UC Merced Journal of California and Great Basin Anthropology

Title Two Southern California Trade Trails

Permalink https://escholarship.org/uc/item/3632g2w5

Journal Journal of California and Great Basin Anthropology, 2(1)

ISSN 0191-3557

Author Johnston, Francis J

Publication Date 1980-07-01

Peer reviewed

eScholarship.org Powered by the California Digital Library University of California Journal of California and Great Basin Anthropology Vol. 2, No. I, pp. 88-96(1980).

Two Southern California Trade Trails

FRANCIS J. JOHNSTON

T is generally considered by historians that Los Angeles Basin, is not considered here, nor I Spanish overland communication from is the Yuman Trail from the Yuma Crossing to Upper California to Mexico by way of Sonora San Diego. ceased with the abandonment of the Anza THE MARICOPA TRAIL Trail after the Colorado River Campaign of 1781-1783. Communication was maintained The Maricopa are a Gila River tribe living by sea, either direct from ports in Upper Cali­ along that river in Arizona. In historic time fornia or by courier to Lower California and they were located well east of the Quechan, thence to the mainland by sea (Brumgardt who inhabited the area where the Gila and the 1976:83). Colorado rivers come together (White 1974: The route was essentially reopened for 128). sporadic mail and dispatch service, and for In 1821, a Maricopa leader called Jose migration to and from Sonora through a Cocomaricopa and a few companions combination of circumstances including mili­ appeared at San Gabriel Mission saying they tary expeditions and operations of the wanted to trade. Jose bore a letter of introduc­ Mexican government between 1823 and 1832 tion from the commander of the presidio at (Bean and Mason 1962:86//!). Tucson. Nevertheless, the friars sent the Mari- However, prior to 1823 certain official copas to the presidio at San Diego. Lieutenant Mexican government correspondence had Jose Maria Estudillo of that company ordered been transmitted by Southwestern and the Indians to return to their river lands and Colorado River Indians using their own trail told them they were not welcome in California. systems in and out of Southern California and Before they left, however, that officer took eventually into Mexico. These Indians were down a brief description of their general route, also involved in trade with those local Cali­ which follows. It was seven days from San fornia Indian groups under Mission influence Gabriel to the Colorado: San Antonio, 9 as well as with those which remained indepen­ leagues; San Jose, 15 leagues; San Sebastian, dent (Davis 1961:17, 22, 36, 45). 15 leagues; Jesus Maria, 26 leagues; Pozo de la This paper is an effort to delineate the loca­ Alegria, 12 leagues; Meganos, 8 leagues; river, tions and use of the two trails crossing the 7 leagues (Bancroft 1885, 11:442). Colorado Desert, i.e., the Maricopa Trail and The critical points about this description the Halchedhoma Trail (Fig. 1). The Mohave are first that the Maricopa live below and east Trail, which crossed the Mojave Desert to the of the Quechan, and second that they appeared first at San Gabriel Mission in the Los Angeles Francis J. Johnston, 8395 Bluff Rd., Banning, CA 92220. Basin and not at San Diego. Over a period of

[88] TWO SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA TRADE TRAILS 89

< 90 JOURNAL OF CALIFORNIA AND GREAT BASIN ANTHROPOLOGY time the Maricopa made known that they did or west to find water ... I believe he kept not pass through the Quechan nation to get going west into Vallecito [Bailey 1971:95]. from their lands on the Gila to San Gabriel (Beattie 1933:67). Thus, they must have angled But then why did the Maricopa go up to northwesterly across that corner of Arizona to San Gabriel instead of down to San Diego the Colorado River and thence across the from Pala? They were seeking to trade in the Colorado Desert. It has been suggested that Los Angeles Basin which was the principal seat they followed what will be shown below to be of trading in the southland in 1821, the Halchedhoma Trail and that, therefore, the The next year a report was prepared by the two trails were one (Beattie 1933:67). How­ Mission Fathers for Mexico's new Emperor ever, such is probably not the case. Iturbide through the efforts of his agent The general location and direction of the Reverend Agustin Fernandez de San Vicente, trail may be indicated through Lieutenant a canon at the cathedral at Durango. It de­ Estudillo's report of place names and scribes San Bernardino mission rancho and distances. There is only one area in Southern valley as, "'traversed by the road to the Colo­ California where a San Antonio, San Jose, and rado' . . . meaning thereby the'Cocomaricopa San Sebastian lie more or less in an east-west trail'" (Beattie 1933:55). Thus, to connect Pala line. That is northern San Diego County or the and San Bernardino and then Los Angeles it central part of the San Diego Presidial would appear that the Maricopa followed the District. Those places are: San Antonio de well-known trail which has been described a Pala, San Jose de Valle, and San Sebastian. number of times and was later a U.S. Mail The first is Pala on what is now Pala Indian route, northerly from Pala via Temecula, San Reservation. The second was the Spanish Jacinto Valley, Nicoshae Canyon, and San name for what became Warner's Valley. And Timoteo Canyon. Or alternatively they passed the last is the famous desert waterhole near through Aguanga, Sage, St. John's Grade, San Harper's Well on San Felipe Creek (Pourade Jacinto and so on. This specific portion of the 1960:161, 1961:122). Maricopa Trail later became known as the It is approximately 25 miles or nine leagues Sonora Road (Quimby \915.passim; Bancroft from Pala to Warner's, and another 30 to 40 1885, 11:442-3). miles, or 15 leagues to Harper's Well. An addi­ What of the Colorado Desert portion of tional source seems to confirm this as the their trail? Beyond San Sebastian three place Indian route and hence the Maricopa Trail, names are given by Estudillo: Jesus Maria, 15 Charles E. McCloud of Julian, San Diego leagues or 37 miles; Pozo de la Alegria, 26 County, an old California prospector, when leagues or 65 miles; and Meganos, 12 leagues speaking to author Philip Bailey prior to 1940, or 30 miles. The river is next. regarding Thomas L. (Peg Leg) Smith on his This portion of the trail which at that time 1829 trip across Southern California, said, ran in part where the Salton Sea is now, has been identified archaeologically by the late , . . he run into the Vallecitos, north of Malcolm J. Rogers of San Diego Museum of Fish Mountain, probably somewhere near Split Canyon. Here he met some Indians Man. His work is described in Ancient Hunters who was living where Carrizo and San of the Far West particularly on the maps on Felipe creeks come together [Footnote in page 43 and 67 (Pourade 1966:43, 47, 49, 67). source: Harper's Well, the San Sebastian In addition, this trail is discussed in lay of Captain Anza in 1774], and they told terms in at least one popular magazine article him he'd have to go straight south for here. (Weight 1949:16). It is shown on the Imperial TWO SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA TRADE TRAILS 91

County map of the Automobile Club of miles, so the exact point of entry is open to Southern California as, "A Pre-Columbian question. Indian Trail," and "Indian Pass." This trail complex came out on the river in the vicinity of THE HALCHEDHOMA TRAIL the old Tumco-Picacho mining area. The trail was used in 1822 by Maricopa The Halchedhoma Trail has been couriers, at least one of which was Jose documented by archaeology (Davis 1961:72, Cocomaricopa, sent by the Mexican Map 1). It first comes to light, however, in the government for the purpose of transmitting message of Governor Francisco Antonio copies of the new Oaths of Allegiance taken by Crespo of Sonora to Viceroy Antonio Maria California officials on April I 1 at Monterey. Bucareli y Ursua in December 1774: "Anza They eventually reached Mexico City by way should march [on his second expedition] to the of Tucson and Sonora (Bean and Mason Jalchedhunes country, crossing the river there 1962:9). Thus, despite Lieutenant Estudillo's and proceeding to Monterey" (Bancroft admonition not to return to California, the 1889:391). So evidently information regarding Maricopa did in fact return and became of the Halchedhoma Trail had been gathered on some use to the Mexican government. Anza's operation of April through July of that Perhaps in confirmation of all the above, year and made known to Spanish authorities one historian has quoted Captain Jose Maria and at least some of them wanted him to utilize Romero, an important Mexican Army ex­ it for his second or colonizing expedition. But plorer of the 1820's in Southern California, as he declined. follows: "Although they [the Cocomaricopas] However, Father Francisco Garces, who go between the nations, they leave their departed from Anza on that second expedition enemies to the right or left a distance of more at the Yuma Crossing and proceeded on his than twenty leagues" (Beattie 1933:66). own journey of exploration, crossed that trail As the Maricopasand Halchedhomas were with the knowledge that he was doing so on on friendly terms (White 1974:127-128), the February 24, 1776. He wrote, Maricopas were passing either through I came to the Pools of Tesquien . . . This Halchedhoma territory or below it and just place, which is a day's journey from the above the Quechan. The latter route conforms river, makes it possible to travel from the precisely to Trail 2 on Rogers' map (Pourade land of the Jalchedunes to that of the 1966:66). Obviously, the right or left Jeniqueches ... of the Santa Ana River designation of Romero depended upon which [Galvin 1961:2-24-76]. direction the Maricopas were going at any given time. Again, Rogers' trail brings the These "Pools of Tesquien," are quite prob­ Maricopa out in the vicinity of Picacho on the ably Chuckawalla Springs, Colorado River which is just above the In general, Spain seems to have ignored the Quechan region. The other desert points route. But knowledge of it must have resided designated by Estudillo seem to be nonspecific with the priests of San Gabriel Mission. Com­ at this time. Pozo de Alegria seems to mean menting on this situation. Bean and Mason "Well of Happiness", and could be any small (1962:9) write, "In this same year, 1822, San watering spot. Meganos may mean sand Bernardino was recognized by the adminis­ dunes. The Algodones Dunes along the trators of San Gabriel as a point of departure southwest face of the Chocolate Mountains for a route to Tucson . . . ," It was, cither by run northwest to southeast for over twenty-five the Maricopa Trail or the Halchedhoma Trail, 92 JOURNAL OF CALIFORNIA AND GREAT BASIN ANTHROPOLOGY

In any case, the Mexican Army explorer. another named Pedro Celestino [Bean and Captain Jose Maria Romero, chose to try the Mason 1962:35]. Halchedhoina route from San Bernardino through San Gorgonio Pass, Agua Caliente It has been assumed that the above (Palm Springs), Plain of the Palms (Coachella statement meant that Salvador followed the Valley), and the subsequent mountains in his Halchedhoma Trail in his escape from San Juan Capistrano (Forbes 1965:242), Indica­ 1823-24 effort to reach Tucson from San tions from his behavior under Estudillo and Gabriel Mission, Romero are that he did not. Rather, it is more His selection of the Halchedhoma route likely that he had made his way to San Jacinto over the Maricopa route apparently had to do Valley (then containing a rancho for San Luis with the unavailability of a Maricopa to act as Rey Mission) and from there followed either guide. His original plan had been to explore the Anza Trail or the previously described the Maricopa Trail for possible use as a regular trails to San Sebastian. communications route between California and Sonora. He so wrote Governor Antonio From the area of Agua Caliente (Palm Springs) to the "swamp of the Palms" (in the Narbona of Sonora in July, 1823 after coming lower Coachella Valley) the expedition had to California from his presidio at Tucson by Cahuilla guides. These Indians and Salvador way of the mouth of the Colorado and Mission all told the officers there was no water or pas­ Santa Catalina in Baja. His letter of July 7 ture from there to the Colorado River, two states, ". . . it only remains for me to see the marching days (Bean and Mason 1962:37, 38, road by which the Cocomaricopas travel" 39). (Beattie 1933:59). However, it is apparent from the diary of The actual distance from the east side of Lieutenant Jose Maria Estudillo that in fact Coachella Valley to Blythe over the old route is the expedition left San Gabriel Mission on about 90 miles. At Romero's daily rate of December 15, 1823, ". . . enroute to the around 20 miles, that is at least four days' east . . ."with no guideat all (Bean and Mason marching time. Mohaves, Apaches, and other 1962:31). swift-moving Indians are known to have This Estudillo is the same officer who two covered such distances on foot in two days. years earlier had taken down the Maricopas' Between Coachella Valley and the river over description of their route. He of all Mexican that route there are at least four good watering officials should have known where their trail places: Canyon Spring, Tabaseca Tank, Chuck­ ran and whether or not his unit was on it. He awalla Spring, and Mule Spring. The Cahuillas does not mention the Maricopas in his diary. did not tell the officers of these places. Why? At the mission rancho of San Bernardino Salvador and Pedro Celestino did not know of on Christmas day Romero and Estudillo them. Therefore, they were not on the Mari­ obtained two guides, neither of whom were copa Trail, and theirguides were not knowledg- Maricopas. able, nor were they Maricopa or Halchedhoma, On January 7, 1824, apparently somewhere The Indian Salvador, a neophyte of the Mission of San Juan Capistrano, intro­ north of where Desert Center now is, "Salva­ duced himself . . . Eleven years ago he fled dor . . . confessed ... he did not know where from the mission, and went as far as Arizpe he was . . . ." He and Celestino were arrested [Sonora] . . . He said that he learned of my for their ignorance (Bean and Mason 1962:42). journey to the Colorado River and that he It is important to note that on each of the wished to accompany me along with two days of travel proceeding the 7th during TWO SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA TRADE TRAILS 93 which Romero's expedition made its way up They were not at this time (1823-24) intimi­ Salton Wash, between the Orocopias and dated or displaced by their enemies, the Chuckawallas, and to the vicinity of Palen Dry Mohaves to the north or the Quechan to the Lake, Estudillo records, ". . . paths and trails south. That would come later. of the Indians . . . bones on the trail . , . By November 28, 1825, the now-promoted horse-paths and foot-paths . . ." (Bean and Lieutenant Colonel Jose Maria Romero was Mason 1962:40-41). Hence, they were at all again preparing to set forth from San Gabriel times on well-traveled Indian foot and horse on the elusive trail. He planned to have Jose trails. Cocomaricopa with him as guide. He also had Romero's first effort ended in failure and a soldier, Julian Valdez, who had been sent he returned to San Gabriel Mission January with Jose Cocomaricopa by General Jose 31,1824. But about ten days later no less than Figueroa from Sonora to learn the route (Bean 19 Halchedhoma, ten men and nine women, and Mason 1962:70). It would therefore seem also arrived at San Gabriel. They carried that this time he definitely expected to follow letters of inquiry as to Romero's whereabouts the Maricopa Trail. from Sonora's governor dated August 1823 However, Jose Cocomaricopa and his men (Bean and Mason 1962:60-61). had remained at the San Bernardino Rancho At this time the Halchedhoma still lived when they reached that place and had not come north of the Quechan but south of the Mohave on to San Gabriel Mission, Therefore, Romero probably from the Bill Williams River to well and his Indian guides did not meet face-to-face below Blythe along the Colorado River. They until he reached San Bernardino about the first had not yet been driven out by the Mohave of December, 1825. On the fourth day of that (Kroeber 1925:799//:). Therefore, their trail lay month Romero reported that, ". . . once Jose almost due east from San Bernardino, through and his men were given horses they had left him San Gorgonio Pass and the Colorado Desert, [Romero] without saying a word . . . they ran These 19 confirmed to Romero that if he had away . . ." (Bean and Mason 1962:70). borne southerly his last day he could have Romero was now at San Bernardino and again reached the river that night. It is uncertain just with no reliable guides other than the soldier, where Romero was on the night of January 6, Julian Valdez. However, he was committed to 1824, but if on the morning of the 7th he had find some trail through the desert and he had in veered more to the south he would have his train another officer also under orders to crossed and probably followed at least one of find such a route. This was Ensign Romualdo the trail complexes now known to run to the Pacheco, a Mexican Army engineer. Pacheco Colorado River along either side of the Chuck­ had been ordered to ". . . join Romero and awalla Mountains (Davis 1961:72, Map I). make 'an itinerary in which you will perfectly Actually, of course, the expedition could describe the road to the Colorado River, con­ not have reached the river on the 7th because of structing also at . . . San Gorgonio the little its previously noted rate of march. They had "reducto" which you have in a diseiio . . .'" two or possibly three more days of travel to (Bean and Mason 1962:69). In other words reach their objective. This is actually borne out Pacheco was ordered to develop a strongpoint in Romero's subsequent operation. in San Gorgonio Pass presumably to cover both the Halchedhoma Trail and the develop­ Nonetheless the presence of these Halched­ ing Sonora Road between San Bernardino and homas at San Gabriel shows that they were in Yuma as previously described. The area was comfortable and responsible touch with not then called Yuma but was, of course, the Mexican authorities at both ends of their trail. 94 JOURNAL OF CALIFORNIA AND GREAT BASIN ANTHROPOLOGY crossing where the Gila joins the Colorado. three days or sixty miles from the river. It is Incidentally, such a redoubt would have known whom he did not have as guides. He did afforded some protection also to the Anza not have any Maricopas. He should have had Trail had it been reopened, place names for the Maricopa Trail from both Romero was thus compelled to go out his earlier contact with Lieutenant Estudillo through San Gorgonio Pass without appropri­ and his present association with the soldier ate guides even though he himself believed, in Julian Valdez. But he did not refer to any of the words of Lieutenant Estudillo (found in the these names in his letters and reports. cover letter to his diary which he had for­ He did have detailed intelligence from the warded to Governor Arguello after their Halchedhoma as to where their trail ran. He aborted operation), knew where he had gone before. He knew where he had gone astray. It seems most prob­ . . . there are no other roads more suitable able then that he was on the Halchedhoma than the ancient ones explored by the engi­ Trail. And where was he on December 12, neers, Miguel Constanso, Jose Dario 1825? Given the approximate distances, the Arguello, Juan Bautista de Anza, Fer­ nando Ruiz, Felipe de Neve, and Pedro horse marching times, and the known watering Pages [Beattie 1933:62], places, he was at the springs in the Chucka­ walla Mountains, Father Garces' Pools of Estudillo is, of course, referring to the Anza Tesquien. Trail. The Cahuilla name for that region is chu Both Lieutenant Colonel Romero and En­ qual[=chuxh-wal—Ed.], from which the angli­ sign Pacheco WTOte letters protesting the con­ cised corruption developed (Johnston 1977: struction of a strongpoint in San Gorgonio 192). Romero does not use the term; therefore, Pass. Possibly as a result of these letters, and it is questionable that he had a Cahuilla guide. despite the protests of the friars of San Gabriel, Regarding the whole question of Indian influ­ Romero was ordered on December 12 to ence on the expedition, Romero and his men release certain neophytes from San Gabriel seem to have had some trouble identifying any who had been sent on the operation as construc­ of the Indians in the region. Romero sent a tion laborers (Bean and Mason 1962:68-71). dispatch to General Jose Figueroa by four Apparently the San Gorgonio redoubt project Indians who were ". . . of a tribe allied with was abandoned. Jose's people" (Bean and Mason 1962:82). Did Romero and Pacheco left San Bernardino he mean Cahuilla, Pima, or Halchedhoma? He after the fifth of December 1825, They were at sent another message to Governor Echeandia a place they called the "Wells of Guadelupe"by of California in which he said his engineer December 12 (Bean and Mason 1962:81). officer. Ensign Pacheco, was going to return to Whether or not they went out through San San Diego after reaching the Colorado. He Gorgonio Pass and hence over the Halched­ would take some Cahuillas with him from a homa Trail or southerly over the Sonora Road place called La Grulla, or "crane" in Spanish. and thence easterly over the Maricopa Trail is The location has not been identified (Bean and speculative. However, there are bits of Mason 1962:82, 112, note 2). While today the evidence that suggest they actually followed south end of the Salton Sea is replete with bird the Halchedhoma Trail. From San Bernardino life (including cranes), in 1825 it was not. It was to the Wells of Guadelupe was about a five day an alkali sink or plain. However, the Colorado march for Romero or about 100 miles. At that River had bottom lands, riparian woodland, water point he beliexed himself to be about and marshes, which provided habitat for TWO SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA TRADE TRAILS 95 cranes. When Lieutenant Pacheco proceeded and communications road into California and downriver from the point where Romero neither the Maricopa nor the Halchedhoma crossed to the east side, he called the Indians on trails were so used. both sides "Cahuillas" (Bean and Mason 1962:83 and I 12, note 3). In fact, they were CONCLUSION Halchedhoma. In view of this, it would seem It has been postulated above that in Mexi­ that the ". . . Cahuilla . . . from ... La can and probably aboriginal times there were Grulla" most likely were Halchedhoma. at least two well-defined Indian trade and com­ In three more days from the "Wells of munications trail complexes across Southern Guadalupe" Lieutenant Colonel Romero and California, neither of which was the famous Ensign Pacheco were at the river. If they had Anza Trail, The first and northerly, or followed what would become the Bradshaw Halchedhoma Trail, ran roughly east from San Trail they would have come out about where Bernardino, through San Gorgonio Pass, to the BIythe-Ehrenberg crossing is now (Beattie the region of the Halchedhoma or present day 1933:66). If they had worked southerly from Palo Verde Valley. The second, or Maricopa Chuckawalla, through the Black Mountains, Trail, dropped southerly from San Bernardino they would have gone down Milpitas Wash to Pala, thence easterly through what is now from the southern base of the Palo Verde Harper's Well near the confluence of Corrizo Mountains to its debouchment as surmised by Creek and San Felipe Creek, and across desert Bean and Mason (1962:82). land at the southern end of the Salton Sea to After crossing on balsa rafts, Romero and the Colorado River in the vicinity of Picacho his detachment went on to Agua Caliente on and Tumco. the Gila River. By which trail they went is It should be noted that both trails, though uncertain, except that opposite Picacho he named for Indian groups in theirarea of incep­ would have crossed and then probably fol­ tion, passed through the territories of other lowed the Maricopa Trail. Lieutenant Pacheco Indians, notably Cahuilla and Kumeyaay. traveled downstream, probably along the west Passage in and out of foreign lands such as bank where the regular Indian trail ran (Davis these required intricate alliance or at least 1961:72, Map I), to Punta Concepcion, site of permission agreements (White 1974:120-124). one of the earlier Spanish mission-pueblos at Use of the Maricopa Trail seems to have the confluence of the Gila and Colorado (Bean declined after the official Mexican California- and Mason 1962:83). Sonora route was established. The Halched­ Beattie writes that homa Trail eventually developed into the . . . Pacheco had returned to San Diego by Bradshaw Trail and is still a Southern Cali­ the direct road from the Pass of the Yumas, fornia desert road from Coachella Valley to assuring him (Governor Echeandia) that Palo Verde Valley. the Cocomaricopa road was impracticable, and the other route traveled was the desir­ REFERENCES able one [Beattie 1933:67], Bailey, Philip A. The other route referred to here is briefly 1971 Golden Mirages. Ramona: Acoma Books. described by Beattie (1933:67-68) as ". . . the Bancroft, Hubert Howe road from San Diego via Warner's to the Pass 1885 History of California, Vol. 11, 1801-1824 of the Yumas on the Colorado." It was this (The Works, Vol. XIX). San Francisco: route which became the official Mexican mail A. L. Bancroft & Company. 96 JOURNAL OF CALIFORNIA AND GREAT BASIN ANTHROPOLOGY

1889 History of Arizona and New Mexico. San Johnston, Francis J. Francisco: San Francisco History Com­ 1977 The Bradshaw Trail. Riverside: The His­ pany. torical Commission Press, Bean, Lowell John, and William Marvin Mason Kroeber, A. L. 1962 Diaries & Accounts of the Romero Expe­ 1925 Handbook of the Indians of California. ditions in Arizona and California, 1823- Washington: Bureau of American Eth­ 1826. Palm Springs: Palm Springs Desert nology Bulletin No. 78. Museum. Pourade, Richard F. Beattie, George William 1960 The Time of the Bells. San Diego: The 1933 Reopening the Anza Road. Pacific His­ Union-Tribune Publishing Company. torical Review 2(1 ):52-71. 1961 The Explorers. San Diego: The Union- Brumgardt, John R. Tribune Publishing Co. 1976 From Sonora to San Francisco Bay; The Pourade, Richard F., ed. Expeditions of Juan Bautista de Anza 1966 Ancient Hunters of the Far West. San 1774-1776. Riverside: Historical Com­ Diego; The Union-Tribune Publishing mission Press. Company. Davis, James T. Quimby, Garfield M. 1961 Trade Routes and Economic Exchange 1975 History of the Potrero Ranch and Its Among the Indians of California. Neighbors. Quarterly of the San Bernar­ Berkeley; Reports of the University of dino County Museum Association 22(2); California Archaeological Survey No. 54. 1-78. Forbes, Jack D. Weight, Harold O. 1965 Warriors of the Colorado. Norman: 1949 Rockhound Trail to Indian Pass. The University of Oklahoma Press. Desert Magazine 12(4); 16-21. Galvin, John (trans.) White, Chris 1965 A Record of Travels in Arizona and Cali­ 1974 Lower Colorado River Area Aboriginal fornia, 1775-1776, Father Francisco Warfare and Alliance Dynamics. Garces. San Francisco: John Howell Ramona: Ballena Press Anthropological Books. Papers No. 2:111-135.