A Review of Direct and Indirect Impacts of Marine Dredging Activities on Marine Mammals
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A review of direct and indirect impacts of marine dredging activities on marine mammals Family Scientific name Common name Range of best Frequency of Minimum Methodology Diet Region Habitat Documented Effects of Potential Effects of Dredging (excluding (including hearing (10 dB minimum hearing Dredging subspecies) subspecies) from max; kHz) hearing threshold (dB threshold (kHz) re 1 µPa) Otariidae Arctocephalus Cape & Unknown; — — — Fish (e.g. Emmelichthys nitidus, F, J (Kirkman et Continental shelf waters (IUCN, — Habitat destruction, increase in pusillus Australian fur fundamental Pseudophycis bachus, Trachurus al., 2007; IUCN, 2012) turbidity, changes to prey seal frequency of declivis, Neoplatycephalus 2013; Perrin, availability, masking, incidental male in air barks Richardsoni) (Australian fur seal) 2013) capture or injury, avoidance & is 0.14 & female (Page et al., 2005) an increase in shipping traffic in air barks is 0.15 (Tripovich et al., 2008) Arctophoca Antarctic fur seal Unknown; peak — — — Fish (e.g. Gymnoscopelus A, F, J (IUCN, Forage in deep waters (>500 m) — Habitat destruction, increase in gazella frequency of in piabilis, Electrona subaspera, 2013; Perrin, with a strong chlorophyll turbidity, changes to prey air barks is 0.3– Champsocephalus gunnari) 2013; Reeves et concentration & steep availability, masking, incidental 5.9 (Page et al., (Guinet et al., 2001) al., 2002) bathymetric gradients, otherwise capture or injury, avoidance & 2002) remains close to the colony in an increase in shipping traffic areas with Polar Fronts and high Sea Surface Temperature (SST) gradients (Guinet et al., 2001) A. tropicalis Subantarctic fur Unknown; — — — Fish (e.g. Electrona paucirastra, F, J (IUCN, Oceanic waters with 14-16°C — Habitat destruction, increase in seal frequency of Myctophum phengodes, 2013; Perrin, surface isotherms (Georges et turbidity, changes to prey female in air calls Symbolophorus spp., Hygophum 2013; Reeves et al., 2000) availability, masking, incidental is 0.4–6 (Charrier hanseni) (Beauplet et al., 2004) al., 2002) capture or injury, avoidance & et al., 2003) an increase in shipping traffic A. australis Falkland Islands, Unknown; — — — Aves (Eudyptula minor), fish F, J, K (Túnez et Forage near continental slope — Habitat destruction, increase in New Zealand, dominant (e.g. Emmelichthys nitidus), al., 2007; IUCN, but have been known to travel turbidity, changes to prey South American frequency of in cephalopods (e.g. Nototodarus 2013; Perrin, far offshore (IUCN, 2012) availability, masking, incidental & Peruvian fur air growls is 0.4– gouldi) (New Zealand fur seal) 2013) capture or injury, avoidance & seal 0.7 (Phillips and (Page et al., 2005) an increase in shipping traffic Stirling, 2001) A. galapagoensis Galápagos fur Unknown; peak — — — Fish (unspecified myctophid & I, K (IUCN, Galápagos Archipelago but — Habitat destruction, increase in seal frequency of bathylagid species) & 2013; Perrin, breeds mostly in western & turbidity, changes to prey female in air pup cephalopods (e.g. Onychoteuthis 2013; Reeves et northern areas (IUCN, 2012) availability, masking, incidental attraction calls is banksi) (IUCN, 2012) al., 2002) capture or injury, avoidance & 0.7–1.5 an increase in shipping traffic (Trillmich, 1981) A. philippii Juan Fernández Unknown; — — — Fish (e.g. Symbolophorus spp., H, I, K Forage offshore (>500 km), — Habitat destruction, increase in & Guadalupe fur frequency of Myctophum phengodes, (Goldsworthy et mostly in waters with <10 m turbidity, changes to prey seal underwater Lampanyctus spp., al., 2000; IUCN, depth, but sometimes in water availability, masking, incidental vocalisations is Protomyctophum spp., 2013; Perrin, 50–90 m deep (Francis et al., capture or injury, avoidance & 0.12–0.2 (Norris Scopelogadus spp., 2013; Peterson 1998; IUCN, 2012) an increase in shipping traffic and Watkins, Citharichthys sordidus) & et al., 1968; 1971) cephalopods (e.g. Onychoteuthis Rice, 1998) banksii, O. borealojaponica, Tremoctopus violaceus, Loligo opalescens, Gonatopsis spp.) (Hanni et al., 1997; Francis et al., 1998) Callorhinus Northern fur seal 2–28 — — Female, Fish (e.g. Engraulis mordax, B, I (IUCN, In the North Pacific Transition — Habitat destruction, increase in ursinus underwater, Merluccius productus, Cololabis 2013; Perrin, Zone (NPTZ), generally in open turbidity, changes to prey behavioural saira) & cephalopods (e.g. Loligo 2013; Reeves et ocean near seamounts, canyons, availability, masking, incidental opalescens, Onychoteuthis spp.) (Schusterman al., 2002) valleys & continental shelves but capture or injury, avoidance & (Perez and Bigg, 1986) and Moore, hauls out on rocky beaches an increase in shipping traffic 1978) (NOAA, 2012) Zalophus California sea lion 1–>32 4 65 Male, Fish (e.g. Engraulis mordax, I (IUCN, 2013; Shallow coastal & estuarine — Habitat destruction, increase in californianus underwater, Merluccius productus, Trachurus Perrin, 2013; waters near sandy beaches, turbidity, changes to prey behavioural symmetricus, Sebastes spp.) & Reeves et al., marina docks, jetties or buoys availability, masking, incidental cephalopods (e.g. Loligo (staircase) 2002) (NOAA, 2012) capture or injury, avoidance & opalescens) (Lowry et al., 1991) (Mulsow et al., an increase in shipping traffic 2012) Z. wollebaeki Galápagos sea Unknown; — — — Unspecified Clupeidae, I, K (IUCN, Galápagos Archipelago (IUCN, — Habitat destruction, increase in lion dominant myctophid & bathylagid fish & 2013; Perrin, 2012) turbidity, changes to prey frequency of in cephalopods (unspecified small 2013; Reeves et availability, masking, incidental air female pup squid) (IUCN, 2012) al., 2002) capture or injury, avoidance & attraction calls is an increase in shipping traffic 0.3–0.6 (Trillmich, 1981) Eumetopias Western Steller & 5–10 5 15 dB re 20 µPaa Male, in-air, Fish (e.g. Pleurogrammus B, I (IUCN, Colder temperate to subarctic — Habitat destruction, increase in jubatus Loughlin’s Auditory Steady monopterygius, Theragra 2013; Perrin, waters, often found close to turbidity, changes to prey northern sea lion State Response chalcogramma, Gadus 2013; Ridgway gravel, rocky, or sand beaches, availability, masking, incidental (ASSR) (Mulsow macrocephalus, Merluccius and Carder, near ledges & rocky reefs capture or injury, avoidance & and Reichmuth, productus) & unspecified 2001; Perrin et (NOAA, 2012) an increase in shipping traffic 2010) cephalopods (Merrick et al., al., 2009) 5–14.1 10 7 dB re 20 µPaa Male, in-air, 1997) behavioural (staircase) (Mulsow and Reichmuth, 2010) 1–16 1b 77 rmsc Male, underwater, behavioural (staircase) (Kastelein et al., 2005) 16–25 25b 73 rmsc Female, underwater, behavioural (staircase) (Kastelein et al., 2005) Neophoca cinerea Australian sea Unknown; mean — — — Prey on unspecified shallow F (IUCN, 2013; Southwest & Southern coasts of No adverse reactions noted Habitat destruction, increase in lion fundamental water benthic animals (IUCN, Perrin, 2013; Australia (IUCN, 2012) whilst dredging close to haul out turbidity, changes to prey frequency of 2012) Reeves et al., sites in Geraldton, Western availability, masking, incidental female in air calls 2002) Australia (EPA, 2007) capture or injury, avoidance & is 0.53 (Charrier an increase in shipping traffic and Harcourt, 2006) Phocarctos New Zealand sea — — — — Mammalia (Arctocephalus F (Childerhouse Subantarctic waters of Southern Incidental capture in trawl nets Habitat destruction, increase in hookeri lion forsteri) (Bradshaw et al., and Gales, 1998; New Zealand (IUCN, 2012) of squid fishery (Chilvers, 2008) turbidity, changes to prey 1998), fish (e.g. Caelorinchus IUCN, 2013; breeding on the Subantarctic availability, masking, incidental spp. Hemerocoetes spp. Perrin, 2013; islands (e.g. Auckland) capture or injury, avoidance & Pseudophycis bachus) & Reeves et al., (Chilvers, 2008) an increase in shipping traffic cephalopods (e.g. Nototodarus 2002) sloanii, Enteroctopus zealandicus) (Meynier et al., 2009) Otaria flavescens South American Unknown; — — — Opportunistic feeding on fish J, K (IUCN, Widely distributed in coastal — Habitat destruction, increase in sea lion fundamental (e.g. Merluccius hubbsi, Raneya 2013; Perrin, waters around South America turbidity, changes to prey frequency of brasiliensis) & cephalopods (e.g. 2013; Reeves et (IUCN, 2012) availability, masking, incidental male in air high Loligo gahi, Enteroctopus al., 2002; Túnez capture or injury, avoidance & pitched calls is megalocyathus) (Alonso et al., et al., 2007) an increase in shipping traffic 0.3–0.5 2000). (Fernández- Juricic et al., 1999) Odobenidae Odobenus Atlantic & Pacific 1.5, 3–12 12 67 Male, Gastropods (e.g. Polinices spp., B, H, I (Estes Remains close to sea ice, — Habitat & feeding area rosmarus walrus underwater, Neptunea spp., Buccinum spp.), and Gilbert, hauling out on ice floes, remote destruction, disturbance of behavioural Bivalves (Serripes spp., Hiatella 1978; IUCN, coastlines, islands & beaches hauled out animals, avoidance spp., Yoldia spp.) & unspecified (staircase) 2013; Lindqvist (IUCN, 2012) or masking polychaeta (Sheffield and (Kastelein et al., et al., 2009; Grebmeier, 2009) 2002b) Perrin, 2013) Phocidae Erignathus Atlantic & Pacific Unknown; — — — Fish (e.g. Boreogadus saida, B, H, I (IUCN, Arctic waters (<200 m), often — Habitat destruction & change to barbatus bearded seal frequency range Myoxocephalus Scorpius, 2013; Perrin, with drifting sea ice (NOAA, benthic environment will impact of vocalisations is Gymnocanthus tricuspis.