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Home , Anlamani, Atlanersa, Iroquois kinship, Matrilineality, Matrilineal succession, Order of succession

2015 Varia

Kumiko Saito

The matrilineal royal Succession in the Empire of Kush: A new proposal Identifying the Terminology in the 25th and napatan as that of /Crow

Introduction1

Various theories about the patterns of royal succes- sion in the 25th and Napatan Dynasties have been proposed. Macadam proposed a fratrilineal successi- on in which kingship passed from to brother and then to the children of the eldest brother.2 Török integrated the patrilineal, matrilineal, and fratrilineal succession systems.3 Kahn and Gozzoli4 take the position that the succession pattern in the 25th and in which some royal women held both the of Napatan Dynasties was basically patrilineal. It is snt nswt “king’s ” and sAt nswt “king’s ”, noteworthy that, in Macadam’s and Török’s theories and this ground is regarded as decisive. However, this as well as the patrilineal succession, it is supposed that ignores the fact that it has been suggested that sn(t) all kings were of kings. I doubted this - in its extended meaning may mean “,” “,” relationship when I started inquiring into the “,” “nephew,” or “niece.”5 If so, a daughter of matrilineal in Kush. the previous king who had the snt nswt could One of the textual grounds for accepting the be a cousin of the reigning king. It is also possible father-son relationship of the kings is the indirect one that the Kushite kingdom was a matrilineal society using a that was different from 1 This article is a revised version of my paper originally that of . Over seventy percent of the eighty- written in Japanese (K. Saito, “The th four matrilineal systems in the World Ethnographic of the Kingship in the 25 of : A 6 New Proposal based on Kinship Terminology,” Bulletin of Sample by Murdock use either Crow or Iroquois 7 the Society for Near Eastern Studies in 56-2, 2014, cousin terms. Iroquois and termi- 53-64, written in Japanese with an English abstract). An nologies use the same term for both and interpretation of the meaning of snw nswt is added anew this parallel .8 If Kushite society used Iroquois/ time. My special thanks are due to J. Pope for noticing my papers on Kush in Japanese and encouraging me to publish a paper in English. I would like to thank D. Kahn and A. 5 D. Franke, Altägyptische Verwandtschaftsbezeichnungen Lohwasser for reading an earlier version of this paper. Their im Mittleren Reich (Hamburg 1983) 162. G. Robins, “The comments greatly helped me improve this paper. All errors Relationships specified by Egyptian Kinship Terms of the are, however, my own responsibility. Middle and New Kingdom,” CdE 54 (1979) 202-203. 2 M. F. L. Macadam, The Temples of Kawa, I, London, 1949, 6 G.P. Murdock, “World Ethnographic Sample,” American 124-125. Anthropologist (New Series) 59. No.4 (1957) 664-687. 3 L. Török, The : Handbook of the Napa- 7 D.M. Schneider and K. Gough (eds.), Matrilineal Kinship, tan-Meroitic Civilization, Leiden, 1997, 260-262. Berkeley, 1961, 717. 4 D. Kahn, “The Royal Succession in the 25th Dynasty,” 8 In the Iroquois system of kinship terminology (Table 1), the MittSAG 16 (2005) 158. R. B. Gozzoli, “Royal and father and father’s brother are referred to by a single term, as Royal Legitimation in the Nubian Period (C.760-300 B.C.): the and mother’s sister; however, the father’s sister Taharquo’s Kawa Stelae as a Paradigm” in: W. Goldlewski and mother’s brother are given separate terms. In one’s own & A. Łajtar (eds.), Between the Cataracts. Nubian Studies generation, , sisters, and parallel cousins (offspring Conference Proceedings. Vol.2/2 (Warsaw 2010) 483-494. of parental siblings of the same , that is, the children

233 Varia MittSAG 26

Crow kinship terminology, the king was not neces- only.10 On the other hand, the fratrilineal relation is sarily a son of the previous king even though his snt important in a matrilineal society, as shown below. nswt was sAt nswt. Therefore, it is indispensable that Therefore, the frequent use of snt nswt as well as sn the possibility of the use of Iroquois/Crow kinship nswt in the Kushite texts is worth considering. terminology in Kush be considered in order to judge In this paper I will first investigate the possibility whether Kushite society was matrilineal. that Iroquois/Crow kinship terminology was used The possibility that the Kushite Kingdom used in the Kushite Kingdom in the 25th and Napatan Iroquois/Crow kinship terminology is suggested by Dynasties. Then, I would like to argue that the the fact that not all women who were called snt nswt Kushite royal succession was basically matrilineal were also called sAt nswt. In a patrilineal society, all by using a of the 25th Dynasty that has of the king’s sisters must have also been the dau- been reconstructed based on Iroquois/Crow kinship ghters of kings, and the title “king’s daughter” was terminology. so important that it would hardly ever be omitted. Thus, I came to think that those who only had the title of snt nswt were not the king’s , and the 1. Definition of Matrilineal Succession relationship the king had with those who had both titles might have been different from that with those First of all, I would like to clarify the nature of who had snt nswt alone. If the reigning king’s sister is matrilineal succession, which I will discuss in this not the previous king’s daughter, the reigning king is paper. Priese thought that the Kushite succession not the son of the previous king. was matrilineal based on the statement of Nicholas In fact, the title snt nswt was not commonly used of Damascus that “the Ethiopians have a particular in Egypt during the dynastic period. Out of 30 respect for their sisters; the kings do not leave the women who had the title of snt nswt according to succession to their own but to their sisters’ sons”.11 Troy’s study,9 7 belonged to the 25th Dynasty and Since a high percentage of the kings’ have the 14 belonged to the 17th and 18th Dynasties. The title of “king’s sister,” it is supposed that brother- 17th and 18th Dynasties were exceptional in terms sister was practiced in the dynasty. Priese of the prominence of royal women, which might thought that the purpose of this practice was to make have been related to the frequent use of snt nswt. In a the kings’ sons the heirs to the . Therefore, he patrilineal society, the patrilineal relation to the king concluded that the right of succession was passed to was important while the fratrilineal relation was not. all of the sons of the eldest sister who was married to For males, the title of sA nswt was truly important, the eldest brother.12 However, since the eldest sister but the title of sn nswt was not. It is reported that should have been a of the king, this succession sn nswt appears regularly during the 25th Dynasty pattern was patrilineal rather than matrilineal. The succession pattern that Lohwasser proposed is matrilineal but in an extended meaning.13 Accor- of the mother’s sister or father’s brother) of the same sex ding to Lohwasser, the title of snt nswt was inherited are referred to by the same terms, which is logical enough considering that they are the offspring of people who are classified in the same category as Ego’s actual mother 10 J. Revez, “The Metaphorical Use of the Kinship Term sn and father. (W.A. Haviland et.al, Cultural : “Brother,”” JARCE 40 (2003) 131. J. Revez, “The Role of The Human Challenge, Twelfth Edition, Belmont, 2008, the Kings’ Brothers in the Transmission of Royal Power in 245-246). Ancient Egypt and Kush: A Cross-cultural Study” in: J.R. In the case of Kush, it is supposed that the brothers and Anderson & D. Welsby (eds.), The Fourth Cataract and male parallel cousins are referred to by sn, and the sisters Beyond: Proceedings of the 12th International Conference and parallel cousins are referred to by snt. Since for Nubian Studies, British Museum Publications on Egypt the genealogical information in Kush is not enough to and 1 (Paris, Leuven, Walpole,MA 2014) 538. differentiate terminology from the Crow 11 K.-H. Priese, “Matrilineare Erbfolge in Reich von Kusch,” kinship terminology, “Iroquois/Crow kinship terminolo- ZÄS 108 (1981) 49. Kahn, MittSAG 16 (2005) 145. gy” is employed in this paper. Although four examples are 12 Priese ZÄS 108 (1981) 50, Abb.1d. R. Morkot, “Kingship known in which a parallel cousin (mother’s sister’s son/ and Kinship in the Empire of Kush,” in: St. Wenig (ed.), daughter) was designated as sn(t) in Egyptian texts (Franke, Akten der 7. Internatilnalen Tagung für meroitische For- Altägyptische Verwandtschaftsbezeichnungen im Mittleren schungen von 14. Bis 19. September 1992 in Gosen bei Reich, 72-73), the Egyptian kinship terminology was neit- Berlin, (Meroitica 15, Wiesbaden 1999) 192-193, Table E. her Iroquois nor Crow because a mother’s sister was not Kahn, MittSAG 16 (2005) 146. called mwt (mother), but snt mwt (mother’s sister) or snt. 13 A. Lohwasser, “Die Auswahl der Königs in Kusch,” Bei- 9 L. Troy, Patterns of Queenship in Ancient Egyptian Myth träge zur Sudanforschung 7 (2000) 92, 98, Tabelle 1. A. and History, (Uppsala Studies in Ancient Mediterranean Lohwasser, “Queenship in Kush: Status, Role and Ideo- and Near Eastern Civilizations 14, Uppsala, 1986). logy of Royal Women,” JARCE 38 (2001) 65.

234 2015 Varia by daughters from their mother and so on. In this way, there was a group of snwt nswt who were not really sisters of the contemporary king after a few generations. If the next king was chosen from among the sons of these snwt nswt, he would be a remote relative of the previous king. His origin could matri- lineally be traced back to Alara’s sisters, but this is not the pattern of in the ethnographically reported matrilineal societies, which have stricter rules regarding blood relationship. mothership is handed down from mother to daugh- In the matrilineal system, the authority within ter. To sum up, in matrilineal royal succession, the a descent group is held by the eldest male of the kingship passes eventually to a nephew of the king group.14 Descent is traced through a female line after fratrilineal succession. The generally assumed while the authority is inherited through a male line. fratrilineal succession in Kush, e.g., Alara to Kashta, The authority is passed from an elder brother to a Pianky to Shabaka,16 and to ,17 younger brother and/or a maternal parallel cousin, if could be understood within the framework of matri- any, then to a sister’s son (Table 2).15 In the matriline- lineal succession. al society, the political power is eventually inherited Supposing Iroquois/Crow kinship terminology from a maternal uncle by one of his nephews. In the was used in Kush, snt nswt denoted both the king’s case of kingship, because the authority is held by the real sister and his female parallel cousin. This means eldest male in the group, kingship is inherited first some of the women called snt nswt could have been from a king by one of his younger brothers and/or the king’s parallel cousins. If those who had both maternal parallel cousins, and, after the brothers and titles snt nswt and sAt nswt were the king’s parallel maternal parallel cousins of the first king are exhau- cousins, then the king was a nephew of the previous sted, the kingship passes to a son of the king’s sisters king. This indicates that the Kushite royal succession (nephew). Thus, the king’s sisters are candidates for was matrilineal. the next king’s mother. In other words, the king’s

14 I quote here some ethnographic descriptions of inheri- 2. Conventional Explanations of the tance in each matrilineal culture. The eldest male of the Father-Son Relationship of the Kings eldest is regarded as head of the subclan in Tro- bliand (Schneider and Gough, Matrilineal Kinship, 238). None of the Kushite kings was directly called “king’s Normally, the oldest man in each royal lineage held the son” in inscriptions. Aspelta is believed to have been kingship among the Nayars in Central (Schneider and Gough, Matrilineal Kinship, 307). The head of a a son of a king because his father (it.f) is called “Son saparuik(sublineage) is generally the eldest male member of Re” on Aspelta’s stela.18 Howe- of the house, and the head of the lineage is the eldest ver, his father’s name was erased, and it is uncertain male member of the original sublineage in the Maningka- whose name was written there. Morkot pointed out bau society. T. Kato, Matriliny and Migration: Evolving in , Jakarta and Kuala that the size of the lacunae is small for the name Lumpur, 2007, 45-46. of , who has been supposed to be 15 The succession of the headship from a man to his younger Aspelta’s father.19 I would like to tentatively suggest brothers, and then to a son of one of their sisters (nephew) that Alara’s name was written there as a founder has been reported in some matrilineal societies: i.e., the of the royal line,20 since it indicates an Iroquois (M. F. L. Morgan, “Law of Descent of the Iro- quois.” in: Proceedings of the American Association for the Advancement of Science 11(2), 1858, 132-148, reprinted 16 Macadam, The Temples of Kawa, 131. K.A. Kitchen, The in: E. Tooker (ed.), An Iroquois Source Book: Volume Third Intermediate Period in Egypt (1100-650 B.C.), I Political and Social Organization, New York, 1985, Second Edition with supplement, Warminster, 1986, 150. 137), Minangkabau (Kato, Matriliny and Migration, 216), Kahn supposed that Alara could be Kashta’s father or, Trobliand (Schneider and Gough, Matrilineal Kinship, more likely, his uncle (Kahn, MittSAG 16 (2005) 158-159. 238-239). The succession of a cousin is also possible as it 17 Kahn, MittSAG 16 (2005) 144, n.16. is reported that if there are no heirs apparent, or if they are 18 T, Eide, T. Hägg, R.P. Holton and L. Török (eds.), Fontes too young or too old, a classificatory brother or nephew Historiae Nubiorum: Textual Sources for the History of the may succeed to the headship in Trobliand (Schneider Middle Nile Region between the Eighth Century BC and and Gough, Matrilineal Kinship, 239). In Iroquois/Crow the Sixth Century AD, Vol.I, From the Eighth to Mid-Fifth kinship terminology, a classificatory brother includes a Century BC, Bergen, 1994, (Henceforth FHN I) 240. parallel cousin. A cousin can be an heir to his cousin 19 Morkot, Meroitica 15 (1999) 199. because both of them are nephews of their predecessor. 20 It has been argued that Alara was not a founder of the

235 Varia MittSAG 26 or a predecessor in some Egyptian inscriptions.21 Shepenwepet II.27 As the latter was undoubtedly the Because Alara has the title “Son of Re” in Taharqo’s daughter of Piye, Taharqo must thus also have been inscriptions, specifically Kawa IV and Kawa VI,22 it his offspring.”28 However, if snt denotes not only a is possible the erased name of it.f after “Son of Re” sister but also a parallel cousin, Shabaka could be a on Aspelta’s stela was Alara. Therefore, Aspelta’s nephew of Kashta and Taharqo could be a nephew Enthronement stela cannot be decisive proof of the of Piye. father-son relationship of the kings. Without direct If snt nswt means the king’s parallel cousin, none of evidence, the father-son relationships of the kings the father-son relationships quoted above can hardly have been explained by the women called snt nswt be tenable. It is clear how important it is to consider and sAt nswt, as follows. the possibility of the use of Iroquois/Crow kinship Kitchen states that: “ was a brother of terminology in Kush. Shepenupet II. As Shepenupet II was daughter of Pianky, so Taharqa was a son of Piankhy.”23 Kahn states that if Peksater, daughter of Kashta 3. The Possibility that Kushite Kinship and Pebatma, was a royal wife and sister of Piankhy, Terminology was Iroquois/Crow as might have been recorded on the NE wall of court B 502 in the Great Amun Temple(B500) at Gebel It is supposed that the Kushite people spoke Mero- Barkal, then it becomes clear that Piankhy was a itic during the 25th and Napatan Dynasties becau- son of Kashta.24 Kahn also notes that, on a coffin se some traces of Meroitic were present in proper fragment, Istemkheb was called sAt nswt ^AbAkA, Hmt names even though the administrative language was nswt wrt snt nswt, and, apparently, she had a brother Egyptian.29 Meroitic belongs to the Nilo-Saharan (and Shabaka a son) who reigned as king. He con- , one of the four main language in cludes that Shebitqo was the son of Shabaqo because .30 Ehret put forward the tentative proposal Istemkheb was Shebitqo’s wife and sister.25 In these that a root of a kin term, “kaam,” began as a term cases, if snt denotes both a sister and a parallel cousin, in proto-Nilo-Saharan for siblings and parallel cou- Piankhy could be a nephew of Kashta, and Shebitqo sins but not cross-cousins. If that proposal holds, could be a nephew of Shabaqo. it would indicate that proto-Nilo-Saharan society Dodson states that Shabaqo is shown to have had Iroquois cousin reckoning.31 Iroquois systems been a son of Kashta by the fact that Amenirdis occur today among Nilo-Saharan societies, though I calls him her brother.26 Dodson also states the less commonly than Hawaiian and Descriptive.32 following: “Taharqo is described as the brother of In a number of cases, the terminological evidence implies the former presence of the Crow cousin dynasty because there seems to have been rulers who system in languages among Nilo-Saharan societies.33 had pre-dated the time of Alara, according to the study of the royal cemetery at el Kurru and the genealogy on Therefore, it is possible that Meroitic shares an origin Aspelta’s Enthronement stela (K.-H. Priese, “Der Beginn with the languages among Nilo-Saharan societies der kuschitischen Herrschaft in Ägyten,” ZÄS 98 [1970] that now have or formerly had Iroquois/Crow kin- 23. T. Kendall, “The Origin of the Napatan State: El Kurru ship terminology. Some of the Nilo-Saharan societies and the Evidence for the Royal ,” Meroitica 15 [1999] 58. Morkot, Meroitica 15 [1999] 200). Török and Lohwasser consider Alara as a founder of the dynasty 27 Literally, Shepenwepet II was referred to as her (Taharqo’s because Alara was mentioned in some later documents daughter) father’s sister, snt it.s (R. A. Caminos, “The (Török, The Kingdom of Kush, 124. A. Lohwasser, Die Nitocris Stela,” JEA 50 [1964] 74). königlichen Frauen im antiken Reich von Kusch [Mero- 28 Dodson, Afterglow of Empire, 162. itica 19, Wiesbaden 2001] 250), and they presume that 29 C. Rilly and A. Voogt, The Meroitic Language and Writing the last (i.e., the oldest) in Aspelta’s genealogy System, New York, 2012, 6. was Alara’s sister (FHN I: 249-252; Lohwasser, Meroitica 30 Rilly and Voogt, The Meroitic Language and Writing 19 [2001] 254). System, 174. I suppose that, even if Alala was not a founder of the local 31 C. Ehret, “Reconstructing Ancient Kinship in Africa,” ruling family, it can be said that he was revered as a founder in: N. J. Allen et al. (eds.), Early Human Kinship: From of the royal dynasty. Sex to Social Reproduction (West Sussex 2011) 210-212. 21 Robins, CdE 54 (1979) 200. Ehret’s statement is made with the reservation that, since 22 Kawa IV, FHN I,141; Kawa VI, FHN I, 173. a separate reconstructed term for cross-cousin is lacking, 23 Kitchen, The Third Intermediate Period, 149. it is possible that “kaam” originally included the cross- as 24 Kahn, MittSAG 16 (2005) 159. well as parallel cousins, in which case proto-Nilo-Saharan 25 Kahn, MittSAG 16 (2005) 160. would have had a Hawaiian system. 26 A. Dodson, Afterglow of Empire: Egypt from the Fall of 32 Ehret, “Reconstructing Ancient Kinship in Africa,” 212. the New Kingdom to the Saite Renaissance, Cairo, New 33 Ehret, “Reconstructing Ancient Kinship in Africa,” 212, York, 2012, 145. Table 12.1.

236 2015 Varia are to this day matrilineal.34 To sum up, it is lin- (sAt nswt), and “king’s mother” (mwt nswt). As I stated guistically and geographically possible that Kushite above, in the patrilineal society, every king’s sister is society had Iroquois/Crow kinship terminology and a king’s daughter if the kingship is normally inheri- was matrilineal. ted from a father to a son. However some Kushite Furthermore, the possibility that the Kushite women were called only snt nswt. If Kushite society people used Iroquois/Crow kinship terminology is was patrilineal, where the paternal descent was the supported by the text of Taharqo’s stela, Kawa IV. most important, it is difficult to explain why sAt nswt It is recorded in lines 16-17 that Hn.tw n=f mwwt nt was omitted. mwt=i in sn=sn wr sA- I-r-r-i mAa xrw (the There were three patterns of combination of the of my mother were ordained for him by their elder titles snt nswt and sAt nswt: (1) snt nswt and sAt nswt, (2) brother, Son of Ra, Alala, justified).35 Although snt nswt only, and (3) sAt nswt only. Those who believe mwwt is translated in FHN I as (fore)mothers,36 I in the father-son relationship of the Kushite kings support the opinion that this passage means that have not focused on these patterns. They seem to Taharqo’s grandmother and her sisters were commit- think that these were randomly employed. However, ted to Amen by their brother.37 From the standpoint six women40 were called both snt nswt and sAt nswt of Taharqo’ mother, her mother and maternal on an artifact or a monument, and they were never were referred to as “mwwt” in this text. In Iroquois/ mentioned as only snt nswt on other objects. Seven of Crow kinship terminology, a son/daughter calls both nine king’s mothers41 had the title snt nswt, but none his/her biological mother and her sisters (maternal of them had sAt nswt. The single use of snt nswt seems aunts) “mother” (Table.1). A mother’s sister is refer- not to be an omission of sAt nswt. Seven women42 red to as snt mwt or solely snt in Egyptian kinship were called only sAt nswt, and no lacuna of another terminology,38 while no evidence has been reported title are observed on the monuments. It seems that that a mother’s sister is referred to as mwt in Egyptian they used only sAt nswt intentionally. texts. The use of mwwt to refer to mother and mater- Supposing the Kushite kingdom was a matrilineal nal aunt could be an indication that Kushite kinship society using Iroquois/Crow kinship terminology, it terminology was Iroquois/Crow. can then be explained how the Kushite people used In the following section, I will analyze the titles the titles snt nswt and sAt nswt with considerable deli- of the Kushite royal women in order to show further berateness. Table 3 shows a model of the matrilineal evidence that Kushite Kinship terminology was Iro- royal with the kinship titles. quois/Crow. A king’s daughter () whose mother was not a real sister of her father is not a sister nor a parallel cousin but a cross cousin of the king (Ego). The sin- 4. Analysis of the Titles of the gle use of sAt nswt means its holder is a king’s cross Kushite Royal Women cousin. Those who are called just snt nswt are sisters () or parallel cousins (‘) of the king (Ego). Now, In this section, I am going to analyze the titles of it is necessary to explain the combination of the titles fifty-nine royal women from the 25th Dynasty to the snt nswt and sAt nswt (’). of Nastasen who were cataloged in Lohwasser’s In matrilineal royal succession, a of study (See Appendix).39 I deal with the kinship titles, a prospective king’s mother should not be a king namely “king’s sister” (snt nswt), “king’s daughter” because the succession is not matrilineal but patrili- neal if a king’s mother is a king’s wife. This may also 34 Ehret, “Reconstructing Ancient Kinship in Africa,” 216, be because the society may lose its balance of inter- 218, Figure 12.5. 35 I translate wr as “elder” according to J. J. Clère, (Review dependence between brothers and sisters, which is 43 of) M. F. L. Macadam, The Temples of Kawa I, BiOr8.5 necessary to maintain the matriliny. The matriline- (1951) 179 and A. Vinogradov, “[...] Their brother, the Chieftain, the Son of Re’, Alara [...]?” Chaier de recherché 40 The following are those women’s dossier numbers in de l’Institut de papyrologie et égyptology de Lille 20 (1999). Lohwasser, Meroitica 19 (2001) for reference: D.14, D.17, Contra Macadam, The Temples of Kawa, 121-122, and D.19, D.20, D.39, and D.53. FHN I, 141. 41 Lohwasser, Meroitica 19 (2001): D.1, D.5, D.26, D.35, 36 FHN I, 141. D.42, D.47, and D.58. 37 K. Jansen-Winkeln, “Alara und Taharka: zur Geschichte 42 Lohwasser, Meroitica 19 (2001): D.6, D.8, D.22, D.31, des nubischen Königshauses,” Orientalia 72 (2003) 146. D.33, D.36, and D.48. 38 Robins, CdE 54 (1979) 203-204. Franke, Altägyptische 43 The interdependence of brother and sister is explained as Verwandtschaftsbezeichnungen im Mittleren Reich, 73, follows: a sister depends on her brother for protection, 108. care, and managerial and authority functions, while the 39 Lohwasser, Meroitica 19 (2001). brother depends on his sister for the perpetuation of his

237 Varia MittSAG 26

al descent group must be exogamous,44 but there is a snt nswt in their titles, otherwise they would be taken possibility that brother-sister marriage was practiced as cross cousins of the king. Pekerslo has been said in the Kushite for some reason. Some to have the both titles sAt nswt and snt nswt, but her Kushite kings seem to have married their sisters who name is written with sAt nswt on two blocks from were not the first candidate for a next king’s mother. Abydos, and with snt nswt on a relief at Gebel Barkal By marrying his sisters, the king could ensure that and a stool.47 The spellings of her name on the objects his children belong to his matrilineal royal lineage.45 from Abydos seem different from those from Gebel A daughter (’) born from a marriage between Barkal. The name with snt nswt is read as Pekereslo, the previous king and one of his sisters was called but the name with sAt nswt can be read as Peksater. sAt nswt through her paternal descent and snt nswt as Only when her name is written with snt nswt, it is a parallel cousin of the reigning king (Ego) through enclosed in a . Thus, I think Pekereslo and her maternal descent. Therefore, a woman who had Peksater were two different women; the former was both the titles of sAt nswt and snt nswt was a maternal the king’s cross cousin, and the latter was the king’s parallel cousin of the king in the same generation. sister or parallel cousin.48 According to the above interpretation of Kushite A distinction between a parallel cousin and a cross kinship terminology as Iroquois/Crow (Table 3), cousin is characteristic of Iroquois/Crow kinship coherence in the manner of using the kinship titles terminology. It can be concluded that it is highly pro- can be explained. The king’s mother had only snt nswt bable that Kushite kinship terminology was Iroquois besides mwt nswt because she was a king’s sister but or Crow. Since the maternal parallel cousins belong neither a daughter nor a wife of a king. Those who to the same matrilineal lineage as Ego while the cross called snt nswt, who were the king’s sisters or parallel cousins do not, it is important to distinguish parallel cousins, were not called sAt nswt elsewhere because cousins from cross cousins in a matrilineal society. they were not the king’s daughters in a matrilineal The deliberate use of snt nswt and sAt nswt to draw society. a distinction between a parallel cousin and a cross According to Lohwasser’s study, six women46 cousin in Kushite texts can be said to be one of the had both titles snt nswt and sAt nswt written together characteristics of . on a monument. They were parallel cousins of the king according to their titles. They could not omit 47 Lohwasser, Meroitica 19 (2001) 175, D.41. 48 Pekereslo, with or without snt nswt, has been treated as descent line and the provision of an heir (Schneider and one person (St. Wenig, “Pebatma-Pekereslo-Pekar-Tor: Gough, Matrilineal Kinship, 11). Ein Beitrag zur Frühgeschichte der Kuschiten, Meroitica 44 Schneider and Gough, Matrilineal Kinship, 7. 12 [1990] 336-340; Troy, Patterns of Queenship in Anci- 45 It is also possible that brother-sister marriage was practi- ent Egyptian Myth and History, 175-176). Lohwasser ced in the royal family at the end of hypergamy. mentions the possibility that Pekereslo with snt nswt was 46 Lohwasser, Meroitica 19 (2001) : D.14, D.17, D.19, D.20, different from Pekereslo without snt nswt (Meroitica 19 D.39, and D.53. [2001] 176).

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5. Suggested Genealogy parallel cousin of the king. Only the titles attested in the documents are used. Supposing that Kushite society was matrilineal and Taking Kawa IV literally, I supposed that Alara used Iroquois/Crow terminology, I would like to was a brother of Taharqo’s grandmother. Amenirdis suggest a reconstruction of the genealogy of the 25th I was a daughter of Kashta and snt nswt of some Dynasty (Table 4). While Bányai suggested reversing king.52 The king should be Piye or Shabaqo because the order of Shabaqo and Shebitqo based on the he should have been in the younger generation of Inscription of Sargon II at Tang-I Var indicating that Kashta and in the older generation of Taharqo. Thus, Shebitqo was already in power in 706 B.C.,49 I take I put Kashta in Alara’s generation and while Piye and the conventional order of the kings in this paper. Shabaqo were in the same generation. Although I cannot fully examine Bányai’s theory I think that Taharqo was a cousin of Shebitqo here, this is because it has been suggested that She- because Taharqo chose a new cemetery. Since the bitqo could have been in power in 706 B.C. in the interdependence of brother and sister is necessary for conventional .50 The inscriptions continuation of the matrilineal descent group, a male of Kawa IV and Kawa V also seem to indicate that member does not alienate himself from his descent Taharqo received the after the king who group, even after marriage; a mother and her sons chose him as an heir, who was named Shebitqo in are buried in the same cemetery as a consequence.53 Kawa IV, passed away.51 Moreover, the conventional Shebitqo was buried at el Kurru while Taharqo was order rather agrees with my interpretation of the buried at . This seems to indicate that they were Kushite titles. born of two different women. It can be taken that The genealogy is reconstructed on the condition that the fratrilineal succession that includes both 52 The names of the king were erased (L. Borchardt, Statuen brother to brother and cousin to cousin succession und Statuetten von Königen und Privatleuten im Museum von Kairo. CGC Nos 1-1294. Teil 2 nos 381-653. Berlin, is inherent in the matrilineal succession, and sn nswt/ 1925, 115). snt nswt designate biologically a brother/sister or a 53 I cannot find a general description of the burial place in a matrilineal society. When it is mentioned in ethnogra- 49 M. Bányai, “Ein Vorschlag zur Chronologie der 25. Dyna- phic reports, it is stated that males are buried with their stie in Ägypten,” Journal of Egyptian History 6 (2013) natal family. In the Minaugkabau society, the husband 46-129. continues to belong to the house of his mother, even after 50 D. Kahn, “The Inscription of Sargon II at Tang-I Var and marriage. If he dies, he is usually buried at the graveyard the Chronology of Dynasty 25,” Orientalia 70 (2001) of his mother’s (Kato, Matriliny and Migrati- 1-18. K. Jansen-Winkeln, “The Chronology of the Third on, 58). As for in , “siri” means “from the Intermediate Period: Dyns. 22-24” in: E. Hornung, R. same roots,” and indeed all members of a “siri” have the Krauss and D. A. Warburton (eds.), Ancient Egyptian same grandmother or ancestress, the same name, Chronology, Leiden, Boston, 2006, 234-264. and are buried in the same family cemetery (H. Göttner- 51 FHN I, 139, 153. Contra Bányai, Journal of Egyptian Abendroth, Matriarchal Societies: Studies on Indigenous History 6 (2013) 64. Cultures across the Globe, New York, 2012, 111).

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Shebitqo and Qalhata shared the same mother, and women. However, the names of Isisemchebit and they were buried with her at el Kurru; Tanutamani, Tabakenamun (Table 4), who had this combination Qalhata’s son, was also buried at el Kurru with of titles, were not enclosed in a cartouche. Neither his mother. Taharqo, as a cousin of Shebitqo had a the status of sAt nswt nor snt nswt was important lower place in the order of succession than brothers enough for them to be privileged to use the cartou- or nephews of Shebitqo, but Shebitqo loved him che, even though they were the wives of kings. In more than all of his brothers and children (probably the suggested genealogy, they were parallel cousins nephews, including Tanutamani) according to Kawa of the king (Shebitqo or Taharqo). Because the prime V. 54 It seems that Taharqo recorded repeatedly the candidates for the next king’s mother were the king’s process of his enthronement because cousin to cou- real sisters, they were not in an important position sin succession needed more approval than brother in the matrilineal succession.56 I tentatively suppose to brother succession. Taharqo’s matrilineal line that the names of those who had the right to be a and Shebitqo’s mother’s line branched from their king’s mother were written in a cartouche.57 It seems grandmother. It seems to me that Taharqo decided that the fact that some of the queens’ names were not to move to a new cemetery in order to underline the written in a cartouche also indicates that Kush was a inauguration of his matrilineal line. matrilineal society. I think Piye and Shabaqo were brothers because The choice of the God’s Wife of Amen can also be only one of either Piye’s daughter, Tabakenamun, or explained in the matrilineal context. Amenirdis I and Shabaqo’s daughter, Isisemchebit, could be a parallel Shepenwepet II were the king’s daughters and king’s cousin of Shebitqo and Taharqo if Piye and Shabaqo parallel cousins but not king’s real sisters. Since the were cousins. Additionally, I think that Alara and king’s real sisters should have been reserved for the Kashta were brothers, even though their relationship next king’s mother, the king’s daughters were chosen is not supported by evidence from the monuments.55 for the God’s Wife of Amen, who should be celibate. This is because Kashta’s daughter, Amenirdis I, could Even though they, as the king’s daughters and king’s not have been a cousin of Piye or Shabaqo if Alara parallel cousins, did not play an important role in the and Kashta were cousins. matrilineal succession, they were chosen to be the In matrilineal succession, the kingship passes to God’s Wife of Amen because they belonged to the a nephew after fratrilineal succession. As shown matrilineal royal lineage and were of noble status. in Table 4, Piye and Shabaqo were brothers, and enthroned as nephews of Alara and Kashta. Shebitqo and Taharqo were cousins and ascended the throne 6. The Meaning of snw nswt as nephews of Piye and Shabaqo. Then Tanutamani became a king as a nephew of Shebitqo. The next There has been much debate on the meaning of snw king, , can be supposed to be a nephew of nswt (king’s brothers).58 In Kawa Stela V, lines 13-14, Taharqo (Taharqo’s sister’s son). This explains why it is written as follows: “As I said, I came from Bow- Khaliut, Piye’s son, and Haremakhet, Shabaqo’s son, Land () in the midst of the king’s brothers (snw did not succeed their . nswt) whom His Majesty had levied therefrom, that The reason why not all of the queens’ names were I might be with him because he loved me more than written in a cartouche can also be explained in the all his (other) brothers and more than all his children. matrilineal context. If the Kushite kingdom was a I being distinguished from them by His Majesty.59 patrilineal society, the combination of sAt nswt, snt nswt, and Hmt nswt indicates the highest status of royal 56 Only in the case that all of the king’s sisters could not bear 54 Kawa V (FHN I:153). In a matrilineal clan in Minang- a son could the king’s female maternal parallel cousin be kabau, deviations from the succession rules occur if the a king’s mother. They inherited blood from the king’s successor designated by custom is obviously unfit for maternal grandmother. the post, and a functionary has some powers to indicate 57 In addition, the names of the God’s Wife of Amen were whom he would like to have appointed as his successor written in a cartouche. I assume that the names of the after his death (P. E. Josselin de Jong, Minangkabau and king’s daughters who were chosen for the God’s Wife Negri Sembilan: Socio-Political Structure in Indonesia, of Amen were not originally enclosed in a cartouche, The Hague, 1952, 59). Tanutamani was too young to be and their names came to be written in a cartouche after a king when Shebitqo nominated Taharqo to be his heir. enthronement. Tanutamani was enthroned after Taharqo because he was 58 Kahn, MittSAG 16 (2005) 153-154. Revez, "The Role of a legitimate heir. However, the kingship was occupied by the Kings' Brothers". Revez's paper has been mentioned Taharqo’s matrilineal line after Tanutamani. above. 55 Morkot, Meroitica 15 (1999) 208. 59 FHN I:152-153.

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Apelt concluded that the terms sn nswt and snt nswt As for Aspelta, when he was placed before Amen-Re are fictive and are not real indications of blood relati- as a candidate for the next king, one of his titles was ons but designations of a social group from which the sn nsw.64 In this case, sn nsw means that Aspelta was next king would be selected.60 Lohwasser thought a brother of Anlamani. Irikeamanote was among the the title, snt nswt, was hereditary starting from Alara’s king’s brothers when Talachamani passed away.65 In sisters. The daughters of snwt nswt in turn were snwt this case, snw nswt means brothers and/or cousins nswt, and the sons of snwt nswt were snw nswt. The snw of Talachamani. It is also possible that Irikeamanote nswt comprise the group from among which the next was one of the nephews of Talachamani because his king was selected.61 This means that the title of sn relationship to Talachamani is uncertain. nswt indicates no relationship to the king in the same In the stela of Nastasen from year 8, Nastasen’s generation. According to this theory, a king could be legitimation is recorded.66 Amen of told a remote relative of his predecessor. Revez agrees to a Nastasen to come when he was in Meroe, and Nasta- large extent with Apelt and Lohwasser’s hypothesis sen had all of the snw nswt (king’s brothers),67 who that the title of sn nswt was not a real indication of were in Meroe summoned and said to them, “Come, blood relationship but designated instead as a social go, (and) look for him with us (i.e., me), namely, our group, although he would not go as far as to say that prince.” Then, the king’s brothers said, “We should sn nswt has no biological meaning whatsoever, since not go with you because it is you that are his ‘good collateral succession is substantiated by the written son.’ ” The meanings of some of the words are Kushite sources.62 uncertain, and it seems that some pronouns were If the Kushite royal succession was matrilineal misused in this inscription. It was interpreted in this and the Kushite people used Iroquois/Crow kinship condition that Nastasen asked the “king’s brothers” terminology, then sn nswt designates the king’s real to come with him in order to look for a new king. brother or maternal parallel cousin. In matrilineal However, it seems more appropriate to take it that succession, sons of the sisters are legitimate heirs to Nastasen asked the “king’s brothers” to come with the male position. A group of sons of sisters of the him because the new king was selected from among previous king had the right to the throne through them. It seems that the later interpretation is more their mothers, who were daughters of the previous accordant to the replay of the king’s brothers; “We king’s mother (Table 3. V). After the enthronement should not go with you because it is you that are of one of them, other members of the group became his ‘good son.’ ” I think that the “king’s brothers” the king’s brothers or parallel cousins, and they were were Nastasen’s brother(s) and/or maternal parallel called snw nswt in the enthronement records. In the cousin(s) who had the right to the throne. case of fratrilineal succession before the kingship While a kind of was recorded in the passed to a nephew, the candidates for the next king enthronement records of those four kings, the suc- were brothers or parallel cousins of the reigning king, cession pattern in Kush was not subject to a free and they were called snw nswt. In either case, snw election. A next king was chosen from among the snw nswt indicates a group of king’s brothers and parallel nswt who were biologically qualified candidates for cousins who had the right to the throne. Their right the throne. The recorded were procedures to the throne was biologically determined. I would in choosing the most appropriate one from among say that the title of sn nswt was a real indication of the candidates. Although seniority must have had blood relationship to the king in the same generati- the highest priority, personal qualifications must on. In the same way, the title of snt nswt designates have been considered sometimes, as ethnographical- a sister or a female parallel cousin of the king in the biological sense. Four kings were sn nswt or in snw nswt: Taharqo, 64 Aspelta Enthronment Stela line 18, FHN I, 239-240. Aspelta, Irikeamanote, and Nastasen. Taharqo was in 65 Kawa IX lines 3-4, T. Eide, T. Hägg, R. P. Holton and L. the midst of the king’s brothers (m qb snw nswt),63 and Török (eds.), Fontes Historiae Nubiorum: Textual Sources he was distinguished from them by Shebitqo. In this for the History of the Middle Nile Region between the Eighth Century BC and the Sixth Century AD. Vol.II case, Taharqo was a brother or a cousin of Shebitqo. From the Mid-Fifth to the First Century BC, Bergen, 1996, (Henceforth FHN II) 400-401. 60 D. Apelt, “Bemerkungen zur Thronfolge in der 25. Dyna- 66 Berlin Ägyptisches Museum 2268 lines 4-11, FHN II: stie,” Meroitica 12 (1990) 29. Kahn MittSAG 16 (2005) 153. 475-477. 61 Lohwasser, BzS 7 (2000) 92, 98, Tabelle 1. Lohwasser, 67 The hieroglyphs for king’s brothers can be read as nfrwy JARCE 38 (2001) 65. nswt. It has been translated as “king’s brothers,” and I 62 Revez, “The Role of the Kings’ Brothers,” (2014) 542. follow this conventional translation. See Lohwasser, BzS 63 Kawa Stela V line 13, FHN I, 153 7 (2000) 88, n.12.

241 Varia MittSAG 26 ly reported.68 When the king competed with other implies the adoption of the ruler’s divine sonship and candidates for the throne, he must have felt the need thus the acceptance of the Egyptian-type patrilineal to underline his . As a result, snw nswt were inheritance.70 Indeed, in the case of the divine birth frequently mentioned. In the patrilineal succession of Hatshepsut and Amenhetep III, the god Amen-Re in Egypt, the presence of brothers was a threat to an visited their mothers in the guise of their , . That was why sn(w) nswt was rarely the ruling kings, and Hatshepsut and Amenhetep III mentioned in monumental inscriptions before the are conceived.71 This indicates the earthly patrilineal 25th Dynasty. The emergence of snw nswt during succession as well as the divine birth. However, the the 25th Dynasty indicates a new pattern of royal Nubian Amen never took on the guise of the earthly succession, i.e. the matrilineal succession, in which king. Since the biological father does not play an “king’s brothers” played an important role. important role in matrilineal succession, he could Kushite society was originally matrilineal, and be anonymous. Therefore, when the Kushite people the kings in the 25th Dynasty followed their own adopted Egyptian theology in order to bestow divi- tradition regarding royal succession. The Kushite nity on the king, they treated Amen as the king’s people spoke Meroitic, which did not have a written father, leaving the biological father anonymous. form at that time. They adopted the Egyptian lan- Furthermore, because the preceding king is not a guage in order to record their activities. When they father of the next king in matrilineal succession, the translated a Meroitic kinship term meaning brother deceased king could not occupy the place of Amen and male parallel cousin into Egyptian, they used sn. as a father of the next king.72 In consequence, snw nswt in the Kushite inscriptions As for the role of in the Kushite successi- came to designate both brothers and male parallel on, he played the role of the father of the king, but cousins of the king. was not his predecessor. Kahn states that, by iden- tifying Osiris, Isis, and Horus, respectively, with the deceased king, the queen mother, and the heir to the 7. Conformity of Matrilineality with throne, the Kushite pattern of succession resembled Kushite Theology the Egyptian pattern of succession based on primo- geniture, i.e., the eldest son succeeds his father on the The fully Egyptianized theology in Kush seems to throne upon his death.73 However, it seems to me indicate that , which was obvious in that the text describing the of Taharqo Egyptian theology, was also prevailing in Kush, but (Kawa V, ll.18-19) deliberately avoids saying that the I think otherwise. The divine sonship did not inter- king succeeded the throne of his father. It says, “She fere with the matrilineal succession. The king as the found me appearing on the throne of Horus, […] She divine son of the god succeeded the throne of his was exceedingly joyful after seeing the beauty of His uncle or brother. Majesty, (just) as Isis saw her son Horus appearing on In Kush, the legitimacy of royal power as based the throne of his father Osiris.”74 The divine sonship on the ruler’s divine sonship was stated as a recurrent of the king as an incarnation of Horus is evident, but topos in royal documents from Piye onwards.69 it does not say that the king appeared on the throne Alara’s covenant with Amen is one example. In the of his father. covenant, Alara’s sisters were committed to Amen, The Kushite people borrowed the concept of the and then Alara asked Amen to grant kingship to divine sonship from Egyptian theology in order to his sisters’ offspring. Accordingly, Amen appointed bestow divinity upon the king, but this does not “his son” Taharqo a king, which means that Amen necessarily mean that they also adopted patrilinea- was his father and one of the royal women was his lity. mother. Török states that, conceptually, the covenant

68 In the Minangkabau society, a person outside the proper line of inheritance sometimes captures the traditional sta- tus position because of his money, fame, academic title, or other distinction (Kato, Matriliny and Migration, 216). 70 Török, The Kingdom of Kush, 234. Herodotus’s description of Aithiopia saying that the man 71 M. Ayad, God’s Wife, and God’s Servant: the God’s Wife among the citizens whom they find to be the tallest and of Amun (c.740-525 BC), London and New York, 2009, have strength in proportion to his height they find fit to 7. be king (FHN I: 326) may be a misunderstanding. It may 72 Contra Gozzoli, “Royal Sisters and Royal Legitimization have referred to the choice of the king from among the in the Nubian Period,” (Warsaw 2010) 485-486. biologically qualified candidates, not among the citizens. 73 Kahn, MittSAG 16 (2005) 158. 69 Török, The Kingdom of Kush, 267. 74 FHN I: 154.

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Conclusion Zusammenfassung

In conclusion, I would say that the deliberate and In diesem Aufsatz möchte ich für eine matrilineare coherent way the kinship titles were used indica- Erbfolge im kuschitischen Königtum argumentie- tes that the Kushite people used Iroquois or Crow ren. Eine der auf Texten basierenden Grundlagen kinship terminology. The genealogy of the 25th für die Akzeptierung einer Vater-Sohn-Beziehung Dynasty when reconstructed according to Iroquo- der Könige ist indirekt, indem einige der königlichen is/Crow kinship terminology shows a pattern of Frauen die beiden Titel snt nsw (Königsschwester) political power succession from a maternal uncle to und sAt nsw (Königstochter) tragen. Wenn jedoch his nephew, which is typical of a matrilineal society. die Kuschiten die Irokesen bzw. Crow-Terminologie I would like to argue that snw nswt designates the der Verwandtschaftsbezeichnungen verwenden, die king’s real brothers and maternal parallel cousins den gleichen Ausdruck für Geschwister und Parallel- in the biological sense, and they were biologically cousins gebraucht, dann bezeichnet snt nsw sowohl legitimated heirs to the throne. The prominence of eine Königsschwester als auch eine königliche Par- snt nswt and sn nswt in the inscriptions is the very allelcousine. testimony of matrilineal royal succession in Kush. Auch wenn eine Frau die Titel snt nsw und sAt nsw Although identification of Kushite kinship termino- trägt, kannn sie die Parallelcousine des regierenden logy as Iroquois/Crow kinship terminology needs Königs und die Tochter des Vorgängers sein. Der more discussion, the idea of interpreting the royal regierende König kann ein Neffe des Vorgängers succession in the 25th and Napatan Dynasties as sein. Die kohärente Weise, in der die Verwandt- matrilineal seems quite promising. schaftsbezeichnungen der königlichen Frauen (mwt nsw, snt nsw, sAt nsw) verwendet wurden, lässt darauf schließen, dass die kuschitische Verwandtschaftster- Summary minologie dem Irokesen/Crow-System entspricht. Die Genealogie der 25. Dyn., wenn sie anhand der In this paper, I would like to argue that the royal Irokesen/Crow-Terminologie rekonstruiert wird, succession of the Kushite Kingdom was matrilineal. zeigt das Muster einer königlichen Erbfolge vom One of the textual grounds for accepting the father- Onkel mütterlicherseits zum Neffen, was typisch son relationship of the kings is the indirect one that für matrilineare Gesellschaften ist. some royal women held both titles snt nswt (king’s sister) and sAt nswt (king’s daughter). However, if the Kushite people used Iroquois or Crow kinship ter- minology, which uses the same term for both siblings and parallel cousins, snt nswt denotes both a king’s sister and a king’s parallel cousin. If so, even though a woman had the titles sAt nswt and snt nswt, she could be a parallel cousin of the reigning king as well as a daughter of the previous king, and the reigning king could be a nephew of the previous king. The coherent way the kinship titles of the royal women, i.e., mwt nswt, snt nswt and sAt nswt, were used, as shown in this paper, indicates that Kushite kinship termino- logy was Iroquois/Crow. The genealogy of the 25th dynasty when reconstructed according to Iroquois/ Crow kinship terminology shows the pattern of the succession of the kingship from a maternal uncle to his nephew, which is typical of a matrilineal society.

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Appendix. Royal Women with kinship titles (based on Lohwasser Meroitica 19 (2001) 141-191, 245 Tabelle VIII)

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ISSN 0945-9502 Der antike Sudan. Mitteilungen der Sudanarchäologischen Gesellschaft zu Berlin e.V. Kurzcode: MittSAG

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Editorial ...... 5

Übersichtskarte ...... 6

Nachrichten aus Musawwarat

Claudia Näser Site management at Musawwarat es-Sufra 2014/15: concepts, measures and perspectives ...... 7

Peter Becker Löwentempel Musawwarat es-Sufra – die Renovierung des Dachtragwerks 2014/15 ...... 27

Claudia Näser & Manja Wetendorf The Musawwarat pottery project 2014/15 ...... 35

Fritz-Hintze-Vorlesung

Friederike Jesse Bollwerk im Niemandsland: Die Festung Gala Abu Ahmed zur Zeit der Pharaonen ...... 75

Aus der Archäologie

Yahia Fadol Tahir & Ahmed Hamid Nassr stone tools of El-Ga’ab depression A techno-typological study from the surface collection ...... 95

Angelika Lohwasser, Jana Eger & Tim Karberg Das Projekt Wadi Abu Dom Itinerary (W.A.D.I.) Kampagne 2015 ...... 109

Annett Dittrich, Kerstin Geßner, Sayantani Neogi, Maciej Ehlert & Nadine Nolde Holocene stratigraphies and sediments on Mograt Island (Sudan) – The second season of the Late Prehistoric Survey 2014/15 ...... 123

Jens Weschenfelder The Terminal cemetery in the funerary landscape of MOG034, Mograt Island, Sudan ...... 145

Jens Weschenfelder Preliminary report of the second and third field seasons at the Bronze Age cemetery MOG034 on Mograt Island, Sudan ...... 153

Tina Jakob Preliminary Bioarchaeological Analysis of the Human Remains from Mograt Island (MOG034), 2014 and 2015 ...... 169

Gareth Rees, Miriam Lahitte & Claudia Näser The Fortresses of Mograt Island Project ...... 177

Gemma Tully Community Archaeology in Sudan: Discovering Mograt Island together ...... 201 Inhaltsverzeichnis MittSAG 26

VARIA

Uwe Sievertsen Die Profanarchitektur der napatanischen Epoche ...... 205

Kumiko Saito The matrilineal royal Succession in the Empire of Kush: A new proposal Identifying the Kinship Terminology in the 25th and Napatan Dynasties as that of Iroquois/Crow ...... 233

Angelika Lohwasser Khonsu sitting IN ...... 245

Uroš Matiü Die „römischen“ Feinde in der meroitischen Kunst ...... 251

Joanna Then-Obłuska “Jewels of Ancient Nubia” – a glance through the eye bead from Berenike ...... 263

Alexey K. Vinogradov The Many-Eyed Thinker from Meroe ...... 267

Michael H. Zach Meroe in der österreichischen Reiseliteratur des 19. Jahrhunderts ...... 277