual respect for diverse religious and value systems, cultural and language traditions;
multilingualism and informed choices regarding the languages of learning;
106 co-operation, civic responsibility and the ability to participate in all aspects of society; and
an understanding of national, provincial, local and regional developmental needs.
Critical and creative thinking: Learning programmes should promote learners' ability to think logically and analytically as well as holistically and laterally.
Flexibility: The curriculum should provide a wide range of learning possibilities, offering learners flexibility in choosing what, where, when, how and at what pace they want to learn.
Progression: Learners should be able to move ahead on the basis of achieving particular learning outcomes rather than achieving promotion because of completing certain courses.
Credibility: The schooling system must have standards and outcomes which are comparable to those in the rest of the world.
An analysis of the above forces in influencing school based curriculum planning reflects the following:
Principals and educators are active participants in society and bring with them a system of values, concepts, beliefs and in general those of the social group who entrusted the principal and educators with educational responsibility.
The curriculum should arouse and develop in learners a number of physical, intellectual and moral characteristics which are demanded by both the political society as a whole and the future for which the learner is destined for.
107 The curriculum which enables learners to live in a particular society at a particular point in time, therefore transmits modes of behaviour and accumulated skills and knowledge that prepares them for life.
The curriculum forces shape learner's development, personality and determine the educational needs. Curriculum forces direct motives, purposes, drives, self-concepts and aspirations of learners. The relative importance of skills and knowledge to be acquired is culturally and socially determined.
The above discussion reflects the enormous influence that curriculum forces have in developing a curriculum management plan for the school. However in developing the curriculum management plan critical decisions need to be taken to ensure that the plan is jointly owned by the educators and the broader schooling community and is within the framework of departmental directives and policies (see question B16, annexure B). The principles that informs and supports the design of the curriculum for schools in South Africa is summarised in figure 3.2.
INFORMED BY THE PRINCIPLES OF:
PARTICIPATION AND OWNERSHIP ACCOUNTABILITY AND TRANSPARENCY AFFORDABILITY, SUSTAINABILITY AND CAPACITY BUILDING SUPPORTED BY THE CURRICULUM WHICH IS DIRECTED AT: LEARNER CENTREDNESS, RELEVANCE, INTEGRATION, REDRESS, LEARNER SUPPORT, NATION BUILDING, CRITICAL AND CREATIVE THINKING, FLEXIBILITY, PROGRESSION AND CREDIBILITY
Figure 3.2: Influence of curriculum forces for schools in South Africa
1 OR Curriculum decisions as an important element of curriculum planning will now be discussed.
3.3.2.2 CURRICULUM DECISIONS
The previous section highlighted the need for principals to focus on a host of external and internal forces in designing the curriculum for the school. Not all factors will assume equal importance in a given curriculum. However taking cognisance of those mentioned is vital in ensuring that constitutional imperatives are satisfied.
Thus variance in the quality of the curriculum programme is the resultant of choice. Curriculum management planning therefore involves recognising that the value structure and expectations of the community change over periods of time. Fundamental to such variation is the nature of choices or decisions taken and the degree of commitment to implement such decisions.
Decisions therefore gives rise to curriculum guides, plans and sequences that help principals to have a list of alternatives for teaching and learning experiences, encourages managers and teachers to use initiative and imagination to guide the development of experiences for the realisation of aims of the school. A principal may achieve a desired end through a number of specific acts of behaviour and thus be free to choose those which are most significant and meaningful to educators and group of learners and which best challenges them to develop their talents and potentials. It is indeed through such broad possibilities of choice making or decisions that the curriculum may be adapted to the needs of the learners and the community at large.
Fundamental to taking decisions about the curriculum of the school is a careful analysis of the existing conditions and resources that exist at the school and the projective data that reflect the goals and aspirations of the school. This includes the attitudes of managers, teachers, learners and parents and the skills that would be required to achieve these aspirations. Wiles and Bondi (1998:170) indicate that the analysis stage of curriculum design plays a critical role in the development of the curriculum. In order to facilitate the development of a curriculum management plan a structure for the development of these plans need to be created.
109 While there are several variations in the organisational structures ranging from centralised systems to decentralised systems there is general consensus among educationists that if schools are to reflect the aspirations of the community then the system should encourage participation and involvement (Street, 1997: 101)
The following decision making structure (figure 3.3) for the development of curriculum management plans advocated by Wiles and Bondi (1998: 170) shall be used extensively in this research to illustrate the essential components in developing a curriculum management plan which has great potential for managing the curriculum effectively.
110
Management Team (Standing Committee)
Co-ordinati/ g Standing committees valuation Committee Committee
Data via needs assessment
Design Programme Development Staff Committee Committee (ad hoc) Development (ad hoc) Committee
Various Learning Area Committees
Figure 3.3: Decision making structure for facilitating curriculum management plan
Figure 3.3 reflects a committee structure which allows accurate information to be obtained from various groups within and outside the school thus ensuring active involvement of those who are affected by decisions taken. It enables the management team to have sufficient confidence in endorsing the recommendations made in order to co-ordinate and evaluate the efforts of educators and learners to realise the goals of the school. According to Bullock and Thomas (1997:47) it also promotes accountability and efficiency.
Without this group effort, the curriculum plan is most likely to lack legitimacy and will be destined for failure from the absence of continual support. Other groups that need to be consulted if the process of implementation is to succeed includes teacher
111 unions and parents. The responsibility of the co-ordinating committee is therefore to ensure that active participation and involvement is achieved by disseminating information to such influential groups. The committee structure also provides the platform to obtain vital information to justify decisions and directions taken by the school. Hargreaves and Hopkins (1991:41) support the idea of ensuring that decision making be "data-driven" in the sense that analysis and decisions to which disadvantaged learners attain satisfactory performance is central to curriculum planning.
Curriculum decisions in managing the curriculum effectively are therefore an important element in developing curriculum management plans. Table 3.4, adapted from Wiles and Bondi (1998:172-176), provides basic information which principals would require in managing the curriculum.
112 TABLE 3.4: EXAMPLES OF DATA FOR CURICULUM DECISIONS
DATA DESCRIPTION OF DATA Base line data Existing conditions (where are we Average daily attendance now) Absence per educator per month Number of learners from low socio-economic areas Achievement analysis Teacher, learner and parent attitudes towards present programme Grade distribution patterns
Existing resources Condition of facilities Nature and type of instructional material Skill level of staff Community resources Projective Data Attitude scales (Use of questionnaires) (where do we Parent attitudes and opinions want to go) Teacher attitudes and opinions Learner attitudes and preference patterns Programme definition Value survey Instructional programmes Strategies Skills needed Evaluation methods
Table 3.4 reflects the nature and type of information and/or data that are required to facilitate decision making in the school. Gaining accurate and true information would ensure that the curriculum decisions are supported internally and externally. It also provides the framework to understand the aspirations and values of key
113 groups of people who are affected by the curriculum of the school. Ad hoc committees as reflected in figure 3.2 play a key role in processing this information in order to develop school programmes and activities which constitutes the grand curriculum plan for the school. However in order to arrive at the grand curriculum plan specific criteria for selecting the core curriculum and strategies needs to be established and used as the basis for evaluation. Table 3.5 reflects criteria that are generally used to facilitate the management of an effective curriculum (Carl, 1995:97-125; John and Siraj, 1995:3)
TABLE 3.5: CRITERIA FOR CURRICULUM DECISIONS
FUNCTIONS CRITERIA Curriculum design • There must be meaningful connection between separate components. • The curriculum must promote cultural and aesthetic values in society (see question B28, annexure B) • Content must he relevant to true life. • The curriculum must promote the socialisation process or adaption to the community. • The curriculum must provide maximally for individuals. • The curriculum must encourage learners to learn independently (see question B68, annexure B) • The curriculum should have a future perspective. • The curriculum must contribute to the general education of the child taking cognisance of the emotional, intellectual and physical aspects of the learner. • The curriculum's content must be applicable to other situations. • The curriculum must reflect the needs of the community. Selection of contents • They must serve to realise the aims of the school. • They must he realistic, manageable, accessable and viable. • They must he relevant. • They must he stimulating. • They must take pupil's existing knowledge and needs into account. • They must offer opportunities for self discovery. • They must promote independent thinking. • They must provide for continuity and promote integration of contents (see question B20. annexure B). • They must lead to empowerment of learners to develop to their full potential. Selection of teaching methods • They must provide opportunities for pupil involvement. • Ensure repetition is part of the process of learning. • Ensure immediate reinforcement. • Ensure that a variety of learning experiences are offered to pupils (see question B56, annexure B). • Create opportunities for pupils to learn by observation. • Strategies should recognise individual differences.
114 In using the above criteria cognisance also needs to be taken of the eight learning areas identified by the South African Qualification Authorities (Curriculum 2005: 8) that are included in the curriculum:
Language, literacy and communication Human and social science Technology Mathematical literacy, mathematics and mathematical sciences Natural sciences Arts and culture Economics and management science Life orientation (see question B44, annexure B)
It is evident from the above discussion that while provision has been made for school-based curriculum decisions, care should be taken in ensuring that such decisions are taken within the framework of departmental policies.
The development of the curriculum management plan shall now be discussed.
3.3.2.3 CURRICULUM MANAGEMENT PLAN
According to Hargreaves and Hopkins (1994:81) advocates of planning see development plans as key to the successful management of the complexities inherent in managing schools. This process is seen as a significant means to deliver curriculum innovation, particularly when it is derived from collaboration and participation as a means of supporting professional learning. The intention is to produce a management plan that encompasses decisions in respect of:
determination of goals arising from the mission; developing alternative strategies; assignment of responsibilities, commitment of resources; and time frames (Sybouts, 1992:48-49).
115 Curriculum management plans are therefore directed at:
determination of basic short, medium and long-range goals for the school; the adoption of actions and programmes; and allocation of resources to reach goals.
Examples of appropriate statements and goals (Sybouts: 1994:49) are provided below:
Goal number one: Develop closer ties to home and community to enhance support for better quality education in schools. Strategy one: employ a site-based management approach with a strong parent/community component. Strategy two: Develop an extended day for recreational programmes and counselling.
Goal number two: Reduce dropout rate. Strategy three: Develop an early intervention programme for students at-risk, in which parent education and support systems are developed. Strategy four: Adopt alternative work study groups. Strategy five: Develop early warning systems for and by parents for absentees. .7.• Strategy six: Develop stronger liaison with police and parents to combat distribution of illegal drugs.
The discussion documents on Curriculum 2005 (National Department of Education, 1997(a); 1997(h) and Wiles and Bondi (1998: 178-204) provide a wide range of statements and directions which could be considered in developing a curriculum management plan for the school. Table 3.6 reflects an illustration of a curriculum management plan which takes cognisance of these statements and directions.
116 TABLE 3.6: ILLUSTRATION OF A SIMPLE CURRICULUM MANAGEMENT PLAN
PLAN STATEMENTS AND DIRECTIONS School population The school shall cater for approximately 450 learners from grades 1 to grade 7. Programme concept The major focus of the school programme shall he to develop critical thinking, rational thought and deeper understanding by changing from a content-based to an outcome-based approach. Learning Areas The following learning areas shall receive special attention: Communication, literacy and language. Numeracy and mathematics. Natural sciences Staff organisation The staff will he organised to facilitate an instructional unit approach. For each unit there will be a team of three teachers with an appointed team leader. Staff requirements The school staff shall consist of the principal, 2 heads of department, 8 teachers, 2 clerical personnal and 3 cleaners. Teaching strategies Teaching strategies used includes: Role playing Field trips Creative expression Investigative approaches Peer teaching Values and principles The school shall cherish and uphold the following values and principles: Non-discrimination on the bases of race, colour, gender, age, religion or language. Be accountable and transparent. Practice punctuality Respect for the environment Focus on redress and learner support Facilities Sporting facilities shall be upgraded to facilitate programmed activities after school hours. Evaluations Feedback of learners' progress shall be sent to parents at the end of each quarter (see question BI00. annexure B). All teachers shall have an evaluation conference twice a year with the principal and the head of department. f■ feetings Staff meetings shall he conducted on the first Monday of each month. Subject meetings shall he held twice a month after school hours. Teacher development The school commits itself to facilitate teacher development programmes for all staff members within 2 years.
Using such a plan, committees can then translate the needs into resources needed to implement such a plan. This requires time frames to be established and the order of developments to be decided upon. All work from here will be a refinement of basic concepts and activities. Each activity or goal is assigned to a ad hoc sub committee
117 who would define their area and give greater definition to the area. Table 3.6 reflects a curriculum plan for numeracy and mathematics for an outcome-based approach (National Department of Education, 1998(a); 1998(b); 1998(c) and 1998(d)).
TABLE 3.3: CURRICULUM MANAGEMENT PLAN FOR NUMERACY AND MATHEMATICS
MATHEMATICS PROGRAMME
The mathematics programme provides experiences for the construction of knowledge that deals with quantitative and qualitative relationships of space and time. It deals with patterns, problem-solving and logical thinking. In order to achieve the specific outcomes as reflected in the school syllabus the following shall be maintained: A skill profile card for each learner. Diagnostic teaching techniques are used. Opportunities are used to facilitate creative problem-solving strategies. Specific programmes are developed to meet the needs of learners (see question B32, annexure B). Each learner will be assessed by an integrated project. Continuous assessment shall form the basis of performance evaluation. Regular homework shall be given to reinforce concepts (see question B60, annexure B). Opportunities are provided to develop computer literacy.
In order to be effective the curriculum management plan must also include an evaluative component based on:
Nature of data required and aspects of the programme that needs to be evaluated. Judgements about the data. Analysis of data. Decisions based on data. Implementation of decisions based on data.
118 From the above discussion it is evident that the curriculum management plan is also a key element of curriculum planning and reflects a comprehensive document which serves to provide a framework that directs the activities and resources of the school to achieve its objectives (see question B12, annexure B). In managing the curriculum effectively, the principal has the task of co-ordinating the efforts of the entire staff and parents in creating an environment where implementation of the programmes and activities lead to effective learning and teaching. Curriculum implementation, which has been identified as the third key elements of the delivery of the curriculum shall now be discussed in greater detail.
3.3.3 CURRICULUM IMPLEMENTATION
The school education programme consists of a multiplicity of activities and programmes including curricular and non -curricular activities. These activities can therefore be seen as the school's broad curriculum (Bardenhorst, 1992:97). However other factors which have an impact on the success of achieving the goals of the school lie in the nature of the curriculum. English and Larson (1996:92) correctly indicates that schools will always be in a state of tension between requirements which are aimed at ensuring some common aim or goal for all and those requirements that demand differences in approaches, methods and materials to attain the common outcome. Given the above situation the principal is expected to provide for flexibility where programmes can be changed without altering the basic content of the curriculum management plan (CMP).
Principals therefore need to focus on implementation without sticking slavishly to the exactly what has been designed. The critical relationship for curriculum effectiveness reflected by English and Larson (1996:93) is reflected in figure 3.4.
119
Designed or prescribed curriculum
Taught Curriculum curriculum learning 4—
Figure 3.4: critical relationship for curriculum effectiveness .
Figure 3.4 represent the essential elements of the functional curricula of learning and teaching at schools. The arrows depict the dynamic nature of the curriculum. The manner in which the prescribed curriculum is managed by teachers gives rise to the actual learning that takes place. If the forces is strongly directed towards the prescribed curriculum the curriculum could become extremely rigid with no room for creativity. On the other hand if the curriculum force is strongly directed towards the taught curriculum teachers could impose their particular value system on to the child. Creating a balance between these forces is therefore critical in ensuring effective management of the learning situation.
In co-ordinating the curriculum effectively the principal therefore needs to consider a large number of variables. Bert (1994:19) identified other variables which have the potential to influence the curriculum considerably. These include:
teacher characteristics (experience, training and other properties that influence curriculum; context variables (characteristics of learners, schools, communities and classroom size, textbooks and aids);
120 process variables (observable activities of teachers and learners in the classroom; and product variables (immediate and long term effects of students learning such as social and emotional development.
Bert (1994:21) further argues that in organising the curriculum principals need to focus on each level to ensure successful realisation of the goals of the school. Scheerens and Creemers model for effective curriculum as cited by Bert (1994:21) is reflected in figure 3.5.
School level: input structure and management process Classroom level: inputs and teaching strategies
Pupil level: achievement and attainment
Background variables: including aptitude, attitudes socio-economic conditions
Figure 3.5: Context for developing a curriculum effective model
It is evident that in order to implement effective learning and teaching it is necessary to consider strategies at each of these levels and support programmes which would result in maximal teacher and learner participation and ultimately to what pupils achieve (see question B76, annexure B). While the process of planning a curriculum involves activities where people are focussed, the implementation of the curriculum requires the principal to interact with people. Van der Westhuizen (1994:178) refers to the process of implementation as a process of "management in action" and identified several key elements of implementation which are also supported by Kroon (1995:160; 197; 221;265) and Piek (1991:185). These include:
121 organising; delegating; co-ordinating; and controlling
Table 3.8 summarises the above tasks identified as key elements in implementing the curriculum.
TABLE 3.8: KEY ELEMENTS OF CURRICULUM IMPLEMENTATION TASKS DESCRIPTIONS Organising Organising refers to the task of bringing order and orderly structure to fulfil the aspiration of the schooling community by directing the skills and energies of the staff and to provide resources to support learning. (van der Westhuizen:1994:162) Delegating Refers to the task of entrusting authority and responsibility to different levels of management to execute tasks necessary for achieving the goals of the school (Du Preez, 1995:265) Co-ordinating Refers to the task that attempts to relate people, tasks, resources and/or time schedules in such a way that they harmonise the function performed by individuals (Piek, 1991:137) Control Refers to the task of monitoring activities in order to determine whether each individual, committee, department and the school itself are achieving their objectives and utilising their resources effectively (Fox, Schwelle and Wissink, 1991:81)
122 Organising as a management task shall now be discussed.
3.3.3.1 ORGANISING AS A MANAGEMENT TASK
Van der Westhuizen (1994: 162) defines organising as the task of bringing order and orderly structures to fulfil the aspirations of the schooling community by establishing harmony and co-operation. Furthermore it implies directing the skills and energies of the school towards the realisation of the curriculum goals of the school by providing curriculum resources to support learning (see question B80, annexure B). Organising is therefore directed at:
grouping tasks so that planning objectives are effected; and determining relationships between various people to promote collaboration by means of co-ordination and job and duty descriptions.
Carl (1995:168) mentions with reference to literature that factors which are important for successful implementation of the curriculum is the creation of structures which facilitate teacher development, teacher participation and good channels of communication.
It is evident from the above discussion that creating appropriate organisational structure and delegating authority are integral parts of organising the curriculum. Discussion on the creating of appropriate organisational structures to organise the curriculum effectively shall follow.
3.3.3.1.1 CREATING AN ORGANISATIONAL STRUCTURE
A systems approach for effective management of the school was briefly discussed in section 2.5.5. A system is a number of interdependent components working together with the environment with the view of attaining common goals. Grobler (1998:1) views a school as a system of inter-relationships among various components and their relationships with the external environment. Mullins (1995:72) defines organisational
123 structure as a planned co-ordination of activities of a number of people for the achievement of common goal or purpose. Basson, van der Westhuizen and Nieman, 1991:617) considers a school as an ordered structure where people are grouped in an orderly manner to facilitate educative teaching as the common aim.
An organisational structure is therefore a framework of established posts in which people execute specific tasks and actions in a manner that promote effectiveness. The choice of appropriate structures to facilitate effective curriculum delivery is therefore important. The characteristic of common organisational structures is reflected in table 3.8.
124 TABLE 3.9: BASIC CHARACTERISTICS OF SOME ORGANISATIONAL STRUCTURES
Organisational Basic characteristics model Systems model According to Bush (1995:3) the systems approach emphasises the unity and integrity of the school and focuses on the interaction between its component parts with the external environment School as an The model emphasises structure where teachers and managers organisation hold positions in the school and where working relationships are strongly influenced by official positions.
Bureaucratic Stresses authority levels and functions. Model e Hierarchical Stresses vertical relationships within the school model Collegial models Characterised by schools determining policy and making decisions through a process of discussion leading to consensus. Power is shared among some or all members of the school.
Political model Characterised by bargaining processes in decision making and the creation of infrastructure which require extensive consultation.
Cultural Places emphasis on the development of shared norms and models meanings (Wallace and Hall, 1994:12)
Differences in the above models have great implications for the manner in which schools function. Generally however schools reflect a blend of characteristics of two on more models. Section 2 of the National Education Policy Act, No 27 of 1996
125
(RSA, 1996(c)) makes provision for infrastructure that requires consultation with a wide variety of bodies for example the organised teaching unions (National Education Policy Act number 27 of 1996, Section 2). This has great influence in the manner in which schools function. A simplified organisational structure to facilitate effective implementation of the curriculum is reflected in figure 3.6.
SCHOOL SCHOOL MANAGEMENT t* GOVERNING TEAM BODY
V STANDING AD HOC z COMMITTEES COMMII1EES HOD
A
TEACHERS
Solid line represents line of accountability.
Broken line represents lines of communication for participation and involvement. Figure 3.6: Simplified structure for effective curriculum implementation
Figure 3.6 reflects a simplified organisational structure that facilitates effective communication structures between and among various structures and committees in a school. Given the diverse nature of South African society, it is inevitable that political influence will greatly impact on the way principles manage schools (Grobler, 1998: 16). Of equal importance is the diversity of cultural background and linguistic groups. To manage possible tensions an organisational structure needs to make provision for valuable inputs from important and influential groups of people. The above structure attempts to harness the energies towards making a positive impact on the learning and teaching situation.
The School Management Team (SMT) consists of the principal, heads of department and teacher representatives in order to co-ordinate and facilitate the learning and teaching at the school. The arrows indicate constant inter-action between middle
126 management, standing committees (for example timetabling committee) and ad hoc committees (for example awards day function).
Standing committees such as the admission committee and school fund committee are in constant inter-action with teachers and the school management teams. Their prime task is to facilitate specific curriculum issues with effectiveness and reflect on the community they serve. Constant interaction with the learners and teachers enable them to make valuable recommendations to the SMT for modifications and/or changes to specific programmes or the creation of ad hoc committees to handle specific needs of learners.
Ad hoc committees are highly specialised team of teachers and others possessing specific skills to handle identified short term needs and/or to facilitate specific problems existing at the school. Their purpose is therefore to provide accurate data and information in order to advise the SMT on possible alternative solutions to improve the quality of learning and teaching.
The school governing body that represents parents, teachers and learners generally facilitate endorsements of existing and new programmes which are valued by the community. The structure also breaks down strict vertical relationships and encourages team work and collective decision making. However accountability and responsibility is critical in organising effective learning and teaching. Delegation of authority which is therefore important in ensuring that the school functions effectively shall now be discussed.
3.3.3.2 DELEGATION
Du Preez (1995:265-266) defines delegation as the task of entrusting authority and responsibility to different levels of management and has the following advantages:
• Delegation is a way in which principal's capabilities can be extended. It allows principals to perform a wide range of tasks such as planning and therefore to do more challenging jobs.
127 The delegation of authority to levels closer to the point of delivery lead to quick decisions and actions. The delegation of authority is important for training and development of personnel. Through delegation personnel perceive that their principal has trust in their ability, which improves motivation and leads to self actualisation. Delegation can have an important influence on the attitudes and morale of the staff. Better decisions can be made because the person closest to the job can make the decision.
In delegating tasks the principal needs to consider the skills of members of the staff. A HOD may be delegated the responsibility of managing mathematics and science and also be delegated to facilitate the time table committee. Delegations of such a nature ensures that all teachers are fully involved in the programmes of the school and are more likely to contribute significantly towards the achievements of the goals of the school. However in delegating authority it is expected that the individual will also accept accountability for the execution of the assigned tasks effectively and efficiently. The primary steps of accountability according to du Preez (1995: 266) include:
The assignment of functions: Functions are tasks and activities that are assigned to personnel for implementation. The delegation of authority: The delegation process essentially gives another staff member the power to act on behalf of the principal. It is thus the transfer of the formal right to act on behalf of another. The assignment of responsibility: After authority has been delegated, it is important that responsibilities are also assigned. Thus when a staff member is given certain "rights" the accompanying "obligation" to perform is also allocated. The creation of accountability: In order to complete the process of delegation, the principal must create accountability. This means that the manager is liable for proper performance of his staffs function.
128 Piek (1991:136) introduces an interesting and perhaps useful concept of delegation as collaborative or sharing which is referred to as "true" delegation. Collaboration involves total sharing of responsibilities, which includes the "right" to succeed and to fail. It is through effective delegation of responsibilities therefore that principals will be able to bring about purposeful instruction or effective curriculum delivery in schools.
In establishing the necessary delegation, principals need to ensure proper control and this is done by effective co-ordination. Co-ordination as an important element of curriculum implementation will now be discussed.
3.3.3.3 CO-ORDINATION
Piek (1991:137) defines co-ordination as the task that attempts to relate people, tasks, resources and/or time schedules in such a way that they are supplementary and complementary. It is therefore considered as a process that harmonises the functions performed by individuals resulting in co-operation in order to achieve the curriculum goals of the school. This definition of co-ordination reinforces the systems approach for effective management of the curriculum developed in chapter two. Co-ordination may therefore be seen as an activity which places choices, materials, people, ideas and techniques in harmonious relationship with one another. The purpose of co-ordination is therefore to:
synchronise people and the various activities to achieve set goals; ensure co-operation between people; ensure that goals and policy are uniformly interpreted and applied; and develop team spirit and team work.
Several means may be used to ensure good co-ordination. Some of these include:
129 School culture and ethos: school culture influences the individual to identify with the school and the rest of the staff. A school culture enhances loyalty, boosts morale and increases the willingness to co-operate with others. The formulation and publishing of goals and policy: This serves as a means of making it clear to everyone concerned what the goals are as well as providing guidelines for taking uniform decisions. Meetings and Workshops: Regular meetings can ensure co-ordination so that ideas may be exchanged, problems solved and a feeling of unity and common motivation generated. Compilation of guides: Instructions, guidelines, rules, regulations and procedures which form an integral part of the curriculum can lead to greater clarity on the direction of the school. Constant follow-up activities: Constant follow-up reveals success of tasks being implemented and the identification and rectification of problems experienced by the task co-ordinator.
For effective management of the curriculum, co-ordination needs to be reflected at all levels of the school. Table 3.10 reflects the nature of co-ordination at various levels within the school (Piek, 1991:138).
130 TABLE 3.10: CO-ORDINATION OF CURRICULUM AT VARIOUS LEVELS OF THE SCHOOL
LEVEL CO-ORDINATING TASKS School • Co-ordinate decisions taken on the best utilisation of the skills and competencies of staff members, the availability of teaching material and joint planning of objectives and procedures. • Developing a cultural policy that is cherished by all staff members and the broader schooling community. Subject • The integration of subject matter so that work done is departmental level closely interwoven. • Develop and co-ordinate an enrichment programme for higher grade learners. • Regular weekly or forth-nightly meetings to keep team members informed of progress being made, of difficulties being encountered and how learners are coping. Classroom level • Co-ordinate teaching strategies that best suit the level of pupil ability. • Re-evaluate the classroom arrangement to promote experimental work. • Consider ways of improving classroom management. • Consider effective ways of dealing with different ability groups in the same class.
Table 3.10 reflects the considerable influence that the principal has in co-ordinating curriculum programmes. By co-ordinating tasks, communications, resource allocation and time scheduling, the principal sets the tone for the school and channels its activities. However simply co-ordinating these activities does not imply that the goals of these programmes will automatically be achieved. Effective principals ensures that they exercise the necessary control to facilitate effective execution of the tasks. Control as an element of effective curriculum organisation shall now be discussed.
131 3.3.3.3 CONTROL
According to Fox, Schwella and Wissink (1991:81) control may be defined as the process of monitoring activities in order to determine whether each individual, department and the school itself are utilising their resources to effectively accomplish their objectives, and where this is not being achieved, implementing corrective actions.
By exercising control the principal is assured that tasks and activities are effectively carried out in terms of the curriculum management plan (CMP). It's purpose is therefore to evaluate planning and if necessary to make modification and/or changes.
Crous (Kroon, 1995:443) aptly defines control as a systematic task which enables managers to compare real performance with plans, standards and objectives and take corrective action if deviations occur. Curriculum planning and control are therefore closely related since control is undertaken to ensure that goals and objectives are reached. Figure 3.7 reflects the interaction between curriculum planning and controlling.
132
Curriculum Planning Vision Mission Goals Curriculum management plan Implementation
Monitoring of Real Formulate new plans activities and/or adapt the implementation
Comparison of real Deviation performance with objectives Occurs
Continue with curriculum planning and control
Figure 3.7: Interaction between planning and control (adapted from Kroon, 1995:445)
Section 3.3 showed that curriculum delivery is not a neutral activity. The extent to which the real performance corresponds or is aligned to the planned objectives will depend to a large extent on aspects such as coherence of values, commitment, skills and performance levels. The real performance therefore needs to be constantly monitored and controlled to facilitate realization of the planned objectives.
133 Control can be carried out at various stages of an activity. Kroon (1995:444) identifies 4 stages as follows:
Pre-control: Pre-control is generally regarded as the most desirable type of control as it aims at preventing anticipated problems and takes place before an activity or project gets under way. Careful attention must therefore be given to the formulation of curriculum policy and procedures, standards and rules, scheduling and collection of relevant usable data. Steering control: It takes place when the task is being done. Problems are corrected by means of personal observation before they become costly and have far reaching consequences. Post-control: It is the most popular form of control and concentrates on completed achievements or end results. This has its disadvantages in that damage could be extensive before problems could be detected.
Control, which is directed at co-ordinating an activity and steering it in a predetermined direction is generally directed at four characteristics including:
Quantity: It refers to those aspects of the activity that have measureable outputs. Examples of these includes number of tests administered and the average number of units of work given per week. Quality: Quality is generally more difficult to assess and requires detailed criteria for effective control. Cost: Budget represents the most frequently used form of control in terms of expenditure patterns and procedures in terms of regulations related to handling finance. Time: As a scarce resource, time is a criterium by which efficiency is measured.
Fox et at (1991:121) identified several qualities of an effective control system. These include:
Flexibility: Effective controls must be flexible enough to adjust to changes within the school and the external environment (see question B36, annexure B).
134 Understandability: Control should be clear and understandable for both the person carrying out the instruction and the person involved in it. The staff should see that the criteria being used are realistic, valid and consistent with their understanding of what is expected of them. Strategic placement: Effective controls imply that attention should be given to the factors that are strategic to the school's performance. Controls must therefore cover the critical activities and events in the school. Adaptability: Controls should be adaptable to the nature and needs of the activities to be controlled
Control as a management task aims at ensuring that all the goals and objectives as reflected in the comprehensive curriculum management plan of the school are attained. Control is therefore centered on achieving common goals for the effective management of the curriculum.
While control is directed at determining whether specific tasks and activities in relation to quantity, quality, time and cost effectiveness are met to realise the . goals of the curriculum, it generally fails to determine the extent to which the programmes reflect the purpose and aspirations of learners and the schooling community. Evaluation is therefore an important component in making judgements about the effectiveness of the curriculum. Evaluation as a management task shall now be discussed.
3.3.4 EVALUATION AS A MANAGEMENT TASK
Fox et al (1991:127) defines evaluation as the systematic assessment of a programme for the purpose of improving policy and programme decisions. In its broadest sense evaluation is concerned with making judgements. To be more effective , however, evaluation requires that judgements be based on appropriate and relevant data. Evaluation in schools is essentially concerned with two major approaches to making judgements (Print, 1993:188), namely:
135 Product evaluation: Refers to an evaluation of students' performance in a specific learning context. Such an evaluation essentially seeks to determine how well the student has achieved in the stated objectives of the learning situation. In this sense the student's performance is seen as a product of the educational experience. Process evaluation: refers to evaluation which examines the experiences and activities involved in the teaching and learning situation, that is making judgements about the process by which students acquire learning or examining the learning experiences before it has been concluded. Process evaluation is generally used to make judgements about curriculum effectiveness, classroom interactions, school effectiveness and the effectiveness of specific programmes. Two important examples of process evaluation extensively used in schools are:
Curriculum evaluation: Curriculum evaluation may be seen as the final process in the curriculum management process of obtaining and providing information useful for making decisions and judgements. It is primarily used to determine if the curriculum is effective in achieving its purpose and if it requires further modification.
Teacher evaluation: It is concerned with an examination of the teacher's performance with a view to providing useful feedback. Teacher evaluation provides an insight into the dynamics of the teaching and learning situation and as such can provide data to enhance teacher performance.
Curriculum evaluation, teacher evaluation and student evaluation (assessment) have therefore been identified as key elements in the effective evaluation of the curriculum. Curriculum evaluation shall now be discussed.
136
3.3.4.1 CURRICULUM EVALUATION
According to Carl (1995:178) curriculum evaluation is that process during which a value determination of the standard and outcome of the relevant curriculum is made. Evaluation should take place on an ongoing basis as well as during and after each of the design and implementation phase with a view to making timeous adjustments and determining success (see question B90, annexure B). Curriculum evaluation not only focuses on curriculum design and delivery but should also focus on the thinking and purpose behind the curriculum. While several models have been used for curriculum evaluation, the model by Blanckenberg (Carl, 1995:184) is useful in illustrating the basic components of evaluation. Figure 3.8 reflects an adaptation of Blanckenberg's scheme for curriculum evaluation.
Curriculum The curriculum Implementation of the curriculum design management plan
Design of a subject A comprehensive Implementation Classroom curriculum by document reflecting Teacher makes situation subject committees goals, objectives adjustments to Changes made as a according to methods of formal curriculum result of the criteria. There is evaluation according to needs learning events in therefore already of the school the classroom by implication an evaluation during the design phase
11, Evaluation of annual Result of process programme at the or product end of the course evaluation, before, during and after the lesson has been delivered
Figure 3.8: A simplified model of evaluation within the context of curriculum design and delivery
137 From the above model it is evident that evaluation in one form or another occurs during every phase from the design up to and during implementation. Feedback to the teachers is also a characteristic of the model. The following aspects of evaluation can be deduced from the model:
During the design phase criteria are used against which objectives and programmes may be evaluated. The curriculum management plan makes provision for the type and nature of the evaluation used. During the implementation phase the teacher makes adjustments in relation to contextual factors at the school. Evaluation during lesson provides feedback that enables the teacher to make further adjustments to the instructional learning programme. Final evaluation of the curriculum is used to further refine the curriculum management plan.
Figure 3.7 provides a framework for evaluation within the context of curriculum design and delivery. To ensure that the evaluation process is comprehensive so that it gains acceptance and leads to effectiveness of the curriculum, the generation of substantial data is necessary. Print (1993:212-213) provides a basic framework that is reflected in figure 3.9 and which may be used for all types of evaluation.
Evaluation context
Ta.sk specification (purpose)
Evaluation design
/ Data iectio\
Existing data Required data 'Nt / Datalr nalysis
Conclusions and recommendations
Figure 3.9: Curriculum evaluation framework Clarification of each step reflected in figure 3.9 follows:
138 Context of evaluation: Determine the nature of the situation since evaluation is not conducted in a neutral environment. They are therefore subjected to pressures and agendas, arising from the values predominating at the school.
Task specification: Determine the boundaries within which the evaluation will be conducted.
Evaluation design: Determine what evaluation design will be used during the process.
Data collection: Existing data and required data needs to be identified for collection.
Data analysis: Data is examined and then synthesised to determine themes, factors or areas of commonality. This process forms the basis for making conclusions about the curriculum.
Reporting and recommendations: Information is used to make well informed and justified judgements about the effectiveness of the curriculum
The steps identified above are generally used to evaluate the curriculum irrespective of the nature and form of evaluation. Carl (1995:189-200) identifies several forms of curriculum evaluation and those which are applicable to schools are summarised in table 3.11.
139 TABLE 3.11: DIFFERENT FORMS OF EVALUATION
FORMS OF DESCRIPTION EVALUATION Comparative evaluation Evaluation which compares one or more databases, outcomes and/or results of two or more different curricula which broadly serve the same purpose. For example in evaluating the standard of mathematics at school A, the information in respect of mathematics at school B that has similar characteristics as school A may be used for comparative evaluation. Comparative evaluation may also be used to compare performance between similar subjects within the same school. Consensus evaluation This form of evaluation is gaining momentum and reinforces team work and consensus decision making. A collaborative culture is promoted to build trust and develop greater confidence in the system of evaluation. Consensus evaluation is encouraged since different evaluators may interpret standards differently. To increase the validity of judgements made, teams of personnel arrive at an evaluation by consensus. It has greater legitimacy and generally leads to more harmonious relationships between management and staff. Diagnostic evaluation This type of evaluation generally involves empirical processes and is directed at identifying specific problems in the curriculum of the school. These include aspects such as curriculum material, subject knowledge and skills of teachers.
The forms of evaluation identified in table 3.11 generally requires analytical skills which are not always available in schools. However a check list of criteria is extensively used as it serves the basis to define good learning and teaching practices and also used to evaluate the extent to which these practices are evident. While various scales may be used, depending on the context of the evaluation, the following table 3.12 which has been adapted (Wiles and Bondi, 1998:103-105; Dales and Iles, 1996:154-155) may be used to determine the extent to which identified factors are considered important by principals at schools. The scale used ranges from "1" (not important) to "5" (very important).
140 TABLE 3.12: CHECK LIST OF COMPETENCIES FOR EFFECTIVE CURRICULUM MANAGEMENT NO COMPETENCIES INCLUDING TASKS AND SKILLS 1 2 3 4 5 1 Produces and implements a year long plan. 2 Focuses on curriculum planning and development involving staff, parents and students. 3 Co-ordinate programmes for instructional development at a variety of levels. 4 Determine, with staff, common problems and help to facilitate solution to these problems. 5 Develop, with staff, behavioural objectives, that will be measurable and compatible with the content area. 6 Schedule periodic interdepartmental meetings within the school to determine curricular problems and to seek solutions. 7 Help and encourage teachers to be innovative and to accept different methods as long as they produce the desired outcomes. 8 Accept individual differences in developing curriculum 9 Help determine integration of subject areas into the overall curriculum to promote cross curricular themes (see question B40, annexure B) 10 Support educators to facilitate the curriculum needs of the school (see question B48, annexure B). 11 Assist the group in coming to decisions based on the alternative choices. 12 Disseminate information on current innovations to staff members. 13 Promote and encourage the direct involvement and participation of teachers in planning. implementing and evaluating curriculum innovation. 14 Open channels of communication. 15 Plan budgetary allocations to ensure that curriculum plans can be successfully realised. 16 Provide vision for long range planning. 17 Seek help and co-operation from staff members in setting up programmes. • 18 Communicate progress. plans and problems to staff members. 19 Establish personal philosophy that drives the school. 20 Communicate the vision to all stakeholders. 21 Examine textbooks for evidence of racism and sexism. 22 Provide opportunities to learn about and interact with a variety of
141 ethnic groups and cultural experiences. 23 Organise curricula around the culture of human rights. 24 Create school environment that radiates cultural diversity. 25 Motivate learners to strive for high standards of achievement (see question B64, Annexure B). 26 Plans ahead, prioritise and organise resources 27 Identifies and investigates problems
Table 3.12, although not exhaustive, illustrates those aspects which needs to be developed by principals and which serve to guide the activities of the school in managing the curriculum effectively. Having discussed curriculum evaluation as a part of process evaluation, a discussion of teacher evaluation, which is an extremely important part of the total evaluation of the school, shall now follow.
3.3.4.2 TEACHER EVALUATION
Teacher evaluation, a subcategory of process evaluation is concerned with an examination of teacher's performance with a view to providing useful feedback. It is directed at gaining an insight into the dynamics of the learning and teaching situation and as such can provide the means to enhance teacher performance. Evaluation is therefore the act of placing a value by judging the teacher. According to Bush and West-Burnham (1994:158) evaluation is an internal or external formative process designed to provide feedback on the total impact and value of a project or activity. Kradenburg (as cited in Oosthuizen, 1994:128) defines personnel evaluation as process where a group or an individual is evaluated to determine whether they have worked efficiently and have achieved the goals set for them. Grobler (as cited in Phillips, 1996:96) states that the evaluation of educational personnel by the principal consists of the normative measurement of a particular teacher's performance against predetermined performance standards. It is therefore evident that teacher's evaluation can be used as a controlling mechanism or as a developmental tool. Most forms of teacher's evaluation are both summative and formative. These can be interpreted as the judgemental and developmental elements of evaluation as the following summary reflects:
142 Summative evaluation is primarily concerned with product, and specifically information, which will be of use to the school. Formative evaluation by contrast, is chiefly interested in the professional development of educators, and is usually process rather than product orientated.
While teacher evaluation is extensively used in the literature on teacher development, teacher appraisal is more commonly used in educational circles. According to Brown (Gerber et al, 1997:211) appraisal can be described as the process of evaluation and documentation of teachers performance in order to make a judgement that leads to decisions. Among other matters, these decisions relate to feedback about professional development, the appraisal of individual and group needs, establish who should be promoted, the taking of remunerative decisions and the selection of new personnel.
According to Dunham, (1995:94) the term appraisal can be used in two different ways:
Performance appraisal is concerned with setting achievable goals and giving feedback to staff on their work performance which identifies their training needs and encourages better performance, so that the objectives of the organisation can be achieved. Developmental appraisal are concerned with the teachers' professional development needs and the training opportunities to study these needs, so that teachers can improve their performance in present and future work roles.
Various researchers, educationists and authors provide common reasons for evaluating personnel (Rebore, 1991:192; Everard and Morris, 1996:78-79; Bush and West-Burnham, 1994:165-167 and Gerber et al, 1997:239). The objectives of teacher appraisal are to:
inform teachers of management aims and objectives; motivate personnel to work more efficiently and effectively;
143 determine the competency of teachers for the purpose of optimum utilisation, merit, promotion and corrective measures and to make remuneration and promotion available to personnel; to ensure management involvement in the work done by personnel; to help improve individual performance by analysing performance to identify problems and achievements so that agreed action can be taken to help the individual to perform better; to identify training needs and to determine the success of teacher training and development programmes; and to appraise existing managers against the profiles expected for future management posts.
Sergiovanni and Starratt (1993:265) captures the above sentiments well by stating that the overarching purpose of supervision is to help teachers. The focus of this improvement should be on what the teacher knows, the development of teaching skills, and the ability to be a problem solver.
In South Africa, the focus must now be on how educator appraisal can be used to promote professional growth of educators, their effectiveness, and to improve the quality of teaching which will improve the quality of education.
In order to address the above, the department of education and various teacher unions have agreed on a developmental appraisal document which will be implemented at the beginning of 1999. The instrument is a combination of four basic appraisal techniques (Phillips, 1996:91-92):
a form to be completed by the teacher giving biographical and administrative detail and a list of contextual factors which will influence the teachers effectiveness. A goal-setting form which the teacher has to complete in consultation with the head of unit, to formulate objectives, identify activities and resources which will be necessary in achieving these goals.
144 A criterion-referenced approach, with the stated aim of reducing bias and subjectivity. A structured self-assessment essay which has to be answered by the teacher. The questionnaire has to be made available to the assessment panel and is orientated towards professional improvement through the acquisition of skills and the achievement of personnel goals.
According to the "Developmental Appraisal" document (GDE, 1998) the appraisal panel will consist of at least three members from the following groups:
Peer. Union representative. Senior (HOD, DP or Principal). Outside support.
It is evident that the appraisal instrument being used by the Gauteng Department of Education is directed at developing teacher's skills and competencies in a non threatening environment by encouraging openness and consensus decision — making.
Table 3.13 illustrations competencies needed by teachers to facilitate effective management of the learning and teaching environment (McNeil and Wiles, 1990: 120- 122; Paisey, 1992:154)
145 TABLE 3.13: ILLUSTRATION OF A TEACHER APPRAISAL INSTRUMENT
KEY ELEMENT COMPETENCIES
Dependability Punctual, reliable and fulfils duties
Human relations skills • Helps develop a positive self-image in learners. Praises, listens, making students feel important. Elaborates and builds on the contributions of learners. Relates to students on an individual basis. Provides opportunities for successful experiences.
• Work effectively with different social/ethnic groups. Relates well to students, parents and staff from different socio-economic backgrounds.
• Demonstrates skills in various kinds of communications. Enunciates clearly and correctly. Adjust voice and tone to different situations. Listens accurately to pupils and staff.
• Helps students become independent learners. Helps students identify personal goals. Facilitates individual exploration. Provides opportunities for diversity.
• Works effectively as a team leader. Gets along well with staff. Assumes responsibility for tasks as a team member.
Managing the classroom • Maintains a safe environment.
• Maintains physical environment conducive to learning. Arranges books and other learning material to create a stimulating environment.
• Involves students in the management of the classroom. Delegates responsibilities of housekeeping tasks to students.
• Manages disruptive behaviour appropriately. Implements rules and procedures consistently. Maintains control. • Designs procedures for handling routine activities in class.
Planning instructions • Selects appropriate learning goals and objectives. Develop units and daily lesson plans that include appropriate learning objectives. • Demonstrates skills in organising learners for instructions. • Selects appropriate and varying teaching strategies. Lecture discussions, demonstrations, individualisation, group investigation and open classroom activities. • Skillful in selecting and preparing resource material.
• Demonstrates skill in evaluating the instructional plan. Provides a rationale for instructional plans.
Implementing instruction • Relates instruction to the world of the learner. Teaches at students level. Provision is made to learn by doing rather than listening.
• Skillful in ensuring that individual needs of learners are considered (see question B52, annexure B)
• Skillful in the use of various teaching strategies.
• Skillful in the use of A-V equipment
• Demonstrates skills in questioning and responding
• Evaluates and modifies his/her own performance.
Knowledge of subject matter • Demonstrates adequate general academic preparation. Makes accurate statements to related fields of knowledge.
• Demonstrates knowledge of area of specialisation.
Assessing and evaluating • Recognise individual learning styles. students • Demonstrates diagnostic skills.
146 • Has skills in devising formal evaluation instruments.
• Skillful in devising and using informal evaluation procedures.
• Skillful in providing feedback to students and parents.
Professionalism • Seeks to improve own professional competence.
• Is accountable for professional actions. • Demonstrates shills in decision making. • Demonstrates awareness of strengths and weaknesses. • Behaves according to acceptable codes of conduct. • Seeks to improve profession.
A discussion on student evaluation will follow.
3.3.4.3 STUDENT EVALUATION (ASSESSMENT)
The evaluation of student learning is a fundamental task of any school. Since learners are the final product of the schooling system, the performance of learners significantly reflects the effectiveness of the curriculum. Thus student performance must rate among the top indicators of effectiveness of the school. According to Sybouts and Wendel (1994:158-162) learner assessment is the act of measuring, counting and gathering information. Bush and West-Burnham (1994:158) defines assessment as a summative process providing measurements against objectives. Gultig (National Department of Education, 1998(b):12) refers to assessment as a way of finding out what a learner knows, understands and thinks and what he or she can do. Print (1993:190) suggests several strong reasons for evaluating learners:
Evaluation is essential to provide feedback to learners by using information that addresses student strengths and weaknesses and in so doing directs learning and teaching (see question B88, annexure B) Evaluation is essential in determining how well learners have achieved in the stated objectives. Evaluation provides information to improve curricula. Information from evaluation is employed by students in making personal decisions. Evaluation provides useful information to teachers to clarify and/or modify their objectives.
147 • Parents, universities, employers from a wide range of industries and the government require information on student performance to enhance their decision making.
Several forms of evaluation procedures are used in schools. The main characteristics of three of these as identified by Bloom and cited by Print (1993:193) is reflected in table 3.14.
TABLE 3.14: CHARACTERISTICS OF DIFFERENT TYPES OF ASSESSMENTS
FORMATIVE DIAGNOSTIC SUMMATIVE Description Formative evaluation is Diagnostic evaluation is Summative evaluation is directed towards directed at: directed towards a providing information on Making placements; or general assessment of the learner performance on a To discover the learner over the entire continuous basis (see underlying cause of course or a substantial question B84, annexure deficiency in the part of it. B) student's learning Function Analysis of learning units. Diagnosis of prerequisite Assignment grades. Feedback to students and entry behaviour and skills. Certification of skills and diagnosis of difficulties. Diagnosis to determine the abilities. Feedback to teachers and extent of prior mastery of Prediction of future quality control. course objectives. success. Forecasting summative Placement diagnosis for Initiation of subsequent evaluation results. alternative curricula. learning. Feedback to learners. Comparing outcomes of different groups. Emphasis Cognitive entry Cognitive and affective Cognitive outcomes. behaviours. behaviours. Affective outcomes. Affective entry Physical, psychological Rate of learning. characteristics. and environmental factors. Type of achievement. Time At frequent intervals. For placement: Before Generally at the end of a commencing a unit of unit of learning. learning. More frequently at During instruction when a progressive stages in a
148 student reveals repeated course of study (that is inability to profit from the continuous assessment of learning experiences. developmental stages in learning) Types of Instruments constructed to Standardised achievement Final surnmative instruments test the essential elements tests. examinations, unit of a unit: Standardised diagnostic progress tests, work Teacher-made tests, work tests. samples, self-reports. samples, interviews, Teacher made instruments. checklists, rating scales. Observations and checklists.
Recent developments in the South African education system towards outcome based education has changed the way in which evaluation is perceived. The discussion document on Curriculum 2005 uses the following terminology to explain the overall structure of an outcome- based approach to learning and teaching (National Department of Education, 1997(a): 10-15):
Critical outcomes: these refer to the skills, knowledge and values that will allow learners to contribute to their own success as well as to the success of their family, community and the nation as a whole. The SAQA (South African Qualification Authorities) has proposed the following outcomes namely that learners will: identify and solve problems and make decisions using critical and creative thinking; work effectively with others as members of a team, group, organisation and community; organise and manage themselves and their activities responsibly and effectively; collect, analyse, organise and critically evaluate information; communicate effectively using visual, symbolic, and/or language skills in various modes; use science and technology effectively and critically showing responsibility towards the environment and the health of others; and
149 • demonstrate an understanding of the world as a set of related systems by recognising that problem solving contexts do not exist in isolation.
In order to contribute to the full personal development of each learner, it must be the intention of any programme to make individuals aware of the importance of: reflecting and exploring a variety of strategies to learn more effectively; participate as a responsible citizen in the life of local, national and global communities; being culturally and aesthetically sensitive across a range of social context; exploring education and career opportunities; and developing entrepreneurial opportunities.
In realising the above outcomes eight learning areas have been identified. In each learning area a set of specific outcomes describes what learners will be able to do at all levels of learning. In order to facilitate evaluation of these outcomes, assessment criteria, range statements and performance indicators have been introduced and will be briefly explained:
Assessment criteria: provides evidence that the learner has achieved the specific outcome. It therefore indicates the observable processes and products of learning which serve to demonstrate the learner's achievements. Since the assessment criteria are broad, range statements flesh out the substance of what assessment will be applied to. Range statements: Range statements indicate the scope, depth, level of complexity and parameters of the achievement. The range statements indicate the area of content, product and processes. The range statement therefore is an expansion and an explanation of the assessment criteria and ensures that a balance is maintained between the acquisition of skills and knowledge and the development of values. Performance indicators: performance indicators provide the details of the content and processes that learners should master, as well as details of the learning context in which the learner will be engaged. This will provide teachers and learners with a breakdown of essential stages to be reached in the process of
150 achieving the outcome. Performance indicators will help in the planning of the learning process, the tracking of progress and the diagnosing of problems.
The relationship between outcome statements, assessment criteria, range statements and performance indicators may been seen in table 3.15 for the foundation phase (National Department of Education, 1997(a): 111)
TABLE 3.15: RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN SPECIFIC OUTCOMES, ASSESSMENT CRITERIA, RANGE STATEMENTS and PERFORMANCE INDICATORS
Specific outcome: Demonstrate understanding about ways of working with numbers Assessment Range statement Performance indicators criteria Evidence of use of Use personal experiences to show This is evident when the heuristics to the significance of numbers. learner: understand number Express numbers in words and Counts a collection of concepts symbols. objects, maintaining order in numbers. Writes number symbols and number names
Evidence of Understand counting as a Represents numbers in knowledge of historical activity. different cultures. number history Show knowledge of the history of Tell stories about the counting in their own development of numbers communities, history of Roman Recognises, writes and numerals and the history of Arabic reads Roman numerals numerals. Understand the importance of place value. Estimation as a Estimate lengths, heights, volume, Uses body parts to skill mass and time. estimate and measure
151 Use calculators to check. length and height. Estimates length (cm, m, km), mass (g, kg), time (min, hours, days, months, years) Performance of Add and subtract positive whole basic operations numbers. Multiply and divide positive whole numbers. Do simple mental calculations.
Continuous assessments using the achievements by learners of specific outcomes forms the basis of formally assessing the learning of each learner (see question B96, annexure B). Evaluation is therefore a comprehensive activity and principals need to have sufficient skills to direct, make judgements, intervene and manage the progress of learners and performance of teachers at the school level, classroom level and pupil level in order to manage the curriculum effectively (see question B92, annexure B). A summary of the key elements of the effective management of the curriculum follows.
3.4 SUMMARY: KEY ELEMENTS INVOLVED IN MANAGING THE CURRICULUM
Curriculum interpretation over the last five decades was explored with a view to conceptualising and interpreting the curriculum. Views of curriculum range from a narrow focus of relating to a set of subjects, to curriculum as being all the activities that take place at the school. The following conceptualisation of curriculum shall be used for this research:
• Curriculum is defined as a deliberate planned structure that is directed at the acquisition of knowledge and skills related to subject matter, mastery of facts, information and inquiry skills, and, the development of attitudes and values that emphasises interpersonal competencies, social problem solving skills and equity. It is therefore
152 directed at building the capacity to set the course for schools within the context of agreed values and principles that will guide the learners and keep them on course.
The above conceptualisation argues that a curriculum consists of
planned learning experiences; directed at acquisition of skills, knowledge, values and principles; which guide learners and educators; within the context of social norms and standards.
A cyclic model for managing the curriculum effectively was developed and consisted of the key processes of design and delivery. The key components of the model for effective management of the curriculum are:
Vision building: Vision building as a key component of managing the curriculum is directed at bringing about internal consistency and enable the school to focus its resources on essential activities and processes as outlined by its vision, mission and goals. Three key elements of vision building were identified. These are: Creating a vision: Creating a vision is a powerful force that drives the entire schooling community towards the realisation of the goals and aspirations of the community and reflect the needs, interests and values and beliefs of the entire schooling community. :• Communicating a vision: It is a dynamic process in which the vision of the school is shaped and reshaped as principals, educators and the schooling community engage in dialogues to bring about improvement. Reaching consensus and commitment: Consensus about the purpose and beliefs of the school creates a powerful force that binds people together around a common theme and a sense of what is important.
Curriculum planning: Curriculum planning was conceptualised as an analysis of the curriculum goals (what is expected to be achieved) and organising and
153 sequencing activities for the process of delivering quality education. Three key elements have been identified to facilitate effective curriculum planning: :• Curriculum forces: In curriculum planning cognisance needs to be taken of the internal and external forces which impact greatly on the delivery of the curriculum. It is therefore the basic building blocks on which the school is based and gives meaning to the activities that take place at the school. Curriculum decisions: Great variations in the management of effective schools is primarily as a result of choice. Decision making is therefore a important element of curriculum planning and provides the basis on which the curriculum plan of the school is based. Agreement on broad principles which are important for quality education and creating the necessary structures to facilitate participation and involvement form the basis of decision making. Curriculum management plans: A comprehensive document which serves to provide the framework that directs the activities and resources of the school to achieve its objectives.
Curriculum implementation: In order to implement effective learning and teaching it is necessary to consider strategies which will result in maximal teacher and learner participation and ultimately to what learners achieve. Implementation therefore requires the principal to interact with people and to facilitate the following processes for effective management of the curriculum: :* Organising: Refers to the task of bringing order and orderly structure to fulfill the aspirations of the schooling community by directing the skills and energies of the staff Delegating: Refers to the task of entrusting authority and responsibility to different levels of management to execute tasks necessary for achieving the goals of the school. Co-ordinating: Refers to the task that attempts to relate people, tasks, resources and/or time schedules in such a way that it harmonises the function performed by individuals. :.• Control: Refers to the task of monitoring activities in order to determine whether each individual, committee, department and the school itself are achieving their objectives and utilising their resources effectively.
154 • Evaluation: Refers to the systematic assessment of a programme for the purpose of improving policy and programme decisions. In is broadest sense evaluation is concerned with making judgements. Three levels of evaluation have been identified for school-based evaluation: Curriculum evaluation: It is that process during which a value determination of the standard and outcome of the relevant curriculum is made. It therefore focuses on the purpose and thinking behind the curriculum. A comprehensive list of competencies for effective management of schools have been provided to serve as a guide for curriculum evaluation and effective curriculum practice. Teacher evaluation: Concerned with the examination of the teacher's performance with a view to providing useful feedback. It is therefore directed at gaining an insight into the dynamics of the learning and teaching situation. Student evaluation: Concerns the assessment of learner's performance with the view to providing valuable feedback and determine levels of performance and achievement of the learner.
The driving forces in terms of policy directions and constitutional imperatives in the South African context have been used extensively to illustrate the way in which the curriculum is shaped and managed for effective management of the curriculum.
Chapter 4 shall focus on the instrument of research which will include the design of the questionnaire and a discussion of the items in the questionnaire related to the management of the curriculum and the empirical investigation which entails the respondents chosen, biographical data, the research group and the return of the questionnaires.
155 CHAPTER FOUR
DESIGN OF THE RESEARCH INSTRUMENT AND EMPIRICAL INVESTIGATION
4.1 INTRODUCTION
The literature study in Chapter two and three formed the framework for the conceptualisation of designing a programme for principals to manage their schools effectively and to form the foundation for a structured questionnaire for an empirical investigation. The specific aim of this study was also highlighted in chapter two and three, as management of the curriculum and its implications for the effective management of principal competence.
In this chapter an attempt will be made to outline the methodology the researcher used to collect data. The research design focuses on the following:
The design of the questionnaire and the instrument used;
A discussion of the questions in the questionnaire; and
The empirical investigation.
The research design will elucidate the merits in quantitative research as far as the data collection, recording procedures and the instrument of research is concerned.
A brief discussion of the design of the research instrument now follows.
156 4.2 RESEARCH DESIGN
4.2.1 The purpose of quantitative research
The quantitative research design was chosen for this study. According to Charles (1988: 69) data will be obtained in the form of scores which can be tabulated and analysed. The purpose of quantitative research is to make objective descriptions of a limited set of phenomena and also to determine whether the phenomena can be controlled through certain interventions. Thus, initial quantitative studies of a research problem typically involve a precise description of the phenomena and a search for pertinent variables and their inter-relationships. Ultimately, a theory is formulated to account for the empirical findings (Borg, Gall and Gall, 1993: 195- 196).
Dzvimbo (1995: 22) asserts that deductive reasoning is fundamental to quantitative research. It assumes that a researcher should be able to move from general kinds of statements to particular ones. These statements are regarded as objective and independent of human experience. As such deductive reasoning requires a nomothetic (scientific) approach to research evidence. "The generalisations or theories that come out of a piece of research must be applicable to a large number of cases or situations" (Dzvimbo, 1995: 13). It would mean placing the theory at the beginning of the study with the objective of verifying the theory, rather than developing it.
According to Borg et al. ( 1993: 195) quantitative researchers make the assumption that they can discover "laws" that lead to reliable prediction and control of educational phenomena. They view their task as the discovery of these laws by searching for irregularities in the behaviour of samples of individuals. This search is aided by statistical analysis, which reveals trends in the sample's behaviour. Quantitative researchers believe that such trends or laws are sufficiently strong to have practical value, even though they do not allow for perfect prediction or control.
157 It is essential for the quantitative researcher to be totally objective when collecting data and analysing the process.
4.1.2 The relationship of the research to the subject
In quantitative research, the investigators' goal is objectivity. That is, they seek to keep their personal values, beliefs, and biases from influencing the data collection and analysis process. Thus, they typically administer tests that involve minimal personal interaction between them and the research sample. If interaction is necessary, as when conducting an interview, they try to standardise the interaction process so that it is identical for every individual in the sample.
Conversely, the respondent's role in the study is relatively passive. Their function is to react to the researcher's questions and interventions. They are not asked to interpret the research data or to offer any opinions other than those requested by the measuring instruments (Borg et al, 1993: 195). The instrument of research is discussed below.
4.3 THE INSTRUMENT OF RESEARCH
4.3.1 The design of the questionnaire
The design of the empirical investigation is a structured questionnaire consisting of 100 open-ended items (see Annexure B). These items were derived from a preliminary research undertaken by a group of four students who each informally discussed with ten principals their role functions and responsibilities and requested them to complete a questionnaire (see Annexure A).
The questions were designed to obtain the perceptions of the members of the teaching profession as to how important it was for principals to be able to perform each of the competencies listed in the questionnaire.
158 Questions were formulated around the constructs of :
management of the curriculum;
management of the organisational structures;
management of educators ; and
management of physical and financial resources.
Subsequently each member of the group was to investigate in detail one of the above four key components that are necessary for principals to manage their schools effectively.
The study by the group resulted in 100 questions (see Annexure B) designed to determine the perceptions of the members of the teaching profession as to the importance of principals to undertake certain tasks, duties, functions and responsibilities in order to manage their schools effectively.
This specific research project is involved with management of the curriculum and the questions formulated by the researcher and the distribution of responses in respect of the management of the curriculum are represented in Table 4.1 and Table 4.2 respectively.
159 TABLE 4.1: ITEMS ASSOCIATED WITH THE MANAGEMENT OF THE CURRICULUM ARRANGED IN RANK ORDER
ITEM DESCRIPTION MEAN STANDARD RANK NO SCORE DEVIATION ORDER B64 Motivate learners to strive for high standards of 4,46 0,84 3 achievement
B100 Provide formal notification of the progress of learners to 4,45 0,88 5 parents B99 Formulate a clear school mission with all stakeholders 4,40 0,90 11
B4 Develop a shared vision with all stakeholders for school 4,38 0,89 13 improvement B8 Communicate the school mission to all stakeholders 4,38 0,91 13
B76 Support programmes that facilitate a conducive climate for 4,36 0,90 18 learning B80 Provide curriculum resources to support learning 4,35 0,87 22 programmes
B84 Ensure that work of learners is assessed continuously 4,35 0,92 22
B48 Support educators to facilitate the curriculum needs of the 4,34 0,87 27 school B56 Ensure that a variety of methods is used for learning and 4,36 0,91 29 teaching B44 Ensure that life skills are included in the curriculum 4,32 0,92 30
B12 Develop a comprehensive school curriculum policy 4,32 0,90 30
B96 Ensure that formal assessment is focussed on the needs of 4,32 0,89 30 the learners B20 Ensure that all learning programmes provide for continuity 4,31 0,91 35
B88 Ensure that results of learners assessments are used to direct 4,30 0,91 38 learning B92 Ensure that progress cards of learners are maintained 4,30 0,94 40 effectively B68 Encourage learners to learn independently 4,28 0,99 48 B90 Evaluate the success of curriculum programmes on an 4,27 0,91 52 ongoing basis B32 Develop curriculum needs for specific needs of learners 4,26 0,92 58 B52 Ensure that individual needs of learners are catered for in 4,21 1,00 68 the delivery of lessons B36 Adapt the school's curriculum to the changing needs of the 4,21 0,97 68 community B28 Promote curriculum programmes for the cultural 4,17 0,93 74 development of learners B16 Ensure that the school curriculum reflect departmental 4,13 0,92 81 directives B60 Ensure regular homework is provided to support learning 4,05 1,02 92 B40 Promote a variety of cross curricular themes 4,00 0,97 97
160 Table 4.2: DISTRIBUTION OF RESPONSES FOR MANAGEMENT OF THE CURRICULUM
NUMBER OF RESPONDENTS S C A L E Percentage NOT VERY selecting IMPORT- IMPORT- ITEM ANT ANT TOTAL responses NO 1 2 3 4 5 4 and 5
B64 1 33 125 180 652 991 83,9 B100 3 35 135 156 662 991 82,5 B99 4 37 148 167 635 991 80,9 B4 7 39 118 238 589 991 83,5 B8 12 34 120 224 601 991 83,2 B76 3 43 137 215 594 992 81,6 B80 3 35 139 249 566 992 82,2 B84 5 47 135 218 587 992 81,1 B48 3 36 141 254 557 991 81,8 B56 6 34 162 213 574 989 79,5 B44 5 49 131 246 559 990 81,3 B12 5 47 126 265 547 990 82,0 B96 5 36 144 255 551 991 81,3 B20 6 51 120 271 544 992 82,2 B88 5 47 138 261 541 992 80,8
B92 9 47 144 234 558 992 79 , 8 B68 11 61 133 222 565 992 77,3 B90 7 40 148 283 514 991 80,4 B32 7 44 147 278 514 990 80,0 B52 9 63 167 225 528 992 75,9
B36 17 41 159 271 504 992 78 , 1 B28 5 56 165 306 460 992 77,2 B16 8 47 175 338 423 991 76,8 B60 14 73 192 280 432 991 71,8 B40 11 59 219 333 370 992 70,9
Scale 1 Means not important Scale 5 Means very important Scale 2-5 Means somewhere in-between
161 4.3.2 Discussion of competent participative management as an aspect of the management of the curriculum.
Participative management involves the process whereby teachers play a direct role in planning, decision-making and evaluation. Participative management can only be effective if the structure exists to support it (see section 3.4.1.1 — creating an organisational structure). A good organisational structure will ensure that everyone is informed about work-related activities. If the possibility to participate is built into the structure, there will naturally be open discussion and, most importantly, adequate communication throughout the organisation. It is impossible to be truly effective at communication, let alone at empowering people, as long as there are too many vertical levels within an organisation. While many organisations are trying to develop a more horizontal organisation by shortening lines of authority, others are making changes in working relationships in the hope of obtaining greater educator involvement.
According to Denton (1991:32) the impressive advantages of participative management include greater understanding and acceptance of decisions by educators; greater commitment when implementing decisions; greater understanding of goals and objectives; greater fulfillment of psychological needs and, therefore greater satisfaction; greater team identity, co-operation, and co-ordination; better means of constructive conflict resolution; and better decisions.
Kreitner and Kinicki (1992 : 408) emphasize the importance of the role of trust in participative management and therefore, for the development and maintenance of trust the principal must be available, approachable and accessible to provide help, advice and support to team members; team members and educators must be informed about decisions and provided with accurate feedback; credit and recognition for good performance is essential and consistency regarding routine matters is also important.
162 Items relevant to competent participative management in the management of the curriculum will now be discussed.
Each question was formulated in such a way that respondents could make a judgement of how important is it for principals to be competent in managing aspects of curriculum, for example:
In your opinion how important is it for principals to be able to:
Motivate learners to strive for high standards of achievements?
Provide formal notification of the progress of learners to parents?
Formulate a clear school mission with all stakeholders?
Support programmes that facilitate a conducive climate for learning?
Provide curriculum resources to support learning programmes?
Ensure that work of learners is assessed continuously?
Support educators to facilitate the curriculum needs of the school ?
Ensure that formal assessment is focussed on the needs of the learners?
Ensure that results of learners' assessments are used to direct learning?
Ensure that progress cards of the Isearners are maintained effectively?
Encourage learners to learn independently?
163
• Evaluate the success of curriculum programmes on an ongoing basis?
The above questions relevant to competent participative management of the curriculum as an aspect of effective management will now be motivated and discussed together with reference to the mean score and rank order of the questions, and comments on their importance to the respondents.
• Question B64: Motivate learners to strive for high standards of achievements?
Table 4.1 and Table 4.2 reveal the following statistical data in respect of the question above:
Mean score 4,46
Rank order (out of 100) 3
% of respondents who selected scale 4 83,9% and 5 (important/very important)
Referring to the information obtained above, the researcher concludes that the majority of the teaching profession sampled considers this aspect of principal competency to be very important to the principal's current job requirements for the effective management of the curriculum.
Discussion: Learners generally regard it as their legitimate right to pursue learning goals in the classroom. Thus, anything that learners contribute or withhold from the classroom is evidence that they are trying to pursue their individual learning goals and also to satisfy certain psychological needs. Learners accept or reject instruction in their general psychological atmosphere (Wright, 1988:120). Motivation is therefore important to encourage learners to strive towards achieving high standards. According to Sybouts and
164
Wendel (1994:130) motivation is an intrinsic drive that propels individuals to fulfill personal needs. Motivation is generally expressed through the setting and achieving of goals.
Teaching must therefore create in the child a sense of worth, a sense of pride and in so doing make pupils believe in themselves and what they are capable of. According to Wright (1988:31) research has shown that if individual learners are motivated among a group of learners it is likely that they will seek:
to synchronize their roles with their teacher's role; and to co-operate in the arduous task of learning in order to maximise the benefits they receive with higher status or a sense of personal achievement from mastering learning.
Question B100: Provide formal notification of the progress of learners to parents?
Table 4.1 and Table 4.2 reveal the following statistical data in respect of the question above:
Mean score 4,45
Rank order (out of 100) 5
% of respondents who selected scale 4 82,5% and 5 (important/very important)
Referring to the information obtained above, the researcher concludes that the majority of the teaching profession sampled considers this aspect of principal competency to be very important to the principal's current job requirements for the effective management of the curriculum.
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Discussion: Learners are motivated to learn by their own interests, and by the influence which society places on them. While teachers understand the progress of their children, communicating information regarding the progress of children to their parents creates a strong bond between the school and the parents. According to Street (1997:8) the factors influencing how children learn and, therefore, their level of performance are many and varied. Some are well beyond the control of the school. Research has revealed that a significant influence on the child's ability to learn is his/her parents' attitude to education, and to a lesser extent, the attitude of his or her immediate community. Children whose parents possess a positive attitude to school and demonstrate an interest in their education generally perform better than those whose parents are disinterested (Street, 1997:8). While exerting a positive influence on the child, providing formal notification also keeps learners and parents informed about the progress of their child so that learning difficulties can be identified early and programmes can be developed to assist the child (see section 3.5.3).
• Question B99: Formulate a clear school mission with all stakeholders?
Table 4.1 and Table 4.2 reveal the following statistical data in respect of the question above:
Mean score 4,40
Rank order (out of 100) 11
% of respondents who selected scale 4 80,9% and 5 (important/very important)
Referring to the information obtained above, the researcher concludes that the majority of the teaching profession sampled considers this aspect of principal competency to be very important to the principal's current job requirements for the effective management of the
166 curriculum.
Discussion: The formulation of a clear school mission should be viewed as a compass that points the direction to be taken, that inspires enthusiasm and that allows educators and learners to buy into and take part in shaping the way that will constitute the school's mission. The fleshing out of the mission requires the building of a shared consensus (see section 3.3.1.3). Whitaker and Moses (1994:xi) concurs with these sentiments by stating that developments can most effectively occur through collaborative effort by teachers, parents and the schooling community around a common understanding of greatness for what the school can and should become. The formulation of a clear school mission is therefore extremely important in managing the curriculum effectively.
• Question B4: Develop a shared vision with all stakeholders for school improvement?
Table 4.1 and Table 4.2 reveal the following statistical data in respect of the question above:
Mean score 4,38
Rank order (out of 100) 13
% of respondents who selected scale 4 83,5 and 5 (important/very important)
Referring to the information obtained above, the researcher concludes that the majority of the teaching profession sampled considers this aspect of principal competency to be very important to the principal's current job requirements for the effective management of the curriculum.
167
Discussion: Senge (1990: 206) indicates forcefully that vision for an organisation is vital for it provides the focus and the energy for learning. When people truly share a vision, they are connected, bound together by a common aspiration. Hicks and Holden (1995: 138-139) reinforces these sentiments by expressing that we cannot build a future that we cannot imagine. It is therefore necessary for principals to create for themselves a realistic, compelling and engaging vision of the future. If our collective visualisation of the future is weak and fragmented then the capacity of the school to create a vibrant learning and teaching environment will be considerably reduced (see section 3.3.1). o Question B76: Support programmes that facilitate a conducive climate for learning?
Table 4.1 and Table 4.2 reveal the following statistical data in respect of the question above:
Mean score 4,36
Rank order (out of 100) 18
% of respondents who selected scale 4 81,6% and 5 (important/very important)
Referring to the information obtained above, the researcher concludes that the majority of the teaching profession sampled considers this aspect of principal competency to be very important to the principal's current job requirements for the effective management of the curriculum.
Discussion: Principals who operate as leaders realise that their status as 'principal' is dependent on the support of their staff. In other words, their status depends on their ability to lead, to motivate their teams of educators and to support them to facilitate a conducive climate for learning and teaching. At the heart of the curriculum is the
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teaching process. The principal must therefore make every attempt to ensure that teachers have the necessary resources and support to facilitate effective learning and teaching. This would ensure that learning opportunities can be created for learners which could stimulate learning and keeps learners interested and inspired in the learning situation.
• Question B80: Provide curriculum resources to support learning programmes?
Table 4.1 and Table 4.2 reveal the following statistical data in respect of the question above:
Mean score 4,35
Rank order (out of 100) 22
% of respondents who selected scale 4 82,2% and 5 (important/very important)
Referring to the information obtained above, the researcher concludes that the majority of the teaching profession sampled considers this aspect of principal competency to be very important to the principal's current job requirements for the effective management of the curriculum.
Discussion: Greater success in teaching includes processes that allow learners to make use of all their senses. Choice of appropriate resources to enhance understanding and relevance is therefore important for effective learning (Avenant, 1990:11). The provision of resources would be relatively simple if individuals in the learning group could be assumed to have identical goals and experiences. However groups even within the same age and number of years in school differ widely in respect to their background and interests. Hence a single learning resource, such as a textbook is unlikely to be equally valuable to all learners. There needs to be available in every classroom a variety of resources suitable to the range of interests, abilities, and previous experiences of the
169
learners. In defining organising as a management task, Van der Westhuizen (1991:162) indicates that the principal has the responsibility of directing the skills and resources of the school towards the realisation of the goals of the school (see section 3.3.3.1). The principal can assist in making resources available in many ways including:
learning as much as possible about the variety of resources which may be used; and managing existing resources as effectively as possible.
Question B84: Ensure that the work of learners is assessed continuously?
Table 4.1 and Table 4.2 reveal the following statistical data in respect of the question above:
Mean score 4,35
Rank order (out of 100) 22
% of respondents who selected scale 4 81,1% and 5 (important/very important)
Referring to the information obtained above, the researcher concludes that the majority of the teaching profession sampled considers this aspect of principal competency to be very important to the principal's current job requirements for the effective management of the curriculum.
Discussion: Assessment is a way of finding out what a person knows, understands and thinks, and what he or she can do. Continuous assessment is a matter of being constantly aware of how learners are developing, and keeping a record of this development (see section 3.5.3). Evidence of learner achievements often emerges during normal daily classroom or from homework activities. Methods by which the teacher could observe that a learner has met the criteria for achieving a particular outcome Includes:
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watching the learner working in a group; listening to the learner explaining a concept; reading the learner's evaluation of a model, or drawing, or graph; and any other activity used to teach learners (Department of Education, 1998(b):12).
All assessment should thus be designed to be a part of learning and not treated as a separate activity.
Question B48: Support educators to facilitate the curriculum needs of the school?
Table 4.1 and Table 4.2 reveal the following statistical data in respect of the question above:
Mean score 4,34
Rank order (out of 100) 27
% of respondents who selected scale 4 81,8 and 5 (important/very important)
Referring to the information obtained above, the researcher concludes that the majority of the teaching profession sampled considers this aspect of principal competency to be very important to the principal's current job requirements for the effective management of the curriculum.
Discussion: Greater success in teaching includes processes that allow learners to make use of all their senses (see question B80). The teacher should promote opportunities for learners to gain concrete experience in the teaching and learning situation. Principals therefore have a responsibility towards their teachers to provide resources to facilitate the
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curriculum needs of the school (see 3.3.4.1). Resources could include human as well as financial and material resources.
• Question B96: Ensure that formal assessment is focussed on the needs of the learners?
Table 4.1 and Table 4.2 reveal the following statistical data in respect of the question above:
Mean score 4,32
Rank order (out of 100) 30
% of respondents who selected scale 4 81,3% and 5 (important/very important)
Referring to the information obtained above, the researcher concludes that the majority of the teaching profession sampled considers this aspect of principal competency to be very important to the principal's current job requirements for the effective management of the curriculum.
Discussion: The integrated approach to education is based on a system of credits for attaining learning outcomes, based on the achievements of learners. Learners should therefore be able to move ahead on the basis of achieving particular learning outcomes rather than through age or subject groups (National Department of Education, 1995(a):20). Teaching depends on assessment (Cullingford, 1995:150) and sustained teaching relies on the ability to analyse how learners are learning and to diagnose what they need. Assessments should therefore be based on the needs of learners in order to facilitate learner morale and motivation.
172
• Question B88: Ensure that results of learners' assessments are used to direct learning?
Table 4.1 and Table 4.2 reveal the following statistical data in respect of the question above:
Mean score 4,30
Rank order (out of 100) 38
% of respondents who selected scale 4 80,8% and 5 (important/very important)
Referring to the information obtained above, the researcher concludes that the majority of the teaching profession sampled considers this aspect of principal competency to be very important to the principal's current job requirements for the effective management of the curriculum.
Discussion: Assessments can be something threatening or positive and can involve praise or the witholding thereof. For the manager it is important to remember that the important aspects of assessment — making a diagnosis of what is needed and recognising achievement — are a central part of learning (Cullingford, 1995: 157). Evaluation is therefore essential to provide feedback to learners by using information that addresses student's strengths and weaknesses and in so doing direct learning and teaching (see section 3.3.4.1).
173
• Question B92: Ensure that progress cards of learners are maintained effectively?
Table 4.1 and Table 4.2 reveal the following statistical data in respect of the question above:
Mean score 4,30
Rank order (out of 100) 40
% of respondents who selected scale 4 79,8% and 5 (important/very important)
Referring to the information obtained above, the researcher concludes that the majority of the teaching profession sampled considers this aspect of principal competency to be very important to the principal's current job requirements for the effective management of the curriculum.
Discussion: Implementing outcome based education advocates using a variety of assessment strategies because different learners have different abilities and learning interests. At the same time, these different assessment activities encourage the development of new skills, which are valuable outcomes in their own right (National Department of Education, 1998(b):37). Good assessments would also see records of learning including:
the formally recorded samples of continuous assessment; and additional evidence of achievement.
These records form the basis to establish the outcomes achieved by the child in progressing to learn and acquire other learning outcomes.
174
• Question B68: Encourage learners to learn independently?
Table 4.1 and Table 4.2 reveal the following statistical data in respect of the question above:
Mean score 4,28
Rank order (out of 100) 48
% of respondents who selected scale 4 77,3% and 5 (important/very important)
Referring to the information obtained above, the researcher concludes that the majority of the teaching profession sampled considers this aspect of principal competency to be very important to the principal's current job requirements for the effective management of the curriculum.
Discussion: Transformational outcome based education adopted in South Africa is directed at preparing learners for life with the prime objectives being:
to identify and solve problems to show that responsible decisions, using critical and creative thinking, have been used; work effectively with each other as members of a team, group, organisation and community; and organise and manage oneself and one's activities responsibly and effectively.
These objectives facilitate independent thinking in learners in order for them to develop skills which prepares them for life. The teaching situation must therefore create learning situations that encourages independent and creative thinking and also facilitate team work.
175 Question B90: Evaluate the success of curriculum programmes on an ongoing basis?
Table 4.1 and Table 4.2 reveal the following statistical data in respect of the question above:
Mean score 4,27
Rank order (out of 100) 52
% of respondents who selected scale 4 80,4% and 5 (important/very important)
Referring to the information obtained above, the researcher concludes that the majority of the teaching profession sampled considers this aspect of principal competency to be very important to the principal's current job requirements for the effective management of the curriculum.
Discussion: Evaluation in general endeavours to determine the extent to which learning has taken place. The evaluation may be pupil or curriculum orientated (it may focus on the learning outcomes of curriculum programmes). The purpose of curriculum evaluation may be summarised as follows (Carl, 1995:119):
to determine the success of instruction of the quality of the learning outcomes; to determine the suitability of the curriculum; to direct planning and adjustments; to determine whether grading and advancement are possible; to monitor progress; and to identify defects timeously and correct them.
176 The above purposes reflect the importance of ongoing evaluation to establish the success of programmes at the school.
The research also identified facilitative management as an important aspect in the effective management of the curriculum. Items concerned with this aspect will now be examined.
4.3.3 Discussion of competent facilitative management as an aspect of curriculum management
One of the primary demands on any school is that its various parts should be linked to achieve overall objectives. To accomplish common tasks and achieve goals generally requires collaboration, and for most education tasks the need for participant interdependence is great (Schmuck and Runkel, 1994:328). The facilitator's main responsibility is to facilitate the meetings, keeping members focused and ensuring that all members are encouraged to participate. The facilitator remains neutral as to the content and decisions of the meeting, but takes an active role in managing the process of group discussion and decision making. The facilitator should be skilled at facilitating group discussions, providing structure and methods for the team to get its work done, and listening to and summarizing what has been said. In addition, the facilitator organizes and summarizes inputs from the participants in such a way that the team can use the inputs to set goals, make plans, make decisions, and solve problems (Rees ,1997: 60-61).
Items relevant to competent facilitative management in the management of the curriculum will now be discussed.
Each question was formulated in such a way that respondents could make a judgement of how important is it for principals to be competent in managing aspects of the curriculum, for example:
177
In your opinion how important is it for principals to be able to:
Develop a shared vision with all stakeholders for school improvement?
Communicate the school mission to all stakeholders?
Develop a comprehensive school curriculum policy?
Ensure that all learning programmes provide for continuity?
Adapt the school's curriculum to the changing needs of the community?
Ensure that the school curriculum reflect departmental directives?
The above questions relevant to competent facilitative management of the curriculum as an aspect of effective management will now be motivated and discussed together with reference to the mean score and rank order of the questions, and comments on their importance to the respondents .
Question B4: Develop a shared vision with all stakeholders for school improvement?
Table 4.1 and Table 4.2 reveal the following statistical data in respect of the question above:
Mean score 4,38
Rank order (out of 100) 13
% of respondents who selected scale 4 83,5%
178
and 5 (important/very important)
Referring to the information obtained above, the researcher concludes that the majority of the teaching profession sampled considers this aspect of principal competency to be very important to the principal's current job requirements for the effective management of the curriculum.
Discussion: According to Sallis (1996:75) quality is a passion and a way of life for organisations that live its message. Principals must provide leadership and provide vision and inspiration that will guide the school towards quality improvement. The function of the principal is to enhance the quality of learning and to support the staff who deliver education. The creation of a powerful vision empowers teachers and can provide them with greater scope for initiative. Vision building therefore offers direction and energy because it harnesses deep aspirations. Direction and energy lead to effective work which in turn strengthens the vision (see section 3.3.1). o Question B8: Communicate the school mission to all stakeholders?
Table 4.1 and Table 4.2 reveal the following statistical data in respect of the question above:
Mean score 4,38
Rank order (out of 100) 1.3
% of respondents who selected scale 4 83,2% and 5 (important/very important)
Referring to the information obtained above, the researcher concludes that the majority of the teaching profession sampled considers this aspect of principal competency to be very important to the principal's current job requirements for the effective management of the
179
curriculum.
Discussion: Communicating the vision to those who are responsible for the delivery of quality education and those who will be affected by the vision is critical in ensuring successful fulfillment of the purpose of the curriculum (see section 3.3.1.2). In quality organisations all managers have to be leaders and the champions of the quality process (Sallis, 1996:77). They need to communicate the vision and cascade it throughout the school. Communication is vital to ensure (see section 3.3.1.2):
that daily activities take on a special meaning and significance; that norms and standards are established for what is acceptable and what is unacceptable; and that the school creates an identity for quality service and excellence.
Question B12: Develop a comprehensive school curriculum policy?
Table 4.1 and Table 4.2 reveal the following statistical data in respect of the question above:
Mean score 4,32
Rank order (out of 100) 30
% of respondents who selected scale 4 82,0% and 5 (important/very important)
Referring to the information obtained above, the researcher concludes that the majority of the teaching profession sampled considers this aspect of principal competency to be very important to the principal's current job requirements for the effective management of the curriculum.
180
Discussion: According to Hargreaves and Hopkins (1994:81) advocates of planning see curriculum development plans as key to the successful management of the complexities inherent in managing schools. This process is seen as a significant means to deliver curriculum innovation, particularly when it is derived from collaboration and participation as a means of supporting professional learning (see section 3.3.2.3). The intention is to produce a management plan (Sybouts, 1992:48-49) that encompasses decisions in respect of
determination of goals arising from the mission; developing alternative strategies; assignment of responsibilities; commitment of resources; and time-frames.
Question B20: Ensure that all learning programmes provide for continuity?
Table 4.1 and Table 4.2 reveal the following statistical data in respect of the question above:
Mean score 4,31
Rank order (out of 100) 35
% of respondents who selected scale 4 82,2% and 5 (important/very important)
Referring to the information obtained above, the researcher concludes that the majority of the teaching profession sampled considers this aspect of principal competency to be very
181 important to the principal's current job requirements for the effective management of the curriculum.
Discussion: Teachers are expected as part of their role to have adequate knowledge of their role, to have adequate knowledge of their subject matter, to know something of how children learn and develop and to be able to devise appropriate learning and teaching experiences to facilitate effective learning. Continuity as a principle in learning is important since it gives consideration to the way children learn. Subjects requiring a systematic development of concepts and principles need to be sequenced logically so that skills acquired can be used to facilitate more complex learning. The principles of moving from simple to complex and from concrete to abstract is therefore important in ensuring that children have the necessary prerequisites to continue learning meaningfully (see section 3.3.2.2)
• Question B36: Adapt the school's curriculum to the changing needs of the community?
Table 4.1 and Table 4.2 reveal the following statistical data in respect of the question above:
Mean score 4,21
Rank order (out of 100) 68
of respondents who selected scale 4 78,1% and 5 (important/very important)
Referring to the information obtained above, the researcher concludes that the majority of the teaching profession sampled considers this aspect of principal competency to be very important to the principal's current job requirements for the effective management of the curriculum.
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Discussion: The curriculum framework for general and further education and training (National Department of Education, 1995(a):8) advocates the shifting of the development of a national curriculum to outcomes for fields of learning to encourage flexibility that allows for devolution of curriculum development to the province and ultimately to the level of schools. At this level the needs of targeted groups of learners and the demands of the changing socio-economic context could inform the formulation of outcomes. This also enables outcomes-based learning programmes to avoid the trap of prescribing narrow, mechanistic behaviours to be demonstrated rather than promoting holistic integrated learning development. The outcome-based education is therefore directed at communities who are considered to be complex, dynamic and technologically advanced so that its flexibility can prepare adaptable learners for life and work in a rapidly changing society.
• Question B16: Ensure that the school curriculum reflect departmental directives?
Table 4.1 and Table 4.2 reveal the following statistical data in respect of the question above:
Mean score 4,13
Rank order (out of 100) 81
% of respondents who selected scale 4 76,8% and 5 (important/very important)
Referring to the information obtained above, the researcher concludes that the majority of the teaching profession sampled considers this aspect of principal competency to be important to the principal's current job requirements for the effective management of the curriculum.
183 Discussion: National and provincial documents, like the curriculum framework, are intended to guide and stimulate further curriculum development. As such they spell out the required learning outcomes and performance criteria for specific learning areas with a view to establishing norms and standards in that particular area. Where a national qualification is involved, the standards should agree with unit standards registered on the appropriate level of the National Qualifications Framework (RSA, 1996(d)). National guideline documents could also include exemplars of assessed tasks at different levels of complexity with a view to ensuring fair and holistic evaluation and assessment of learner progress.
Competent quality management is also vital to the effective management of the curriculum. Items associated with this aspect will now be discussed.
4.3.4 Discussion of competent quality management as an aspect of the curriculum.
Sallis (1996:16) describes quality management aptly in stating that quality is achieved through establishing customer requirements and then building structures and particularly organisational cultures which empower employees to meet them. It is the state of the organisational mind that sees continuous improvement at the very heart of the quality process. It concentrates on excellence. It takes a wide and more eclectic view of quality. It puts the customer first and seeks to expand their horizons. Achieving quality is an exercise requiring not only well-developed and understood systems and procedures but also a customer-orientated culture where individuals are given the responsibility for quality of the work in their area and can contribute fully to its achievement.
The following items relevant to the effective management of the curriculum and competent quality management is:
In your opinion how important is it for the principal to be able to :
184
Ensure that a variety of methods is used for learning and teaching? Ensure that life skills are included in the curriculum? Develop curriculum needs for specific needs of learners? Ensure that individual needs of learners are catered for in the delivery of lessons? Promote curriculum programmes for the cultural development of learners? Ensure regular homework is provided to support learning? Promote a variety of cross curricular themes?
Question B56: Ensure that a variety of methods is used for learning and teaching?
Table 4.1 and Table 4.2 reveal the following statistical data in respect of the question above:
Mean score 4,36
Rank order (out of 100) 29
% of respondents who selected scale 4 79,5% and 5 (important/very important)
Referring to the information obtained above, the researcher concludes that the majority of the teaching profession sampled considers this aspect of principal competency to be important to the principal's current job requirements for the effective management of the curriculum.
Discussion: Effective teachers as curriculum developers must have specific curricula skills. The instructional learning situation should lead to optimal learning by identifying and utilising teaching strategies that will ensure maximal teacher and pupil participation. Some of these include:
185 simulation; dramatisation; role playing; case studies; sensitivity training; and experiential learning.
Principles by Gow and Casey (Padayachee, 1996:39) for the choice of appropriate learning strategies includes:
they must be feasible within the boundaries of limitations of programme requirements, availability of resources and personnel supply; the abilities, developmental levels, learning styles and interests of pupils should be taken cognisance of the teaching strategy must integrate with the subject content, sequence and continuity; the strategy must be goal directed; and it should be adapted to maintain a balance between cognitive and psychomotor objectives.
The above discussion highlights the importance of ensuring that all relevant factors and aspects should be thoroughly considered before decisions are made on the selection of a teaching strategy by a teacher.
186 Question B44: Ensure that life skills are included in the curriculum?
Table 4.1 and Table 4.2 reveal the following statistical data in respect of the question above:
Mean score 4,32
Rank order (out of 100) 30
% of respondents who selected scale 4 81,3% and 5 (important/very important)
Referring to the information obtained above, the researcher concludes that the majority of the teaching profession sampled considers this aspect of principal competency to be very important to the principal's current job requirements for the effective management of the curriculum.
Discussion: Life orientation is fundamental in empowering learners to live meaningful lives in society that demands rapid transformation (National Department of Education, 1997(d)). It is central to the holistic unfolding of the learners, caring for their intellectual, physical, personal, social, spiritual and emotional growth, and for the way these facets work together. Developing life skills is concerned with developing knowledge and skills and fostering the attitudes and values that will empower learners to make informed decisions related to health, physical activity, life style, career planning and human rights. The management of life skills therefore encourages the learner to make personal decisions and act upon them. It is directed at:
promoting the individual's own worth, dignity and rights as a unique individual; examining how the physical and social environment affects personal development and growth;
187 exploring the role of social, cultural and national perspectives in shaping personal attitudes and values; and understanding the integrated nature of the whole process.
Question B32: Develop curriculum needs for specific needs of learners?
Table 4.1 and Table 4.2 reveal the following statistical data in respect of the question above:
Mean score 4,26
Rank order (out of 100) 58
% of respondents who selected scale 4 80,0% and 5 (important/very important)
Referring to the information obtained above, the researcher concludes that the majority of the teaching profession sampled considers this aspect of principal competency to be very important to the principal's current job requirements for the effective management of the curriculum.
188 Question B52: Ensure that individual needs of learners are catered for in the delivery of lessons?
Table 4.1 and Table 4.2 reveal the following statistical data in respect of the question above:
Mean score 4,21
Rank order (out of 100) 68
% of respondents who selected scale 4 75,9% and 5 (important/very important)
Referring to the information obtained above, the researcher concludes that the majority of the teaching profession sampled considers this aspect of principal competency to be very important to the principal's current job requirements for the effective management of the curriculum.
Discussion: Question B52 and B32 shall be discussed together because they have similar themes.
In the development of the curriculum for the school principals need to take cognisance of the following principles as reflected in the document "Education for all" published by the National commission on Special Needs in Education and Training (National Department of Education, 1997(f): 11):
All learners should enjoy equal rights and protection of human dignity. This means that each learner has the right to quality education, and to be treated with dignity and respect. All learners must be given the opportunity to participate in their communities, being provided with the widest possible educational and social opportunities. Centres of
189 learning must support and promote social integration in these communities so that learners learn mutual respect. All learners are entitled to participate in the common education curriculum.
The above principles involve developing all aspects of the school as an environment where learning and therefore the development of individual needs can take place.
Question B28: Promote curriculum programmes for the cultural development of learners?
Table 4.1 and Table 4.2 reveal the following statistical data in respect of the question above:
Mean score 4,17
Rank order (out of 100) 74
% of respondents who selected scale 4 77,2% and 5 (important/very important)
Referring to the information obtained above, the researcher concludes that the majority of the teaching profession sampled considers this aspect of principal competency to be very important to the principal's current job requirements for the effective management of the curriculum.
Discussion: The following extract from the discussion document "curriculum 2005" (National Department of Education, 1997(h):167) aptly describes the importance of promoting cultural education in our schools.
In South Africa , the historical domination of western culture impacted decisively upon the cultural development of a vast majority of the population. This
190
institutionalized bias determined the value and acceptability of certain cultural practices over others. This in turn influenced which art forms and processes were acknowledged and promoted, and which were relegated to a lesser status. Despite adverse conditions, indigenous arts and culture practices have proved irrepressible. They must now be actively preserved, developed and promoted within the educational system and the broader society. Arts and culture are an integral part of life, embracing the spiritual, material, intellectual and emotional aspects of human society. Arts and culture are therefore fundamental to learning.
• Question B60: Ensure regular homework is provided to support learning?
Table 4.1 and Table 4.2 reveal the following statistical data in respect of the question above:
Mean score 4,05
Rank order (out of 100) 92
% of respondents who selected scale 4 71,8 and 5 (important/very important)
Referring to the information obtained above, the researcher concludes that the majority of the teaching profession sampled considers this aspect of principal competency to be important to the principal's current job requirements for the effective management of the curriculum.
Discussion: Fundamental to the process of the mastery of subject matter is consistent application and practice. Homework provides learners with the opportunity to facilitate learning by consistent reinforcement of principles, procedures and knowledge acquired at school. Learners also have the opportunity to work at their own pace and facilitate
191
advanced learning. It promotes and encourages learners to do research work and develop projects over a longer period of time. Homework therefore has the potential to develop closer ties to homes and the community to enhance support for better quality education (see section 3.3.2.3).
• Question B40: Promote a variety of cross curricular themes?
Table 4.1 and Table 4.2 reveal the following statistical data in respect of the question above:
Mean score 4,00
Rank order (out of 100) 97
% of respondents who selected scale 4 70,9% and 5 (important/very important)
Referring to the information obtained above, the researcher concludes that the majority of the teaching profession sampled considers this aspect of principal competency to be important to the principal's current job requirements for the effective management of the curriculum.
Discussion: Successful modern economies and societies require the elimination of artificial hierarachies in social organisations and in the way that learning is organised. A cross curricular approach to learning and teaching rejects a rigid division between academic and applied knowledge and between different learning areas. Adopting an integrated approach facilitates learner's understanding of the integrated nature of systems and the interdependence of societies and communities. One way of effecting integration is to combine two or more traditional subjects or areas of learning into one. Another is to combine various subject perspectives into a particular topic (National Department of Education, 1995(a):18).
192 The discussion of the 25 questions related to the management of the curriculum indicates that educators believe that all the items are important to very important to the effective management of the school by the principal. These items are also closely related to participative management, facilitative management and quality management, all of which are aspects competent principals need in order to manage their schools effectively.
Having discussed all the questions relevant to the management of the curriculum as an aspect of effective management, it is now necessary to describe the empirical investigation.
4.4 THE EMPIRICAL INVESTIGATION
4.4.1 Respondents
Respondents were chosen from the various post levels of the teaching profession. It was felt that the perceptions of the educators at the various post levels relative to principal competency should vary and hence it was important to sample as wide a range of post levels as possible (see Section A question 12 of the questionnaire — Annexure B). The sample was thus of a stratified nature (De Wet et al., 1981: 114)
4.4.2 Biographical details
The following biographical details were requested:
. mother tongue;
gender;
age;
193 teaching experience;
experience as principal;
highest educational qualification;
religion;
language of instruction;
gender of principal;
marital status;
primary or secondary school; and
post level.
It was reasoned that the above aspects could be related to principal competency and could influence educators' perceptions on how important is it for principals to acquire the necessary abilities and competencies in order to manage the curriculum.
4.4.3 The research group
A list of addresses of all schools in the GDE was obtained. Schools were selected randomly from this list. Questionnaires were distributed to the members of the teaching profession in the randomly selected schools in Gauteng. These questionnaires were handed to principals by a member of the research team and personally collected again after completion. Co-operation in most instances was excellent and this enabled a very good return of questionnaires to be obtained.
194 4.4.4 Return of questionnaires
The following figures summarize the information relevant to the questionnaire on the effective management of schools by the principals.
Handed out Returned — usable Percentage return 1200 992 82%
The questions were sent to the Statistical Consulting Services of the Rand Afrikaans University where the data was transcribed and processed.
4.5 SUMMARY
In this chapter a description of the empirical investigation was provided. The questionnaire was discussed and the course of the research was briefly indicated. In chapter 5 the following aspects will receive attention:
Reliability and validity of the instrument; and
Some aspects of the data flowing from the statistical analysis will be examined, tabulated and interpreted.
195 CHAPTER FIVE
THE ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION OF A SELECTED SAMPLE OF THE EMPIRICAL DATA
5.1 INTRODUCTION
In Chapter four the following aspects were discussed:
The instrument of research which included the design of the questionnaire and a discussion of the items in the questionnaire related to the management of the curriculum; and
The empirical investigation which entails the respondents chosen, biographical data, the research group and the return of the questionnaire
In this chapter the discussion will focus on the following:
the validity and reliability of the research instrument;
a comparison of the independent pairs by stating appropriate hypotheses and interpreting the statistical tests involved; and
a comparison of the independent groups containing three or more groups by stating the hypotheses and analysing the appropriate statistical data.
It is essential to establish the reliability and validity of the research instrument used in the research. This will now be discussed.
196 5.2 RELIABILITY AND VALIDITY
In order to establish the reliability and validity of the research instrument it is necessary firstly, to clarify these concepts and secondly, to relate it to this research.
According to Jaeger (1990:378) reliability is considered a measurement concept that represents the consistency with which an instrument measures a given performance or behaviour. A measurement instrument that is reliable will provide consistent results when a given individual is measured repeatedly under near — identical conditions.
Validity, on the other hand, is a measurement concept that is concerned with the degree to which a measurement instrument actually measures what it purports to measure. Validity is not absolute, but depends on the context in which a measurement instrument is used and the inferences that are based on the results of measurement (Jaegar, 1990:384).
The validity of a test is of the utmost importance. A test is valid to the extent that it lives up to the claims that the researcher has made for it. The following two types of validity are mentioned in this research (Borg et al., 1993:120):
Content validity: A test has content validity to the extent that its items represent the content that the test is designed to measure.
Construct validity: A test has construct validity to the extent that it can be shown to measure a particular hypothetical construct. Psychological concepts such as competency, intelligence, anxiety and creativity are considered hypothetical constructs because they are not directly observable but rather are inferred on the basis of their observable effects on behaviour.
To ensure content validity the questions were designed within the framework of the relevant theory outlined in Chapter three using FOUR key components that competent principals require to manage their schools effectively. These key components are:
197 management of the curriculum; management of organisational structures; management of educators; and management of financial and material resources.
Several experts in the research field from the Department of Educational Sciences and from the Statistical Consulting Services of the Rand Afrikaans University reviewed the questionnaire to judge the relevancy of each item. Selected principals and educators also studied the questionnaire to test the importance of each item.
The construct validity of the instrument was investigated by means of factor analysis. According to Jaegar (1990:345) factor analysis is used extensively in research. It is a particularly useful as a tool for examining the validity of tests or the measurement characteristics of attitude scales.
Borg et al (1993:269) defines factor analysis as a correlation technique that examines a large number of items and determines whether they cluster into a smaller number of underlying factors. The principal objective of factor analysis is to construct a smaller number of variables (called factors) that do a good job of conveying the information present in a larger number of variables.
In this research 100 items were designed to secure information on the importance of various key functions for principals to manage schools effectively (See Annexure B). The construct validity of the instrument in this research was investigated by means of successive first and second order factor analyses performed on the 100 items. The first order procedure involves a principal component analysis (PCA1) followed by a principal factor analysis (PFA1). These procedures were performed using the SPSS 8,0 programme (Norusis, 1998) to identify a number of factors that may facilitate the processing of the statistics. In a principal components analysis, all of the variables being analysed are assumed to be derived from a set of common factors and none of the variables is presumed to be dependent on underlying factors that are unique (Jaegar, 1990: 378).
198 The following seven distinct factors were derived when a principal factor analysis (PFA1) was performed on the 100 items:
Competent Participative Management consisting of 36 items with a Cronbach — alpha — reliability of 0,981 with no items rejected. The 36 items can thus be regarded as one scale with a maximum value of 36 x 5 = 180 and a minimum scale value of 36 x 1 = 36;
Competent Facilitative Management consisting of 36 items with a Cronbach — alpha — reliability of 0,973 with no items rejected. The 36 items can thus be regarded as one scale with a maximum value of 36 x 5 = 180 and a minimum scale value of 36 x 1 = 36;
Competent Quality Management consisting of 12 items with a Cronbach — alpha — reliability of 0,933 with no items rejected. The 12 items can thus be regarded as one scale with a maximum value of 12 x 5 = 60 and a minimum scale value of 12 x 1 = 12;
Competent Consultative Management consisting of 5 items with a Cronbach — alpha — reliability of 0,817 with no items rejected. The 5 items can thus be regarded as one scale with a maximum value of 5 x 5 = 25 and a minimum scale value of 5 x 1 = 5;
Competent Financial Management consisting of 5 items with a Cronbach — alpha — reliability of 0,883 with no items rejected. The 5 items can thus be regarded as one scale with a maximum value of 5 x 5 = 25 and a minimum scale value of 5 x 1 = 5;
Competent Resource Management consisting of 3 items with a Cronbach — alpha — reliability of 0,732 with no items rejected. The 3 items can thus be regarded as one
199 scale with a maximum value of 3 x 5 = 15 and a minimum scale value of 3 x 1 = 3; and
Competent Performance Management consisting of 3 items with a Cronbach — alpha — reliability of 0,756 with no items rejected. The 3 items can thus be regarded as one scale with a maximum value of 3 x 5 = 15 and a minimum scale value of 3 x 1 = 3 .
The above seven underlying factors can be further classified into two groups namely:
COLLABORATIVE (RELATIONSHIP — ORIENTED) COMPETENCE:
Competent Participative Management, Competent Facilitative Management, Competent Quality Management and Competent Consultative Management fall into this group. Collaborative competence refers to this collaborative interaction between management, educators and learners. Principals, by involving all the stakeholders in decision — making and consulting with these stakeholders on educational matters are likely to manage schools effectively.
According to Bisschoff (1997:9) principals (referred to as the cooperative education managers) should be competent in collaborating with various stakeholders. They must cooperate upwards with the Department, at horizontal level with their governing bodies and parents and downwards with their staff members and the learners. Bisschoff (ibid) recommends that the managerial function must be redefined, and the necessary training opportunities must be created, so that they could reach an acceptable level of competency before getting to grips with their tasks.
200 • TASK ORIENTED COMPETENCE:
Competent Resource Management, Competent Financial Management and Competent Performance Management fall into this group. Principals should perform various tasks and functions effectively and efficiently in order to manage schools effectively.
In the management of educators principals should be competent in both categories, namely, collaborative competence and task oriented competence. Figure 5.1 is a grid developed by Blake and Mouton (van der Westhuizen, 1994: 102) and represents management's concern with task and people orientation. As the figure shows, 9.9 is the ideal situation where the principal scores high on concern for people and a high on concern for tasks (production). If a principal scores 1.9, that is, low on tasks but high on concern for people then this principal should be provided training on how to become a 9.9 principal.
201 1.9 Relationship — Oriented leadership 9 .9 Integrated leadership Production is incidental to good human Production is achieved by the integration of relations. The supervisor focuses on the task human relationship requirements. The development of harmonious group relations supervisor's major responsibility is to attain so that work organisation is pleasant. effective production and high morale ("Try to win friends") through the participation and involvement of people in their learning approach. ("People support what they help to create")
5.5 Balanced leadership The aim is a balance between high productivity 'and good human relations. The leader strives to find the middle ground so as to have reasonable production with good morale. (" Be firm but fair")
1.1 Impoverished Leadership 9.1 Task-orientated leadership Minimum influence is exerted in Good relation's are incidental to high interaction with others. Little concern for production. The supervisor emphasises production or people is expressed. Most production goals by focusing on the planning activities performed are routine. direction and controlling of all activities. ("Don't rock the boat") ("Produce or perish")
1 5 9 Concern for production
Figure 5.1 Managerial Grid
The above seven factors obtained from the first order factor analysis were now used as inputs for the second order procedure. This consisted of a principal component analysis
202 (PCA2) with varimax rotation and orthogonal axes followed by a principal factor analysis (PFA2) with direct oblimin (oblique) rotation.
These procedures resulted in the 100 items being reduced to ONE factor namely, EFFECTIVE MANAGEMENT. It had a Cronbach — alpha — reliability coefficient of 0,990 with no item being rejected. The 100 items can thus be regarded as one scale with a maximum value of 100 x 5 = 500 and a minimum scale value of 100 x 1 = 100.
It should be noted that all of these factors (first and second order) are valid and have high reliability coefficients which could serve as a basis for determining the importance for principals to be competent in managing the curriculum, organisational structures, educators and resources in order to manage their schools effectively. It should also be noted that these four key functions are important components of the systems approach that was developed in Chapter two.
Now that the validity and reliability of the instrument has been established the appropriate statistical analysis can be discussed.
5.3 HYPOTHESES
Hypotheses for the second order factor, namely EFFECTIVE MANAGEMENT, were formulated in respect of all the independent groups. The comparison of two independent groups will now follow.
5.3.1 COMPARISON OF TWO INDEPENDENT GROUPS
At the univariate level two groups can be compared for possible statistically significant difference by means of Student t — test. The t — test is used to detemine whether the observed difference between the mean scores of two groups on a measure is likely to have occurred by chance or whether it reflects a true difference in the mean scores of the populations represented by the two groups (Borg et al., 1993:158).
203 Possible differences between the opinions of females and males in respect of effective management will now be discussed.
5.3.1.1 Differences between the opinions of females and males relative to effective management.
TABLE 5.1: HYPOTHESES WITH MALE AND FEMALE RESPONDENTS AS THE INDEPENDENT VARIABLE DIMENSION VARIABLE SYMBOL DESCRIPTION TEST There is no statistically significant difference between Hot the mean scores of males and Differences at Gender of females in respect of effective Student the univariate respondents management t-test level There is a statistically significant difference between Hat the mean scores of males and females in respect of effective management
TABLE 5.2: SIGNIFICANCE OF DIFFERENCE BETWEEN MALES AND FEMALES REGARDING EFFECTIVE MANAGEMENT Factor Group Factor Average Sudent t-test (p-value) Males 411,14 Effective 0,000** Management Females 432,09
204 N (Males) = 367 N(Females) = 622
** statistically significant at the 1% level (p less than 0,01) * statistically significant at the 5% level (p greater than 0,01 but less than 0,05)
Tables 5.1 and 5.2 indicate that there is a statistically significant difference (p = 0,000) between the mean scale scores of females and males in respect of effective management. The null hypothesis Hot is thus rejected and the alternative hypothesis Hat is supported.
Both males and females in the teaching profession consider effective management of principals to be important. However, the females consider effective management to be more important than do their male counterparts. To females, effective management means order, accountability and delegation of responsibilities. Women realise the worth of a well — ordered household because housekeeping and tending to family needs in South Africa is mainly the responsibility of women.
In almost every culture the females have played a very supportive role in male dominated society. Historically, the man would provide the income / means and the woman had to ensure that each member of the family's needs is taken care of. In the same way women in the school community require effective management to provide the means / resources and security in order for them to become supportive members in that community.
205 5.3.1.2 Differences between the opinions of the respondents concerning the gender of their principals relative to effective management.
TABLE 5.3: HYPOTHESES WITH GENDER OF PRINCIPAL IN SCHOOL AS THE INDEPENDENT VARIABLE DIMENSION VARIABLE SYMBOL DESCRIPTION TEST According to the perception of educators there is no significant Hot statistical difference in the mean Differences at Gender of scale scores of male and female Student the univariate principal in principals in respect of effective t-test level school management According to the perception of educators there is a significant Hat statistical difference in the mean scale scores of male and female principals in respect of effective management.
TABLE 5.4: SIGNIFICANCE OF DIFFERENCE BETWEEN MALES AND FEMALES REGARDING EFFECTIVE MANAGEMENT Factor Group Factor Student t-test Average (p-value)
Effective Males 423,25 Management • 0,467 Females 426,51
N (Males) = 618 N (Females) = 368 ** statistically significant at the 1% level (p less than 0,01)
206 * statistically significant at the 5% level (p greater than 0,01 but less than 0,05)
Tables 5.3 and 5.4 reflect that according to the perception of educators there is no statistically significant difference (p = 0,467) between the mean scale scores of male principals and female principals in respect of effective management. Hat is rejected in favour of Hot in respect of effective management.
The respondents whose principals are females have a slightly higher factor score than respondents whose principals are males. This difference in scale scores is, however, not statistically significant.
The comparison of three or more independent groups will be discussed in the next section.
5.3.2 COMPARISON OF THREE OR MORE INDEPENDENT GROUPS
In respect of three or more independent groups univariate differences are investigated by means of ANOVA (analysis of variance) in respect of EFFECTIVE MANAGEMENT. The mean scale scores are compared and should any differences be revealed at this level then the Dunnett T3 test or the Scheffe test are used to determine which of the pairs differ from one another. The following discussion is based on comparisons of three or more independent groups.
207 5.3.2.1 Differences between the opinions of respondents based on their mother tongue relative to effective management
TABLE 5.5: HYPOTHESES WITH MOTHER TONGUE AS THE INDEPENDENT VARIABLE
DIMENSION VARIABLE SYMBOL DESCRIPTION TEST The mean scores of the mother HoA tongue groups do not differ in a statistically significant way Anova from one another in respect of effective management The mean scores of the mother HaA tongue groups differ in a statistically significant way Differences at Mother from one another in respect of the univariate Tongue effective management level There are no statistically HoD significant differences between the mean scores of the different Dunnett mother tongue groups T3 compared pair-wise in respect of effective management There are statistically HaD significant differences between the mean scores of the five mother tongue groups compared pair-wise in respect of effective management
208 TABLE 5.6: SIGNIFICANCE OF DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THE MOTHER TONGUE OF RESPONDENTS REGARDING EFFECTIVE MANAGEMENT Dunnette T3 Factor Group Factor Anova Average (p-value) A BC D E A 408,76 A ** ** ** B 396,17 B ** ** ** Effective C 442,83 0,000** Management C ** ** D 435,49 D ** **
E 440,70 E ** **
GROUP A = Afrikaans N = 174 GROUP B = English N = 217 GROUP C = Nguni N = 228 GROUP D = Sotho N = 268 GROUP E = Other N = 102
** statistically significant at the 1% level (p less than 0,01) * statistically significant at the 5% level (p greater than 0,01 but less than 0,05)
Using Tables 5.5 and 5.6 the deduction can be made that there is a statistically significant difference (p = 0,000) between the average scores of the five mother tongue groups A, B, C, D and E on the single variable level in respect of effective management. The null
209 hypothesis HoA is thus rejected at the 1 % level and the alternative hypothesis HaA is accepted.
Regarding the pair — wise comparisons of groups the following conclusions can be made:
there is a statistically significant difference at the 1 % level when the various mother tongue groups are compared one with another as indicated in Table 5.6
The Nguni speaking respondents have the highest factor mean score and they differ statistically significantly at the 1 % level from the English speaking people and Afrikaans speaking people. This difference is probably due to the perceptive characteristic known as collective consciousness that derives from common experience and contrasts with its opposite pole known as individualistic consciousness that is generally operative in the context of the white population groups. The Nguni speaking people consider effective management to be very important probably because of their cultural background. To them the welfare of the group is more important than that of the individual. This concept can be linked to tribal chieftainship, extended family, common food production, disbursement of wealth and so on.
The Indian speaking people who are included in the other group also have a high factor mean score indicating that they consider effective management to be very important. The Indian speaking people are also community conscious (extended families) and one of the main reasons that bind them together is their religious beliefs and tradition. For example, when two people marry it is not a communion between two individuals but rather a communion of two families. In order for the Indian community to be stable it is the elders ( religious leaders / priests) in the community that lay the ground rules for order and discipline within that community.
The Nguni speaking people and Indians are respectful of authority — religious leaders, community leaders and heads of the family. It would appear that these groups find it
210 difficult to be critical of people in positions of authority. Thus, respondents from these groups may have rated all the questions relatively high.
• Effective management is not such an issue with the English and Afrikaans — speaking people in the sample selected probably because their schools are usually managed effectively. They become critical if there is a breakdown in order and discipline. In the English speaking community the needs of the individual are paramount and this is probably because of their capitalistic values. They believe that if the individual is happy and contented this will improve relationships within the family which, will then extend to the community and society at large. All teachers would take on individual responsibility for the learners under their care. Each teacher becomes an integral part of management because they have a direct influence on people, place, policy and procedures. They accept personal responsibility when it is delegated to them and tend to have an internal locus of control.
211 5.3.2.2 Differences between the opinions of respondents based on their age groups relative to effective management
TABLE 5.7: HYPOTHESES WITH AGE GROUPS AS THE INDEPENDENT VARIABLE DIMENSION VARIABLE SYMBOL DESCRIPTION TEST The mean scores of the age groups do not differ in a HoA statistically significant way from Anova one another in respect of effective management The mean scale scores of the age groups differ in a statistically Differences at HaA significant way from one another the univariate Age Groups in respect of effective level management There is no statistically significant differences between HoD the mean scores of the different Dunnett age groups compared pair-wise T3 in respect of effective management There are statistically significant HaD differences between the mean scores of the different age groups compared pair-wise in respect of effective management
212 TABLE 5.8: SIGNIFICANCE OF DIFFERENCE BETWEEN AGE GROUPS OF RESPONDENTS REGARDING EFFECTIVE MANAGEMENT Dunnett T3 Factor Group Factor Anova Average (p-value) A B C D A 433,07 A ** B 435,79 B **
Effective C 411,74 0,000** C ** ** Management D 426,03 D
GROUP A = 21-35 years N=289 GROUP B = 36-40 years N=194 GROUP C = 41-50 years N=382 GROUP D = 51-65 years N=122
** statistically significant at 1% level (p less than 0,01) * statistically significant at the 5% level (p greater than 0,01 but less than 0,05)
Using Tables 5.7 and 5.8 the deduction can be made that there is a statistically significant difference (p = 0,000) between the average scores of the four age groups A, B, C, and D in respect of effective management. The null hypothesis HoA is thus rejected and the alternative hypothesis HaA is accepted.
Regarding the pair — wise comparisons of groups the following conclusions can be made:
213 there is a statistically significant difference at the 1 % level when one age group is compared with another as indicated in Table 5.8
The respondents in the age group 41 — 50 years have the lowest factor mean score and they differ statistically significantly at the 1 % level from the respondents in the age groups 21 — 35 years and 36 — 40 years. This difference may be the result of the possibility that educators in the 41 — 50 year age group are experienced educators or managers and thus they may be more realistic in respect of the importance of effective management. It is also possible that this group suffer from an over exposure to educational change as they have been through a series of large changes to the educational system in South Africa and hence their perceptions in respect of educational management have become somewhat trenchant.
Most of the respondents in the age group 36 — 40 years are probably new in management posts and therefore consider effective management to be important. This group has the highest mean score.
The respondents who fall in the age group 21 — 35 years are of the opinion that effective management is important. It is important to note that this group of educators are usually innovative, creative and generate new ideas. To them management is sometimes comprised of the older generation who are set in their ways / ideas and are not willing to change. They probably also place greater emphasis on a collaborative type of management and as many of the questions fell in this category of management they perceive it is important.
214 5.3.2.3 Differences between the opinions of respondents based on their teaching experience relative to effective management
TABLE 5.9: HYPOTHESES WITH TEACHING EXPEREINCE AS THE INDEPENDENT VARIABLE DIMENSION VARIABLE SYMBOL DESCRIPTION TEST The mean scale scores of the HoA groups reflecting teaching experience do not differ in a Anova statistically significant way from one another in respect of effective management The mean scale scores of the HaA groups reflecting teaching Differences at Teaching experience differ in a statistically the univariate experience significant way from one another level in respect of effective management There is no statistically HoD significant differences between the mean scores of the different Dunnett teaching experience groups T3 compared pair-wise in respect of effective management There are statistically significant HaD differences between the mean scores of the different teaching experience groups compared pair-wise in respect of effective management
215 TABLE 5.10 SIGNIFICANCE OF DIFFERENCE BETWEEN TEACHING EXPERIENCE OF RESPONDENTS REGARDING EFFECTIVE MANAGEMENT Dunnett T3 Factor Group Factor Anova Average (p-value) A B C D E A 430,74 A ** B 436,57 B ** * C 428,10 C * Effective D 404,70 0,000** D ** ** Management E 414,13 E *
GROUP A = 1-7 YEARS N=190 GROUP B = 8-15 YEARS N=237 GROUP C = 16-20 YEARS N=203 GROUP D = 21-25 YEARS N=190 GROUP E = 25 YEARS+ N=157 ** statistically significant at the 1 % level (p less than 0,01) statistically significant at the 5 % level (p greater than 0,01 but less than 0,05)
Using Tables 5.9 and 5.10 the deduction can be made that there is a statistically significant difference (p = 0,000) between the average scores of the five age groups A, B, C, D and E in respect of effective management. The null hypothesis HoA is thus rejected and the alternative hypothesis HaA is accepted.
Regarding the pair — wise comparisons of groups the following conclusions can be made:
216 There is a statistically significant difference at the 1 % level and 5 % level when one teaching experience group is compared with another as indicated in Table 5.10.
Respondents who fall within the 21 — 25 years teaching experience group have a relatively low mean score and are of the opinion that effective management is not very important. The relatively low scale score of this group could be due to the low morale of these educators because they have experience and many of them have possibly upgraded their educational qualifications. The department of education has set low minimum criteria for promotion to the post of principal. The educator's experience and teaching qualifications are important factors that may presently not be considered for promotion purposes by the education departments and school governing bodies.
Respondents, who fall in the 1 — 7 years teaching experience group, have a relatively high mean score and are of the opinion that effective management is important. They probably see the need for vision building, curriculum planning and evaluation to adapt to the system. Most of these educators are possibly upgrading their educational qualifications.
The group with 8 — 15 years of teaching experience has the highest mean score. Most educators take eight or more years before occupying promotion posts. To become a principal normally requires a minimum of ten years of experience. It is thus likely that in the group of educators with 8 — 15 years of experience there are many educators who recently acquired promotion posts and hence they regard effective management as important. They are still full of enthusiasm and the various changes to the educational system may not have left them with high frustration levels.• They possibly still have the necessary drive and commitment necessary to bring about all the recent management innovations.
217 5.3.2.4 Differences between the opinions of respondents based on the experience of principals relative to effective management.
TABLE 5.11: HYPOTHESES WITH YEARS AS PRINCIPAL AS THE INDEPENDENT VARIABLE DIMENSION VARIABLE SYMBOL DESCRIPTION TEST The mean scale scores of the HoA groups reflecting years as principal do not differ in a Anova statistically significant way from one another in respect of effective management The mean scale scores of the HaA groups reflecting years as Differences at Years as principal differ in a statistically the univariate Principal significant way from one another level in respect of effective management There is no statistically HoD significant difference between the mean scores of the groups Dunnett reflecting year as principal T3 compared pair-wise in respect of effective management There are statistically significant HaD differences between the mean scores of the groups reflecting years as principal compared pair- wise in respect of effective management
218 TABLE 5.12: SIGNIFICANCE OF DIFFERENCE BETWEEN EXPERIENCE OF RESPONDENTS AS PRINCIPALS REGARDING EFFECTIVE MANAGEMENT
Dunnett T3 Factor Group Factor Anova Average (p-value) A B C A 405,17 A ** Effective B 368,54 B ** Management C 402,07 0,003** C *
GROUP A = 0-4 YEARS N= 156 GROUP B = 5-9 YEARS N = 103 GROUP C = 10 YEARS + N = 73
** statistically significant at the 1% level (p less than 0,01) * statistically significant at the 5% level (p greater than 0,01 but less than 0,05)
Using Tables 5.11 and 5.12 the deduction can be made that there is a statistically significant difference (p = 0,003) between the average scores of the three groups A, B and C representing years as principal in respect of effective management. The null hypothesis HoA is thus rejected and the alternative hypothesis HaA is accepted.
Regarding the pair — wise comparisons of groups the following conclusions can be made:
219 There is a statistically significant difference at the 1 % level and 5 % level when one "experience as principal" group is compared with another is indicated in Table 5.12.
156 out of 332 respondents fall in the group 0 — 4 years. This group has the highest mean score and they are thus of the opinion that effective management is important. The school governing bodies, where experience and qualifications were not a priority, promoted many educators to principals' posts. These principals therefore probably depend on a strong management support. They probably lack the necessary expertise and managerial experience and therefore depend largely on their management staff for inputs and directions. They are possibly not yet competent to assess or manage a situation which require specific skills or knowledge on their own but may rather involve the management staff in this regard.
In comparison to the above group, the group with 5 — 9 years of experience as principal consider effective management relatively important because they probably see it as a means to ensuring stability and order in the school community. This group also has the experience of being subjected to the shift of management paradigm which occurred when the so — called Model C schools were introduced. They thus have already experienced the importance of participative management by involving the community to a larger extent. In comparison to the 0 — 4 years experience group effective management by using participation and consultation may not be a new experience to them. They realise the importance of participative management and delegation of duty and do not solely depend on the school management team. They can operate in their individual capacity because they have the expertise and experience.
220 5.3.2.5 Differences between the opinions of respondents based on the qualifications of the respondents relative to effective management
TABLE 5.13: HYPOTHESES WITH QUALIFICATIONS AS THE INDEPENDENT VARIABLE
DIMENSION VARIABLE SYMBOL DESCRIPTION TEST The mean scale scores of the HoA groups reflecting qualifications do not differ in a statistically Anova significant way from one another in respect of effective management The mean scale scores of the HaA groups reflecting qualifications Differences at Qualifications differ in a statistically significant the univariate way from one another in respect level of effective management There is no statistically significant HoD differences between the mean scores of the groups reflecting Dunnett qualifications compared pair-wise T3 in respect of effective management There are statistically significant HaD differences between the mean scores of the groups reflecting qualifications compared pair-wise in respect of effective management
221 TABLE 5.14: SIGNIFICANCE OF DIFFERENCE BETWEEN QUALIFICATIONS OF RESPONDENTS REGARDING EFFECTIVE MANAGEMENT
Dunnett T3 Factor Group Factor Anova Average (p-value) A B C D A 440,53 A ** * Effective B 435,50 B ** ** Management C 391,29 0,000** C ** **
D 422,39 .D * **
GROUP A = Post school Diploma N=178 GROUP B = Teacher + Education diploma N=387 GROUP C = B Degree + Education Diploma N=217 GROUP D = Post Graduate N=162
** statistically significant at the 1 % level (p less than 0,01) * statistically significant at the 5 % level (p greater than 0,01 but less than 0,05)
Using tables 5.13 and 5.14 the deduction can be made that there is a statistically significant difference (p = 0,000) between the average scores of the four qualifications groups A, B, C and D in respect of effective management. The null hypothesis HoA is thus rejected and the alternative hypothesis HaA is accepted.
Regarding the pair — wise comparisons of groups the following conclusions can be made:
222 There is a statistically significant difference at the 1 % and 5 % level when the various educational qualification groups are compared with one another as indicated in Table 5.14.
Respondents who fall in the group Post School Diploma have the highest mean score and are therefore of the opinion that effective management is very important. These respondents have lower educational qualifications than their colleagues and probably consider themselves less competent to make independent decisions or to handle situations without a directive from the principal. This group may only operate with set rules, regulations and procedures. They probably seldom question any decision made by the management, and in particular, the principal.
The group B Degree + Education Diploma has the lowest mean score and therefore do not regard effective management as that important relative to the post school diploma group. They may have the opinion that they are competent and they have knowledge and the expertise to take on the responsibility in their individual capacity. They possibly do not see the need for management to give direction as they can usually rely on their own knowledge gained through further studies and experience.
Teachers with good educational qualifications are critical if management does not acknowledge their expertise. They believe that they are able to contribute meaningfully to effective management. Teachers have the perception that competence is directly proportional to their educational qualifications. To them qualified teachers are usually innovative, autonomous and individualistic, who are not afraid to accept responsibility for the effective completion of a task which has been delegated to them.
223 5.3.2.6 Differences between the opinions of respondents based on the religious beliefs of the respondents relative to effective management
TABLE 5.15: HYPOTHESES WITH RELIGION AS THE INDEPENDENT VARIABLE DIMENSION VARIABLE SYMBOL DESCRIPTION TEST The mean scale scores of the HoA groups reflecting religion do not differ in a statistically Anova significant way from one another in respect of effective management The mean scale scores of the HaA groups reflecting religion differ Differences at Religion in a statistically significant way the univariate from one another in respect of level effective management There is no statistically HoD significant differences between the mean scores of the groups Dunnett reflecting religion compared T3 pair-wise in respect of effective management There are statistically HaD significant differences between the mean scores of the groups reflecting religion compared pair-wise in respect of effective management
224 TABLE 5.16: SIGNIFICANCE OF DIFFERENCE BETWEEN DIFFERENT RELIGIOUS GROUPS REGARDING EFFECTIVE MANAGEMENT
Factor Group Factor Anova Average (p-value) A 424,70 B 416,97 Effective C 431,98 Management 0,721 D 425,50
GROUP A = Christians N=818 GROUP B = Middle East Religion (Islam + Jewish) N=56 GROUP C = Hinduism N=52 GROUP D = Other N=64
** statistically significant at the 1 % level (p less than 0,01) * statistically significant at the 5 % level (p greater than 0,01 but less than 0,05)
Tables 5.15 and 5.16 reflect that there is no statistically significant difference (p = 0,721) between the mean scale scores of the different religious groups in respect of effective 'management. Hat is rejected in favour of Hot in respect of effective management.
The respondents whose religious beliefs are Hinduism have a slightly higher factor score than respondents whose religious beliefs are Christianity and "other". This difference in mean scale scores are however, not statistically significant.
225 5.3.2.7 Differences between the opinions of respondents based on Language of Instruction of the respondents relative to effective management.
TABLE 5.17: HYPOTHESES WITH LANGUAGE OF INSTRUCTION AS THE INDEPENDENT VARIABLE DIMENSION VARIABLE SYMBOL DESCRIPTION TEST The mean scale scores of the groups HoA reflecting language of instruction do not differ in a statistically significant Anova way from one another in respect of effective management The mean scale scores of the groups HaA reflecting language of instruction differ in a statistically significant way Differences at the Language of from one another in respect of univariate level Instruction effective management There is no statistically significant HoD differences between the mean scores of the groups reflecting language of Dunnett T3 instruction compared pair-wise in respect of effective management There are statistically significant HaD differences between the mean scores of the groups reflecting language of instruction compared pair-wise in respect of effective management
226 TABLE 5.18: SIGNIFICANCE OF DIFFERENCE BETWEEN LANGUAGE OF INSTRUCTION REGARDING EFFECTIVE MANAGEMENT
Dunnett T3 Factor Group Factor Anova Average (p-value) A B C A 403,19 A * Effective B 426,26 B * Management C 427,96 0,011* C
GROUP A = Afrikaans N=82 GROUP B = English N=718 GROUP C = Double/Parallel N=174
** statistically significant at the 1 % level (p less than 0,01) * statistically significant at the 5 % level (p greater than 0,01 but less than 0,05)
Using Tables 5.17 and 5.18 the deduction can be made that there is a statistically significant difference (p = 0,011) between the average scores of the three language of instruction groups A, B and C in respect of effective management. The null hypothesis HoA is thus rejected and the alternative hypothesis HaA is accepted.
Regarding the pair — wise comparisons of groups the following conclusions can be made:
• There is a statistically significant difference at the 5 % level when the various language of instruction groups are compared with one another as indicated in Table 5.18.
227 • The respondents who are employed at double and parallel medium schools have a high mean score and consider effective management very important. It would appear that most of these schools are from historically disadvantaged communities and therefore depend on the equitable distribution of resources. Principals are expected to be competent to manage such schools in order to avoid being accused of bias and prejudice.
• The English — medium schools are inclusive of different cultures and race groups, for example, former House of Delegate schools are all English medium schools. There is a statistically significant difference of opinion between Afrikaans — medium schools and English — medium schools in respect of effective management. The respondents from English — medium schools consider effective management to be more important than their colleagues who are in Afrikaans — medium schools. The reasons could be compared with those mentioned in the section "mother tongue" (Refer to section 5.3.2.1). It is also possible that the relatively small number of educators from Afrikaans-medium schools played a role in this finding. Another possibility is that the management of mono-cultural schools is less complicated than that of multicultural schools.
228 5.3.2.8 Differences between the opinions of respondents based on their marital status relative to effective management
TABLE 5.19: HYPOTHESES WITH MARITAL STATUS AS THE INDEPENDENT VARIABLE
DIMENSION VARIABLE SYMBOL DESCRIPTION TEST The mean scale scores of the HoA groups reflecting marital status do not differ in a statistically Anova significant way from one another in respect of effective management The mean scale scores of the HaA groups reflecting marital status Differences at Marital Status differ in a statistically the univariate significant way from one level another in respect of effective management There are no statistically HoD significant differences between the mean scores of the groups Dunnett reflecting marital status T3 compared pair-wise in respect of effective management There are statistically HaD significant differences between the mean scores of the groups reflecting marital status compared pair-wise in respect of effective management
229 TABLE 5.20: SIGNIFICANCE OF DIFFERENCE BETWEEN MARITAL STATUS REGARDING EFFECTIVE MANAGEMENT
Factor Group Factor Anova Average (p-value) A 430,40 Effective B 424,36 0,400 Management C 419,57
GROUP A = Unmarried N= 137 GROUP B = Married N=682 GROUP C = Divorce/Single N=150
** statistically significant at the 1 % level (p less than 0,01) * statistically significant at the 5 % level ( p greater than 0,01 but less than 0,05)
Tables 5.19 and 5.20 reflect that there is no statistically significant difference (p = 0,400) between the mean scale scores of the married, unmarried and divorce / single groups in respect of effective management. Hat is rejected in favour of Hot in respect of effective management.
The respondents who are unmarried have a slightly higher factor score than respondents who are married. This difference in scale scores is however, not statistically significant.
230 5.3.2.9 Differences between the opinions of respondents based on the type of school relative to effective management
TABLE 5.21: HYPOTHESES WITH TYPE OF SCHOOL AS THE INDEPENDENT VARIABLE DIMENSION VARIABLE SYMBOL DESCRIPTION TEST The mean scale scores of the HoA groups reflecting type of school do not differ in a statistically Anova significant way from one another in respect of effective management The mean scale scores of the HaA groups reflecting type of school Differences at Type of differ in a statistically the univariate school significant way from one level another in respect of effective management There are no statistically HoD significant differences between the mean scores of the groups Dunnett reflecting type of school T3 compared pair-wise in respect of effective management There are statistically HaD significant differences between the mean scores of the groups reflecting type of school compared pair-wise in respect of effective management
231 TABLE 5.22: SIGNIFICANCE OF DIFFERENCE BETWEEN TYPE OF SCHOOL REGARDING EFFECTIVE MANAGEMENT
Dunnett T3 Factor Group Factor Anova Average (p-value) A B C A 436,83 A ** Effective B 396,22 B ** Management C 417,73 0,000** c
GROUP A = Primary Schools N=623 GROUP B = Secondary schools N=261 GROUP C = Combined/Special N=95
** statistically significant at the 1% level (p less than 0.01) * Statistically significant at the 5% level (p greater than 0.01 but less than 0.05)
Using Tables 5.21 and 5.22 the deduction can be made that there is a statistically significant difference (p = 0,000) between the average scores of the three school type groups A, B and C in respect of effective management. The null hypothesis HoA is thus rejected and the alternative hypothesis HaA is accepted.
Regarding the pair — wise comparisons of groups the following conclusions can be made:
• There is a statistically significant difference at the 1 % level when the various school type groups are compared with one another as indicated in Table 5.22.
232 The respondents who teach in primary schools have a high mean score and consider effective management to be very important as compared to their colleagues teaching at the secondary schools.
The teaching staff in the primary schools are predominantly females (Refer to section 5.3.3.1 on gender of respondents).
Most of the educators in the primary schools have lower educational qualifications than their secondary school colleagues who have specialised knowledge in specific subjects and probably believe that subject expertise is the predominant factor in effective school management. (Refer to section 5.3.2.5 on qualifications).
233 5.3.2.10 Differences between the opinions of respondents based on their post levels relative to effective management
TABLE 5.23: HYPOTHESES WITH POST LEVEL AS THE INDEPENDENT VARIABLE
DIMENSION VARIABLE SYMBOL DESCRIPTION TEST The mean scale scores of the HoA groups reflecting post levels do not differ in a statistically Anova significant way from one another in respect of effective management The mean scale scores of the HaA groups reflecting post levels Differences at Post Levels differ in a statistically the univariate significant way from one level another in respect of effective management There are no statistically • HoD significant differences between the mean scores of the groups Dunnett reflecting post levels compared T3 pair-wise in respect of effective management There are statistically HaD significant differences between the mean scores of the groups reflecting post levels compared pair-wise in respect of effective management
234 TABLE 5.24: SIGNIFICANCE OF DIFFERENCE BETWEEN POST LEVELS REGARDING EFFECTIVE MANAGEMENT
Dunnett T3 Factor Group Factor Anova Average (p-value) A B C A 437,09 A ** Effective B 446,03 B ** Management C 388,63 0,000** C ** **
GROUP A = Educators N=419 GROUP B = Deputy Principals/Heads of Department N= 234 GROUP C = Principals N=312
** statistically significant at the 1 % level (p less than 0,01) * statistically significant at the 5 % level (p greater than 0,01 but less than 0,05)
Using Tables 5.21 and 5.22 deductions can be made that there is a statistically significant difference (p = 0,000) between the average scores of the three post level groups A, B and C in respect of effective management. The null hypothesis HoA is thus rejected and the alternative hypothesis HaA is accepted.
Regarding the pair — wise comparisons of groups the following conclusions can be made:
• There is a statistically significant difference at the 1 % level when the various post level groups are compared with one another as indicated in Table 5.24
235 Respondents who belong to the post level group "Deputy Principal / H.O.D" have the highest mean score and are thus of the opinion that effective management is very important. They are part of the school management team and are actively involved in the management process. This group can however, also be critical especially if the principal is not competent or the principal does not include them in the decision — making process.
The group "Educators" probably desire more effective principals to manage them. They regard delegation, participation, consultation, leadership, facilitation and management style as important facets in effective management.
The group that has the lowest mean score are the principals. While they consider effective management as important, principals may find themselves not fully competent because of the complex nature of their job, poor management styles, lack of communication and poor interpersonal relationships. It is also possible that some principals could have the perception that if they scored too many items as very important that it may reflect poorly on their management competence.
From the above discussion it can be concluded that statistically significant differences in respect of EFFECTIVE MANAGEMENT (second order factor) were found between most of the independent groups investigated.
Effective management is however composed of seven underlying factors. The significant statistical differences between groups could thus also be attributed to these seven underlying factors. In order to elucidate this statement further a brief explanation is presented using the seven first order factors.
236 5.4 DISCUSSION OF THE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN THE FACTOR MEAN SCORES OF THE SEVEN FIRST ORDER FACTORS
5.4.1 HYPOTHESES
Hypotheses were formulated in respect of one of the independent groups in respect of the seven first order factors. A comparison of one of the two independent groups will now be discussed.
5.4.1.1 COMPARISON OF TWO INDEPENDENT GROUPS
At the multivariate level two groups can be compared for possible statistical differences by means of the Hotelling T 2 test. This implies that the vectors of the mean scale scores of the two groups are compared in respect of the seven factors taken together. Should a statistically significant difference be found at this multivariate level then the Student t — test is used in respect of each of the variables taken separately.
• Differences between male and female respondents relative to the seven factors.
237 TABLE 5.25: HYPOTHESES WITH MALE AND FEMALE RESPONDENTS AS THE INDEPENDENT VARIABLE
DIMENSION VARIABLE SYMBOL DESCRIPTION Test • There is no statistically HoT significant difference between the vector mean Differences at Gender of scores of males and females Hotelling 2 the multivariate respondents in respect of the seven T level factors considered together There is a statistically HaT significant difference between the vector mean scores of males and females in respect of the seven factors considered together
238 TABLE 5.25: CONTINUED: HYPOTHESES WITH MALE AND FEMALE RESPONDENTS AS THE INDEPENDENT VARIABLE
DIMENSION VARIABLE SYMBOL DESCRIPTION TEST Differences at the Hot There is no statistically significant Student single variable difference between the mean scale scores t-test level of male and female educators in respect of each factor taken separately namely: Hot 1 Competent Participative Management
Hot 2 Competent Facilitative Management
Hot 3 Competent Quality Management Hot4 Competent Consultative Management Hot 5 Competent Financial Management Hot 6 Competent Resource Management Hot 7 Competent Performance Management
Hat There is a statistically significant difference between the mean scale scores of male and female educators in respect of each factor taken separately namely: Hat 1 Competent Participative Management Hat 2 Competent Facilitative Management Hat 3 Competent Quality Management Hat 4 Competent Consultative management Hat 5 Competent Financial management Hat 6 Competent Resource management Hat 7 Competent Performance management
239 TABLE 5.26: SIGNIFICANCE OF DIFFERENCE BETWEEN MALES AND FEMALES REGARDING EFFECTIVE MANAGEMENT
Factor Group Factor Student Average Hotelling T t-test squared (p-value) (p-value) Competent Males 150,71 Participative Females 158,33 0,000** Management Competent Males 148,74 Facilitative Females 155,45 0,000** Management Competent Males 48,22 Quality Females 51,24 0,000** Management Competent Males 19,84 0,000** Consultative Females 20,58 0,000** Management Competent Males 20,88 Financial Females 21,86 0,000** Management Competent Males 11,31 Resource Females 12,39 0,000** Management Competent Males 11,73 Performance Females 12,39 Management , 0,020*
240 N (Males) = 367 N (Females) = 622
** statistically significant at the 1% level (p less than 0,01) * statistically significant at the 5% level (p greater than 0,01 but less than 0,05)
Tables 5.25 and 5.26 indicate that there is a statistically significant difference (p = 0,000) between the vector mean scale scores of male and female educators in respect of the seven factors considered together. The null hypotheses HoT is thus rejected and the alternative hypotheses HaT is supported.
In respect of the differences at the single variable level between the two groups the average scale scores of the female educators are significantly higher than that of the male educators in respect of all seven factors. Hotl, Hot2, Hot3, Hot4, Hot5, Hot6 and Hot7 are thus all rejected in favour of their alternative counterparts.
Regarding the pair — wise comparisons of groups the following inferences can be made in respect of the two groups discussed in section 5.2, namely, collaborative (relationship- oriented) competency and task oriented competence (which consists of the seven factors):
• COLLABORATIVE (RELATIONSHIP-ORIENTED) COMPETENCE
Although females represent the majority of the teaching Corp, a relatively small percentage of them occupy management posts. Female educators, generally, are competent and committed to their jobs. There are a number of reasons why they are not in leadership positions in education. Some of the reasons can be attributed to the lack of confidence, the absence of long — term planning, fear of rejection as a result of gender — inappropriate behavior, discrimination against women when appointments are made and a lack of experience or qualifications for educational administration posts. In addition, there is the dual role as married women with children, the break in service as a result of confinements, the geographic mobility of many women and the absence of role models
241 (Pretorius and Lemmer, 1998:116; Bush and West — Burnham, 1994: 182 — 184; De Witt, 1994: 515 — 529).
There is a shift in leadership positions away from the autocratic and hierarchic management style to a style that is more democratic, collaborative and person — oriented. This is typical of women's management style at home and in the classroom. Females give emphasis to such themes as cooperation, intimacy, affiliation, and the construction of interpersonal networks and community building. It is for these reasons that female educators will want principals to be competent in participative and consultative management. If principals provide meaningful involvement in the decision-making process then they will give teachers a commitment to work towards the achievement of their own as well as the organisation's goals and objectives. Shared governance, to female educators, means that teachers are given the opportunity to voice their opinions about critical issues, consulting with them and also giving them a role in making decisions that concern them.
Female educators will want to belong to well-organised institutions that provide quality education to its learners. They require principals to handle teacher concerns such as discipline, equitable assignments of extra and co — curricular duties and provide assistance to problems in the classroom. It is the responsibility of principals to execute various tasks effectively in order to make teaching easier for the educators. They probably consider it important for principals to be competent in quality management and facilitative management so that the goals of the organisation can be achieved.
• TASK ORIENTED COMPETENCE
Female educators are of the opinion that principals should be competent in financial management, resource management, and performance management. They will want principals to handle teacher concerns such as the provision and distribution of material resources and to also control the financial resources efficiently. Principals should also have the necessary skills and knowledge in performance management. They should be
242 competent in evaluating teachers' performance in extra and co-curricular duties and when the need arises provide effective staff development programmes.
It can be concluded that principals should therefore be competent in the following seven aspects of management in order to manage schools effectively:
Competent Participative Management. Competent Facilitative Management. Competent Quality Management. Competent Consultative Management. Competent Financial Management. Competent Resource Management. Competent Performance Management.
A comparison of one of the three or more independent groups will now be discussed.
5.4.1.2 COMPARISON OF ONE OF THE THREE OR MORE INDEPENDENT GROUPS
In respect of three or more independent groups multivariate differences are investigated by means of MANOVA (multivariate analysis of variance) in respect of the seven factors considered together. The vector mean scale scores are compared and should any difference be revealed at this level then ANOVA (analysis of variance) and the Dunnett T3 test is used to investigate this difference at the single variable level. Only one example of the differences between three or more groups, that is, the various mother tongue groupings is considered. To analyse any pair — wise differences the Dunnett T3 or Scheffe tests are used.
Differences between the opinions of respondents based on their mother tongue relative to the seven factors
243 TABLE 5.27: HYPOTHESES WITH MOTHER TONGUE RESPONDENTS AS THE INDEPENDENT VARIABLE DIMENSION VARIABLE SYMBOL DESCRIPTION TEST There is no statistically significant difference HoM between the vector mean scores for the five mother Differences at the Mother tongue tongue groups in respect of the seven factors multivariate level considered together There is a statistically significant difference Manova HaM between the vector mean scores for the five mother tongue groups in respect of the seven factors considered together The average scale scores of the five mother tongue Differences at the single Mother tongue HoA groups do not differ in a statistically significant way variable level from one another in respect of the following factors Anova taken separately, namely HoA 1 Competent Participative Management HoA 2 Competent Facilitative Management HoA 3 Competent Quality management HoA 4 Competent Consultative Management HoA 5 Competent Financial Management HoA 6 Competent Resource Management HoA 7 Competent Performance Management
The average scale scores of the five mother tongue Differences at the single Mother tongue HaA groups differ in a statistically significant way from variable mother tongue one another in respect of the following factors taken Anova separately, namely
HaA 1 Competent Participative Management HaA 2 Competent Facilitative Management HaA 3 Competent Quality Management HaA 4 Competent Consultative Management HaA 5 Competent Financial Management HaA 6 Competent Resource Management HaA 7 Competent Performance Management There are no statistically significant differences Dunnett T3 Difference at the univariate HoD between the average scale scores of the five mother Test level tongue groups compared pair-wise in respect of the above factors HoD There are statistically significant differences Difference at the univariate between the average scale scores of the five mother level tongue groups compared pair-wise in respect of the above factors.
244 TABLE 5.28: SIGNIFICANCE OF DIFFERENCE BETWEEN MOTHER TONGUE GROUPS IN RESPECT OF THE SEVEN FACTORS MOTHER Group Factor Manova Anova Dunnett T3 TONGUE Average (p-value) (p-value) Factor A B C D E Competent A 149,92 A ** ** ** Participative B 145,26 B ** ** ** Management C 162,13 0,000" C ** ** D 159,51 D ** ** E 161,31 E ** ** Competent A 148,95 A ** * Facilitative B 143,85 B ** ** ** Management C 156,50 0,000" C ** ** D 156,33 D * ** E 157,78 E * ** Competent A 46,41 A ** ** ** Quality B 45,94 B ** ** ** Management C 53,44 C ** ** D 52,01 0,000** D ** ** E 52,77 E ** ** Competent A 19,30 A ** ** ** Consultative B 18,77 B ** ** ** Management C 21,22 0,000** C ** ** 0,000** D 21,61 D ** ** E 21,33 E ** ** Competent A 21,21 A * * Finance B 19,97 B ** ** ** Management C 22,35 0,000** C * ** D 21,81 D ** E 22,44 E * ** A 11,34 A ** ** * B 10,80 B ** ** ** C 12,78 0,000** C ** ** Competent D 12,54 D ** ** Resource E 12,36 E * ** Management
245 Competent A 11,97 * ** Performance B 11,64 B ** ** ** Management C 11,58 0,000** C ** D 12,42
E 12,27 ** ** ** statistically significant at the 1 % level ( p less than 0,01) * statistically significant at the 5 % level ( p greater than 0,01 but less than 0,05)
GROUP A = Afrikaans N = 174 GROUP B = English N = 217 GROUP C = Nguni N = 228 GROUP D = Sotho N = 268 GROUP E = Other N = 102
Using tables 5.25 and 5.26 it follows that HoM is rejected at 1 % level of significance. A statistically significant difference thus exists between the vector mean scores of the five mother tongue groups taken together.
At the single variable level there is a statistically significant difference between the average scale scores of the various mother tongue groups A to E in respect of the following factors:
Competent Participative Management (p = 0,000)
Competent Facilitative Management (p = 0,000)
Competent Quality Management (p = 0,000)
Competent Consultative Management (p = 0,000)
246 Competent Financial Management (p = 0,000)
Competent Resource Management (p = 0,000)
Competent Performance Management (p = 0,000)
Regarding the pair — wise comparisons of groups the following inferences in respect of the two groups discussed in section 5.2 namely, collaborative competence and task oriented competence ( which consist of the seven first order factors) can be make:
COLLABORATIVE COMPETENCE
The Nguni speaking people had the highest factor mean score in the following factors that are included in this group:
Participative Management
Facilitative Management
Quality Management
Consultative Management
As mentioned previously, leadership positions have shifted from the autocratic and hierarchic management style to more democratic, collaborative and person-oriented style. It would appear that the Nguni, Sotho and Indian-speaking educators would want principals to be competent in involving them in decision-making and problem solving matters. They too, want to be consulted on various educational matters. Thus the locus of control for day-to-day decision-making and problem solving should hopefully shift from the principal to the educators. These educators will probably also want principals to have the necessary skills and attitudes in fostering healthy human relationships.
247 Furthermore, principals should be competent in providing quality education to is learners. They would require principals to handle teacher concerns such as discipline, equitable assignments of extra and co — curricular duties and provide assistance to problems in the classroom. It is the responsibility of principals to execute various tasks effectively in order to make teaching easier for the educators. They thus consider it important for principals to be competent in quality management and facilitative management so that the goals of the organisation can be achieved.
The English and Afrikaans speaking educators, although having a lower factor mean score than the other three groups, consider collaborative competence relatively important. Principals have previously involved them in decision-making and problem solving and consulted with them on pertinent educational matters. This style of management is probably nothing new to the English — and Afrikaans - speaking educators. They see it as a joint responsibility to provide quality education to its learners. Each educator becomes an integral part of management because they believe that they have a direct influence on people, places, policies and procedures. They have an internal locus of control and accept the responsibility of collaborative management.
TASK ORIENTED COMPETENCE
The Nguni speaking educators had the highest factor mean score as compared to the other mother tongue groups in the following:
Competent financial management;
Competent resource management; and
Competent performance management.
248 Financial management is an important aspect in school management. Although the principal and / or school governing body takes care of most of the functions concerning finances, teachers are also closely involved with financial matters of the school. The Nguni-, Sotho- and Indian- speaking educators will want principals to provide support and direction on financial matters. Furthermore, due to the lack of resources in most schools, the situation demands that principals be competent in the management of resources so that both the educators and learners can benefit in the quest for quality education. Principals should also be competent in performance management by having the necessary skills and knowledge to evaluate the performance of educators. They should also be competent in identifying the needs of the educators and provide effective staff development programmes.
The English and Afrikaans speaking educators are not directly involved in financial and resource management although they do provide insets into the school budget.. Administrative clerks are usually appointed to handle many of these tasks. However, principals should be competent in performance management. These educators will want to belong to a school that is effectively managed. Educators and the parent community become critical if principals are not competent in any of the above aspects of management.
Thus it can be concluded that educators belonging to all five mother tongue groups are of the opinion that principals should be competent in the following seven underlying factors which form the foundation of effective management namely:
participative management;
facilitative management;
quality management;
consultative management;
249 financial management;
resource management; and
performance management.
If principals lack the necessary skills, knowledge and attitudes in any one of the above aspects of management then this may have a negative result on the effective management of schools. This implies that each of the seven factors is necessary but not sufficient for principals to manage schools effectively. Principals will then require training and development in that particular aspect so that they will be competent in all seven factors in order for them to manage schools effectively.
Statistically significant differences were also found between most of the other independent groups investigated. An overview of differences between the various independent groups in respect of the seven factors now follows.
5.5 AN OVERVIEW OF THE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN THE OTHER FACTOR MEAN SCORES IN TABLE 5.29
The differences in the other factor mean scores obtained by the various independent groups are summarised in Table 5.29. A further discussion on the differences between the other independent groups in respect of the seven underlying factors will not be necessary for the following reasons:
the second order factor namely, EFFECTIVE MANAGEMENT was discussed in detail in section 5.3. The possible reasons given when there were statistically significant differences when one group was compared with another in respect of each
250 independent variable will also be applicable to the seven factors indicated in Table 5.29;
in section 5.4 two independent variables namely, gender of respondents and mother tongue of respondents were discussed in detail. Comparisons of two independent groups (gender of respondents) and three or more independent groups (mother tongue) revealed that the same conclusions were reached. This implies that for principals to manage their schools effectively they should be competent in the following seven underlying factors, namely:
participative management;
facilitative management;
quality management;
consultative management;
financial management;
resource management; and
performance management.
It should also be borne in mind that although there were statistically significant differences between groups in respect of the independent variables the factor mean scores indicate that most of the respondents are of the opinion that it is important for principals to be competent in the above seven underlying factors in order for them to manage schools effectively.
251 However, an overview of the empirical analysis of the seven underlying factors in respect of the other independent variables indicated in Table 5.29 will be given.
Age group of respondents
The age group 36 — 40 years has the highest factor mean score in respect of all seven factors and the age group 41 —50 years has the lowest factor mean score in respect of the first five factors. The age group 36 — 40 years are probably new in management posts and therefore consider all seven aspects of management to be important in order to manage schools effectively. Educators in the age group 41 — 50 years are experienced educators and they possibly do not see the importance for principals to be competent in resource management. They do not see such a great need for principals to evaluate them and to provide them with staff development programmes. It is interesting to note that all age groups considered competent consultative management to be very important. There is no statistically significant difference between the three age groups in respect of consultative management.
Teaching experience
The group 8 — 15 years teaching experience has the highest factor mean score in competent participative management, competent facilitative management, competent consultative management, competent financial management and competent performance management. The group 21 —25 years has the lowest factor mean score in respect of six of the seven factors. The group 8 — 15 years are probably occupying promotion posts and consider the five aspects of management to be important for them to manage schools effectively. This group does not consider it important for principals to be competent in resource management probably because of the lack of or no resources available at their institutions. There is also a perception among the educators that the performance appraisal system that was in place would create numerous problems. The group 21 — 25 years teaching experience is of the opinion that the seven underlying factors are not that important and will not necessarily contribute to the effective management of schools.
252 The relatively low scores could be due to the low morale (for example, educators in this group not being considered for promotion). This group could for example consider performance management to be relatively unimportant probably because performance is not presently considered to be that important for promotion purposes in the new educational dispensation.
• Years as principal
The group 5— 9 years experience as principal has the lowest factor mean score in respect of all seven factors and the group 0 — 4 years experience as principal has the highest factor mean score in respect of competent participative management, competent facilitative management, competent quality management, competent financial management and competent resource management. The group 5 — 9 years experience as principals consider the seven underlying aspects of management as important because they have the expertise and experience and they can operate in their individual capacity. There is a possibility that this group has mastered the art of delegating various tasks and responsibilities and therefore do not see it as very important for principals to be competent in all seven aspects of management. The group 0 — 4 years experience as principals probably lack the necessary expertise and managerial experience. They therefore consider it important for principals to be competent in most of the seven underlying factors. This group does not consider it that important that principals should be competent in performance management. Performance appraisal of educators is a thorny issue and this group would probably want the department of education to take on this responsibility.
There is no statistically significant difference between the three groups in respect of competent performance management.
253 • Highest qualification
The group B — Degree + Education Diploma has the lowest factor mean score in respect of all seven factors and the group Post School Diploma have the highest factor mean score in respect of competent participative management, competent facilitative management, competent quality management and competent resource management. The group B — Degree + Education Diploma do not regard the seven aspects of management as that important relative to the post diploma group. They may have the opinion that they are competent and have the knowledge and the expertise to take on the responsibility in their individual capacity. It is interesting to note that the group Post School Diploma does not consider competent consultative management, competent financial management and competent performance management as very important compared to the other groups. This is probably due to the fact that because they have lower educational qualifications than their colleagues do, they probably consider themselves less competent to be consulted on various educational matters or to handle financial responsibilities and to be appraised by principals.
• Language of instruction
The educators who are employed at Afrikaans medium schools has the lowest factor mean score in respect of all seven factors and the educators employed at Double / Parallel medium schools has the highest factor mean score in respect of all seven factors. It would appear that most of these schools are from historically disadvantaged communities and therefore the educators who are employed at the double / parallel medium schools will want their principals to be competent in all aspects of management in order to manage their schools effectively.
It is noted that there is no statistically significant difference in respect of competent participative management, competent consultative management and competent financial management. All the groups consider it very important for principals to be competent in
254 the above in order to manage schools effectively. It would appear that educators will probably support the idea that site — based management is introduced in schools.
Type of school
The respondents who teach in the primary schools has the highest factor mean score in respect of all seven factors and the respondents who teach in the secondary schools has the lowest factor mean score in respect of all seven factors. The educators in the primary schools want their principals to be competent in all aspects of management in order to manage their schools effectively. The possible reasons for this are that the teaching staff are predominantly females and also that most of these educators have lower educational qualifications than their colleagues in the secondary schools. (Refer to section 5.3)
Post level
The group Deputy Principal / H.O.D has the highest factor mean score in respect of all seven factors and the group that has the lowest factor mean score are the principals. This implies that the group Deputy Principal / H.O.D consider it very important that principals are competent in all aspects of management in order to manage schools effectively.
255
TABLE 5. 29: FACTORMEA N SCORES OF THE OTHER INDEPENDENTG ROUPS INRE SPECTO F THESEV EN FIRSTORDER FACTORS Z Q co O a) > 0.) ct E Mean Scores Category N .1-, 1-1-4 cn Name N . c) 0\ c ur) N cq" 0,, kr, N 0" ON cn N ,4 --' . kr," kr, c) kr) kr) oo" ,--. , I• f 31-3 5 years * * * * I ; 1 I
c N :I- , i 3 6-40 years .0 c) , cq " c) (-Ni c) N 0" * N CD N N ,--• kr, ,--. kr, CT" —, ,—, z1
1---- - * * * * * * * * c) c) c) c) 6 ‹C I 0 0. to a) = 1
- re
N ,—. , , N c) ir) ch C:J ,--. 00 00 kr, 0 .--1 It , ■ ..
4 1-50 years .. 1 48, 53 I I *
* * * * * * r•-••• .0 kr) kfl ,-- v, a) cc: 1.- .. ■ L ,--, oo ".- N „, 1-1 oo cv N en —1 N 6' 0. CD c)" -1- kr) kr, kri .....1
*
en Cn I N V') I vl 0 N kr) CN 7 cl) * * ,--.^ F CA" Cl" * CN1- * ,-: * 71 I.-, r--1 11 I. I
I I Cr) I 'r ON re) I N v:) %.0 * kr) * 0 _ * 7■, AL * e. 7, N^ * * 4., N * C,is * CN1 W. * 1■..1 W 7-4 r-, 1 v•4 1 7.. 7■, 1 7-, 1
I I M 00 00 ,:t. N N v') * 0 * vD v:D * ,-, .. -T-i ,--," * (-,1 * ,—, CD" * ,—, N N I N N I N
t N N N c 1 * oo
F4 Ois c) * c) CN * ON' N N N 7-1 res Sco
n
.1' / 00 kr) 0 I Cr) N Mea M en * 0 * "1" 0 .x S kt) ,--o * ,-: * oe * 00 w CD .1- I
3 kr) ON I VD I 94 1 0 ... VD N 40 C-": ; •1- * trc * 49, 55, kri 1 v-, .1- 1
1 --
9 cv 1 I ..:r. cl 00 I
2 N kr) cr)
-- ., * CD^ : VD oe * : — * 1.1-( kr) 57, .0 ..-, .1-
1 7-4
*
e * C) lu CD CD -va CC p
cn
rs 6.
ci)
ct + rs al ea CU ry (3) > -, o
ea
0y kr) e ears
kr) 2 N
.-1 m teg 7 y .--■ 6-
I 5 y
00 1 N 2 1- Ca Na
0.) C..) 00 = —. cl.) ..=%-.. a .) 0 0 cl fa, cd 0 x Z E-1 W Category p-value Mean Scores Name W [ Crl (:) ■ 4 F4 F5 F7 ■ N I ..... '—' r VD C5 ,..-. CA' ∎ N ,—, cf N O CA 0 e 1- 0 . l ., N ) ... s
0-4 years 147,96 1 46,38 ... * * * * * I
tr CT occ ,—, * cr) ,-- N * s C> rfl kn tr) ,—. Cr) >* 1 t. cn tl..) ct -
5-9 years CA 00 CC * en t" oo — ,--, .1. C. 0 \ Lin 1 < I -- c 1 n "
* * * * * I 1 .... 71 I • •— 4.
= c) CL - .; ■ P 'n CA N c;" C 71- N 1 0 •• ■ 1
1 0 years + 146,87 144,95 N ON r— I-4 'r * * N 71- N ■ * .‘ u 4c-k4 cl) ti) o
...' p-value Mean Scores
F2 F3 F4 I F5 F7 0 r•- kr) CT^ N
Post ■ O ( M * .-- 00 Cr C‘f co ,--, N c - 00 N 0. tn * ( M r CD VD 1■ ,--. 1■ 1 - ■ - 1 - ■ i - s 1 1 " ‘
School * I * * * * f * * I * * * I Diploma I —4 N N ...= H w + 8 c...) a) t.- * VD M* C (y"* kr) cq Cr * v—I — 0 N N 6' * v-) .1 — , ■ 1 kr) VD- ,--4 kin Q kr) re) y1 .;::, -0 :1- 0 o = 0 c = ■ ■ " t . - \* .. " * * * * -- _, * I *
.,„, I I I o E cd 61 .- - ,
,---, ,--I M- * 0 r''' Cr I-. s ca oo N VD 00 0 o ?DI) 1-4 a) a) ∎ " 1 1
= * * -1- .0 — * cn * * CD \ 0 CDT CD CD 1.4 ,--I '-' 7r C' CN1 Cl ...... = ,, Z 4- + 01) CD CA '' - ) - ■ * * * * * * * * * t 74 ... 0' -0 w 1.-. ..-.. 0 CC: I ill = o ct I 0 1 1
.2 .—.. -0 _ 6 0 : ) - '0 Cr I-. e•- N 00 kr) N — p-, , 0 ul ■ " / - ■ * ,--t Cl * ,- cq .--, c --4 c) 0 00 ( , c .1 .:1 kr) kr) 0 00 l -4 -, -0 L. ■ r) I 4-
- cz ccs 1 . I 1 .-4 , - ... , - .. -
■ i
* * I 1 * * * * * 1
1 Z (1) al 5 Category p-value Mean Scores Name 4.1 N
., F3 I F4 F5 F7 M 1—. F 1-1,, .-- rn —1 t ,—, CY\ in c H 71 --- e ∎ - l -
Afrikaans * 7r I ., I S Ch C CC -1 ON * ch * I 1
S ' - 1 47,95 1 1.-1 N N N ■ 71 cn" CI ∎ S kr) c•-)" •- 4 0 cu a ct en ct = ,s,_ - English * *. ..'. I kr) CD N <5 m N x. N — * - * I I VD 00 in 0 CD e•I (4-
--
0 n ■ 1 "
■
4 -I—. o a cn C.) N CI Cq" kr) 0 cn 7D o =
* 00 00 N r•- c:) ■ cn N * 00 kr) cri 00 0 tr.) c> -En 1 — 0 ■ n ^ 0 M N ■
V ct ;45 2 co 1/4.S O Category p-value Mean Scores Name 4-4 4-4 .1- F2 Crl F5 00 N N vi N ∎ 71- kr) , --. al., o r_. -. ■ M * 4 ..--1 N * — S 00 ci ,_ N S 0 ,•-1 r. til ■ N , N .. c.4 0 " 0 0 0 " * s .•
* * I * * I * * I I * *
1 * * r
* * cz> 0 0 0 [--0 O ta4 a) >-, N ,—. ,—, m* O ON N ,--. 6 * CD V N ON" ,-1 O. r-4 VD S .1. r-I ,..= TD C/1 . ., ) c.) 0 s .' * Secondary 1 43,76 -,r „ * * * * I I * * I I 1 I ** — School ■ d- ,—.... —, CD N -- ix) T-1 Zr 0 C.) N cr) -- •• "
* * kr) CC ,—, * * N N ON 00 ....., C.) 1 = a) E 0
0 ON N cr) " 0 El Q..
...= v) c.) 0 00 0 * ,-, * /-.. 4-4 cl" * N" ,--.
ON CA CD VD * VD * kr) * (Nis * C,I * CC * v-I vi
II M Le-) * t--. * N * F5 1-4 * C4s * OC, * N 1 N
0 rn N 0 * e-4 * VD * n _s, n _s, s -1 t-4 * 00 * * ,-. re N N o Sc n Mea ,...-, I .0 t--- * N * CO *
F3 —4 * CV" * ∎0 * N ki,- 1-
cn C/.1 I I v.-I I 7-1 l•fl • C. •• * •• * •• * N * e•-4 * C * F2
•••••, I 1.•0 e-1
00 C. I rr) I J:D 00 ^ * •• * •• * V.) ■C) I-. .--i
*
e * CD lu CD CD -va c; p
C4., 4.> ...... 0 = CA a) 4-. CI. • .t..ii t U 0 5 -0 acs cu = a:: Ca. = = I:: a) a) ^0 4:1-, W 0. = a)
a)
e 1- -4•.,
m cn 0
Na P-1 FACTOR 1 COMPETENT PARTICIPATIVE MANAGEMENT FACTOR 2 COMPETENT FACILITATIVE MANAGEMENT FACTOR 3 COMPETENT QUALITY MANAGEMENT FACTOR 4 COMPETENT CONSULTATIVE MANAGEMENT FACTOR 5 COMPETENT FINANCE MANAGEMENT FACTOR 6 COMPETENT RESOURCE MANAGEMENT FACTOR 7 COMPETENT PERFORMANCE MANAGEMENT
** statistically significant at the 1% level (p less than 0,01) Statistically significant at the 5% level (p greater than 0,01 but less than 0,05)
5.6 SUMMARY
In this chapter an analysis and interpretation of some of the empirical data of the broad research was undertaken. The construct validity of the research instrument was investigated by means of two successive factor analyses which reduced 100 items in the first order factor analysis to seven factors namely:
Competent Participative Management consisting of 36 items with a Cronbach — alpha — reliability of 0,981 with no items rejected. The 36 items can thus be regarded as one scale with a maximum value of 36 x 5 = 180 and a minimum scale value of 36 x 1 = 36.
Competent Facilitative Management consisting of 36 items with a Cronbach — alpha — reliability of 0,973 with no items rejected. The 36 items can thus be regarded as one scale with a maximum value of 36 x 5 = 180 and a minimum scale value of 36 x 1 = 36.
Competent Quality Management consisting of 12 items with a Cronbach — alpha — reliability of 0,933 with no items rejected. The 12 items can thus be regarded as one
263 scale with a maximum value of 12 x 5 = 60 and a minimum scale value of 12 x 1 = 12.
Competent Consultative Management consisting of 5 items with a Cronbach — alpha — reliability of 0,817 with no items rejected. The 4 items can thus be regarded as one scale with a maximum value of 5 x 5 = 25 and a minimum scale value of 5 x 1 = 5.
Competent Financial Management consisting of 5 items with a Cronbach — alpha — reliability of 0,883 with no items rejected. The 5 items can thus be regarded as one scale with a maximum value of 5 x 5 = 25 and a minimum scale value of 5 x 1 = 5.
Competent Resource Management consisting of 3 items with a Cronbach — alpha — reliability of 0,732 with no items rejected. The 3 items can thus be regarded as one scale with a maximum value of 3 x 5 = 15 and a minimum scale value of 3 x 1 = 3.
Competent Performance Management consisting of 3 items with a Cronbach — alpha — reliability of 0,756 with no items rejected. The 3 items can thus be regarded as one scale with a maximum value of 3 x 5 = 15 and a minimum scale value of 3 x 1 = 3.
These seven underlying factors could serve as a basis for evaluating the importance of specific competencies that principals require in order to manage schools effectively. These factors can be further reduced to two categories, namely:
Collaborative ( or relationship — oriented ) competence
Competent Participative Management, Competent Facilitative Management, Competent Quality Management and Competent Consultative Management fall into this category.
264 Collaborative competence refers to the interaction between management, teachers learners and the community. Principals, by involving all stakeholders in decision — making and consulting with these stakeholders on educational matters are likely to manage their schools effectively according to the perceptions of the respondents.
• Task — oriented competency
Competent Financial Management, Competent Resource Management, and Competent Performance Management can be placed in this category. Principals should be competent in performing tasks effectively and efficiently. This will contribute to them managing their schools effectively.
The seven factors obtained from the first order factor analysis were now used as inputs for the second order procedure. This consisted of a principal component analysis (PCA2) with varimax rotation and orthogonal axes followed by a principal factor analysis (PFA2) with direct oblimin (oblique) rotation. This resulted in the 100 items being reduced to ONE factor namely, EFFECTIVE MANAGEMENT. It had a Cronbach — alpha — reliability coefficient of 0,990 with no items being rejected. The 100 items can thus be regarded as one scale with a maximum value of 100 x 5 = 500 and a minimum scale value of 100 x 1 = 100.
The various biographical variables were grouped into two or three or more independent groups and their mean factor scores in respect of the factor effective management were compared with one another. This was done in order to determine whether the groups held different perceptions in respect of effective management. Although differences were found in the mean scores all the groups held the perception that the factor was important.
Where significant differences were found between the groups in respect of effective management further statistical analysis was performed in order to find out which of the seven underlying constructs were responsible for the significant difference.
265 An instrument that has construct validity should also be able to distinguish between groups, which are known to differ from one another. It can be seen from the data in Table 5.29 that many of the groups which one expects to differ significantly from one another do indeed differ in their perceptions of the seven first order factors which form the bases of effective management.
Hypotheses were set and multivariate statistics were used to analyse and interpret the data in respect of the factor effective management. A detailed analysis of data was conducted in respect of the second order factor, effective management and of its seven underlying constructs. From the research conducted it can be concluded effective management is composed of seven underlying constructs namely competent:
participative management; facilitative management; quality management; consultative management; financial management; resource management; and performance management.
These constructs were shown to have construct validity and high reliabilities and could thus serve as a basis for measuring the various management competencies of principals and form a framework to devise a training and development programme for principals to manage educators.
In chapter 6 a summary of the research will be given. Important findings will be discussed and recommendations will be made.
266 CHAPTER 6
SUMMARY, FINDINGS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
6.1 INTRODUCTION
The significance of good management for effective functioning of schools has been increasingly acknowledged during the 1990's. The trend towards self — managing schools in South Africa has lead to an enhanced appreciation of the importance of managerial competency for educational leaders. The vitality of schools depend on their ability to meet the needs of their learners.
The control of substantial budgets, promoting teamwork between the different structures in the school, a concern for the welfare of staff and the need to ensure effective teaching and learning, all require high order managerial competencies, skills and understanding. Principals need training and development to be competent managers since there is evidence that the quality of management is an important variable in distinguishing between successful schools.
The Constitution of the Republic of South Africa (RSA, 1996(a)) requires that school education be transformed and democratised in accordance with fundamental values and principles. The provision of the Department of Education's White Paper 1 and 2 (RSA, 1996(b)), the report of the Review Committee on School Organisation, Governance and Funding, new legislation including the South African School Act (SASA) of 1996(RSA, 1996(c)) as well as provincial legislation and policy direction points South Africa firmly towards a decentralised school based system of education management and governance with substantial decision making authority at the school level.
Major areas of concern in the South African schooling system are: poor management of schools; lack of resources; lack of commitment and dedication by learners and educators;
267 the effects of the legacy of apartheid and crisis of legitimacy; uninvolved parents; and a demise of a culture of learning and teaching.
The major currents of education change in the present school context demands a specific management response from the principal. Improving the effectiveness of school management remains one of the fundamental concerns. Developing principals and providing them with the necessary skills becomes increasingly important as the dynamic and changing educational culture becomes increasingly difficult. Therefore the training and development of principals can be considered as one of the most strategically important processes necessary to transform education successfully.
This research therefore is concerned with devising a training and development programme for principals to manage schools effectively and efficiently. The task of being a principal is demanding, requiring dedication, commitment, collegiality, responsibility, accountability and many personal qualities.
In this chapter a summary is followed by a discussion to determine the findings of the research. Recommendations on each of the findings are provided. In conclusion, this chapter establishes whether the research questions have been answered.
6.2 SUMMARY
Preliminary research among a cross section of principals in Gauteng through questionnaires and various authorities in educational management reveals, amongst others, the following four key components are necessary to manage schools effectively:
Management of the curriculum.
Management of organisational structures.
Management of financial and physical resources.
268 Management of educators.
To be an effective school principal, one must have the necessary skills, knowledge and attitudes to successfully manage the above four key components. This research is directed at establishing the competencies required by principals to manage the curriculum effectively and then to devise guidelines for a training and development programme. The content of the training and development programme will be founded on the perceptions of members of the teaching profession as to what factors are important in respect of school management.
In chapter two the following approaches to effective management for principals were discussed:
The competence approach which provides detailed specification of what skills, knowledge, attitudes and values are required by the principal to perform a task well. It also reflects on the standards and range of situations in which a competent principal should be able to successfully execute these tasks. It is developmentally orientated and provides a focus for the detailed assessment of educational managers.
The competency approach places emphasis on the underlying characteristics of a manager, which results in effective and/or superior performance in a job. These underlying characteristics or competencies may be a motive, trait, skill, aspects of one's self—image or social role, or a body of knowledge used by a manager.
These two approaches were merged developing a continuum where the left extremities focused on traits, motives, and qualities while the right extremities emphasised knowledge, skills and functions. Using the framework of the continuum of competencies for effective principals, a model called the competency — based management matrix model (CMM) was developed. The CM:M model for competent principals incorporated both the competence approach and the competency approach to manage schools
269 effectively. It focused on the development of specific competencies or abilities to perform tasks / functions required by principals to manage schools effectively.
The four key components mentioned above formed the basis in developing a systems approach to the effective management of schools. The management of the curriculum is the core component and the management of organisational structures and systems, the management of educators and the management of finances and other material resources are key aspects that are inter-related. If principals are competent in these key areas then they should be able to manage their schools effectively.
The literature survey undertaken in chapter three sets out to explore key issues involved in principals managing the curriculum effectively. The main purpose of schools is to meet the needs of pupils and to deliver education of the highest quality possible. Central to the realisation of this purpose is for principals to offer their institutions a sense of coherence and structure. This cannot be achieved with a misdirected curriculum ethos. The curriculum forms the foundation of all educational activities and may be regarded as the most important independent variable which determines the effectiveness of the school. Where there is a strong culture for school improvement effective management of schools is possible.
There is strong evidence from the literature that principals should give careful consideration to the management of the curriculum. Principals should possess knowledge, skills, attitudes and values that are essential in managing the curriculum. The purpose of this research is to devise guidelines for a training and development programme that will equip principals with the necessary knowledge, skills and attitudes to manage the curriculum so that the school can be managed effectively and efficiently .
270 In order for principals to manage the curriculum effectively they should be competent in the following aspects:
Building a vision. Building a shared vision brings about internal consistency and enables the school to focus its resources on essential activities and processes as outlined by its vision, mission and goals. Building a vision involves the key elements of creating a shared understanding, effective communication and building consensus and commitment.
Curriculum planning. Curriculum planning defines and legitimises some activities and outcomes by providing a description of methods, processes and activities. Three important elements of curriculum planning are: Curriculum forces: These refer to basic considerations that guide managers, teachers and learners in matters relevant to curriculum planning. Curriculum decisions: Refers to choices that are made by management structures, and school governing bodies that reflect the characteristics of the curriculum. Curriculum management plans: Refers to guidelines for learning opportunities provided by the school and includes arrangements for the organisation of the curriculum and instructions for specific learning experiences for the needs of all learners.
Curriculum implementation. The process of implementation requires the principal to interact with people. Four key elements in implementing the curriculum effectively include organising, delegating, co-ordinating and controlling. These processes are designed to create a conducive learning environment and facilitate consultative and participative management functions.
Evaluation. Principals need to be aware of and ensure that teachers and learners are familiar with standards expected of them and are able to utilise a wide variety of evaluation systems to evaluate learning programmes and activities.
271 A structured questionnaire was designed to gauge the opinions of members of the teaching profession as to the importance for principals to exhibit specific competencies to manage schools effectively. In Chapter four a description of the empirical investigation was provided. Responses to questions relating to the management of educators were analysed and discussed. Biographical information that could possibly influence the competencies required by principals to manage schools effectively was also attained. In Chapter five, a discussion of the processes which reduced the 100 items, namely the factor analytic procedures, was undertaken.
The first order factor analysis resulted in seven underlying factors, namely:
Competent Participative Management consisting of 36 items with a Cronbach—alpha- reliability coefficient of 0,981;
Competent Facilitative Management consisting of 36 items with a Cronbach—alpha- reliability coefficient of 0,973;
Competent Quality Management consisting of 12 items with a Cronbach—alpha- reliability coefficient of 0,933;
Competent Consultative Management consisting of 5 items with a Cronbach—alpha- reliability coefficient 0,817;
Competent Financial Management consisting of 3 items with a Cronbach—alpha- reliability coefficient of 0,732; and
Competent Performance Management consisting of 3 items with a Cronbach—alpha- reliability coefficient of 0,756.
These seven underlying factors could serve as a basis for evaluating the importance of specific competencies that principals require in order to manage schools effectively.
272 These factors can further be reduced to two categories, namely:
Collaborative (or relationship — oriented) competence:
Competent Participative Management, Competent Facilitative Management, Competent Quality Management and Competent Consultative Management could be placed in this category.
Collaborative competence refers to the interaction between management, teachers and learners. Principals, by involving all stakeholders in decision—making and consulting with these stakeholders on educational matters, are likely to manage their schools effectively.
Task— oriented competence
Competent Financial Management, Competent Resource Management and Competent Performance Management can be allocated to this category. Principals should be competent in performing tasks effectively and efficiently. This should contribute to them managing their schools effectively.
The seven factors obtained from the first order factor analysis were then used as inputs for the second procedure. These procedures resulted in the seven underlying factors being reduced to ONE factor ,namely, EFFECTIVE MANAGEMENT. It had a Cronbach—alpha—reliability coefficient of 0,990.
All of these factors (first and second order) were valid and had high reliability coefficients which could serve, according to the perception of educators, as a basis for determining the importance for principals to be competent in managing the curriculum, organisational structures, educators and financial and physical resources in order to manage their schools effectively.
273 The factor analysis was followed by a series of univariate and multivariate statistical tests done to test the various hypotheses regarding the perceptions of members of the teaching profession in respect of effective management.
The factor effective management was analysed at the univariate level by comparing two independent groups for possible statistical differences by means of the Student t—test. In respect of three or more independent groups univariate differences were investigated by means of ANOVA (analysis of variance) in respect of effective management. Where statistically significant differences were found at the univariate level, they were further investigated by means of the Dunnett T3 test.
Hotelling's T2 test was used to examine the difference in the vector means of the seven factors taken together. Where statistically significant differences were found at the multivariate level when two independent groups were compared, they were further investigated by means of the student t-test. For three or more groups, the multivariate hypotheses were investigated using the MANOVA (multivariate analysis of variance). Where statistically significant differences were found, the ANOVA test was used to analyse these differences at the univariate level. Differences in mean scores between the various pairs of groups were further analysed using the Dunnett T3 test.
After this summary of the aspects touched upon during the present research, findings emanating from the research are made. These are now briefly illuminated and recommendations for effective management are made.
6.3 FINDINGS
In the light of the literature review, responses to the questionnaire and the high validity and reliability of the empirical analysis the following findings were obtained.
274 6.3.1 Findings from the literature in respect of the development and training of principals in the management of the curriculum.
FINDING 1
The key components that are necessary for principals to manage schools effectively include the following (see sections 1.1; 2.2.3; 2.3; 2.4; 2.5 ):
Management of the curriculum.
Management of organisational structures.
Management of financial and physical resources.
Management of educators.
FINDING 2
Vision building is an important component of the management of the curriculum for principals to manage schools effectively (see sections 3.3; 3.3.1; 3.3.1.1; 3.3.2.1.1).
FINDING 3
Curriculum planning is an important component of the management of the curriculum for principals to manage their schools effectively (see sections 3.3; 3.3.2; 3.3.2.1; 3.3.2.2; 3.3.2.3).
FINDING 4
Establishing an organisational structure that facilitates teacher development, teacher participation and good channels of communication is an important component of the
275 management of the curriculum for principals to manage their schools effectively (see sections 3.3.3; 3.3.3.1; 3.3.3.1.1).
FINDING 5
Developing curriculum management plans (CMP) is an important component of the management of the curriculum for principals to manage the schools effectively (see sections 3.3.3.2; 3.3.2.3)
FINDING 6
Evaluating the curriculum is an important component of the management of the curriculum for principals to manage schools effectively (see sections 3.3.4; 3.3.4.1).
FINDING 7
Training and development is an important component of the management of the curriculum and is an essential factor for principals to manage schools effectively (see sections 1.1; 1.6.3; 1.6.4; 2.3.1).
6.3.2 Findings from the empirical analysis in respect of the development and training of principals in the effective management of schools.
FINDING 8
Principal competencies consist of seven latent factors to effective management, namely:
• Competent Participative Management consisting of 36 items with a Cronbach — alpha — reliability coefficient of 0,981;
276 Competent Facilitative Management consisting of 36 items with a Cronbach — alpha — reliability coefficient of 0,973;
Competent Quality Management consisting of 12 items with a Cronbach — alpha — reliability coefficient of 0,933;
Competent Consultative Management consisting of 5 items with a Cronbach — alpha — reliability coefficient of 0,817;
Competent Financial Management consisting of 3 items with a Cronbach — alpha — reliability coefficient of 0,883;
Competent Resource Management consisting of 3 items with a Cronbach — alpha — reliability coefficient of 0,732; and
Competent Performance Management consisting of 3 items with a Cronbach — alpha — reliability coefficient of 0,756.
The seven factors can be further classified into two groups, namely:
Collaborative Competence (Relationship — oriented) that includes Competent Participative, Facilitative , Quality , and Consultative Management; and
Task—oriented Competence that includes Competent Financial, Resource, and Performance Management (see section 5.2).
FINDING 9
The seven underlying factors were reduced to one factor using a second order factor analytic procedure and the factor was named EFFECTIVE MANAGEMENT with a Cronbach — alpha reliability coefficient of 0,990.
277 In respect of effective management statistically significance differences were found between the perceptions of members of the teaching profession as reflected in the mean scores of the following groups (see section 5.2):
gender;
age groups;
mother tongue ;
years of experience as a principal;
teaching experience;
language of instruction;
type of school;
highest qualification; and
post level.
The following are the most important findings related to EFFECTIVE MANAGEMENT.
FINDING 10
Females in the teaching profession consider effective management to be very important. To the females, effective management means order, responsibility and accountability. Females require principals to be competent and will want principals to provide the means,
278 resources and security in order for them to become supportive members of the schooling community (see section 5.3.1).
FINDING 11
The Nguni speaking people consider effective management to be very important. To them the welfare of the group is more important than that of the individual. The Indian speaking respondents are respectful of authority — religious leaders, community leaders and heads of the family. This implies that they too, consider effective management important.
Effective management in the majority of English and Afrikaans schools has not been such a large problem largely because of the legacies of the past. These schools have also already been exposed to participatory management because parents have been involved in school management (especially in the ex Model C schools) ,thus, although effective management is important to these groups they perhaps do not perceive it as such an important issue as the Nguni and Sotho speaking educators do (see section 5.3.2.1). Further this difference is probably due to the perceptive characteristic known as collective consciousness which derives from common experience and contrasts with its opposite pole known as individualistic consciousness which is generally operative in the context of the white population groups (Reddy, 1996: 47).
FINDING 12
Educators in the age group 36 — 40 years are probably new in management posts and therefore consider effective management to be the most important of the various age groups analysed. Educators in the age group 41 —50 years are experienced educators and thus they may be more realistic in respect of the importance of effective management. Those educators who fall in the age group 21 — 35 years are of the opinion that effective management is important. They probably also place greater emphasis on a collaborative type of management (see section 5.3.2.2).
279 FINDING 13
Educators who fall in the group 8 — 15 years teaching experience consider effective management to be very important. Most educators take eight or more years before occupying promotion posts. It is thus likely that in this group there are many educators who recently acquired promotion posts and hence they regard effective management as important relative to the other teaching experience groups.
Educators who fall in the 1 — 7 years teaching experience group are of the opinion that effective management is relatively important (see section 5.3.2.3).
FINDING 14
The group with 0 — 4 years experience as principals are of the opinion that effective management is very important. The group 5 — 9 years of experience as principals considers effective management relatively important because they see it as a means to ensuring stability and order in the school community. Many educators in this group already have probably experienced the importance of participative management by involving the community to a large extent. In comparison to the group with 0 — 4 years of experience, effective management by using participation and consultation may to them, be something with which they are reasonably familiar (see section 5.3.2.4).
FINDING 15
In respect of educational qualifications the group with a post school diploma are of the opinion that effective management is very important. This group has lower educational qualifications than their colleagues and probably consider themselves less competent to make important, independent decisions or to handle situations without a directive from the principal. The group B Degree + Education Diploma do not regard effective management as that important relative to the post school diploma group. They may have
280 the perception that they are competent and that they have the knowledge and expertise to take on the responsibility in their individual capacity (see section 5.3.2.5).
FINDING 16
Educators who are employed at double and parallel medium schools are of the opinion that effective management is very important (see section 5.3.2.7).
FINDING 17
Educators teaching at primary schools consider effective management to be very important as compared to their colleagues in the secondary schools. The teaching staff in primary schools are predominantly female and they prefer good order in schools. These educators may also have lower educational qualifications than their secondary school colleagues who probably believe that subject expertise is the predominant aspect in respect of effective educational management (see section 5.3.2.9).
FINDING 18
The group Deputy Principal / HOD are of the opinion that effective management is very important. They are part of the school management team and are actively involved in the management process. The group comprising of educators probably desire more effective management as they regard delegation, participation, consultation, leadership, facilitation and management style as important facets in effective management (see section 5.3.2.10).
Recommendations on these findings will now be discussed.
281 6.4 RECOMMENDATIONS
The main aim of this research was an investigation into the importance of the management of the curriculum as one of the key functions of principals in managing schools effectively. In order to realise this aim a literature survey was undertaken and this served as the foundation on which the empirical research could be based. The findings of this research are now incorporated in the following recommendations.
RECOMMENDATION 1
The literature survey suggests that principals should be competent in the following four key functions in order for them to manage schools effectively:
Management of the curriculum.
Management of organisational structures.
Management of educators.
Management of financial and physical resources.
Therefore it is recommended that principals should be provided with training and development programmes in these four areas so that their schools can be managed effectively.
RECOMMENDATION 2
Principals should be encouraged to develop the capacity to create and communicate a shared vision that induces commitment for improved learning and teaching. It is therefore recommended that principals should be provided with training and development in participative decision-making to enable full and meaningful involvement of all
282 stakeholders in building a powerful vision that drives the entire community towards a common purpose.
RECOMMENDATION 3
Principals should be encouraged to engage in careful and systematic curriculum planning to provide structure, order and direction for the entire schooling community. Therefore it is recommended that principals should be provided with training and development in understanding the effects of internal and external forces that influence curriculum issues, collaborative decision—making and developing a curriculum management plan.
RECOMMENDATION 4
Organisational structures should be created to enable a higher degree of participation by parents, higher levels of participative decision making, shared vision, trust, mutual accountability, and tolerance for uncertainty and ambiguity. It is recommended that principals should direct greater attention to resolving value conflicts and hierarchical tensions through the recognition of organisational structures that encourages devolution of decision-making powers. Such a structure should also satisfy the need for improved efficiency and competitiveness, the demand for more participative styles of management, greater involvement of staff and developments in information technology.
RECOMMENDATION 5
Principals should be encouraged to develop curriculum management plans which are directed at establishing the goals arising from the mission, developing alternative learning strategies, assigning responsibilities, committing resources and developing time frames for the execution of key tasks and activities. Therefore it is recommended that principals should be provided with training and development in delegation, data analysis, decision making and control.
283 RECOMMENDATION 6
It is recommended that principals should be provided with training and development in evaluating the effectiveness of the curriculum, teacher performance and learner achievements by reinforcing team work, building trust and facilitating collaborative decision making.
RECOMMENDATION 7
It is recommended that principals should devise guidelines for a training and development programme that should establish the competencies required by principals to manage the curriculum effectively. The content of the training and development programme will be founded on the perceptions of members of the teaching profession as to what factors are important in respect of school management. The use of the CMM model for competent principals should assist in the development of specific competencies or abilities to perform tasks/functions required by principals to manage the curriculum effectively.
RECOMMENDATION 8
Effective school management should include the following underlying factors:
Competent Participative Management;
Competent Facilitative Management;
Competent Quality Management;
Competent Consultative Management;
284 Competent Financial Management;
Competent Resource Management; and
Competent Performance Management.
Each of the above seven factors is an aspect of effective management. Therefore, principals should be given training and development in the following two categories so that they can manage their schools effectively:
collaborative competence (relationship — oriented competence) composed of participative management, facilitative management, quality management and consultative management; and
task— oriented competence composed of financial management, resource management and performance management.
RECOMMENDATION 9
The following key functions of principals contribute to effective management:
Management of the curriculum.
Management of organisational structures.
Management of educators.
Management of financial and physical resources.
The seven underlying factors brought to the surface by the empirical investigation are included in the four key functions of principals and all contribute to effective
285 management. Principals should be given training to develop skills and knowledge in participative , consultative , facilitative, financial, resource, performance and quality management in order to become effective managers.
The following recommendations are the result of the statistical analyses made that are related to effective management.
RECOMMENDATION 10
Principals should motivate male educators to increase their participation and responsibilities and become more involved in collective decision — making. Principals should also encourage consultation with the male educators and empower them to become involved in curricular and co — curricular activities.
RECOMMENDATION 11
Principals should encourage the English and Afrikaans — speaking educators to share more of their strong individualistic talents such as autonomy, the taking of responsibility and getting the work done with their more collectivistic colleagues. In turn these individualistic orientated educators can learn to be more collaborative and participative.
RECOMMENDATION 12
Educators in the age group 21 — 35 years probably place greater emphasis on a collaborative type of management. This implies that principals should encourage this group to increase their participation and become involved in collective decision — making. This group of educators are also usually innovative and creative. The age group 41 — 50 years should be motivated by the principal to participate in management activities and be empowered to contribute to the decision — making process. Principals should make it a particular point of consulting with this age group and using a supportive, non-
286 directive approach in which these educators are continually involved. These strategies should enable a principal to gain greater insight into effective school management.
RECOMMENDATION 13
Principals should be competent in facilitative management so that they can provide guidance and support to the group of educators with 1 — 7 years of teaching experience. This group also see the need for facilitative structures and should therefore be encouraged to participate in activities at the school and get involved in collective decision — making. The groups with 16 — 20 years and 21 — 25 years teaching experience should be strongly motivated to become more involved in collective decision — making, the participative, consultative and facilitative processes. These educators are often competent and confident enough to take full responsibility and as such they should be empowered to take decisions and be given greater responsibilities.
RECOMMENDATION 14
The group with 0 — 4 years of experience as a principal will probably require training and development in all aspects of management. They consider effective management as important. However, they are probably not yet competent to assess or manage a situation which requires specific skills or knowledge to manage schools effectively. They probably do, however, involve management and educators in decision — making and consult with them on a regular basis.
RECOMMENDATION 15
Educators who belong to the group Post School Diploma should be encouraged and provided with incentives to improve their qualifications. These educators who have particular skills and expertise should be given responsibilities in order to support principals to manage their schools effectively. Principals should motivate educators with degrees and diplomas to participate in decision — making. This group should be involved
287 in management consultation on a regular basis so that their expertise can contribute to the effective management of schools.
RECOMMENDATION 16
Principals should be competent in facilitative and quality management. The educators in double / parallel medium schools depend on the equitable distribution of resources and will want principals to be fair. Principals should also be competent in participative, financial, resource and consultative management and should motivate educators to get actively involved in all aspects of management.
RECOMMENDATION 17
Principals should motivate educators in the primary schools to improve their educational qualifications. Educators in secondary schools should be encouraged to increase their participation and become actively involved in collective decision — making. Principals should also establish forums to encourage consultation with these educators.
RECOMMENDATION 18
Principals should encourage educators at post level one to increase their participation and consultation in the management activities of the school. It is recommended that principals should be competent in facilitative management and provide support and guidance to the post level one educators so that these educators can contribute to the effective management of schools.
288 RECOMMENDATION 19
TOPICS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH
South Africa, a country in transition, is characterised by drastic policy shifts in the social, economic and political arenas. These policy shifts are also directed towards educational reform.
The South African Schools Act of 1996 is the first step towards educational change. Other changes focus on the curriculum, outcome based education, continuous assessment, new appraisal procedures for educators, and the establishment of the South African Council for Educators. All of the above constitute a new working paradigm for school principals.
Thus further research is necessary to determine the influence of this changing school environment on school principals. It should reveal how principals perceive the changes and examine the impact of these changes on their management role.
Both qualitative and quantitative investigations should be pursued with school principals so that data gathering could be done through participant-observation, questionnaires and in-depth interviews.
A complete thesis to investigate all components of principal competence and how these aspects can enhance principal competence can be of benefit to all stakeholders for the management, training and development of competent principals.
6.5 CONCLUSION
The educational environment in South Africa is changing at a rapid pace. Invariably this educational change impacts on school management. The school principal is at the centre of this change and this raises the question whether the principal is equipped to manage
289 schools effectively and efficiently in a changing dynamic school environment. This new situation represents an increase in the degree of uncertainty and ambiguity, and principals will have to develop coping strategies to meet those challenges confidently. Principals will now have to adjust their management styles to suit the new democratic order. It has been established that principals should be competent in the following four key functions ,namely the effective management of the:
curriculum;
organisational structures;
educators; and
financial and physical resources.
This research clearly confirms the premise that principals should have the necessary knowledge, skills, attitudes and values to manage the curriculum effectively. From the literature survey it is evident that principals should have competencies in building a shared vision for improvement, curriculum planning, implementation strategies and curriculum evaluation and thus, there is a need for training and development for principals in the management of the curriculum.
Finally, the curriculum, which can be regarded as the core activity, is the most important independent variable which determines the efficacy of a school. Where there is a clear understanding of the purpose and direction of the school and all activities and structures are designed to ensure joint responsibility for the realisation of the common goals of the school, the chances are great that effective learning and teaching will take place.
290 BIBLIOGRAPHY
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305 PRINCIPALS' QUESTIONNAIRE FOR MANAGEMENT DEVELOPMENT IN SCHOOLS Dear Colleague In the light of transformation and the quest for quality assurance in education it becomes the responsibilities for educational managers to develop the necessary competences (skills, knowledge, attitudes and values) in the management of schools. It is thus vital that we obtain your opinion regarding the competences necessary in managing your school. Explain briefly the areas of concern in respect of competences. Your kind co-operation is appreciated. Your Responses: In your opinion what competences (skills) are necessary for Principals to manage schools.
In your opinion what competences (knowledge) are necessary for Principals to manage schools. In your opinion what competences (value) are necessary for Principals to manage schools.
In your opinion what competences (attitude) are necessary for Principals to manage schools.
Do you think training/development is necessary for Principals?
If yes, provide areas of concern:
PRINCIPALS' QUESTIONNAIRE FOR MANAGEMENT DEVELOPMENT IN SCHOOLS Dear Colleague In the light of transformation and the quest for quality assurance in education it becomes the responsibilities for educational managers to develop the necessary competences (skills, knowledge, attitudes and values) in the management of schools. It is thus vital that we obtain your opinion regarding the competences necessary in managing your school. Explain briefly the areas of concern in respect of competences. Your kind co-operation is appreciated. Your Responses: In your opinion what competences (skills) are necessary for Principals to manage schools.
In your opinion what competences (knowledge) are necessary for Principals to manage schools. 3. In your opinion what competences (value) are necessary for Principals to manage schools.
4. In your opinion what competences (attitude) are necessary for Principals to manage schools.
5. Do you think training/development is necessary for Principals?
If yes, provide areas of concern:
A - U *-Z7:7'"
RAND AFRIKAANS UNIVERSITY RAND AFRIKAANS UNIVERSITY Telegraphic address Rauniv PO Box 524 Telex 424526 SA Auckland Park (011) 489-2911 Telephon,_ + 27-11-489-2911 Republic of South Africa (011) 489-2191 Fax 2006 + 27-11-489-2191
DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATIONAL SCIENCES
YOUR ASSISTANCE WILL CREATE A BRIGHTER FUTURE FOR OUR CHILDREN
DEAR COLLEAGUE
The implementation of the 1996 Constitution of South Africa is gaining momentum. This has brought about great changes in the way principals are expected to perform their tasks and responsibilities. It is therefore necessary that school principals develop and use a range of managerial competencies in order to deal effectively with these reforms.
We have undertaken to develop a training and development programme for principals. The professional development of principals is an aspect which directly concerns you. It is thus important that we obtain your opinion regarding this aspect.
A questionnaire is one of the most effective ways of eliciting opinions and we are committed to the fact that without your opinion the information is not credible.
Would you please assist us in completing this questionnaire. It should not take you longer than 15 minutes.
Please keep the following in mind when you complete the questionnaire :
Do not write your name on the questionnaire - it remains anonymous. There are no correct or incorrect answers - we require your honest opinion. Please answer ALL questions. Kindly return this completed questionnaire to the person from whom it was received.
Thank you once again for your assistance.
Yours faithfully
Dr B R G Prof T BISSCHO (Department of Educational Sciences) 2
SECTION A: BIOGRAPHICAL INFORMATION
Circle the applicable code or number where necessary.
EXAMPLE: FOR COMPLETING SECTION A
If you are a female then circle as follows
1. Gender: Male 1 Female (2)
Circle the applicable code or fill in the number where necessary as indicated above.
I . MO tH_ER TONGUE • Zulu 01 Xhosa 02 Afrikaans 03 Tswana 04 North-S otho 05 English 06 South-Sotho 07. Tsonga OS Swazi 09 Ndebele 10 Venda 11 Swati 12 Gu] erati 13 Hindi 14 Tamil 15 Telegu 16 Other (Specify) 17 (5-6)
2. GENDER: Male Female 2 (7) 3
3. YOUR AGE (IN COMPLETED YEARS)
(example thirty five years 3 5 (8 - 9)
4. YOUR TEACHING EXPERIENCE (E COMPLETED YEARS) (example fifteen years 1 5 I)
5. NUMBER OF COMPLETED YEARS AS PRINCIPAL (IF APPLICABLE)
(example five years 0 5 (12 - 13)
6. YOUR HIGHEST EDUCATIONAL QUALIFICATION Lower than grade 12 1 Grade 12 2 Post School diploma 3 Teacher's Diploma plus further educational Diploma 4 Bachelor's Degree 5 Bachelor's Degree plus a Teacher's Diploma 6 Post Graduate Qualification 7 (14)
7. YOUR RELIGION Christian 1 Islam 2 Jewish 3 Hinduism 4 Buddhism 5 African Traditional No religious affiliation 7 Other (Specify) 8 (15) 4
8. LANGUAGE OF INSTRUCTION AT YOUR SCHOOL Afrikaans 1 English 2 Double medium (two languages simultaneously in every class) Parallel medium (two languages for all subjects, in different classes) 4 Other (Specify) 5
9. THE PRINCIPAL IN YOUR SCHOOL IS A: Male 1 Female 2
10. YOUR MARITAL STATUS Unmarried Married Divorced 3 Single Parent Other (Specify) 5
11. YOUR SCHOOL IS A: Primary School 1 Secondary School 2 Combined School 3 Special School 4 Other (Specify) 5
12. YOUR PRESENT POST LEVEL Educator 1 Head of Department Deputy Principal 3 Principal 4 District Official Other (Specify) 65 (20)
5
SECTION B
For each of the following areas of skill, knowledge, attitudes and values make a judgement. Remember this is not a test of your competence. Mark your opinion by circling the appropriate number on the scale provided for each question. Give your opinion on a 5 point scale where:
1 means not important 5 means very important 2 - 4 means somewhere in between
Rate the importance of each dimension to the Principal's current job requirements for effective management of schooling by circling a number
1 - 5. (1 = not important; 5 = very important).
EXAMPLE In your opinion how important is it for principals to be able to:
Respond to the needs of educators? not important 1 2 3 (4) 5 very important
In your opinion how important is it for principals to be able to:
1. Ensure that specialised skills of educators are used to maximum effect? not important 2 3 5 very important (21) 2. Ensure that the time - tabling committee distribute workloads of educators equitably?
not important 2 J 3 4 very important (22) 6
In your opinion how important is it for principals to be able to:
3. Ensure that physical resources are used to accomplish educational goals?
not important 1 4 5 very important
4. Develop a shared vision with all stakeholders for school improvement?
not important 1 2 3 5 very important
5. Foster collegiality among educators?
not important 1 2 3 5 very important (25) 6. Ensure that resources are allocated to school management teams to accomplish tasks such as presenting workshops?
not important 1 2 3 4 5 very important (26) 7 Develop budgets based on the needs of the school?
not important 1 2 3 5 very important (27) 8. Communicate the school mission to all stakeholders?
not important 1 2 3 4 5 very important (28) 9. Implement programmes collaboratively with educators?
not important 1 2 3 4 5 very important (29) 10. Ensure that sufficient authority is provided to team leaders to carry out decisions? not important 2 3 4 1 5 very important (30)
7
In your opinion how important is it for principals to be able to:
11. Implement programmes within limits provided by the budget? not important 1 2 4 5 very important
12. Develop a comprehensive school curriculum policy? not important 1 2 3 5 very important
13. Provide resources to support educators in accomplishing instructional goals? not important 1 3 4 5 very important (33) 14. Ensure that all stakeholders provide feedback to school management teams?
not important 1 3 very important (34) 15. Develop a financial policy for the school? not important 1 2 1 3 4 5 very important (35) 16. Ensure that the school curriculum reflect departmental directives? not important 1 2 4 5 very important (36) 17. Use specific observation instruments to evaluate educator performance?
not important 1 2 3 4 5 very important (37) 18. Provide information to committees to carry out delegated tasks? not important 1 3 4 5 very important (38) 8
In your opinion how important is it for principals to be able to:
Present financial reports regularly to all stakeholders? not important I 1 2 3 4 5 very important (39) Ensure that all learning programmes provide for continuity? not important 1 2 3 1 4 1 5 very important (40) 21. Motivate educators in attaining the goals of the school? not important 1 2 3 4 5 very important (41) 22. Provide for more decentralised decision-making? not important 2 3 4 5 very important (42) 23. Supervise the maintenance of school facilities? not important 1 4 very important (43) 24. Evaluate the teaching skills of the educators on an ongoing basis?
not important 1 3 4 5 very important (44) 25. Develop effective recruitment procedures for educators? not important 1 2 1 3 4 5 very important
26. Motivate staff to achieve team goals such as consensus decision making?
not important 1 2 3 5 very important
9
In your opinion how important is it for principals to be able to:
Ensure that safety standards of buildings are maintained? not important 1 3 very important (47) Promote curriculum programmes for the cultural development of learners? not important 1 2 3 1 4 1 5 very important (48) Deploy educators according to the needs of the curriculum?
not important 1 2 3 4 I 5 very important (49) Create organisational structures to facilitate utilisation of available expertise? not important 1 4 1 5 very important (50) 31. Consult with the staff on the acquisition of new resources? not important 1 2 3 4 5 very important (51) 32. Develop curriculum programmes for specific needs of learners? not important 1 5 very important (52) 33. Provide an effective induction programme for newly appointed educators? not important 1 2 3 4 very important (53) 34. Generate a sense of belonging among team members? not important 1 3 5 very important (54)
10
In your opinion how important is it for principals to be able to:
Manage financial resources to ensure that educational objectives are achieved?
not important 1 2 1 3 5 very important (55) Adapt the school's curriculum to the changing needs of the community? not important 2 3 5 very important (56) 37. Provide sufficient resources to facilitate staff development?
not important 1 J 2 3 4 5 very important (57) 38. Provide opportunities to develop leadership in managing organisational structures? not important 1 2 3 4 5 very important (58) 39. Develop fund raising projects to supplement school funds? not important 1 3 4 very important (59) 40. Promote a variety of cross curricular themes? not important 1 2 3 5 very important (60) 41. Develop good interpersonal relationships among educators? not important 1 2 very important
42. Establish channels of communication among organisational structures?
not important 1 2 3 4 5 very important
11
In your opinion how important is it for principals to be able to:
43. Ensure financial responsibilities such as handling of cash are monitored? not important 2 4 1 5 very important (63) 44. Ensure that life skills are included in the curriculum? not important 1 1 2 1 3 4 5 very important (64) 45. Create opportunities for educators to work in teams? not important 1 2 3 4 5 very important (65) 46. Enforce hierarchical structures? not important 2 3 1 4 1 5 very important (66) Devise strategies to faciliate the collection of school fees?
not.important 1 2 3 4 5 very important (67) Support educators to facilitate the curriculum needs of the school?
not important I 1 2 3 1 4 5 1 very important (68) 49. Display sensitivity when dealing with educators from different cultural groups? not important 1 5 very important (69) 50. Create structures that ensure tasks are grouped logically? not important 1 3 very important (70) 12
In your opinion bow important is it for principals to be able to:
Allocate financial resources to subject departments in accordance with the budgets determined?
not important 1 2 1 3 4 5 very important (71) Ensure that individual needs of learners are catered for in the delivery of lessons? not important 3 4 5 very important (72) Provide opportunities for educators to experience a variety of responsibilities?
not important 1 2 3 f 4 5 very important (73) Provide opportunities for team leaders to make democratic decisions? not important 1 2 3 5 very important (74) Operate a cash management system effectively?
not important 1 2 3 4 5 very important (75) Ensure that a variety of methods is used for learning and teaching? not important 2 3 5 very important (76) 57. Appraise performance of educators in relation to learners performance? not important 1 2 3 4 5 very important (77) 58. Establish good working relations with all stakeholders? not important 1 2 3 1 4 1 51 very important (78) 13 in your opinion how important is it for principals to be able to:
59. Prioritise expenditure needs in yearly budgets with stakeholders?
not important 4 5 very important (79) 60. Ensure regular homework is provided to supporting learning? not important 2 4 very important (80) 61. Provide mediation to reduce interpersonal conflicts among educators?
not important 2 5 very important (81) 62. Create flat organisational structures to facilitate involvement of team members? not important 1 3 4 5 very important (82) 63. Monitor a monthly budget against the yearly projected budget? not important 1 3 4 1 5 very important (83) 64. Motivate learners to strive for high standards of achievement?
not important 4 5 very important (84) 65. Provide in-service training for educators? not important 1 2 3 5 very important (85) 66. Ensure participation of stakeholders in managing change? not important 1 4 5 very important (86)
14
In your opinion how important is it for principals to be able to:
67. Ensure that the school's financial records are checked regularly? not important 1 2 3 4 5 very important (87) 68. Encourage learners to learn independently? not important 1 4 1 I very important (88) 69. Consult with union officials on educational issues? not important 2 3 1 4 5 very important (89) 70. Support the governing body to make effective policy decisions? not important 1 2 3 1 4 very important (90) 71. Ensure separation of duties in dealing with financial transactions to avoid mismanagement of funds?
not important I 1 1:T 4 57 very important (91) 72. Include educators in the decision making process? not important 1 3 4 5 very important (92) 73. Provide feedback to unsuccessful candidates after interviews? not important 1 2 3 5 very important (93) 74. Ensure that the school's constitution is communicated to all stakeholders? not important 4 5 very important (94) 15
In your opinion how important is it for principals to be able to:
Ensure that authorisation levels are in place before cheque payments are made?
not important 1 2 3 4 5 very important (95) Support programmes that facilitate a conducive climate for learning? not important 1 2 3 5 very important (96) 77. Motivate educators to appraise themselves?
not important 4 I 5 very important (97) 78. Ensure that proper financial records are kept? not important 1 2 3 4 1 5 very important (98) 79. Ensure that receipts are issued for all cash received? not important 1 2 3 1 4 very important (99) 80. Provide curriculum resources to support learning programmes? not important 1 3 1 4 1 5 very important (100) 81. Provide feedback to educators following class visits? not important 1 2 3 4 5 very important (101) V. Ensure effective networking among all stakeholders in realising the school's goals? not important 1 3 4 5 very important (102) 16
In your opinion how important is it for principals to be able to:
83. Monitor the condition of equipment on an ongoing basis? not important 1 2 4 5 very important (103) 84. Ensure that work of learners is assessed continuously? not important 3 4 5 very important (104) 85. Manage stress of educators using external support such as the psychological support services. not important 4 5 very important (105) 86. Encourage all stakeholders to accept accountability for democratic decision - making? not important 1 3- 4 very important (106) Maintain stock registers of all school property?
not important 1 2 3 I 4 5 very important . (107) Ensure that results of learner assessments are used to direct learning and teaching? not important 3 4 very important (108) 89. Evaluate the staff development programme regularly? not important 1 2 3 4 5 very important (109) 90. Evaluate the success of curriculum programmes on an ongoing basis? not important 1 3 1 4 5 very important (110) 17
In your opinion how important is it for principals to be able to:
91. Ensure that the staff are fully involved in health and safety procedures?
not important 1 2 I 3 4 5 very important
Ensure that progress cards of learners are maintained effectively?
not important 2 1 3 4 very important
Support school management teams in their teaching and learning programmes?
not important 2 3 1 4 5 very important
Support school management teams to achieve high standards of performance?
not important 1 4 1 5 very important
Develop emergency safety procedures?
not important 1 2 3 4 5 very important
96. Ensure that formal assessment is focussed on the needs of learners? not important 1 1 2 3 4 5 very important (116) 97. Liaise with with departmental officials to support subject related programmes?
not important 1 2 3 4 5 very important (117) 98. Co-ordinate various activities to improve overall management of the school?
not important 5 very important (118) 18
In your opinion how important is it for principals to be able to:
99. Formulate a clear school mission with all stakeholders? not important 1 2 very important (119) 100. Provide formal notification of the progress of learners to parents? not important 1 2 1 3 very important (120)