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Mcgraw-Hill Machining and Metalworking McGraw-Hill Machining and Metalworking Ronald A. Walsh (deceased) Denis R. Cormier Associate Professor Department of Industrial Engineering North Carolina State University Third Edition McGraw-Hill New York Chicago San Francisco Lisbon London Madrid Mexico City Milan New Delhi San Juan Seoul Singapore Sydney Toronto Contents Preface xiii Acknowledgments xiv Introduction xv Chapter 1 Modern Metalworking Machinery, Tools, and Measuring Devices 1.1. Metalworking Process Overview 1 1.1.1. Primary processes 2 1.1.2. Metal- cutting processes 2 1.1.3. Sheet metal parts fabrication methods 7 1.2. Measurement and Gauging 8 1.2.1. Coordinate Measuring Machines (CMMs) 8 1.2.2. Handheld measurement and gauging devices 10 1.3. Statistical Process Control 11 1.3.1. Process capability 11 1.3.2. Control charts 14 ter2 Mathematics for Machinists and Metalworkers 17 2.1. General Mathematics, Algebra, and Trigonometry 17 2.1.1. General mathematics and algebraic procedures 17 2.1.2. Plane trigonometry 19 2.1.3. Important mathematical constants 31 2.1.4. Summary of trigonometric procedures for triangles 31 2.1.5. Powers-of-10 notation 33 2.2. Geometric Principles 34 2.3. Geometric Construction 41 2.4. Mensuration 49 2.5. Percentage Calculations 66 iv Contents 2.6. Decimal Equivalents and Millimeter Chart 69 2.7. Degrees and Radians Chart 70 2.8. Mathematical Signs and Symbols 70 2.9. Greek Alphabet 70 2.10. Sine Bar and Sine Plate Calculations 70 2.11. Solutions to Problems in Machining and Metalworking 77 Chapter 3 U.S. Customary and Metric (SI) Measures and Conversions 85 3.1. Conversions fortength, Pressure, Velocity, Volume, and Weight 85 3.2. Standard Conversion Table: Measures Are Found from the Table 88 3.3. Temperature Systems and Conversions 95 3.4. Small Weight Equivalents: U.S. Customary (Grains and Ounces) versus Metric (Grams) 96 Chapter 4 Materials: Physical Properties, Characteristics, and Uses 97 4.1. Steels 99 4.1.1. Glossary of steel terms 100 4.1.2. Carbon, alloy, stainless steel, and tool and die steels: Physical properties, compositions, heat treatment, and uses 102 4.1.3. High-strength, low-alloy (HSLA) steels 154 4.1.4. Ultra-high-strength steels 154 4.2. Aluminum and Aluminum Alloys 164 4.3. Copper and Copper Alloys 164 4.4. Magnesium Alloys 165 4.5. Titanium Alloys 203 4.6. The Unified Numbering System (UNS) for Metals and Alloys 242 4.7. Hardness Tests and Hardness Number Conversions 248 4.7.1. Brinell hardness numbers (HB) 248 4.7.2. Vickers hardness numbers (HV) 248 4.8. Plastics (Thermoplastics and Thermoset Plastics) 249 4.9. Properties of Materials: General and Specific 266 4.10. Material Specification Sheets and Analysis Reports 266 Chapter 5 Modern Engineering Drawing Practices 271 5.1 General Dimensioning and Tolerancing Practices 271 5.1.1 Tolerance studies 273 5.1.2 Tolerance accumulation 273 Contents 5.1.3 Dimensioning per ANSI/ASME Y14.5M-1994 274 5.1.4 ANSI Y14.5M-1994(R1999) tolerancing practices 285 5.1.5 Direct tolerancing methods 286 5.1.6 Positional tolerancing 286 5.1.7 Examples of ANSI Y14.5M-1994 (1999) dimensioning and tolerancing practices 286 5.1.8 Design notes on dimensioning and tolerancing 288 5.1.9 Symbols used in ANSI Y14.5M-1994 (R1999) and ISO dimensioning and tolerancing 289 5.2 Typical Industrial Design Engineering Drawings 289 5.2.1 Limits and Fits, U.S. Customary and Metric Standards 291 Chapter 6 Computer-Aided Design, Manufacturing, and Engineering Systems 297 6.1. Computer-Aided Design (CAD) 297 6.1.1 . File formats 297 6.1.2 . CAD vendors 299 6.1.3 . CAD terminology 299 6.1.4 . Solid modeling techniques 301 6.1.5 . Standard part/assembly libraries 306 6.1.6. Designing sheet metal flat patterns 307 6.2. Computer-Aided Manufacturing (CAM) 309 6.2.1 . CNC Part Programming Fundamentals 311 6.2.2. CAM Toolpath Generation Procedure 316 6.3. Computer-Aided Engineering 318 6.4. Product Data Management 321 Chapter 7 Machining, Machine Tools, and Practices 325 7.1. Turning and Boring 326 7.1.1. Turning and boring tool materials 326 7.1.2. Turning tool types, terms and definitions, and grinding 327 7.1.3. Tool nomenclature 328 7.1.4. Tool angles 331 7.1.5. Selection of tool geometry 334 7.1.6. Grinding/sharpening of HSS, cast-alloy, and carbide tool bits 336 7.1.7. Turning operation calculations 339 7.1.8. Speeds, cuts, and feeds 344 7.1.9. Grades of cutting inserts (for use with Figs. 7.14 through 7.44) 391 7.1.10. ANSI and ISO identification systems for turning, boring, and milling inserts 394 7.1.11. Thread turning 394 vi Contents 7.1.12. Modern turning centers and standard lathe machine tools 413 7.2. Milling 416 7.2.1. Milling calculations 424 7.2.2. Feeds and speeds for milling with advanced cutting tool materials 428 7.2.3. Feeds and speeds tables: Advanced cutting tools and inserts 435 7.2.4. Milling accessories 436 7.3. Drills and Drilling 441 7.3.1. Driy terminology 441 7.3.2. Drjtl point styles and angles 443 7.3.3. Classification of hiqh-speed steels 448 7.3.4. Conversion of surface speed to revolutions per minute for drills 448 7.3.5. Tap drill sizes for producing unified inch screw threads, metric and pipe threads 453 7.3.6. Speeds and feeds, drill geometry, and cutting recommendations for drills 454 7.3.7. Spade drills 454 7.3.8. Microdrills 467 7.3.9. Drilling problems and solutions 472 7.4. Reaming 474 7.4.1. Machine speeds and feeds for HSS reamers 476 7.4.2. Sharpening reamers 476 7.4.3. Forms of reamers 478 7.5. Broaching 479 7.5.1. Calculation of pull forces during broaching 481 7.5.2. Calculation of push forces during broaching 482 7.5.3. Minimum forces required for broaching different materials 482 7.6. Vertical Boring and Jig Boring 483 7.7. Grinding, Lapping, Honing, and Superfinishing (Surface Finishes) 488 7.7.1. Grinding 488 7.7.2. Lapping 499 7.7.3. Honing 500 7.7.4. Superfinishing 501 7.8. Files and Sharpening Stones 502 7.8.1. Files 502 7.8.2. Sharpening stones 507 7.9. Knurling 507 7.10. JIC and ISO Carbide Codes 508 7.11. Cutting Fluids and Coolants for Machining Operations 508 7.12. Calculations for Common Machining Problems 511 7.12.1. Drill-point advance 511 7.12.2. Tapers 512 7.12.3. Typical taper problems 514 Contents vii 7.12.4. Checking angles and notches with plugs 517 7.12.5. Finding diameters 519 7.12.6. Measuring radius of arc by measuring over rolls or plugs 521 7.12.7. Measuring dovetail slides 522 7.12.8. Universal dividing heads 523 7.13. Taps and Dies for Threading Operations 524 7.13.1. Available types of taps and dies 525 7.13.2. Speeds for tapping 528 7.13.3. Thread lead tolerances 528 7.13.4. Limit numbers for ground-thread taps (American UN thread system, ANSI) 528 7.13.5. Limit numbers for ground-thread ISO metric taps 529 7.13.6. Thread gauges (external and internal) 530 7.14. Drill-Rod Types and Sizes for Machining and Tooling Applications 531 7.14.1. U.S. customary or inch-size drill rods 531 7.14.2. Metric drill rods 532 Chapter 8 Tooling, Die Making, Molds, Jigs, and Fixtures 533 8.1. Definitions 533 8.2. Tool-Steel Characteristics, Heat Treatment, and Selection 535 8.2.1. Identification and classification of tool steels 536 8.2.2. Heat treatment of tool steels 536 8.2.3. Selection of tool steels 547 8.3. Dies, Molds, and Die-Making Procedures 550 8.3.1. Manual die making (blanking dies) 553 8.3.2. EDM (electric discharge machining) die-making procedures 554 8.3.3. EDM mold making (ram EDM) 559 8.3.4. Samples of dies, drawings, and stamped or blanked parts 559 8.3.5. Steel-rule dies 562 8.4. Die Clearances and Stamping Data 564 8.4.1. Calculation of punch dimensions 566 8.4.2. Standard die sets 569 8.4.3. Guide pins and guide bushings for die sets 569 8.5. Punching and Blanking Forces 574 8.5.1. Force required for punching or blanking 574 8.5.2. Stripping forces 574 8.5.3. Shear strengths of various materials 575 8.6. Bending, Forming, and Progressive Die Operations and Data 575 8.6.1. Typical forming and progressive dies and parts 578 8.6.2. Bend radii for various metals and alloys 583 8.6.3. Springback 585 8.6.4. Nonmetallic dies and materials 589 8.6.5. Drawing and forming shapes and equations 590 viii Contents 8.6.6. General rules for die stamping and forming operations 604 8.7. Jigs and Fixtures 609 8.7.1. Tooling fixtures 610 8.7.2. Pallets 613 8.8. Clamping Mechanisms and Calculation Procedures 615 8.9. Molds 626 8.10. Force Gauge for Tooling Applications 626 8.11. Complex Molds for Plastic Parts 628 8.12. The Five MajorjRules of Die Making 629 Chapter 9 Sheet Metal Practices and Layout 633 9.1. Carbon and Low-Alloy Steel Sheets 633 9.2. Nonferrous Sheet Metal 637 9.3. Machinery for Sheet Metal Fabrication 637 9.3.1. Modern sheet metal manufacturing machinery 638 9.4.
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