Kofi Piesie Tv research team September 16, 2019 CIMARRONS: A Historical Survey of the Western Hemisphere’s First African Freedom Fighters

What exactly is a Cimarron…? With modern day technology allowing us to share information faster, vaster, and more thorough than any other time in recorded history, we now have the ability to analyze the historical story of how Africans found themselves in the Western Hemisphere. With useful research tools, such as Google, Yahoo and Wikipedia, one can research a broad arrange of topics. In saying this, people who have access to these amazing researching tools can now better understand historical and cultural events of our America’s past. This article will delve deep into the history of African Americans, through the lens of the Cimarron people. By utilizing these at-you-fingertip researching tools, one can greater understand “who they are” by understanding “who they were!” For example if one was to search for Cimarron in your preferred search engine, the results will give various hits, including feral animals to cities, towns and rivers, etc. Additionally, the word is associated to numerous “Western” novels dedicated to cattle herdsmen migrating into the Wild, Wild West…

One of the most common results from the internet searches includes the 2002 film that inspired a question. This question was posed by one of the children of the Kofi Piesie Research Team members. The question being asked is “Are you talking about my movie about the horses? This movie is entitled Spirit: Stallion of the Cimarron? What has been mentioned thus far has increased the desire to shed light on the amazing yet uncommonly known history of the first African freedom fighters in the Western Hemisphere.This history is the negro cimarron (defined as: runaway slaves, wild, cannot be tamed, one who knows he is oppressed, etc.).

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Cimarron’s Importance in History We (African Americans) are often not taught that there was a son of Christopher Columbus who traveled and settled in the Americas and that the first major slave revolt took place under his supervision. The average African American man, woman, boy or girl are often only taught of their arrival to American history as cotton picking slaves in United Demonym States history during the 17th and 18th centuries as their origins to this country in a historical story. Furthermore, many are mislead (unintentionally (/ˈdɛmənɪm/; from Greek or not) to think that African people who were transported to the Western δῆμος, dêmos, "people, tribe" and όνομα, ónoma, "name") Hemisphere were ignorant, unskilled, and docile people who displayed no or gentilic (from Latin gentilis, knowledge, comprehension or desire for freedom, justice, equality or "of a clan, or gens") is a word liberations until the beginning the middle of the 19th century. that identifies residents or natives of a particular place We, the Kofi Piesie Tv Research Team, have compiled a list of the long and is usually derived from the name of the place. lost, but not forgotten, freedom fighters of yours’ and our’s past. This list was compiled to teach and guide, not, in a form of hate, discouragement, Capitulaciones rage, or rebellious behavior but to highlight historically accurate events that can provide a compass through our history to see the African spirit is just as The Spanish word for Capitulations-in international human, just as intelligent, and just as much comprehension as any other law refers to the capitulations people group of mankind. Man does not belong chained to bondage, regime: that is, the system of forbidden to express and experience the beauty of a fully liberated life. And treaties concluded by certain these short (mini) stories are of our ancestors who were fully aware of that States which conferred the privilege of extraterritorial and became known as Cimarrons. We are only intending to provide a jurisdiction within their useful map to help guide you, knowing the beauty of any exploration is in boundaries on the subjects of the journey itself, and the map is merely a tool to help guide and protect another State.[6] from traveling in the wrong directions. We are hopeful that you will take Palenques time and complete that wonderful journey by completing research on your own academic quest. Finding the beauty in your (OURS) A#ican-American history. Palenques-is a Spanish word for arena, also known for the Mayan city of Lakamha. In this article it will be important to remember it being used in the sense of referring to a small city state and not necessarily an arena. Cumbe

A Mende word for “separate out of the place”

Again,Finding the beauty in your (OURS) A#ican-American history

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Earliest use of Cimarron in the Western Hemisphere… When discussing the earliest use of the term Cimarron in the Western Hemisphere, the discussion is rather complicated and complex. The complexity is heightened when trying to uncover where the term was applied and also how it was created. Before these questions can be answered, we must first understand the term was never a self- determined identifier for any particular group of peoples. It is not a Etymology demonym applied to a specific regional group of people, and it has morphed etymological over hundreds of years. Its geographic locality has • Negro Ladino-Although not varied, though it does have its origin of use connected to cimas - a directly linked to the word cimarron Spanish word for hills. these group people will be referenced in the early origins of Moreover, the term Cimarron (more recently recorded as their story, referring to the first groups of Africans brought to the “maroon”) was used for “beast of burden transported to the New World in Americas, who were converted to the early 1500s.” Though, the term is not restricted to just classifying Spanishized Christians and or servants groups of people escaping colonial oppression to live within hills, summits, or secluded wooded areas, swamps, etc. “The word maroon, first • Maroon-"put ashore on a recorded in English in 1666, is by varying accounts taken #om the French word marron, desolate island or coast" by way of which translates to “runaway black slave,” or the American/Spanish cimarrón, which punishment, 1724 (implied in means “wild runaway slave,” “the beast who cannot be tamed,” or “living on mountaintops.” marooning), earlier "to be lost in the wild" (1690s); from maroon, maron The Spanish origina%y used the word in reference to their stray cattle. It is further believed (n.) "fugitive black slave living in the that the word cimarrón is #om cima or “summit.”[1] The term Cimarron will be wilder parts of Dutch Guyana or Jamaica and other West Indies continuously found in numerous parts of South America, Mexico, Florida islands" (1660s), earlier symeron and even Oklahoma. Through these discoveries, implications of the term (1620s), from French marron, is used to define African peoples who escaped the hells of slavery and simarron, said to be a corruption of Spanish cimmaron "wild, untamed, developed their own cities and towns. Rightfully, creating their own place unruly, fugitive" (as in Cuban negro in history of not only the New World history, but World history! cimarron "a fugitive black slave"). This is from Old Spanish cimarra "thicket," which is probably from There has also been an association to the Taino (Awarkan language) word: cima "summit, top" (from Latin cyma si’maran “the flight of the arrow”. "sprout"), and the notion is of living wild in the mountains.[2.1] We must be mindful the term has been used to describe rebellious Native Americans who fought back against the earliest colonist’s • Seminole-1763, from Creek (Muskogean) simano:li, earlier oppression, forced forms of servitude, and the pillaging of their lands, simalo:ni "wild, untamed, runaway," culture and resources. During the Colonial Period, there were instances from American Spanish of both Native American and African people groups joining together to cimarron……”[2.3] combat against the forced bondage enforced upon them throughout the • Cimarron-"bighorn, Rocky Americas’ history. As time progressed the term would eventually be more Mountain sheep," 1850, from commonly used strictly to describe the many different pockets of African American Spanish, from an runaway slaves who established base camps on small areas of land, often adjective, literally "wild, unruly;”[2] referred to as palenques, quilombo, palamares, cumbe, cities and towns (such as Cimarroon, Okla.).

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A semi-popular conversation taking place amongst researchers, historians, anthropologists, ethnographers, and scientist is the possibility of Africans in the Americas pre-Columbian history. To date, no authoritative figures of any respected fields of scholastic or scientific studies have found any reason to believe there’s undeniable evidence to support this idea. What is agreed upon and backed by historical documentation, artifacts and the study of DNA, is that African peoples shipped to the western hemisphere, regardless of being a free man or in bondage, has and will continue to create a monumental impact to the Americas. “The BLOOD of Afica flows in the New World. Brought to western shores in chains, uncounted mi%ions of Negroes have remained to share their culture, their personality, and the blackness of their skin with their English or Iberian hosts.” Herrring,” p.89.

It is most commonly agreed upon that African peoples first arrived in the Americas in the beginning of the 16th century. Africans, did without a doubt, play a major role in the early exploration/ expedition missions, via both land and sea. Because of this, it becomes easier to find oneself debating as to what degree of servitude Africans played towards the Spaniards (all encompassing the Spanish Crown, i.e., monarchs, theologians) and Portuguese coming to the New World. Specifically speaking, the Spaniards and Portuguese who came to the New World represented Spain and Portugal on their own free will, while the African passengers were contracted for specific service. During this time, these African passengers were not classified as chattel property (though commonly expressed as such) and necessarily not seen as explorers (individuals freely representing their native cultural home lands) in conquest.

Research indicates these African explorers were known as Negro ladinos ( Hispanicized, Christinized, servant or slaves). They may have been the first African peoples to travel or be transported to the western hemisphere, prior to the widely referenced Transatlantic Slave Trade. Some documents report African people arriving via ship with Christopher Columbus. This is most arguably reported during Columbus’ 4th voyage from Spain to Hispaniola. It is recommended to researchers to take time to study the history of African people in Iberian Peninsula from the 12th—16thC.E for more understanding on the relationships that manifested between Africa, Spain, Portugal and other European powers to gain clarity of how this transpired (see the “The Wi%iam and Mary Quarterly”Vol. 54, No. 1, Constructing Race (Jan., 1997), pp. 143-166). Simply put, to deny the fact that the demonyms or labels “ladino” or “cimarron” could have been ambiguously or erroneously applied to both African and Native American peoples would be a careless mistake.

One item that will become important to the discussion of the “cimarron” and for other researchers to investigate is the importance of Capitulaciones, a form of legal contracts, and how they played a role in the history of run away slaves and freedom fighters. These freedom fighters, ironically, became defined as Cimarrons. “Capitulaciones, whether offered through clerics or members of the laity, were the most useful method of pacifying the cimarrones. Under this procedure, Blacks were guaranteed their #eedom #om re-enslavement, given lands, the right to choose their own officials, and at times, equipment to begin a new life in semi-autonomous communities. In return, the cimarrones agreed to keep the peace, prohibited other fugitive slaves #om joining them and became professional fugitive hunters for the colonial authorities” R.179.

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An important historical document to examine prior to this period, is the letter written by Isabella and Ferdinand, to a negro ladino by the name and title of Conde Negro Juan de Valladolid 1475. We can see how Africans may have been used, for the lack of better words, used as a buffer guard, trained to prevent extended aggravations of other slaves who may have been attempting to rebel. All the while being trained to be representatives of the Spanish Crown. This is important to keep in mind. WHY? Because it gives evidence of Spain/Portugal having close to a hundred years of history in shaping the minds of an African, reforming them and reducing them into useful servants of the Spanish Crown before they set sail discovering the New World. The letter is fo%owed by a list of popular examples of negro ladinos at the turn of the century.

“For the many good, loyal, and signal services which you have done us, and do each day, and because (if we know your sufficiency, ability, and good disposition, we constitute you mayoral and judge of a% the negroes and mulattoes, #ee or slaves, which are in the very loyal and noble city of Sevi%e, and throughout the whole archbishopric thereof, and that the said negroes and mulattoes may not hold any festivals, nor pleadings among themselves, except before you, Juan de Va %adolid, negro, our judge and mayoral of the said negroes and mulattoes ; and we command that you, and you only, should take cognizance of the disputes, pleadings, marriages, and other things which may take place among them, forasmuch as you are a person sufficient for that office, and deserving of your power, and you know the laws and ordinances which ought to be kept, and we are informed that you are of noble lineage among the said negroes.” [4]

• An African female whose talent in plants (herbal remedies) unknown by name simply referred to as a pious black woman, her story gives the earliest recording of a hospital being built in the America’ la negra del hospital” Oct 26 1501 later named San Nicolas near the Ozama River[5] • Juan Garrido-1502 possible ladino, who traveled with Hernan Cortes throughout the Americas after leaving Seville also credited for being the harvesting wheat in New Spain. It is thought to be Juan Garrido possibly depicted on the top of this page. We ask that you do not confuse him with the illustration of Juan de Pareja(1606-1670) of Spain, nor the Portait of Do Miguel de Castro-the Emissary of Congo • Juan Moreno-Juan Preito (John the Black) and Juan Portugués (John the Portuguese)-both are documented to have sailed with Columbus another name to investigate is Pedro Alonso Nino/ningo/ nigro • Estevanico-(Esteban the Moor) navigated the North and South America, who is depicted on page 3 of this paper • Juan Valiente (1505-1533) a slave captured in Africa as a child and shipped to Mexico in 1505, purchased late by Alonso Valiente. He would be sent to Spain for an education and his master would allow him to sign a contract as a conquistador sailing to Guatemala and Chile. He would earn enough profits to eventually purchase his freedom and resign in Chile. He is credited as one of the people who helped establish Santiago de Chile, it is here through their efforts the rest of the world would be introduced to the potato. [19]

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Now, the idea of capturing sub-Saharan Africans was widely introduced by Antam Gonzalvez in 1441 and extended by Pope Nicolas V in 1445. It is stated “The Papal Bu% of 1455 justified the expansion of (black) A#ican slavery within early Iberian colonies, and the acquisition of more A#ican captives and territory, but the same decree also provided a legal #amework for sub-Saharan A#icans to negotiate with Iberian authorities on equal footing, and to make claims of their own, should they convert to Christianity [3.] Numerous Papal Bulls, and other historical documentations, such as the Dum Diveras(June 18 1452) expanded by the Inter Caetra(1456),Treaty of Alcáçovas(Sept 4 1479)& Bu%s of Donation(1493-Inter Caetra included Americas),The Treaty of Tordesi%as(July 2 1494), are all centered on the continuous feuding between Moors, Jews, Christians and other Old World parties. This highlighted the increasing demands of slaves and battles over slave prices, rightful claims to new found lands and trade ports. This would be accepted under the idea of labeling it as “Just a War.” Whereas, as long as the idea that conquest will save souls, then the brutality of war, subjugation and overall conquest is justified. A common phrase to debunk any conflict of interest in theological circles or political powers of the time, was“As St. Thomas pointed out,"even the angels in heaven were subjected to a hierarchal pattern of rule and authority based on intrinsic differences in merit.” R.14

Frey Nicolas de y Ovando Caceres, the governor of Hispaniola from 1502 through 1509 was in charge of further increasing the overall extraction of wealth and conquest during the early colonial period of the Spanish exploration stages of the New World. While under his supervision his administration would enforce the brutal tactics that would not only subjugate the Native people of Hispaniola called the Taino. But his brutally and savage aspirations to seize total power for the Spanish Crown would also led to one of the longest lasting Cimarron uprises in Hispaniola of its time. (This uprise will be discussed later in this paper in a second section that will highlight some of the historically noted Cimarron revolts and rebellions.) What is important to note, now, is how we can trace early accounts of Africans being shipped to the new world for the sole purpose of slavery to the Spanish Crown. Additionally, we can highlight the little privileges they may have had, and then slowly taken away, during the first three years of exploration to the western hemisphere.

The document to your le* is a letter written #om Ferdinand and Isabel to Nicolas Ovando in 1501. “English Translation Because with great care we have procured the conversion of the Indians to our Holy Catholic Faith, and furthermore, if there are sti% people there who are doubtful of the faith in their own conversions, it would be a hindrance [to them], and therefore we wi% not permit, nor a%ow to go there [to the Americas] Moors nor Jews nor heretics nor reconciled heretics, nor persons who are recently converted to our faith, except if they are black slaves, or other slaves, that have been born under the dominion of our natural Christian subjects.”[3.1]

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In addition, this may have lead to the demonstrations of how these contracts were used to subjugate various people groups who became subjects of the Spanish/Portuguese Crowns, while insuring the Iberian Kingdoms maintained the dominant hands. By researching the constant struggles of Old World powers fight to maintain dominance not only in the Iberian Peninsula but also over other commerce centers and trade ports throughout Europe, Africa, the Middle East; thus, expanding throughout the Indian Ocean to Asia, it can give us a window to view how the developmental steps allowed, and may have even forced, the Transatlantic Slave System to come into being. Although these documents (aka Doctrine of Discovery) were particularly formed to maintain a stronghold of political and religious power over trade systems of the Iberian Peninsula, they also become the bylaws or regulations (although highly ignored and misinterpreted) as the Age of Discovery came into being for Spain and Portugal. “… the 1455 bull indicates, at first the Church officially limited African slave trading to Alfonso of Portugal. Regardless, other European groups soon followed. During the late fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, French and English mariners occasionally attempted to raid or trade with Portuguese settlements and autonomous African communities.”[3.1]

Because of the relationship formed between Ladinos and Tainos, fear and animosity in becoming overpopulated and overpowered emerges in the minds of the Spaniards and Portuguese. By 1503 Nicolas de Ovando, a renowned Spanish leader, would request no more ladinos be sent to Hispaniola. This request would be short lived due to the fact that the Spanish did not see themselves as part of the labor force. With the introduction of sugar cane and sugar mill productions, the discovery of gold and silver mines, coupled by the decreasing native population and the increasing demand of cheap labor (slaves), Hispaniola would become a major import of African slaves—the precursor of the slave system throughout the New World.

To your right is the primary replying to Ovando’s request of 1503

English Translation Concerning the black slaves that you say should not be sent there [to Hispaniola], because there they have escaped, regarding this issue we command that what you say be done.[3.2]

By 1505 Africans would be demanded in large numbers to be used in numerous locations of the New World as slaves mining for precious metals, field labor, and the overall construction stages of creating permanent Spanish colonies throughout South America.

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Encomienda, a Spanish system that mirrors feudalism, was designed to govern tribute of Muslim and Jews from others colonies under the Spanish Crown. Its inception was originally dedicated to governing the statues of indigenous peoples (Iberian Peninsula region) and giving them a small sense of protection during the Spanish Reconquest epoch. At the turn of the 14th century it began to morph into the legal justification of enslaving Native American peoples by saying it protected their rights if converted to Christianity and acknowledging the Spain/Portugal as sovereign powers. “Portuguese uncertainty was heightened by con#ontation with civilizations, potentates, and commercial empires whose material wealth and splendor greatly exceeded those of Iberia…the king turned to theologians and jurists to examine the ramifications of this new phase of overseas conquest and colonization. An a% embracing “ideology of expansion” developed that eased the moral dilemma experienced by individual Portuguese in the tropics. Intended to curb criticism of the less edifying aspects of “Portuguese India,” the “ideology of expansion” embraced the concept of an ethnic God, a nationalized deity who provided spiritual strength and physical protection for his chosen people-the Portuguese”.[16] This granted funding and resources needed for the conquistadors or encomenderos to explore the new territorial regions. Encomenderos were those who received these fund and resource grants and a plot of land to govern over (but not necessarily ownership). These areas were divided into lots and designated to specific regions and specific amounts of people for each specific area. “The encomienda did not include a grant of land, but in practice the encomenderos gained control of lands inhabited by “Indios” and failed to fulfi% their obligations to the indigenous population”[10]

The La Casa y Audiencia de Indias (House of Trade of the Indies) was formed in 1503, and would send a reported 250 negroes via Ferdinand to the New World. Encomienda systems were originally against the idea of allowing any African slave or non-Catholic Christian in general to be shipped to the Western Hemisphere. Negro Ladino’s would begin to be gradually imported to Hispaniola in 1501 to help increase forced labor production in the mining for precious metals and extraction of other natural resources with the natives of Hispaniola (Taino people). The year 1501 also marks the year of the first alleged runaway African slave to settle with the Taino in the hills. His name still remains unknown. Sugar cane was also introduced at this time in 1501, and by 1520 numerous sugar mills became in full production, as previously mentioned.

Between the years 1501-1520, Castile would import numerous amounts of negro ladinos to work in mines of the New World. It is also highly important to note that during this period the majority, if not all, African slaves were shipped primarily to Spain to become “Christianized,” receive a thorough Spanish- based education and become servants of the Spanish Crown. It wasn’t until the 1520-50’s that Africans would be shipped directly to the New World from Africa. These people would be identified as bozales (wild, untamed, tied down, non-Spanish speaking Africans). These groups were recorded as being vastly different from the previously mentioned African groups.

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Through proper research methodologies and accessible, credible documentation, we can truly begin to unravel the root causes for uprisings as well as the locations, dates and results of these events. Because of this, one can truly discern how the labeling of “Cimarron” began to occur in American history. These encomenderos were supposed to represent the best interest of the native peoples in the New World and protect them and bring them into the Christian faith. However, it became a common practice for individuals to overlook these guidelines which would cause conflict on both ends of the globe. The Protector of Indians office 1512, headed by Bartolomé de las Casas opened to maintain much needed form of communication and trust with Indigenous peoples. This allowed Spain and Portugal to gain access to their natural resources: gold, silver, food resources, and land, while maintaining total domination of the Spanish Church and nobility. The Laws of Burgos (December 27,1512) expanding • 1: The Indians are to be moved to encomiendas. For every fifty Indians, four lodges shall be built (thirty by fifteen feet). This land cannot be by the Leyes Nuevas (New Laws 1542) would create a code of taken from them since they were taken from their original land. The laws that protected the legal status of Amerindians and Indians will do the planting of all of the food. During the proper governing the behavior of Ecnomendoros as well. “The debate seasons, the encomenderos (men looking over the Indians) will have the Indians plant corn and raise the hens. in Portugal over black slavery and the slave trade never equa%ed that in Spain over the enslavement of the Amerindians. • 2: The Indians will leave their land voluntarily to come to the Apparently,No Portuguese theological or legal treatise appeared on encomiendas so that they shall not sufer from being removed by force. this subject before the eighteenth century, but it was a recurring theme in Portuguese letters #om the fi*eenth to the nineteenth • 3: The citizen to whom the Indians are given must erect a structure to centuries”[16 p.33] see the Codigo Negro Carolino 1784 be used as a church. In the church must be a picture of Our Lady and a bell with which to call the Indians to prayer time. The person who has them in the encomienda must go with them to church every night and It is important to note that at this time the Portuguese and make sure they cross themselves and sing several hymns. If an Indian Spaniards were creating large number of African slaves in does not come to the church, he is not allowed to rest the next day.

their native homeland (Iberian Peninsula). This is apparent • 17: Sons of the chiefs of the Islands who are under the age of thirteen when examining the discussions centered on the fear of are to be given to the Friars so they can be taught how to read, write, and other things about Catholicism. When the sons reach the age of possibly becoming over populated with Africans. This most nineteen, they are to return to the encomienda and teach the others.

likely have lead to them completely ignoring the idea of • 24: The Indians are not to be physically or verbally abused for protecting African peoples’ legal status, which can help any reason.

further explain why we begin to see an influx of African • 25: The Indians are not to be used in private trade or for any people transported to the New World in mass numbers to other economic interest. replace the native peoples groups who worked the fields and • 32: If there is a runaway Indian, inspectors cannot apprehend them. They must be given to a man of good conscience who will mines of the encomienda system.“The application of the term find the Indians' encomendero. cimarron to fugitive Blacks is a logical progression in the usage of the term. As the colonial period progressed and Spanish control over the Indian population increased, the term came to be applied, except for rare instances, only to Blacks”

Above to your le*, Are some of the “Laws of Burgos” wikipedia, to give an example of laws codified for Native Americans, that can be contrasted to the absence A#ican slaves laws protection or legal representation… birthing what we ca% Negro Cimarron.

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Enriquillo… It is only fair when speaking of the Cimarron’s historical development in the New World to humbly start with the story of Enriquillo, a Taino cacique (chief, leader, political leader). He is regarded as one of the most popular individuals indigenous to the Americas. His story begins with Christopher Columbus’ discovery (ship landing) on the shores of what would become known as Hispaniola, Enriquillo’s homeland. At an early age, he witnessed his father and his aunt Anacaona, who was a female chieftain, along with eighty others of his people group murdered by no other than Frey Nicolás de Ovando y Cáceres. This mass murder occurred during an alleged peace gathering during a Taino celebration. This became known historically as the Jaragua Massacre(July 1503).

Ladinos joined forces with the Arawak population in an effort to overthrow Spanish rule. In 1514, a hurricane devastated the island. Food supplies were scarce.The availability of indigenous labor declined and the ladinos were forced to work in the mines. They retaliated and joined the Taíno in the interior of the island, waging war against the Spanish by raiding their settlements, destroying their crops, and further limiting their food supply.”[2]

Enriquillo was very young when these traumatic events occurred. It is said he was taken under the tutelage and care of a Franciscan friar. This can possibly explain his hispanic name. Furthermore, due to his upbringing under the care of Spanish culture, language and religion, it can be argued that he became a viable assist to the Ecnomendoros. Although Enriquillo was fully aware of the tragedies enforced upon his people, land and family he was said to have been a man of peace and nobility. He is noted to have wed a beautiful Taino woman, possibly the granddaughter of Anacaona. The two would work for peace to be maintained in their lands between the natives and Iberian settlers. This drive for peace and acceptance would come to a close in the year 1519 when a Encomendoros was accused of raping Enriquillo’s wife. Enriquillo initially planned to seek an audience amongst the legal representatives of the Spanish Crown in Hispaniola. The pursuit of legal forms of justice for his wife would swiftly be denied on the bases of it was :her word against a Spaniard.”

“It is not honorable to ki%; nor can honor propitiate tragedy. Let us open a bridge of love, so that across it even our enemies may walk and leave for posterity their footprints”… Anacaona

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This event would compel Enriquillo to comprise a small gathering of Tainos to retreat to the hidden parts of the hills of Hispaniola. The Spanish ecnomedoras consisted of a small group of 12, would pursue these runaways in the attempt to force them back to work in their ecnomienda stations. In their pursuit of Enriquillo’s small band of cimarron followers, two Spaniards were killed and the rest retreated. The Spanish Court would send another, but larger, group of Spanish soldiers after Enriquillo’s cimarrons .This attempt was done in arrogance and the fear of other slaves running away and joining the small group of rebels. The Spaniards were equipped with a large brigade of soldiers with more weapons and believed they would easily defeat these runaways who were equipped with merely arrows, spears and rocks. Ironically, the Spaniards found themselves defeated and now had to face the reality of their fears manifesting before their very eyes. What started as a small group of less than a hundred runways was now a standing army of more than 300 cimarrons fully prepared to fight for freedom. Enriquillo mandated that not one of his followers attack nor kill any Spaniard unless the survival of their life depended on it.

Hoping to negotiate the surrender of the cimarrones, a Franciscan Friar by the name of Fray Remigio, who may have been one of Enriquillo’s previous tutors, sought after Enriquillo. Fray was captured by Native scouts who perceived the priest to be a spy. Upon his capture, he was beaten but not killed, and eventually had a meeting with the leader of these Cimarron, Enriquillo. “Enriqui%o refused to end the rebe%ion, declaring that the Indians had rebe%ed rather than a%ow themselves to be mistreated and ki%ed by the Spaniards as their parents and grandparents had been. Rather than return to captivity and death, the Indians vowed that they would remain #ee on the land they contro%ed, harming no one except in self-defense and that they no longer wished to have relations with the Spaniards”r.27 Once the Spanish Court received the message that no form of surrendering would take place, the court seeking to win over the rebels offered to release chieftains who were still in the servitude of the Spanish encomienda system. Not only did this attempt fail to accomplish its 1. Notify all the Indians that a peace had been initial intention, it indirectly caused frustrations amongst the agreed upon. Spanish who feared losing their encomiendas.

2. Appoint two capitanes or expert trackers as Miguel Pasamonte, the treasurer of the colony, requested more bounty hunters to capture all black fugitives on blacks be sent to Hispaniola as a solution to the problem. This the island. demand would be met. However, the dilemma of what to do if 3. See that all fugitive Indians return to their Natives and Africans become a threat and becoming two separate owners or original dwelling places. groups of enemies of the Spanish for the court to deal with it 4. Come down from the mountains- and-live on the negotiations were offered more excessively; the promise of land, plains when the peace was effected. livestock, and freedom, if Enriquillo promised to capture any Black In return, the Indians were given or Indian fugitives, only then could he live in peace. That too, was denied. Military expedition continued to fail, although Enriguillo 1. A provision real guaranteeing their safety~ began to participate in more negotiations by 1533 both parties would 2. A land grant. form and accept the capitulaciones offered by the crown. (From 3. Livestock, tools, wine and oil. this moment forward all cimmarons should be thought of as black African descents only.)

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Important Events in Cimarrons History

Again,We, the Kofi Piesie Tv Research Team, have compiled a list of the long lost, but not forgotten, freedom fighters of yours’ and our’s past. This list was compiled to teach and guide, not, in a form of hate, discouragement, rage, or rebellious behavior but to highlight historically accurate events that can provide a compass through our history to see the African spirit is just as human, just as intelligent, and just as much comprehension as any other people group of mankind. Man Cimarron Revolts does not belong chained to bondage, forbidden to express and experience • the beauty of a fully liberated life. And these short (mini) stories are of 1501-first recording of an African runaway to join our ancestors who were fully aware of that and became known as Natives Cimarrons. We are only intending to provide a useful map to help guide you, knowing the beauty of any exploration is in the journey itself, and the • 1514-Natives and Africans map is merely a tool to help guide and protect from traveling in the wrong join forces directions. We are hopeful that you will take time and complete that • 1522-first slave revolt in wonderful journey by completing research on your own academic quest. Hispaniola Finding the beauty in your (OURS) A#ican-American history. • 1526-San Miguel Guadalupe Rebels Against Slavery: American Slave Revolts by Patricia and Fredrick Mckissack, a book geared towards young readers that we suggest your children do • 1530-Santa Marta,Columbia read. Documents on page 25 “One of the earliest maroon societies in the New World was • 1532-Coro,Venezuela formed in 1663 when planters in Dutch and French Guyana, South America, sent theirs slaves into the forest to avoid paying taxes on them.” While we do not disagree with • 1545-Tofeme,Columbia this by any means, for the sake of clarity, we that is feel important to remind you that cimarron is synonymous with maroon. However, due to • 1555-1556 the popularity of term maroon and its respected history beginning in the Popayàn,Columbia mid 17th century, the cimarron origins of the term maroon is often • 1548-1558-Bayano First War overlooked and under appreciated in the field of research and information dissemination. We will attempt to give a brief explantation of the • 1570-Gaspar Yanga possibility of way we see this sudden etymological shift shortly in this article. We feel it is the upmost importance that our youth is no longer divide by demonyms applied to us in the Western Hemisphere, when we all share a similar story in the quest for freedom and equality.“Maroons cha%enged the system in at least three specific ways: ideologica%y, organizationa%y and militarily. Ideologica%y, desertion was a clear expression of Maroon rejection of the slavery system and the control of their lives by the enslavers. Organizationa%y, through the establishment of o*en viable administrative and political systems (settlements that ranged #om a few dozen to several thousand persons) they demonstrated that they were able to develop meaningful alternatives to the slavery • 1573-Cimarrons introduce system. The fact that many of these communities lasted for several decades indicates their viability and Francis Drake to the Pacific attractiveness to would-be deserters. Militarily, the Maroons demonstrated their ability not only to Ocean defend their polities but also to attack plantation and other settlements, destroying several of them, forcing the enslavers to spend large sums of money to counter such attacks, and limiting the spread of • 1598-Zaragoza,Columbia the plantations geographica%y in several instances.”[26] • 1599?-1609 Benko Bioho

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Christopher Columbus Jr. (aka Don Diego Colon) One of the earliest recorded slave uprising began Christmas night in 1522 on the plantation of Diego Colon in Santo Domingo on the island of Hispaniola. Lurking behind the fears also was a long history of open rebe%ion which had started on December 27, 1522, the first black slave insurrection registered in the hemisphere.[18 p.36] Members of the Wolof nation a West African people group who practice Islam, led an uprising on the sugar plantation of admiral Don Diego Colon, the son of Christopher Columbus. Many of them escaped to live in mountains and hills and created their own small villages. Some even formed long lasting Cimarron Revolts relationships with the Native people group called the Taino. He also played a role in an occurrence led by Nigerians&Dahomey's, Yorubas, Igbo, groups who • Vilcabamba, Peru 1602 spoke the Bantu language on the island of Puerto Rico in 1527. These two events • 1612 Mexico City, Mexico are some of the earliest slave revolts to be recored in South America but will not be the last. By the 1530s the Cimarron #eedom fighters would grow so large in • 1647 an earthquake in number (estimated to be we% over 5,000 or more) that the Spaniards of encomendias Chile, followed by Revolt had to travel in large numbers in their own plantations for their safety. • 1663-GloucesterVirginia

• 1687-Virginia

San Miguel Guadalupe… • 1712-New York Slave Revolt

In October 1526 an unknown amount of African slaves set fire to a • 1731- Samba Rebellion settlement near Sapelo Island of Georgia, marking in history the first known • 1733- St. John Rebellion African slave rebellion in North American history. And like the previous story above these Africans would escape into the landscape and possibly create • 1734-Breffu relationships with the Native American people groups of North America. What • 1739-Stono Rebellion makes their story so unique is the Spanish who led the conquest retreated for multiple reasons, thus giving African Americans the possibility of stating they • 1741-New York Slave Rebellion were the first long-term settlers to settle in what we now call the United states. This would give you cimarron settlements in Southeast Untied States in 1526… • 1760-Tacky’s War

It also becomes important to note for later purposes about Negro • 1763- Kofi’s Berbice Revolt

Cimarron history in Florida. But for now we show the connection to the • 1791- Mina Conspiracy discovery via conquest of both coastlines. We will make short mentioning of Diego an African with a Spanish ladino name who aided Drake as he explored • 1795-Pointe Coupée Conspiracy the New World “When, in 1579, the Golden Hinde arrived in California and Drake declared the territory as belonging to Queen Elizabeth, this very first claim to American • 1791-1804-Haitian Revolution soil by an Englishman was witnessed by Diego.”[10] • 1800-Gabriel’s Rebellion Much later in the early 19th century, a slave by the name of York would explore the United States #om coast to coast, with Lewis and Clarke, York would have two geographic locations named a*er him York’s Dry Creek and York’s Eight Island, Montana.

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Sebastian Lemba… He was an African pirate and cimarron leader who was a member of the Lemba tribe of South Africa before being kidnapped as a child and taken to France and Spain in 1525. By 1532 he would begin a cimarron army in Hispaniola. Then he would establish his secret cimarron location in the mountains possibly the Bahoruco Mountains and created an army of 400 freedom fighters and rage rebellions for 15 years until his death; which to date has not been verified on how it happened. Some say he was hanged, others say he was never caught nor fell in battle and remained for all his days in his secret Cimarron community. In any event, Governor López Serrata recorded his death with great relief in 1547. Unlike Enriqui%o's, Lemba's story has been neither mythologized nor nationalized in any extensive manner.[21] Its important to keep in mind that the possibility of his forces combining with previously formed Cimarron settlements is highly Cimarron Revolts likely. Although language barriers would exist the drive for freedom and the bond of a common enemy regardless of what ethnic group from Africa • 1803-Igbo Landing an individual may have belonged to, the language of freedom would be the • 1805-Chatham Manor common root to birth many of the African creole lingua #ancas. • 1811-German Coast "thanks to the power of co%ective and imaginary memory, they were able to invent Uprising new rules of life in societies that were in the process of restructuring their • 1815-George Boxley personality...#om farming methods to marriage and family norms, #om religion to folklore, #om language to a% culinary and nutritional methods, #om the funeral • 1816-Bussa’s Rebellion ritual to the corporal expression in the traditional matrix of the dance and the sex, • #om the magic to popular pharmacopoeia, #om music to oral literature and social 1822-Denmark Vessey games, #om the way to carry children to even women's hairdos, #om mythology to • 1831-Nat Turner’s Rebellion armed resistance.”[30] René Depestre • 1831-1832-Baptist War Santa Marta,Columbia… • 1839-Amistad Ship Rebellion In the city of Santa Marta, bozales” Africans shipped directly from Africa, burned the entire city down in 1530. Although the city was rebuilt by the year 1545 these Africans escaped the gold mines of Columbia were they were forced to mine. They also took total control over the city of Tofeme in 1548. Along side 250 Native Americans, these cimarron grew to be a reported four thousand strong in Columbia. Along side their many revolts are these negro cimarron are noted to have completely seized the gold • 1841-Creole Ship Rebellion mine of Zaragoza.This would almost cripple Spain, unfortunately many of • 1842-Slave Revolt in them were captured and executed.[24] Cherokee Nation

• 1817-1858-Seminole Wars

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Miguel de Buría the slave who became king

Miguel de Buría, also known as “Rey Miguel”, “el Negro Miguel” was taken to Venezuela in the mid 16th century as a slave to mine for gold in the Real de Minas de San Felipe de Buría mines. He took a wife by the name Guilomar, and they produced a son in the city of San Juan. This prince of theirs can be labeled as the first African king born in the Americas. His rise to power began after an occurrence with a Spanish overseer that was known for enforcing discipline and punishment upon the slaves. Before this Spaniard could strike a lash against him, Miguel grabbed the sword of another Spaniard to protect himself. Afterwards Miguel would escaped into the jungle. In the cover of nightfall he would return to the mines and began persuading other slaves to join him. During his first attempt to gain a following it is reported 20 slaves immediately joined Miguel on his first drafting campaign. After he trained his followers and required weaponry they returned to the mines and invoked the same manner of abuse on the Spaniards that they themselves once suffered as slaves. The cimarron army would once again return at a reported 150 men, this time completely seizing the mine taking all the gold and weapons from the Spaniards.

Miguel and his Cimarron army would use the gold to create scouts to bribe other slaves into joining forces with him, and recruit any trustworthy allies for their cause. Miguel also used the gold he took control over to buy the freedom of other African slaves and Christianized/ladino Native Americans. In 1552 he created a Cumbe a Mende word for “make noise, roar, out of the way place”. He built a church and appointed former African slaves as bishops and a priest, one labeled "el canónigo,” who is thought to have practice and taught traditional African customs. He also practiced a form of psychological warfare by having the Natives use their customary paint from plants in the region that produced a dark hue to make the Spaniards think the Africans were growing in numbers. This would send the Spaniards into a full out panic and fear state of mind. The Spaniards would say Miguel attacked and led his army of cimarrons “as if he was lion”. “Cimarron leaders employed various mechanisms to establish and the legitimize authority in their ethnica%y mixed settlements. These were based on such concepts as political seniority, religious power. military prowess, and corporate or familial connections. Some figures claimed to descend #om A#ican royalty and assumed the role of religious leader of the community-the sort of “sacred chie*ainship” or “divine kingship” noted in A#ican societies of the time. Others were military leaders, whose bravery in defending their communities earned them the loyalty of adherents and subjects’’. Landers p. 220-221

Miguel de Buría First Cimarron, First A#ican General, First A#ican King of Venezuela

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The King of Arcabuco Benko, the proclaimed “King of Arcabuco” is perhaps one of the most fascinating and legendary figures in Cimarron history. Benko was born to a royal African family off the coast of Guinea-Bissau on the island of Bissagos. He would be kidnapped and transported by the Portuguese to Columbia around the year 1596. Benko would make his first escape from bondage attempt via a sunken ship on the Magdalena River. Although he was recaptured he would escape again, this time never to be captured again. In this escape he would take along with him a wife, and the reports of at a minimum 28 other slaves to their freedom and hide in a swamp area 50 miles away. From there he would establish an army of freedom fighters and lead the freedom fight for other enslaved Africans. “He also formed an inte%igence network and used the information co%ected to help organize more escapes and to guide the runaway slaves into the liberated territory, known as settlement”[25] One of the things rumored that makes this story of escape so intriguing is the idea that he not only used songs to network the escape routes to other slaves, but he also orchestrated using the hair of enslaved African women as maps (braids-cornrows).

As his Cimarron settlement grew and for over the 5 years the Cimarron army of King Benko of the Arcabuco would raid Spanish territory until the year 1605. The Governor of Cartagena, (Gerónimo de Suazo y Casasola) realizing that he was unable to prevent any other future losses, arranged negotiation with King Benko. In this capitulations we see the traditional negotiated terms manifested; the most common one being the promise to no longer accept any runaway slaves into the palenque, also the promise that Benko would command the Cimarron(s) to no longer address him as king, Benko and his people could dress in Spanish clothing (which Benko preferred ), followed by the fact Benko and his people could walk freely wherever they desired with the right to carry arms. When a new Governor (Garcia Giron) arrived in 1621 things unfortunately changed. Governor wrote to Spain that Bioho's Palenque (walled city) that the Spanish were not allowed to enter. Governor Giron would imprison and eventually hang Benko on March 6th, 1621, under the excuse that Benko simply had too much power and influence.

Naturally, the untimely and wrongful demise of Benko led the Cimarron to an uprising amongst the Spanish that lasted until 1691. San Bailio de Palenque led to the most important agreement of all by royal decree of the King of Spain these Africans would officially have their freedom and own land.

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Gaspar Yanga Gaspar was an African prince born in the country known today as Gabon, which comes from the Portuguese word gabão meaning cloak. And like a cloak his name seems to have been covered. Yanga, an African word that can mean Pride, gives us much pride to uncover the cloak of lost history and to share a brief part of his story.

In 1570 Gaspar along with a few others revolted and ran away from the Nuestra Señora de la Cocepcion plantation. Not long after they formed a small cimarron base called a palenque, which is one of the first bases documented in Veracruz Mexico. For thirty years they lived in secrecy, creating small raids against the Spanish along the Camino Real (the royal road) collecting supplies and recruiting more slaves to librate and join their Cimarron army.

Seeking peace Yanga would send forth a proposed treaty, if Spain agreed to give them same privileges Native Americans were offered by the Spanish.

• The right to self government of a small area of their own. • "Negro A#icano precusor de la libertao de los negros esclavos fundo este pueblo de san lorenzo de cerralvo • The cimarron would promise to be at aid if any one attacked the (hoy yanga) por acordado del virrey de nueva espana Spanish Don Rodrigo Osorio Marzuez de cerralvo el dia tres de octubre del ano de 1631 por mandato del virrey • And that they would return any slaves that entered their area. trazo el pueblo el Capitan Hernando de Castro Espinosa H. Ayuntamento Constl. 1973-1976”. Yanga’s request would be denied and the Spanish initiated a battle in 1609 that left loses on both sides, afterwards the Spanish would burn • English translation: A#ican Black liberator and precursor of the black slaves who founded the town of down the original Cimarron settlement. The Cimarron under Yanga’s San Lorenzo de Cerralvo (now Yanga) by agreement leadership would escape, and eventually fight the Spanish into a draw. of the viceroy of New Spain, Rodrigo Pacheco, on the In 1618 the treaty was signed. By 1630 the town of San Lorenzo de los third day of October 1631 by order of the viceroy's Negros de Cerralvo was established. The town would be renamed in pen.Vi%age Captain Hernando of Castro Espinosa 1930 to Yanga in his memory. Carnival de negrituude is a celebration H. Ayuntamento Constl. 1973-1976.” held in his honor on August 10th every year, some sources state this festival has taken place over the past three hundred years.

He is also one of the grandfathers of Vincent Guerrero first Black President of Mexico, who is credited with first sharing the story of Yanga in 1829. Who is depicted on the bottom right of this page.

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Bayano There are reports of Cimarron revolts and settlements being established on the Isthmus of Panama as early as 1525. By 1531 the governor of Panama Don Antonio de La Gama began to suppress many of these uprisings by increasing security, preventing the interracial mingling of Africans, Spaniards and Native Americans. Spaniards embraced the ideology that European Culture, Christian, and even Moriscos in the mind of slaves was too much of a threat upon the encomendia system. And that it further influenced African slaves to fight for freedom and equal rights. The Spanish Crown would issue through the Casa de Contratacion a decree that ladinos no longer be sent to the Isthmus anymore and only bozales be transported to the area. It also restricted the transportation of any potential Black A#ican Moslem slaves being transported to the area to decrease any religious ideology from being permeated throughout the slave system of the New world. Between 1530 and 1552 many other Cimarron uprises and settlements would occur, “Although Mexico and the Caribbean islands were important, the loss of control of the Isthmus to the cimarrones meant that traffic and communications would be cut off with the rich Peruvian area” this would create a tax on Spaniards in order to fund Cimarron suppressions, which would further • 1. Blacks who had been fugitives before a specific date would be considered free~ irritate the ecnomendoros threatening the success of their commerce.

• 2. Blacks who became fugitives after that Bayano, also known as Ballano or Vallino was born in West Africa and day would be captured by the Ballano belonged to theYoruba culture before he was kidnapped and taken to cimarrones and returned to their masters. If the cimarrones did not wish to return Panama in the year 1552. Like king El Negro Miguel, Bayano would lead a the fugitives captured, the Ballano large army of 1,500 cimarron, created an environment for religious faiths cimarrones would pay the original price. along with Traditional A#ican Spiritual practices, and would be labeled a king. • 3. All black slaves who were mistreated by It is debated whether he began his leadership of an army of Cimarron prior their masters could buy their freedom to getting off the ship that transported him here to the Western upon paying their original price. Hemisphere or once he landed ashore. Whats not debated and agreed upon • 4. The followers of Ballano were to live in is that he influenced the biggest slave revolt in Panama during the 16th towns that were to be established as free "natives"of the area and no longer live century. Bayano was able to amass a great following of ladinos and bozales while heading successful war campaign for freedom. He did it twice. That is right, twice! Once during the years of 1548-1558 then again from 1579-1582. What we must take into consideration is the documentation of Pedro de Ursúa devising a plan to finally end the war with the Cimarron with or without honor by any means necessary.

The Spaniards organized a feast which they planned to negotiate a capitulations (the terms of this treaty are listed to your le*), however, the Spaniards murdered many of the Cimarron leaders and records indicate Bayano listed as Ballano was captured and deported to Seville living the rest of his days under King Phillip II of Spain. Ballano, or if preferred Bayano, was granted royal pension for the rest of his life.

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This makes hard to prove whether or not Bayano himself participated in both wars mentioned on the previous page, or was he simply a major inspiration and influence in the African American spirit for liberation. Although we have found no mentioning of Bayano’s year of death we can report that both wars are listed under his name, and according to Wikipedia “Bayano's name has become immortal in the Panamanian consciousness through the naming of a “major river, lake, valley, dam, and several companies after him.” Researchers are currently gathering information around another key figure during this part of history by the name of Don Luis de Mozambique. Mozambique is said to have negotiated the first known treaty for Cimarron's to have their independence in 1579, near Portobello, Panama. If we can obtain all the necessary documentation to fully verify this notion it would give us a thirty year advanced story to tell about the first FREE AFRICAN TOWN in the Americas.

“In many cases the beleaguered colonists were eventua%y forced to sue their former slaves for peace. In Brazil, Colombia, Cuba, Ecuador, Hispaniola, Jamaica, Mexico, Panama, Peru, Suriname, and Venezuela, for example, whites reluctantly offered treaties granting Maroon communities their #eedom, recognizing their territorial integrity, and making some provision for meeting their economic needs, in return for an end to hostilities toward the plantations and an agreement to return future runaways. Of course, many Maroon societies were crushed by massive force of arms, and even when treaties were proposed they were sometimes refused or quickly violated. Nevertheless, new Maroon communities seemed to appear almost as quickly as the old ones were exterminated, and they remained, #om a colonial perspective, the "chronic plague" and "gangrene" of many plantation societies right up to final emancipation.”[32]

For example, the fascinating story that correlates with the previous three individuals and their stories of creating Cimarron communities, fighting against slavery as libertarians, and who would become regarded as Kings is the Story of Rei Amador. Rei Amador was king of the Angolars (a cimarron group) of São Tomé an island off the coast of Africa that was governed by the Portuguese. In 1595 Rei Amador and his Angolares escaped from slavery, similarly to the previous profiles, is debated whether this inisureccetion occurred from the results of a shipwreck or inland rebellion .“In essence the so-ca%ed Angolares are the descendants of a maroon community, first mentioned as a refuge settlement “mocambo” existing in the 1580’s, a community that grew as more refugee slaves joined it.” [37 p.95]

These cimarrons would establish a free settlement called a Kilombo or Quilombo, meaning “war camp” from the Kimbundo of the Bantu languages… On July 9 1595 Rei Amador and his cimarron followers would wage a successful war against the Portuguese, after this victory and conquering the island the people would plant a flag and chant “Rei Amador, liberator of a% the black people.”[35]

Some have tried to reduce him #om being king of the island to merely a king of the Angolars. His statue to your le* was dedicated in 2004 and January 4th would become a holiday in his name, notice the liberty torch he yields in his hands.

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Presently, as historical researchers, ethnographers, and archaeologist scramble to put together the missing pieces of these vital and important parts of African and American history, we must be mindful of the idea that both Bayano and Don Luis de Mozambique could have both fell victim of unfaithful capitulations (peace treaties in their case). It can also explain why we see the birth of second war under the leadership of Bayano and his Cimarron freedom fighter followers. Furthermore, it opens the door for a broader conversation of the continuous patterns of unhonored treaties and contracts, the neglected at times unrecorded or suppressed parts of history, or the flat out harsh truth that many have not taken the time to properly learn historical events that shape our current reality. As we embrace these legacies of greatness, we must also remember we each share a responsibility of academically fighting to verifying myth from legend, by continuing to study for accurate information in each respected field mentioned above.

We should fu%y analyze any treaties that wi% a%ow us to fu%y comprehend who proclaimed legal ownership and supreme governance over this land mass known as “THE PEACE OF UTRECHT,1713” and investigate if theres any evidence that we can through historical context that wi% a%ow us to conceptualize an understanding of sound proof that this notion of the first FREE AFRICAN AMERICAN was formed here in the year of 1579. We can also analyze what role did the Negro Cimarron play in the birth of the Pirates of the Caribbean epoch, during this time period numerous reports of Francis Drake forming a%iances with A#ican Cimarron leaders begin to surface, leaving us the ability to further document how many crucial roles in the Americas history our A#ican ancestors truly played.

Our responsibility as elders in the community is to properly lay down the path, for you,

your responsibility as the youth is to complete the journey …

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Cimarrons ,Francis Drake, and Negro Pirates In the mid 1550 as the war between Protestant Christians and the Spanish Catholics was reaching its highest peak for total domination over commerce, maritime conquest, political and theological power. Queen Elizabeth would assign John Hawkins as one of her first sea dogs. Becoming part of the African slave trade in the New World. Although Spain would swiftly attempt to seize this from happening by attacking Hawkins and Francis via ship while at sea. The two escaping would ultimately ushering in what we call the golden age of piracy, also becoming a precursor to an unlikely alliance Francis Drake and the Negro Cimarron.While on a secret survey mission to find the king of Spains treasures of gold and silver, Drake first made contact with the negro cimarron leader of Panama Pedro Mandinga in 1571.The cimarron eager to revenge themselves against the Spanish, and Drake just as dedicated to usurping power and wealth from Spain. The unlikely duo would join forces creating an incredible foe for Spain to worry about.This pact gave the pirates unexpected help when it was discovered that Pedro could put 1,700 men on the field of battle if ,necessary. [38] Drake with Hawkins both shared multiple failed attempts to gain prestige as privateers, but in 1573 two things happened via the aid of the negro Cimarron that changed Drake’s luck once.

1. On February 11, 1573 the Cimarron would introduce Drake to the Pacific Ocean for the first time. The negro Cimarron a%owed him to enter their camp and climb upon a look out station where Drake could view both Oceans at once. This would lead to him later circle navigating the globe.

2. The Cimarron aided Drake both on land and by sea in amassing over 83 mi%ion do%ars in wealth by todays standards in gold and silver #om constant raids upon the Spanish most notably the mule raid in the city of Nombre De Dios on the Isthmus of Panama.

One would expect with the amount of gold and silver looted from the Spanish by Drake and the Negro Cimarron, that the Cimarron would try to negotiate a deal for a portion of the seized goods. Instead the Cimarron had no real desire for gold and silver instead iron to form blades, spears, and arrowheads, any form of weaponry that would aid them in their quest for complete freedom.Not only did this alliance hurt Spain economically, Cimarron aided by their already established hatred of Spanish culture and religion under the influence Drake began to convert to Lutheranism. Keep in mind that prior to the arrival of Drake to the Isthmus, Bayano’s influence over Cimarrons and negro slaves was causing a panic amongst the Spainsh Crown. In the fear of losing total control the recently released the “Ordenazas para los negros. If a slave ran away #om his Spanish master and joined the Cimarron outlaws, he was to be hanged (if recaptured). The Indians, who were treated much better than slaves, were also punished with severity if they joined the Cimarrons.”[37] With the harshness of choosing slavery, or the risk of losing your life if one attempted to run away. It becomes highly logically for us to assume that in the minds of the Cimarron in this area the alliance with Drake and the English, may have been as a perceived escape route by sea. Numerous accounts of Drake seen with negroes on his ship have surfaced.“In 1553, Maroon revolts in Panama had forced the Spanish to the negotiating table, and by 1580 Panamanian Maroons had a%ied themselves with British buccaneers, including Sir Francis Drake. This Maroon-buccaneer a%iance posed a serious cha%enge to Spanish hegemony in the region”[48] In the book “History of the Bishops of Panama” by Gui%ermo Rojas y Arrieta translated in 1929 by T.T.McDonald documents “ armed female black slaves were instrumental in the Battle against Drake’s pirates” p.17

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Negro Cimarron being the ultimate spy weapon against the Spanish one could argue, that Drake himself may have very well used the ladino Cimarron to aid him in his conquest in the many commerce ports of Spanish territory of the Caribbean. “The invaders knew #om past experience that once the square of a Spanish town was captured, the defenders hesitated to continue the stru,le and the city would become easy prey”[34] We can also see how he was able to conquer Santo Domingo in 1586, reports of negroes warning about spiked traps that contained poisonous spears within them are documented. Gives us the idea that allied forces and networking are not far fetched to assume. “Drake sent a delegation to the Spanish camp with a message with a black boy #eed #om slavery who had recently joined the English. The Spanish however thinking this as an insult stabbed and ki%ed him which infuriated Drake so much that he had many Spaniards deliberately executed until the murderer was found dead or alive” Corbett p.39 Shows that Drake most definitely had a respect for these people and their aid.

Furthermore, Drake is reported to have this to say about the Negro Cimarron “certaine valiant Negros fled #om their cruel masters the Spaniards” In 1577 Richard Hakluyt would make a failed proposal to establish an English colony and allow the Cimarron to govern it, although it did not pass it gives testament to the idea a strong trust was being placed upon the Cimarron in this period. Spain would also try to pacify many cimarron during this period with capitulations, none of them would be accepted outside of Vallano’s.

Moreover, the idea that Drake may have made a secret promise to remove the Cimarron as far away from Spanish control, as he possibly could. If we remove the notion of he looked at this group of people as worthless and left marooned in the pirate sense of the term, but instead made a secret vow to place them in their own lands “A Spanish dispatch #om Havana based on inte%igence provided by three A#icans le* behind in St. Augustine’s smoldering ruins said Drake “meant to leave a% the negroes he had in a fort and settlement established [at Roanoke] by the English who went there a year ago. He intended to leave the 250 blacks and a% his sma% cra* there, and cross to England with only the larger vessel.”[34]

After this brief but vital part of African history in the Americas and the English become more prominent figures in the slave trade of Africans, we must again carefully analyze every aspect of our history here. Numerous accounts of other African pirates begin to surface in this time as well, based in the Florida keys we have Black Caesar for example. We mentioned above that Drake even had Diego with him as he set shore on the banks of California. But most of all if Drake did leave a group of Africans near St.Augustine we must recall that San Miguel de Guadalupe is not for from the region. In the near future Fort Negro would emerge and the war of another great African Cimarron group will be birthed the Black Seminoles. “Drake's a%iance with the Cimarrons inspired the English to expand their forces and colonize in other areas of the globe. To the English, the Cimarrons acted as a model citizenry whom they hoped their own colonists would take a*er. Although a colony manned by Cimarrons never actua%y came into existence, the ideology of creating a colony #ee of racial prejudices was one in which the English intended their own colonies to constitute.”[36]

We may never be able to fu%y track down the mist and wonder of this epic. What we do hope to have see, is inspired future researchers explore through proper sholarSHIPs. The totality and truth of another great part of our A#ican history in the Americas. Some researchers are even studying and proposing the idea, that the negro spirituals, sang in future generations of A#ican American History have their origins on the pirate ships being sung by A#ican Cimarron Pirates.

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Cimarron Revolts Under the Dutch, British, and French As the Dutch and British entered the slave system in the New World at the beginning of the 17th century. African slaves, became the number one form of economic empowerment. It would be wise to understand the political, and theological justification that backed this system of forced labor. As racial hierarchies were created, religious doctrine and political equality, became secondary to capital gain. We have often been taught that a large part of the justification of kidnapping and enslaving African people groups permanently reducing them to chattel property was done to save their immortal souls. We seen the same process in the earliest stages of colonization via the Spanish Crown. Thus the process of libration became nearly impossible for African people, one can change belief or economic status, but one could not change their skin tone. “Of course, people under bondage are not easily persuaded either by religion or the sword that their divine lot was to remain under such bondage or that the Almighty had a larger plan for them by keeping them in such a situation. When, for instance, in the 1730s Count Nickolaus Ludwig Von Zinzendorf, founder of the Moravian Mission in Europe, told a group of enslaved persons in the Danish West Indies that conversion to Christianity would not deliver them from their physical bondage, because they were being punished for the sins of their fathers, it is doubtful that the enslaved people understood this message.” Professor Alvin Thomas

On September 15, 1716, an enslaved African woman would lead a rebellion in the Dutch West Indies on the island Curaçao. She was a cook and noted to have been the one in charge of training other slaves freshly imported. Reports state that after the murder of her husband she would arrange an organized rebellion. Although the West Dutch Company swiftly suppressed this rebellion, it would not be the last under their colonial rule.

The demand of indigo and sugar would also increase the West Dutch Company’s demand of forced labor, by 1733 the mass majority of inhabitants of the colony of St.John’s were African slaves. Many of these slaves fled to hidden locations after a hurricane that occurred in 1733. This Dutch slave trader 1700-1725 would cause the Slave Code of 1733 to manifest, enforcing harsher punishments upon runaways.“Governor Philip Gardelin's Code of 1733 was written primarily as a response to the problem of marooning. Almost half of the nineteen provisions included in the code provided punishments for various forms and aspects of maroonage.”[44] Remember, under the new colonial powers we see a shi* #om being referred to as cimarron to simply maroons.

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Furthermore, the fact that St.John’s Island suffered from insufficient funds, a horrible harvest, and was also struggling with imbalance of population between master and slaves.(A#ican slaves completely outnumbered the Dutch) This would aid the Negro Cimarron to be able to plan and execute a rebellion. Their ultimate plan was to seize the island and maintain it for themselves. This was nearly executed to perfection had it not been for informants who exposed plots to the Dutch. And the Dutch West Company calling on the French to send aid via the French naval force a year later in 1734, the Cimarron may have succeeded. Some records indicate that one of the actual leaders of the cimarron army and the St.John revolt was an African woman by the name of Breffu. It is also reported that instead of allowing her self to be captured and return to bondage, Breffu, alongside 23 others committed suicide in 1734 around the month of May.

The population in Antigua’s capital St. John's was 85 percent African slaves , like St Johns Island of the Danish colonies the many of the European planters resided elsewhere, and the poor Europeans began to migrate to the colonies of North America. Cimarron settlements had already been in existence on the island one of these key locations was Boggy Peak the summit of an inactive volcano.Prince Klaas, aka Kwaku Takyi, also Court a name given to him by Planters. “According to David Barry Gaspar, who has written in more detail on the subject than anybody else, Klaas was one of the masterminds behind an elaborate plot, hatched late in 1735, to overthrow white rule on Antigua. The conspiracy a%egedly involved slaves on a number of large plantations, and was built around an audacious effort to destroy the island’s planters in a single spectacular explosion. Taking advantage of a large ba% due to be held in St. John’s in October 1736, the slaves planned to smu,le a 10-ga%on barrel of gunpowder into the building and blow it up. The detonation was to be the signal for slaves on the surrounding plantations to rise, murder their masters and march on the capital #om four directions. A general massacre would fo%ow, and Prince Klaas himself would be enthroned as leader of a new black kingdom on the island.”{45]

Berbice on the Dutch colony of Guyana in 1762, had a slave rebellion that started with 36 male and female slaves.Tired and frustrated from by the harsh treatment they received they burned down the Plantation Magdalenenberg. As they began to recruit slaves from nearby plantations. An Akan slave housed at the Lilienburg plantation named Cuffy aka Kofi, would join them and become the leader of their revolt. Kofi attempted to make a peace treaty in the year of 1763, although it ultimately failed to this day Kofi is regarded as a national hero in Guyana. His statue to your left is located in Georgetown, Guyana.

Note: A few years a*er Kofi’s rebe%ion, a slave by the name of John Edmonstone was born in Guyana. John Edmonstone, earned his #eedom move to Europe and become a professor at the University of Edinburgh and teach taxidermy, Charles Dawrin was one of his students.

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Françouis Mackandal, a legendary figure in Cimarron history often referred to as a Haitian Maroon is noted to be a major influence in the later Haitian Revolution. It is debated rather or not he was Moslem due to his understanding of the Arabic language, against the ideology he practiced more indigenous African Spiritual Practices and may have been a Vodun priest. The whereabouts of his actual birth place are still unknown but due to his knowledge, courage and leadership his name will forever be honored amongst historical researchers of our story and fight for liberation. “The history of slavery In Saint- Domingue, like that of slavery everywhere, is a history of constant rebe%ion and resistance. One of the most famous and successful revolutions prior to 1791 was the Mackandal rebe%ion of 1759. The slave Mackandal, a houngan knowledgeable of poisons, organized a widespread plot to poison the masters, their water supplies and animals. The movement spread great terror among the slave owners and ki%ed hundreds before the secret of Mackandal was tortured #om a slave.[49]

Mackandal’s, story gives us a vital part of our history to comprehend that labels should not divide us especially demonyms super imposed upon us. His story also, gives us an example of why we should fully pursuit studying our history throughout the AfricanAmerican diaspora, Mackandal has been recorded AS BOTH A CIMARRON and MAROON. “The effort met with little success as the Blacks, led by Michel, set up palenques in the mountains of Bahoruco in 1719 and under Polydor at Trou in 1734. But while these and other cimarron activities in the French contro%ed area of Hispaniola were troublesome, none caused greater fear than that led by Francois Macandal around Lenormand de Mezf.”

Queen Nanny, an Asante woman born in Ghana in 1686. The Asante are noted for being highly resentful towards European powers in both the New World and Africa. Nanny, would follow after her tribal people using their Traditional A#ican Spiritual system known as Obeah to become a leader of a Cimarron community in Jamaica. Like Makandal, her knowledge of plants and herbs would aid her and the cimarron physically, spiritually, and mentally in their pursuit of freedom. It is noted that she had three brothers, whom also established cimarron settlements and aided in freeing slaves leading them to escape upon the Blue Mountains, and near Saint Elizabeth Parish. Nanny who settled in the Blue Mountain region would eventually have a 500 acre area named in her honor after the First Maroon War treaty was signed.

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‘The only way to obtain #eedom was to fight for it. Slave owners would never give up without a fight’ -Nanny Grigg A statement said to come from Nanny Grigg in 1816, during the Bussa Rebellion.The statement appears to be extremely accurate with the increasing accounts of Africa runaway slaves and freedom fighters during the middle 17th century up to the mid 19th century. New laws would be enforced inflicting harsher punishments upon African slaves and cimarron/maroons. The Mina and Pointe Coupée conspiracies in which cimarrons plotted to librate themselves and fellow African slaves by burning down planters houses in 1795. This may have been a result of the December 7, 1769 decree the coartacíon, which stated there was a ban on the trade of Native American slaves but spoke nothing of freeing African slaves. These two conspiracies could have also been influenced by the cimarron group led by Jean Saint Malo who led slaves into swamps east of New Orleans between the years of 1780 and 1784. Most of all the “Theorie de I’impot” a book that includes the Declaration of the Rights of Man(which also had a heavy influence on a% those who participated in the Haitian Revolution) was found inside one of the slaves home. [50]

This could help further explain why slave masters became extremely nervous of slaves gathering in large numbers, why reading became fully restricted, and the limitation on travel was enforced.

"Without that island the system had hands, feet, and even a head, but no body. Of what use was Louisiana, when France had clearly lost the main colony which Louisiana was meant to feed and fortify?... Not only had the island of St. Domingo been ruined by the war, its plantations destroyed, its labor paralyzed, and its population reduced to barbarism...but...the army dreaded service in St. Domingo, where certain death awaited every soldier; the expense was #ightful; a year of war had consumed fi*y thousand men and money in vast amounts, with no other result than to prove that at least as many men and as much money would be sti% needed before any return could be expected for so lavish an expenditure. In Europe war could be made to support war; in St. Domingo peace alone could but slowly repair some part of this #ightful waste." (Adams, HISTORY, P. 311-312).[49]

War and conflicts between nations at the turn of the 18th century permeated throughout the western hemisphere for colonial control. In the center of all these battles lays the African man, woman, and child not only were these Africans seen as economic necessities, but they would soon be seen as crucial tools of war as well. Indeed Africans participated in nearly every war in American recorded history, but still had to fight a private war of their own for freedom and libration in which it seems they had very few allies. In 1727 we see an alliance with African Americans and Spain in Florida, mainly because Spain was desperately trying to maintain Florida as their colony. Francisco Menendez, an African born man of the Mandinga from Gambia. “In Florida he aided in the defense of St. Augustine in 1727, earning his #eedom and establishing his reputation for leadership. He was recognized as a subject of the King of Spain and baptized in the Catholic Church as Francisco Menéndez. Despite his conversion and military service, Menéndez and many of his fe%ow militia were sti% slaves. When Manuel de Montiano became governor in 1737, Menéndez petitioned for his #eedom. On March 15, 1738, he was granted unconditional #eedom.Years later, he was appointed head of the black militia based at Fort Mose, built in 1738, and the overa% leader of its resident community. From this base, Menéndez led several raids against the colony of South Carolina, and inspired further rebe%ion among slaves there.”[53]

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This alliance would influence many African slaves to escape to Florida, these cimarron/maroons would later be known as the Black Seminoles. In 1815 after a treaty with the British a new settlement for negro run away slaves is Fort Negro. Fort Negro located in Florida as well, was originally known as Prospect Bluff. While some sources state that blacks had occupied this area of Florida prior to the British building this Fort, (remember the possibility of Negro Cimarron #om San Miguel de Guadalupe, and St.Augustine region via Francis Drake)the year 1815 is when the British left this fort entirely in the hands of Africans including weaponry. Although it is noted blacks had already established trading post, farming, and noticeable amount of live stock. “The fort was ca%ed Negro Fort only a*er the British le* in 1815; its later residents were primarily blacks (#ee Negroes or fugitive slaves), together with some Choctaws. There were a significant number of maroons already in the area before the fort was built and beginning in 1804 there was for several years a store (trading post). The blacks, having worked on plantations, knew how to plant and care for crops, and also to care for domesticated animals, mostly cattle.”

Having this strategic location worried white plantation slave holders of the Southern regions of U.S in fear of constant run away slaves towards this area and the ability to form a Negro army worthy of a threat to the system. “ It was a simple, descriptive name, but it contained within it a% the fear and dread of insurrection and uprising that had haunted the sleep of slave owners throughout Georgia and the Carolinas, especia%y since a vicious and bloody slave rebe%ion in the Caribbean had given birth to the Republic of Haiti little more than a decade earlier. Tales of torture and slaughter of slaveholders on Santo Domingo, as we% as the defeat of Spanish, British and French forces by A#ican fighters, had horrified southern slave owners. Now there was anA#ican army just a few dozen miles #om American plantations. For the erstwhile owners of the enslaved A#icans, as we% as those who sti% kept men and women in bondage, Negro Fort was the physical manifestation of a persistent nightmare of the enslaver-the fear of black insurrection, rebe%ion, and righteous vengeance.”Kly p.25-26

July 27th 1816, would be this Forts demise after a cannon ball shot from a gunboat hit and landed on the forts gun powder stock exploding and destroying the fort leaving a debate of exactly how many were killed by this explosion the argument is between 40-330 people including women and children. “Eventua%y, the Patriot siege of St.Augustine was broken a*er a party of A#icans and Indians ambushed a supply convoy of U.S.Marines.The Spanish governor at St.Augustine later reported that while most American newspapers(and later historians)would highlight the action as an Indian fight, it was actua%y an engagement largely fought by the black militia, “our parties of Black whome[the Patriots]think are Indians because the wear the same clothing and go painted.”Kly p.33

The Battle of Fort Negro was documented as the first engagement of battle in the Seminole War. And there is a plethora of documentations including the testimony of three American Generals declaring the war in Florida i.e The Seminole war was indeed a war between American White and African American Negros.

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Another cimarron settlement hardly mentioned to us is the town of Pilaklikaha also known as Black Abraham’s town. Pilaklikaha Old Abraham’s Town” is cited as one of the four black maroon communities of the region, it is eluded that Pilaklikaha was one of the largest settlements of Free or Freed Africans. This population of African peoples were solely gathered behind Abraham as leader and protector. During the final stages of the Seminole(Negro wars according to certain Union leaders) his home and village was burned in an attack by Union troop, becoming one of the causes of Africans from the Florida region to surrender and begin moving westward.

After Major War periods Spanning from 1816-1858 Andrew Jackson would enforce the Indian Removal act. This would have Native Americans and unmentioned amount of Africans, many who were slaves to the Native Americans relocate to what is now called Oklahoma. And it is there we see the possibility of the last Negro Cimarron established before the 1860’s. Although the city no longer exist the story lives on.

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Conclusion

Through the purview of the Cimarrons, one can better understand the story of bondage, disposition, slavery, courage and strength. These stories are often not found, taught or relayed to students in elementary, high school or college. This sad truth is what we at the Kofi Piesie Tv research team are determined to right (and write) these wrongs. Through scholastic research and modern technology, the story of the Cimarrons has come to life. This modern technology has allowed us to share information faster, vaster, and more thorough than any other time in recorded history, we now have the ability to analyze the historical story of how Africans found themselves in the Western Hemisphere. By utilizing these at-you-fingertip researching tools, one can greater understand “who they are” by understanding “who they were!”

Let’s Get This Culture

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!e Cimarron

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