OUR STRENGTH IS OURSELVES": IDENTITY, STATUS, AND CULTURAL REVITALIZATION AMONG THE MI'KMAQ IN NEWFOUNDLAND by © Janice Esther Tulk A thesis submitted to the School of Graduate Studies in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy School of Music Memorial University of Newfoundland July 2008 St. John's Newfoundland Library and Bibliotheque et 1*1 Archives Canada Archives Canada Published Heritage Direction du Branch Patrimoine de I'edition 395 Wellington Street 395, rue Wellington Ottawa ON K1A0N4 Ottawa ON K1A0N4 Canada Canada Your file Votre reference ISBN: 978-0-494-47919-3 Our file Notre reference ISBN: 978-0-494-47919-3 NOTICE: AVIS: The author has granted a non­ L'auteur a accorde une licence non exclusive exclusive license allowing Library permettant a la Bibliotheque et Archives and Archives Canada to reproduce, Canada de reproduire, publier, archiver, publish, archive, preserve, conserve, sauvegarder, conserver, transmettre au public communicate to the public by par telecommunication ou par Plntemet, prefer, telecommunication or on the Internet, distribuer et vendre des theses partout dans loan, distribute and sell theses le monde, a des fins commerciales ou autres, worldwide, for commercial or non­ sur support microforme, papier, electronique commercial purposes, in microform, et/ou autres formats. paper, electronic and/or any other formats. The author retains copyright L'auteur conserve la propriete du droit d'auteur ownership and moral rights in et des droits moraux qui protege cette these. this thesis. Neither the thesis Ni la these ni des extraits substantiels de nor substantial extracts from it celle-ci ne doivent etre imprimes ou autrement may be printed or otherwise reproduits sans son autorisation. reproduced without the author's permission. In compliance with the Canadian Conformement a la loi canadienne Privacy Act some supporting sur la protection de la vie privee, forms may have been removed quelques formulaires secondaires from this thesis. ont ete enleves de cette these. While these forms may be included Bien que ces formulaires in the document page count, aient inclus dans la pagination, their removal does not represent il n'y aura aucun contenu manquant. any loss of content from the thesis. Canada Abstract Mi'kmaq in the province of Newfoundland and Labrador are currently divided in terms of status under the Indian Act, a division which has had a significant and lasting impact on the sense of a Mi'kmaw community in the province. Through two case studies, this dissertation investigates differences in the practice of musical culture as a result of the status/non-status divide and questions what the localization strategies of each group can tell us about notions of identity, indigeneity, and community. It examines how Mi'kmaq in Newfoundland acknowledge, create, negotiate, embody, enact, and maintain a sense Mi'kmaw identity and community through the localization of "pan-Indian" powwow culture. The first case study focusses on a community of status Mi'kmaq in the province, located in Miawpukek, and encompasses the localization of powwow as curriculum in the band-run Se't A'newey School, musical expression of the local drum group Sipu'ji'j Drummers, and annual community event. The second case study focusses on non-status Mi'kmaq in the province, specifically the drum group at the St. John's Native Friendship Centre. Musically, these two contexts display several differences, particularly in terms of the repertoire each performs (one "traditional" Mi'kmaq, the other northern powwow) and the singing style that is used. Related extra-musical elements, such as cultural dress, also display distinct approaches to participation in powwow as a representation of identity. However, in both case studies, similarities emerge in the use of recording ii technology as a didactic tool, the egalitarian structure of the drum, and the subversion (at times) of gender roles asserted as part of the powwow tradition. Comparative analysis of the two case studies at the centre of this dissertation demonstrates different strategies for the localization of powwow. Three primary means of localization emerge: 1) incorporating pre-existing Mi'kmaw or local songs (such as I'ko) and dance genres (such as Ko'jua) into the structure of the powwow, sometimes transposing them for different instrumentation (powwow drum) or singing style (northern), and sometimes not; 2) inscribing borrowed powwow traditions with local or Nation-specific meaning through the embellishment of regalia, the use of local singing style or language, and discourse that emphasizes tradition or "the Mi'kmaw way"; and 3) explicitly referencing or implicitly performing local histories. At the same time that powwow may be localized to assert a Nation-specific identity, however, it may also be used to express a more personal identity, or even one broadly constructed as indigenous. The diversity and contradiction present in the performance of identity, as well as the ethnic simultaneity experienced by mixed-blood, non-status individuals in this study, would seem to suggest that theoretical lenses that emphasize diversity and connectivity, such as music scenes, would allow one to move past homogeneous notions of community or singular constructions of ethnicity. However, it is shown that the way in which individuals speak about their experiences, indeed the reasons for their engagement in cultural pursuits, is specifically referring to community-building practices. This study, grounded in binary structures of status and non-status, rural and iii urban, focusses on two ways of knowing and two ways of being Mi'kmaq in Newfoundland, a doubleness that finds expression in the Mi'kmaw double-curve motif. These ways of knowing and being are connected and overlap in many ways while coexisting. They nuance the commonly recounted histories of encounter, hidden heritages, and revitalization in the province, and insist that identity be understood as multiple, as simultaneities. IV Acknowledgements First and foremost, I would like to thank my consultants, who graciously shared their knowledge and experiences with me, and gently suggested alternative interpretations when mine needed revising: Laverna Augustine, Pat Donnelly, Tony Drew, Jerry Evans, Steve George, Brenda Jeddore, Rod Jeddore, Denis LeBlanc, Greg Marr, Jason Morrisseau, Chrisine Pike, Paul Pike, Robin Purcell, Candace Russell, and Jerry Wetzel. Any remaining errors are solely my own. In particular, I am grateful to members of the Friendship Centre Drum Group, who welcomed me into their drum and were a constant source of encouragement in the research process: you are true friends. Wela'lioq. While these individuals are the heart of this study, it would not have been possible without the authorization of Mi'kmaw Ethics Watch, the local band councils, the administration of the St. John's Friendship Centre, and the administration of the Se't A'newey School. Thanks are extended to Lindsay Marshall and Vicki LeTerte at Cape Breton University, home of Mi'kmaw Ethics Watch; Saqamaw Mi'sel Joe and council in Miawpukek, Ktaqmkuk, as well as his assistant Melissa Drake; Chief Susan Levi-Peters of Elsipogtog, New Brunswick, as well as research coordinator Denis LeBlanc; Chief Charlie Dennis and council in Eskasoni, Nova Scotia; Myrtle Banfield, former director of the St. John's Native Friendship Centre, and Lori LeDrew, former youth coordinator; and Craig Benoit, high school principal of Se't A'newey School. v This research has been assisted by many individuals along the way. I am grateful to Franziska von Rosen for generously sharing with me her notes and recordings from field research during the 1980s. Janine Metallic and Mary Ann Metallic, though I have not yet met them in person, were key in locating Mi'kmaq-speakers who I contracted to translate research materials. The work of translators Helen Sylliboy and Janice Vicaire was essential to the analysis presented in this dissertation, while Bernie Francis' translation of a consent form enabled the research process. Research assistance was provided by Kathryn Curran, Mary Piercey, and Meghan Bowen; and Sharmane Allen kindly stepped in as field assistant during the Harris Centre Workshop. Kelly Best has been a thoughtful sounding board for ideas and drafts; Maureen Houston has provided encouragement and helpful organizational recommendations; and Spencer Crewe has provided technical assistance with field recordings in an enthusiastic and timely manner - "So let it be written, so let it be done." I am also thankful to Dr. Wayne Redmond (ENT) for his diligent care of my vocal folds as I learned to vocalize in a new way. Thanks are also extended to Patricia Fulton and Pauline Cox of the Memorial University of Newfoundland Folklore and Language Archive (MUNFLA); Patrick Johnson and Diane Chishom at the Mi'kmaq Resource Centre, Cape Breton University; Jodi McDavid of the Beaton Institute, Cape Breton University; the staff of the Centre for Newfoundland Studies, Memorial University of Newfoundland; and Bev Greene and Lisa Small of Ferriss Hodgett Library, Sir Wilfred Grenfell College, Corner Brook. Your knowledge of resources and assistance in obtaining copies for consultation were essential vi to this study. This dissertation has greatly benefited from the careful reading and thoughtful comments of C. Kati Szego, Diane Goldstein, Carrie Dyck, Philip Hiscock, and Gordon Smith. I am especially thankful to my supervisor, Beverley Diamond, for her unfailing guidance, inspiration, and encouragement throughout this process. You always provided sage advice on conducting intercultural research, shared your experiences as well as your resources, and challenged me to pursue avenues of thought I had not previously explored. Finally, I extend heartfelt thanks to friends and family who have supported me through this journey. You have all played a role in the completion of this dissertation, providing inspiration, sounding boards for ideas, comic relief, and sage advice on various occasions. In particular, I am grateful to fellow doctoral candidate Graham Blair and his family, who provided a home when mine was destroyed - your generosity wil) never be forgotten.