Hybrid Design-to-Build: Fusing Two Cultures of Makers

A thesis submitted to the Graduate School of the University of Cincinnati in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of:

Master of Architecture School of Architecture and Interior Design College of Design, Architecture, Art, and Planning 2017

Thomas Covert

Bachelor of Science in Architectural Engineering Technology College of Engineering and Applied Science University of Cincinnati April 2014

Committee Chair: Elizabeth Riorden, M.Arch

Committee Member: Udo Greinacher, M.Arch ABSTRACT

This thesis proposal investigates the shortcomings between the craft, the making, and the building within the architectural design process and promotes the possibilities of a more simultaneous approach to making architecture. The outcome will be the evocation of a skillset such as that of a hybrid between architect and builder, and will study and analyze the impacts of the proposed process on a specific project and the community in which it resides. The argument will be for a more synchronized approach when producing architecture and will attempt to curtail the amount of “copy and paste” drafting, and coordinating, while integrating the actual – the tectonic building, the innovative making, and the embodied craft that is so sequential and arguably nonexistent within today’s typical architectural practice.

The methodology within the architectural practice is inherently flawed, specifically related to the lack of control and understanding related to construction. There is an obvious disconnect between the entities of the builder and the architect. As a result, architects typically rely on books of graphic standard details, digital libraries of detail components, and 3D building information modeling software to convey their now “standard” intent. This linear process enables habits of “copy/paste” architecture resulting in standard buildings with standard detailing- no uniqueness, no response to context, just a homogeneous state of basic repetition no matter where the demand lies. By integrating explorations of building, craft, and “making” into the design process, one can argue the positive effects that it will have on the design, the architect, the builder, and the community.

TABLE OF CONTENTS IMAGE CREDITS

INTRODUCTION 01 IMAGE 01 By Author

HYPOTHESIS 08 IMAGE 02 Kieran, S. & Timberlake, J. (2004). Managing Intelligence. Refabricating Architecture: How Manufacturing Methodologies THE GAP BETWEEN ARCHITECT & BUILDER 09 are Poised to Transform Building Construction. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill. 22. EDUCATION 12 IMAGE 03 By Author THE PRODUCTION BASED DESIGN PROCESS 15 IMAGE 04 By Author THE IDEATION BASED DESIGN PROCESS 22 IMAGE 05 Ford assembly line, 1913. Accessed March 17,2017. https:// THE HYBRID DESIGN-BUILD PROCESS 25 en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mass_production

RECONNECTING TO LOCAL TRADES 31 IMAGE 06 Traditional Design- Bid-Build. Accessed March 17, 2017. http:// www.architectmasterbuilder.com/advantages.html. VERNACULAR ARCHITECTURE & REGIONALISM 36 IMAGE 07 By Author THE PROJECT 38 IMAGE 08 Architect-Led Design-Build. Accessed March 17, 2017. http:// SITE SELECTION & ANALYSIS 41 www.architectmasterbuilder.com/advantages.html.

TYPOLOGY & PROGRAM 45 IMAGE 09 By Author

CONSTRUCTION METHOD AS A DRIVER 49 IMAGE 10 By Author

COMMUNITY ENGAGEMENT 53 PROJECT By Author IMAGES THE PROJECT OUTCOME 55 (PP 39-62)

GLOSSARY 63

BIBLIOGRAPHY 66 INTRODUCTION IMAGE 01 - Diagram illustrating the two extremes within the architectural design process, linear and sequential typical production based process to the design through making & experimentation based process

03 04 There exists a problem regarding the relationship between the intent of architectural “Why is the architect not more of a part in the construction process? …Can the excitement of building, the drawings and the way they are comprehended. For example, this problem includes the builders themselves, and the construction site become part of the education process and, inevitably, the practice of transition from a drawing to a building, the lines on the paper being representational but not an architect? How can a didactic practice that resides, as two so separate parts for nearly 1500 years be more 2 always accurate, the unclear graphical communication, and most importantly the enormous complementary?”

amount of time that is lost when explaining the often-misunderstood assemblies. There is a Innovation typically does not happen in the architectural capacities, but is often put in the general perception that the architect has seldom tested the drawing and lacks the knowledge hands of product engineers or consultants, contractors, or craftspeople miles away, disconnected of construction; their understanding of the physical makeup is lost. On the other end, the from the very minds that conceive it. Bob Sheil, of the Bartlett School, states that architectural contractor misunderstands the intent; the lines are representational but not true, nor accurate. As design does not end as the tools of fabrication are put into action. Making is a discipline that can a result, complications include the notion that builders do not understand drawings. There is a investigate rather than merely solve ideas; in other words, a design process. 3 misrepresentation demonstrated by the architect, the intent is lost due to this misunderstanding, Similarly, David Pye states that design of any kind is a matter of trial and error. There are and because of the architect’s lack of knowledge in assembly, builders are responsible for always some trial assumptions which no calculation or drawing can verify. Evidence of this theory conveying the intent based on what they are familiar with, not what is intended. There is a was apparent last summer when a classmate and I designed a conference table off a mere sketch, perception that an architect’s inability to relate to the very hands that are responsible in carrying not knowing the limitations of the materials until tested. The tests became the process. 4 out the design results in a disconnect between the design of the space and skill-set of the

craftsperson. The embodiment of craft and its articulation is lost in the translation, or worse Through the often improperly executed architectural intent, there are apparent failures in never conceived. A potential solution for combating this problem would be to increase the level the built environment, specifically the materials interacting with other materials and the logic of of understanding related to construction, its methods, and techniques as a means of design. assembly. Is this the fault of the designer or builder? My own educational experience reveals a This is not an argument to prove or deny any certain established design method of practice, but harsh divide between architect and builder. With a back ground as a residential builder, eventually simply an effort to create mindfulness of the impacts and possibilities of design happening within transitioning to engineering school to study architectural engineering technology, and currently the craft and building process. These often-practiced habits disregard the realities of material, concentrating on architecture while pursuing Master of Architecture, the inevitable ideologies of assembly, and their limitations. This results in a lack of innovation, creativity, and embodied craft. my past are hard to deny. In the past, I encountered the opinion that the architect does not know

“Construction sites reveal the way a building is made. The life of a structure is marked when the materials are what they are drawing, however now I hear architects stating that the builders do not know how stacked, when some order is assembled amid the chaos of activity at a site. Building sites are intriguing because to interpret what has been drawn. The literal sense that was so much a part of my life cannot of their potential; the materials could become anything.” 1 be ignored and should not be, even though now I find myself among the architectural world of abstraction and sometimes fantasy. This means of making architecture is often praised and very Construction can often be the designer’s most exciting moment, a design that was on paper much should be, to inspire although knowing that some of these proposals are so far from reality coming to life, a figure that was once an imagination now able to give presence, but as designers that it is lost in all the algorithmic and parametric provocative volumes that make up the intrigue we are not part of this process, in fact we are expected to make essential decisions through emails or phone calls.

2 Carpenter, W. (1997). Learning by Building: Design Construction in Architecture Education. New York. Van Norstrand Reinhold. 14 1 Carpenter, W. (1997). Learning by Building: Design Construction in Architecture Education. New York. Van 3 Sheil, R. (2005). Design through Making. Great Britain. 8-11 Norstrand Reinhold. 107 4 Pye, D. The Nature and Aesthetics of Design. (1978). London. Herbert Press. 90-96

05 06 that infatuate us. Although very grateful to be a part of the digital parametric age, I see it as lead construction and the impacts that it could have on empowering a community. removed from making, constructing, and producing architecture of evident human qualities that can be spiritual and cultural symbols. I must ask myself is this how I want to practice? – shall I ignore the years prior to architectural school and ignore the realities and constraints of the built HYPOTHESIS actualities that were once the rule of my education? By submerging the architect or designer in conversions about construction, building, and According to Marco Frascari, craftsmanship, it is hoped that innovative thinking related to materials, assembly, and methods

“Consequently, the understanding and execution of details constitute the basic process by which the can transpire. Reconnecting a community to local and regional vernacular artistry can be architectural practice and theories should be developed.”5 transformative; the collaboration needed for skilled craft training, strategic building design and assembly, is a human interaction that generates a new creative spirit. This is not to say that the entire process must be imagined first, on the contrary, it is arguably impossible to do so. However, the idea related to the construction and necessary means and methods assists in the development of the design and articulation of the details.

In an interview with Terry Boling, architect and associate professor at The University of Cincinnati, he explains that in his opinion, mapping these details out is necessary; however pre- conceptualizing the entire process is unreasonable.

“How can you pre-imagine everything, every detail and every surface? You can’t. I need to be in the space and feel the space. I think of it as a kind of slow architecture.” 6

The architect is in the peripheral of the production of a building. They are disengaged in the process of construing architecture that was once fetishized. As Kieran and Timberlake state, they are separated and “siloed”. 7 My thinking is that there should be a hybrid model of practice, operating as a collaborative team. Within the team there are specialized members such as detailing experts, structural experts, and most importantly craft experts; i.e. metal workers, fabricators, masons, carpenters etc. This team works under the design-build platform, not only regarding the design of the building, but also within the execution. It is essential therefore, to IMAGE 02 - Diagram from Kieran & Timberlake’s Refabricating Architecture - “Siloed” reconnect to the trades because of the enhanced communication, the personal understanding relationship vs their proposed integrated and centralized relationship amongst the various entities involved in the architectural design process what is required, and the joint responsibility amongst all stakeholders. Ideally, this trades education and collaboration would take place on a local level and spark the possibilities of design

5 Frascari, M. (1984). The Building of Architecture: Theorizing a New Agenda for Architecture. Princeton. 23-37 6 Gustin, G. & Boling, T. (2009). Home Schooled. Dwell Magazine. 16, January 7 Timberlake, J. & Kieran, S. (2004). Refabricating Architecture. New York. McGraw Hill. 101

07 08 THE GAP BETWEEN ARCHITECT & BUILDER

IMAGE 03 - Diagram illustrating and relationship between the architect and builder

10 During medieval times the title architect and builder were merely the same, and certainly on aspects of building originally linked with construction are given to the constructor, as the architect the same level of class and profession. Design was often performed on site by carpenters, masons, concentrates on theoretical and aesthetic concerns. The architect should not remain distant from and other trades. They learned these professions through a long series of practical experiences the act of making. This is not to say that the architect must build everything, but the architect and through the linked experience of mentorship and promotion. Thus, the journeyman became should not simply observe: the architect should be immersed in the potential of construction and the master craftsman through making mistakes, experimentation, and effort. These artists also its conception. underwent a formative experience in the wander year. During this year, they went to various EDUCATION building sites and performed different crafts to learn a well-rounded way of seeing a building. Architectural education was formalized by the early 1800s and with that formalization the Within the Renaissance movement, Leon Alberti devised his architectural theories, thus divide between builders and architects increased. separating the profession in two – architect & builder, deeming the builder to be subordinate and of an inferior class than the holistically minded architect. I do not know if the impact of “...the early 1800’s at the Ecole des Beaux Arts in Paris, the designer was encouraged to formulate this book and ideas of separation were intended to change the way the profession is conducted, an esquisse drawing to capture the intention of the design… The tectonics of the buildings only emerged in the detailed watercolor plans, elevations, and sections. Construction was removed from the design process. A but since these separate designations, the trend has slowly divided these two to be in the ultimate two-dimensional analogue replaced the building itself. Even the three-dimensional model was removed from the disconnect as they are today. design process.” 9 “In 1485, a mistake was made in Leon Battista Alberti’s On the Art of Building in Ten Books. In his prologue, Alberti describes an innovative practice in architecture as an art, but attempts to separate the In opposition to the pedagogies at the Ecole des Beaux Arts, German Meisterfklasse architect from the constructor. He describes a definition for an architect: “Before I go any further, however, I offered architectural workshops taught by practicing architects. This approach later influenced think I should explain exactly whom I mean by architect: for it is no carpenter that I would have you compare to the mentality of the Bauhaus during the early 1900’s, led by famous architects, Henry Van de the greatest exponents of the other disciplines; the carpenter is but an instrument in the hands of an architect.” 8 Velde, Walter Gropius, and Mies van der Rohe. As mentioned this eschewed the attitude of the Beaux Arts for a craft-based approach where a collaborative approach with the allied arts was the After reading this, it begs the questions; could a composer orchestrate a symphony without foundation. playing an instrument? Could a coach lead players to victory having never played the game? Could a director manage a film having never acted? It may be argued yes they could, but certainly “The education of the architect entered the tectonic realm of study again, harking back to the medieval not as well. arts and crafts guilds and the spirit of making....Our drawings depict intention to fabricators and builders who then give form to the intention“ 10 Is this flaw the beginning of architects seeing themselves above and different from builders? Is it a slight miscalculation that slowly guided the profession in the wrong direction? In their essays, Kieran and Timberlake compare the building design process and production to the automotive industries, and state that the building productivity has been in a downward The Latin word architectus is derived from the Greek archi (a person of authority) and trajectory. Similarly, with each cycle of declining productivity, the loss of control understandably tekton (builder, fabricator, craftsman). Theory (conception) and practice (construction) have not deepens. Kieran and Timberlake also depict how the market and industries’ cost and time has always assumed equal status. The role of theory has been eclipsed by practice. As a result, the

9 Carpenter, W. (1997). Learning by Building: Design and Construction in Architecture Education. New York. Van 8 Carpenter, W. (1997). Learning by Building: Design and Construction in Architecture Education. New York. Van Norstand Reinhold. 67, 103 Norstand Reinhold 127, 98 10 Kieran, S. & Timberlake, J. (2006). Future Worlds: Urgent Reflections on the Design of Practice. New York

11 12 spiked while craft and quality and scope have declined. Could this be a product of the lack of knowledge and understanding of construction, material assembly, and the methods used to construct? Kieran and Timberlake also state that these trends are a resultant of the lack of control that the architect has during the process of producing a building. It is this lack of control, which I will attempt to combat with in this thesis investigation.

Furthermore, from Kieran and Timberlake’s essay Urgent Reflections on the Design of Practice, they emphasize on the limitations and restrictions set by the litigation and bureaucracy behind the practice and profession of architecture. Organizations such as the AIA outline the means in which an architectural profession should practice, ultimately even more so distancing the relationship amongst designer and constructor. Currently the AIA’s suggested Owner- Architect agreement excludes the means and methods of construction from participation and even comment by the architect. The legislating restrictive ideals are inhibiting the relationship that was once so much a manifesto of the outcome or the architecture. These rules must be changed in order for the reconnection to be realized by the practice in its entirety.

I realize that this thesis will not solve this issue immediately or maybe even years from now, but if it simply is that an awareness of the positive impacts of kinesthetic learning through the building and construction processes are revealed by this investigation, then I would deem it a success. I intend this thesis to raise an awareness of the importance to reconnect architecture to the labor force. Knowledge of the means and methods within the required skill sets of the various trades can help drive efficient craft, and locally based design.

What if instead of pages and pages of detail drawings with lines and abstract poches being handed to contractors to build, mock-ups of the detail were made, crafted and fabricated by architects and then presented or transferred? Would this paralleled approach minimize hours spent drafting, detailing, figuring out assemblies? Does the architect’s role and perception become more in tune with that of a builder or fabricator, and suggest a clear understanding of the methods of the actual built environment? Could there be a measurable outcome compared to a standard commodified building which indicates the amount of detail necessary to make the typical detail unique? Finally, could awareness be raised in promoting more character and decreasing the copy-and-paste habits of the linear practice? To change the outcome, must one change the process?

13 14 THE PRODUCTION BASED DESIGN PROCESS IMAGE 04 - Diagram illustrating and simplifying the often linear and sequential design process based on production and efficiency

16 The first design process I examine is a process that is driven solely on means of production The pre-caster, Gate Precast Co., was brought onto the project early to help work through design and limited risk – quick, efficient, safe, and lucrative. It is solely fashioned to meet the economic issues. limits of cost and time, but neglecting the demands of quality and scope of a project. This “As architects, we’re generalists, says Michael Zensen, Vice President of CannonDesign, the architectural firm on the architectural design process is often sequential, typically operating under the project delivery project.” 13 method of Design–Bid-Build. Construction Management at Risk is the contractual agreement that can be relevant to this process and an efficient means in which one would totally Our knowledge can go only so deep into a particular specialty area, and capabilities are remove the designer from direct interaction with the client. As a substitute, a construction different among different suppliers. The depth of knowledge relating to the specifics is limited due manager plays the middle-man in the design and construction communications with the client. to the demand for efficiency, and need to produce the bid-able documents. The project becomes a This business platform is very much separate from the very hands responsible for its conception budget driven design not affording the testing of any sort of new design ideas. It becomes similar and can result often in a homogeneous, commodified product, which is mass-produced. This is to that of an assembly line or repeated tasks. The idea is so one-track focused, it loses its creativity, often disconnected from any real identity or personalization. it loses its idea.

“Commodification Leads to Branding. The extreme marketing and mass production of an artifact leads I compare this process of producing architecture to Henry Ford and his assembly line for to a common recognizably and an expected value. The artifact transcends art and commodity to become solely a the model T in the 1920’s in which one person is responsible for one task day in and day out. It product, reducing the architect/designer to a mere stylist.” 11 has proven very lucrative with its basis and emphasis being on the mass produced but the original idea is lost. Instead, it becomes a branding element or glorified commodity, or worse, absence of As Craig A. Shutt states in an article in Ascent magazine by Precast/Prestressed Concrete art. Institute, regarding project delivery, collaboration and expertise.

“Using this delivery method, the owner uses a single procurement to secure preconstruction and construction services, according to the Federal Register, the daily journal of the federal government. This allows the owner to receive the contractor’s input on constructability issues and provide early input on design issues, the environmental-review processes, and other factors that will impact costs, schedule, and quality. The CM/GC method has proven to be an effective method of project delivery, the Register notes. Utilizing the contractor’s unique construction expertise in the design phase can offer innovations, best practices, reduced costs, and reduced schedule risks” 12

These articles reference using a pre-engineered system of concrete panels, and again support my argument that there is a certain mentality and emphasis to produce buildings using a certain set of parts, products or commodities, verses designing the wall panel systems themselves

and the necessary tests involved. When describing the project, Shutt states that the building’s IMAGE 05 - Ford Model T assembly line, workers were responsible for one task, one structural steel frame was clad with architectural precast concrete panels and glass curtain wall. small piece of the greater whole day in and day out as a means of efficient production

11 Kieran, S. & Timberlake, J. (2004) Refabricating Architecture. New York. McGraw Hill. 6 12 Shutt, C. (2016) Ascent Magazine. Precast Concrete Institute. Vol. 53 13 Shutt, C. (2016) Ascent Magazine. Precast Concrete Institute. Vol. 53

17 18 Could this process could be a result of the professional practice guidelines set in place by the AIA? Since 1859, when the American Institute of Architects formed, a clear demarcation was made that isolated the architect from the contractor. The AIA, provided contractual agreements, practice management principles, and various means in which architects are meant to run their firms.

Could this process, so much removed from the construction aspect of architecture be a result of the educational pedagogy? To further elaborate, is it where the realities of the built are but an abstraction eclipsed by form based design? Or is it extruded volumes conceived by computer programs, instead of the minds and hands that derive the idea and conduct the assembling?

“There are over one hundred schools of architecture in the U.S.; less than ten have design/build programs. In many cases, a construction studio is viewed as an oddity by students who from drafting tables look out upon “the crazy people” who would build something in school.” 14

By the lack of construction related understanding within the institutional setting there is now reliance upon the constructor to execute the intent of the design. The process of design become of a means of how fast one can get the drawings to the level of bid or construction. These documents can be vague and unpredictable in the mind of a builder. During the bid stage where the estimator who knows the means, methods, and knowledge of the required construction

techniques, puts into perspective the realities the architect’s design. IMAGE 06 - Diagram illustrating the traditional Design-Bid-Build project delivery method demonstrates the separation of the design and construction; this is the “In architecture today, the construction documents define the limit of the architect’s roles. Despite the operating platform of most architectural practices. designer’s customary obligation to oversee construction of his work to completion, rarely does this supervisory experience in making find its way back to the drawings. The drive for maximum efficiency in today’s processes do not allow it” 15

14 Carpenter, W. (1997). Learning by Building: Design and Construction in Architecture Education. New York. Van Norstand Reinhold. 11 15 Ibid., 13.

19 20 THE IDEATION BASED DESIGN PROCESS

IMAGE 07 - Diagram illustrating and simplifying the kinesthetic understandings obtained within the ideation based design process

22 My theoretical approach is very much based on the principles that every aspect within Kieran and Timberlake state, the design of a building needs to be customized, cohesively synchronized, and harmoniously “what motivates us is the art of architecture – the making of beautiful buildings that elevate us all synthesized through the design’s entirety. There are drawbacks to these principles with modern through the fusion of purpose with place, craft and ethical design. For us this aspiration requires control, deep day demands of productivity and efficiency related to cost and time required to run a successful control, the ability to consistently and insistently translate idea into form, intention into substance. Our drawings business. Since everything is an original idea it therefore needs to be tested, and this takes time, depict intention to the fabricators and builders who then give form to the intention. Most art is about controlled resources, and specialized skill sets. Every aspect of a building down to the door handle can be translation of vision into form. The problem today, however, is that this ideal of controlled translation is under designed, meaning there is an original idea for every component. assault.” 17

When describing this process, one word can summarize the ideals and principles in which According to Kieran and Timberlake’s Refabricating Architecture, to operate under this the design is based. That word is Gesamtkunstwerk, originally used to describe the total process and have this “deep control”, one needs to refer to oneself as process engineer, opposed to work of art relating to theater and opera in the mid nineteenth century in Germany. It was an architect. not until the arts and crafts movement and the rejection and fear of the rise of industrialism “For it is the process engineer who Architecture requires control, deep control, not merely of an idea, but that the word was used to describe the expression of architecture. Gesamtkunstwerk in also the stuff we use to give form to the idea... while the world of architecture has grown ever more wasteful, relation to architecture is the concept of no separation between arts and crafts, one unifying disposable, splintered, and specialized, the process engineer flourishes in the fluid integration of makers by design, representing all aspects of art form and beauty understood as all the same style. Within dissolving, not reinforcing, boundaries between thinkers and makers. The world wants to know: Why does architecture during the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, there was a growing measure to architecture remain immune to transformation and progress? Why is it that the master builders of today arise control every aspect of the design of a building, from the design of its interiors, furniture, carpets, from the ranks of the process engineer, not the architect?” 18 wallpaper, door handles, lighting fixtures and even silver and chinaware. This approach promoted The limitations set by the practice nearly inhibit one to practice in a way that can produce a identity, craftsmanship, and innovative and exploratory design thinking. 16 mastery of customized detailing, fixtures, and materials. As I have stated previously, these ideas of The Art Nouveau, as well as the Arts and Crafts architecture is perhaps one of the most creativity and ingenuity need to be tested, but the fact that there is not time nor a place to test is beloved movements due to the spiritually of its makers, its craftsman, and the extensive labor the foremost concern. efforts needed to build to the design’s expectations. I have to ponder the question, would this Frank Lloyd Wright, perhaps one of the masters of this total work of art possessed a desire architecture be so beloved and respected if the craft was not present, if the mark of the maker was for this “deep control”. His efforts, particularly related to the Usonian house, to have this control not evident, and the sensational qualities of the human touch not apparent? was to eliminate the general contractor to the greatest extent possible. The general contractor was The morals of the ideation based process are proven rich and spiritual, encompassing all to be substituted by an architectural intern to oversee the completion of work. However, today the arts under one pleasantly orchestrated umbrella. Abiding by the demand of today, I must ask legalities prevent this. The AIA Owner-Architect Agreement excludes the “means and methods how can we achieve a design of this standard, what are the requirements, what are the obstacles of construction” from participation and even comment by the architect. Not only does time and that we must overcome? Perhaps the most critical and successful firms of the industries’ practice efficiency constitute a design, but also the very legal outlines that are set in place as a means of is Kieran and Timberlake. operation of the architectural practice.

16 Vidalis, M. (2010). Total Work of Art. Anti Architecture: Architectural Monologues. Athens 17 Kieran, S. & Timberlake, J. (2006) Future Worlds. New York. 81 IWN Publishers. 18 Kieran, S. & Timberlake, J. (2004). Refabricating Architecture. New York. McGraw Hill. 12

23 24 THE HYBRID DESIGN + BUILD PROCESS

IMAGE 08 - Diagram illustrating the pros and cons of the two extreme processes and the hypothetical output when merging the two in relation to the proposed project solution typology

26 Do not get this process confused with the typical design-build process, which is often “The role of the architect in this evolving world of construction processes remains squarely centered practiced and well accepted within the industry. The typical design-build process is based on on an architecture formed about an idea of use and place, but we must also have tentacles extended deep into earlier cost certainty and earlier access to the trades for design detailing. assembly, products, and materials. While we cannot return to the idea of the master builder, embodied in a single person, the architect can force the integration of several spun off disciplines of architecture-construction, “Design-builders (note that the term is not architect-builders) are just that: they design and they build. product engineering, and materials science-all with the aim of reuniting substance with intent” 22 In no way do they aspire to master building. Design-builders work in the segments of the market that are driven by low cost and fast schedule. They select from the building products available but do not push product The solution operates as a team, much like Sweden’s A.B. Volvo’s concept and approach to engineering and they probably have never even thought about materials science. Their artifacts are buildings, not assembling their cars. For the past 30 years, architecture.” 19 “Volvo’s Kalmar facility on the east coast of Sweden has for a been pulling away from the assembly Given the definitions of the problematic processes condoned within the industry and their line manufacturing, in which one worker does the same single task over and over again. Work teams of about products of homogeneity, it is time to realize a solution. Especially considering that commodified 20 people are responsible for putting together entire units of the car where each worker typically does a series of tasks. Volvo has discovered that workers are much happier under the Kalmar approach. And that has resulted buildings and unaffordable architecture which can only be obtained by the mere 1% of the in sharply improved productivity and quality, as well as profits…. I want people in a team to be able to go home population. To change the outcome, we must change the process. at night and say, ‘I built that car’ said Volvo’s chairman. Volvo’s workers share the dream. In their view, the “The first act of design in this world beyond the old equilibrium is the redesign for the relations among non-assembly line production at Kalmar has not gone far enough. Worker surveys show that 90 percent prefer those responsible for the making of things. The single most devastating consequence of modernism has been the the less-structured pre-assembly work to the more regimented assembly tasks on the carriers, even when the pace embrace of a process that segregates designers from makers: The architect has been separated from the contractor, of the pre-assembly operations is faster. Because each worker typically performs a series of tasks, the ‘’cycle and the material scientist has been isolated from the product engineer.” 20 times’’ - or the period that a worker has to complete his assignment - are often several minutes instead of the several seconds common on an assembly line. In addition, the workers in a team are taught to do several jobs, not The process no longer becomes linear, but evolves into an integration amongst producers, only to escape monotony but also to fill in for sick or vacationing workers.” 23 designers, assemblers, and material specialists. The combined aptitude of relevant disciplines is used to inspire and create. During the design, process an architect may often ask oneself if a certain instance needs to be fully designed or can a simple specified product solve the problem? An example of this “Architects are Designers. We define and propose solutions to problems. The first act of design however situation would be when designing a roof for a building and debating on a pre-engineered truss has to be the design of the practice itself. We must recognize that architecture is practice and that we have an system vs. a stick built rafter system. One clearly results in more efficiency than the other, but in ethical obligation to design ourselves to get better with each successive act of architecture” 21 turn, the other has more architectural value, sensational qualities and articulation that has sought It is evident that not one individual can be responsible for all of the constituents that after effects on the one experiencing the space below. contribute to the production of a building, however what must occur is ongoing and active The modernist movement in architecture throughout the twentieth century was based collaboration, as well as conversation between all stakeholders. on the principles and dreams of machine production. The goal was to produce housing as a commodity for the consumption of general humankind. At this point in time, the handcraft is now but an understanding left over from the prior century.

19 Kieran, S. & Timberlake, J. (2006). Future Worlds. New York. 81 20 Ibid., 83. 22 Kieran, S. & Timberlake, J. (2004). Refabricating Architecture. New York. McGraw Hill. 31 21 Ibid., 84. 23 Lohr, S. (1987). Making Cars the Volvo Way. The New York Times. Sweden

27 28 “The Hand and the Machine. Handcraft was once the tool of commodity, but today it is the machine that is the tool of commodity” 24

Given this didactic, one must ask, is there a way to both provide handcraft and affordability? Must this handcraft be mass produced? How can something that is machine produced be engaged by the human handcrafts?

In relation to the past,

“when things were made by hand, economies in the expenditure of this energy came about naturally. The designer was often one and the same with the maker. The barn was designed by those who raised it and used it; the factory was designed by the engineer or owner who built it. Building was at one with the laws of economy of pure form that we associate with vernacular building was sure to follow.” 25

This quote leads into the next chapter, which talks about the hands involved, and how something that starts as a commodity can become an art, and how this art can emerge from a community and identify a cultural spirit that previously did not exist.

IMAGE 08 - Diagram of the Architect-Led-Design-Build project delivery method illustrating the information feedback loop during the progress of a project; this operating platform is gaining popularity amongst architectural practices

24 Kieran, S. & Timberlake, J. (2004) Refabricating Architecture. New York. McGraw Hill. 5 25 Ibid.

29 30 RECONNECTING TO LOCAL TRADES

IMAGE 09 - Diagram illustrating the proposed collaborative relationship that the architect should have amongst the local trades

32 Reconnecting to local trades is about recoupling the trades to the architect, the hand with Architectural service is appreciated and accessible (at least directly) by a small minority.” 28 the mind, and the idea to the work. Additionally, it is about solidifying the relationship between In addition, Charles Eames believed in a collaborative partnership between entities and the architect and the apprentice. To expand upon this idea, it is a means in which craft can be elaborated as such. passed down. As an architect, one must take more of a responsibility to act to bridge the gap between oneself and the contractor. There is a problem with production-based design and a “The architect must take more of a responsibility when it comes to the construction and the craft. An problem with the ideation based design. Being neither effective, nor efficient, these gaps must absence of architect involvement suggests an absence of a host with a group of guests patiently awaiting their be taken into consideration. Not only must they be considered, but solutions or a plan of action arrival.”

must be established in order to improve. To support this theory, I relied on the ideas of registered Eames felt that this was one of the most basic, even primal, human relationships. Every architect and licensed builder, Clinton Cole. society in the world valued this relationship. It existed in a nomad’s tent and a raja’s court. He

“Architects focus on a large number of small issues with only peripheral exploration of one of the most felt that it was also part of how one designed an exhibition or a chair or a building. He often obvious solutions to our collective issues, a solution that stares at us plainly, sometimes painfully, and always suggested that one of the challenges of the modern city was that if we are all guests, then “who with great frustration, every day we go to work. Traditional Architectural services as they have been performed are the hosts?” for the past 100 years are dying a very slow and painful death and the bulk of our issues around low incomes, He also reiterated the necessity of connecting the design to the trade. long hours of work, lack of recognition, relegation to sub-consultant status under a Project Manager, innovation

to Builders and partial services concluding at 1:100 scale drawings are clear signs that our struggle for relevance “I do not think that there is any single group who use the words “craft” and “craftsman” with deeper

26 and ineffective cries of advocacy are symptomatic of a professional model that has reached its expiration date.” respect than architects do, and if there is a name I would like to copyright it is the name craftsman...”

Similar to this way of thinking, consideration must be given to what is executed correctly “The richness that a craftsman working for himself in a simple and direct way gradually brings to and incorrectly in order to make necessary adjustments and modifications. our society cannot be overestimated. Society needs this. The only contention I would have with the individual craftsman, or with a group of them working for themselves and for the satisfactions they get from their work, is “I believe that each project should take both the successes and the failures of our last project and refine in those areas in which the individual craftsman is uncraftsmanlike. And this is the most damning thing that you and resolve those outcomes for the benefit of the next. The additional layer of construction, costing, project can say about the majority of the craftsmen.” 29 management and fast paced cash flow management presents significant opportunities for growth, refinement and opportunity compared to traditional Architectural services.” 27 This is also in relation to architects needing to take more responsibility in relation to the craft. In relation to his work contributing to the practice and the perception of architecture, Cole explains, “The same is true of architects. Architects are just as bound craftsmen. So are educators. Therefore, when I point the finger of uncraftsmanship to some of the craftsmen, I am pointing it all around the circle to all “Architecture is invisible to the majority. There is very little understanding of what Architects actually other areas. This is the problem of our time. … Craftsmen need to examine the mechanics of production and do amongst the broader community. Architects surround themselves with other Architects, read Architectural the results and relationships in industry. Mutual understanding will do much for both. It will help build up a literature, join Architectural associations and industry bodies and many form personal and business relationships feeling of craft in industry, to industry’s and the craftsman’s and society’s benefit” 30 (and often both) with other Architects. There is no denying that the inherent value of an Architect and an

28 Cole, C. (2015). Archioninja. Architects who Build. 26 Cole, C. (2015). Archioninja. Architects who Build. 29 Eames, C. (2013). Eames Demetrios: An Eames Primer. New York. Universe Publishing. 113 27 Ibid. 30 Ibid.

33 34 Since Mockbee’s death, Rural Studio has stayed true to Mockbee’s original vision while expanding the scope of its work. Now led by Andrew Freear, students still interact, communicate As explained by Hannah Arendt, political theorist, there are three types of activities in the and collaborate with their clients. Building costs continue to be kept to a minimum using salvaged production of artifacts: labor, work, and action. She defines labor as simple biological process, or recycled building materials. But project designs have become larger scale and have segued from work as an activity, and action as the transactions between people. Work is thus informed by will single-family homes to community structures — parks, firehouses, churches, etc. and craft is an extension of this. Construction is a creative act. The construction process employs design, theory, and building into a seamless relationship. Would a place to educate architects and “It’s not about your greatness as an architect, but your compassion”.34 apprentices be ideal for bridging this gap between parties?31 It would be ideal to create and establish within local communities, teaching students the A similar approach, concept, or reflection of the need for architects to be connected trade, partnering them with architects, and allowing them to collaborate for the greater good of with the pieces they compose is currently in practice at Auburn University through Samuel the city or environment. Mockbee’s Rural Studio Program. Students participating in this program use their design-build Similar to this approach is the offerings at a small college in Charleston, South Carolina. skills to construct a home for a family in need. They create and construct everything without American College of the Building Arts is the only college in the United States to offer a Bachelor any assistance from outside contractors. Their designs are sustainable, cost efficient, and bold degree in traditional building trades. This institution seeks to revive the fine building trades and created based on the needs of the family. In 1992, Mockbee was hired as a professor within and offer programs to students that recover and promote trades that have arguably declined Auburn University’s School of Architecture. Viewing the opportunity as his chance to make a substantially. Students can choose one of the six specializations areas, which include architectural difference in a community and work with younger generations, he co-founded the Rural Studio stone, carpentry, forged architectural iron, masonry, plasterwork, and timber framing. Ideally, with longtime friend and colleague D.K. Ruth. a program like this, along with the addition of architectural planning and design courses would “The main purpose of the Rural Studio is to enable each student to step across the threshold of allow ongoing collaboration in a design/build theme. misconceived opinions and to design/build with a ’moral sense’ of service to a community. It is my hope that the “The graduate here has learned both the art and the science of preservation and new construction,” 35 experience will help the student of architecture to be more sensitive to the power and promise of what they do, to be more concerned with the good effects of architecture than with good intentions. As an artist or an architect, I says Colby M. Broadwater III, an educator at the college. have the opportunity to address wrongs and try to correct them,” 32 Mockbee once said.

To date, Rural Studio has constructed more than 80 homes and civic buildings in Hale County. However, the structures Mockbee and his students created relied first on “spiritual comfort” 25 — Mockbee wanted those who used them to feel a difference in their lives.

“An architect can help us discover what is noble and help create the opportunity for people to realize their innate nobility.” 33

31 Arendt, H. (2013). The Human Condition. London. University of Chicago Press. 32 Hursley, T. & Oppenheinmer, D. A. (2002). Rural Studio: Samuel Mockbee & an Architecture of Decency. New 34 Hursley, T. & Oppenheinmer, D. A. (2002). Rural Studio: Samuel Mockbee & an Architecture of Decency. New York. Princeton Architectural Press. 154. York. Princeton Architectural Press. 154. 33 Ibid. 35 Urban, C. (2016). American College of the Building Arts. Charleston.

35 36 VERNACULAR ARCHITECTURE AND REGIONALISM

In association with the concept of improved design, synchronized trades education and community involvement in construction, vernacular architecture and the idea of regionalism must be expanded upon. The availability of resources from the area, local needs, and local traditions influences the necessity for construction that reflects all three. The abundance of brick, wood, stone, and iron impact and inspire the design and construction within our area. The value of constructed and rehabilitated buildings has arguably increased because of its connection with the people of the community and the fact that a collaborative effort was established between architect, designer, builder, and laborers. This is reiterated within Architectural Record Magazine in a spotlight focused on the importance of vernacular architecture as it relates to regionalism and the necessity to make decisions based on local traditions and resources available.

“Similarly, an architect’s creative powers need not act in a vacuum; they are nourished by the world he lives in, by the people he knows and with whom he must deal, by the things he sees and the things he has learned, and also by old symbols and forms. Thus, the greater his understanding, the greater scope will his creative powers have, all within such a sphere his contributions will have lasting significance.” 36

With that being said, there is even more reason to incorporate local materials within the courses and projects of the proposed integrated design trade school. This incorporation allows for students, their educators, and those using the workspace to leave a lasting impression on the community and further the growth of the city. IMAGE 10 - Diagram illustrating the predominant vernacular roof forms in the Covington, Kentucky area “We may find reasons to hope for an improved set of social values for mankind, but our creative struggle will never come to an end because the human mind, which reflects and recreates, feeds what it touches and in turn is nourished by what it sees, will always make architecture a dynamic, expressive force which should be allowed to grow to famish, even to decay when need be. As an art, it will strive for roots and continuity but will not deny to the man of genius the right to innovate if that is his moment and if his voice rings true” 37

36 Cohn, D. (2016). Architecural Record. Design Vanguard. Magen Architects. 1 December. 37 Canizaro, V. (2007) Architectural Regionalism: Collected Writings on Place, Identity, and Modernity. Princeton Architectural Press. 324

37 38 My vision related to reconnecting to local trades encompasses the desire to merge design education to trade education, as well as encourage local community efforts and partnerships. Beginning with young people and including all who would like to be involved, I would like to propose a trade school that teaches carpentry, masonry, and metal working, but also comprises of classes for design in drafting, digital technology, and fabrication. Ideally the learning center and design spaces would align with the required efforts to re-build the housing stock of the neighborhoods in Covington, Kentucky. This idea stems from the critique of the design practices, the notion of THE PROJECT enlightening trade education and efforts to combine this movement with community and civic engagement, as well improvement.

It is essential to involve the community. Specifically, efforts to engage community members so that the skills learned in the trade school are then put into action locally. Students would participate in a hands-on project through the Housing Opportunities of Northern Kentucky or a similar entity, in which homes and buildings in Northern Kentucky are constructed or rehabbed. This community partnership with local agencies and the school would put students to work in kinesthetic environments, giving them experience and progressing the surrounding community environment.

40 SITE SELECTION & ANALYSIS

The site for the Community Building Arts & Design Innovation Center is located along the main thoroughfare, 12th Street corridor in Covington, Kentucky’s West-side Art’s District. It is adjacent to the neighborhood creative center, a recently renovated lumber mill dating back to the 1870s. The idea of the placement was strategic, to allow for the learning and activity to be reciprocated back and forth between the two sites. The neighborhood is rich with historic Italianate architecture of masonry and balloon frame structures. Unfortunately, many of the structures are in dire need to be rehabilitated, with the presence of many derelict buildings and vacant lots. These buildings so desperately need individuals who are proficient with building materials, historic conservation strategies, specialized trade skills, and the ability to craft detail. Hence, the need for a learning center that teaches these types of skills.

41 42 PHASE III

MLK/12TH ST.

PHASE I PHASE II HOLMAN ST. HOLMAN ST. HOLMAN AVE. BANKLICK AVE.

Project Site - Phases I, II, and III along 12th street corridor in Covington, KY

Project Site - Future planning and existing commercial adjacency relationships Elevation Study Diagrams - 12st corridor north side of street, building’s south elevations

43 44 TYPOLOGY & PROGRAM

The typology will be of an institution nestled along a commercial corridor through the heart of an outlier city within the greater Cincinnati, Ohio metro area. The

program within the institution will be geared toward Diagram indicating actions performed by both architects and construction trades collaborative learning amongst designers, builders, artisans, and community members. Some of the specific skill sets being acquired will be the same skill sets needed to rebuild the neighborhood. These include carpentry, masonry, plastering, and metal /iron working. The program will also offer spaces for digital fabrication, computer technology, breakout rooms, exhibition, and service spaces.

Diagram indicating the merge of program necessities for both architects and construction trades

45 46 EVENT SPACE SERVICE EVENT SPACE

EXHIBITION EXHIBITION

DIGITAL FAB. SERVICE EXHIBIT EXHIBIT EXHIBIT EXHIBIT

ADMIN./ METAL WOOD SERVICE TECH LAB. STUDIO STUDIO SERVICE STUDIO

MASONRY YARD

Diagram of Sequence - Axis through programmatic spaces and points of intersection indicating collaboration amongst programs

Diagrams of program arrangement strategies Typical pre-engineered outbuildings arranged on site

47 48 CONSTRUCTION METHOD AS DRIVER

The construction method is reinforced throughout the development of the project. The construction assembly is based on the a typical off-the-shelf workshop/ outbuilding. This assembly includes engineered tapered steel moment frames that dictate the form. By using a product of efficient means of manufacturing as the framework in providing the roof structure, the design of the infill can be explored and exploited by the architect, builder, and students. The building then is designed and built from under the roof and from the outside inward. This method is about finding the balance between efficiency and ideation, as mentioned in the body of the thesis. By finding this balance, it allows an embodied craft to have presence throughout the building.

Typical pre-engineered outbuilding assembly diagram

49 50 Typical pre-engineered outbuilding panel assembly diagram Sketch demonstrating the design evolving from an off the shelf pre-engineered structure into more intricately designed and crafted buildings as a reflection of the skills and knowledge obtained throughout the progress of the users

51 52 COMMUNITY ENGAGEMENT

The learning center’s intention is to be open to the community in the hope of establishing a forgotten skill set. For example, a skill set needed to rehabilitate the dilapidated structures that are so prevalent in the nearby neighborhoods. With an increasing emphasis in early education to attend college and obtain a 4-year degree, the construction, arts, and vocational programs are dwindling, yet the need for these services are growing. According to Fortune Magazine, the majority of construction, building, and artisan skillset jobs are maintained by 45-55 year olds. Meanwhile, the construction industry in general is set to add jobs at the second fastest rate between 2014 and 2024. This begs the questions of who will hold these positions, where will these individuals come from, and most importantly, how will they be trained and prepared? It is the architect’s responsibility to reach out and work to form a partnership with builders to ensure that there is clear cohesion and understanding between each party. 30 Axon - phases I, II, and III as well as the incubator structures encompassing existing derelict The ultimate goals of the learning center buildings are to provide trades instruction, promote collaboration between various artisans, and build relationships, consequently fusing separated cultures.1

30 Matthews, C. (2015) Construction Jobs are on the Rise. Fortune Magazine. 1 May.

53 54 PROJECT OUTCOME

The outcome of the project is a community- techniques. The incubator addresses historic maintenance built construction trades school and innovative design issues serving as an entity that encompasses the need to center. Additional outcomes include the rehabilitation rehab deteriorated buildings. Students can learn about of a blighted neighborhood, educated and skilled how to rehabilitate and restore these buildings. The community members and a collaborative relationship and incubator not only provides these experiences, but also understanding among the local architects and builders. promotes preservation and conservation to signify the Material explorations, construction techniques, and various activities and progress occurring in the neighborhood. media were used to convey the outcome and presentation. As the learning center evolves, so does the collaboration and conversation. As a result, the evolution continues Phase I is the ultimate hub and it’s the place with the inclusion of various artisans with further where architect and builder first come together with studio space, otherwise known as Phase II. Phase II is the intentions of forming a relationship and getting an extension of phase I. This promotes the inclusion conversations started. These conversations involve of more artisan work possibly related to glass, ceramics, addressing skills needed and how to go about getting and textiles. Its construction system is only partially there. The initial and basic skill-sets are based on the off the shelf, not completely custom. Finally, Phase III needs and construction techniques necessary in the includes a celebratory event center that serves as a space neighborhood. These include carpentry, masonry, metal that encourages galas and camaraderie. The design of and ironwork, and plastering. The construction system is this space reflects the fact that the skill-sets and their a resultant of the hybrid process in that it uses an “off the enhancements are continually growing. The architecture shelf ” product in its pre-engineered structure. Temporal reflects this progress and expansion in that the construction structures around the initial building allow the students to system at this point is completely custom based on skills disassemble and reassemble. Not only will this address the acquired by students. Thus, an apparent relationship need to reconnect architect and builder, it also reconnects between architect, builder, and all stakeholders involved. historic preservation and contemporary construction

55 56 Site model - cast from lightweight gypsum based concrete, w/ additives sand, and metal by Process model - designed and built from with under the pre-engineered roof and inward. This product. The idea stems from conversations with a plasterer and later turned into a material construction method allows for learning through building and architect builder conversations to exploration emerge.

57 58 First Floor Plan - Phase I of the community based Building Arts and Design Center

Transverse Section Looking North

59 60 61 62 AIA - The American Institute of Architects is a professional organization for architects in the United States. ... The AIA also works with other members of the design and construction team to help coordinate the building industry.

Construction Management At Risk (CMAR) – A project delivery method in which the Construction Manager acts as a consultant to the owner in the development and design phases, but assumes the risk for construction performance as the equivalent of a general contractor holding all trade subcontracts during the construction phase. This delivery method is also known as CM/GC.

Critical regionalism - is an approach to architecture that strives to counter the placelessness and lack of identity of the International Style, but also rejects the whimsical individualism and ornamentation of Postmodern Architecture. The stylings of critical regionalism seek to provide an architecture rooted in the modern tradition, but tied to geographical and cultural context. Critical regionalism is not simply regionalism in the sense of vernacular architecture. It is a progressive approach to design that seeks to mediate between the global GLOSSARY and the local languages of architecture.

Design-Build (DB) – A project delivery method that combines architectural and engineering design services with construction performance under one contract.

Design-Bid-Build (DBB) – The traditional U.S. project delivery method, which customarily involves three sequential project phases: design, procurement, and construction.

Integrated Project Delivery (IPD) – A project delivery method that contractually requires collaboration among the primary parties – owner, designer, and builder – so that the risk, responsibility and liability for project delivery are collectively managed and appropriately shared.

64 Gesamtkunstwerk – is a German coined phrase translated as total work of art, ideal work of art, universal artwork, synthesis of the arts, comprehensive artwork, all-embracing art form or total artwork. Is a work of art that makes use of all or many art forms or strives to do so. The term is a German word, which has come to be accepted in English as a term in aesthetics.

Project Delivery Method - is a system designed to achieve the satisfactory completion of a construction project from conception to occupancy. A project delivery method may employ any one or more contracting formats to achieve the delivery.

Vernacular Architecture - is an architectural style that is designed based on local needs, availability of construction materials and reflecting local traditions. At least originally, vernacular architecture did not use formally-schooled architects, but relied on the design skills and tradition of local builders.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

65 Arendt, Hannah. The Human Condition. London. University of Chicago Press. 2013 Pye, David. The Nature and Aesthetics of Design. London, England: Herbert Press, 1978.

Carpenter, William. Learning by Building: Design and Construction in Architectural Education. Shiel, Robert. Design Through Making: 4th ed. Vol. 75. Architectural Design. Great Britain: New York, NY. Van Norstrand Reinhold, 1997 Wiley-Academy, 2005.

Caldwell, Mike. Small Buildings. Pamphlet Architecture 17. New York, NY: Princeton Shutt, Craig. (2016). Ascent Magazine. Precast Concrete Institute. Volume 53. Architectural Press, 1996. Tehrani, Nader. Strange Details. A Murder in the Court. London, England: The MIT Press, 2007. Carnizaro, Vincent. Architectural Regionalism: Collected Writings on Place, Identity, and Urban, Chad. American College of the Building Arts. Charleston. 2016. Modernity. Princeton Architectural Press. 324. 2007. Vidalis, M. (2010). Total Work of Art. Anti Architecture: Architectural Monologues. Athens Cole, Clinton. Archioninja. Architects who Build. 2015 IWN Publishers. Cohn, David. Architectural Record Magazine. Design Vanguard. Magen Architects. 1 December. 2016.

Eames, Ray and Charles Eames. Eames Demetrios: An Eames Primer, Updated Edition. New York, NY: Universe Publishing, 2013.

Frascari, Marco. The Tale the Tell. The Building of Architecture: Theorizing a New Agenda for Architecture. Princeton. 23-37. 1984.

Gustin, Georgina & Boling, Terry. Home Schooled. Dwell Magazine. 16, January, 2009.

Hursley, Timothy. & Oppernheinnmer, Andrea. Rural Studio: Samuel Mockbee & an Architecture of Decency. New York. Princeton Architectural Press. 154. 2002.

Kieran, Stephen, and James Timberlake. Refabricating Architecture: How Manufacturing Methodologies are Poised to Transform Building Construction. New York, NY: McGraw- Hill, 2004.

Kieran, Stephen, and James Timberlake. “Future Worlds: Urgent Reflections on the Design of Practice”. In Practices 7/8, edited by Elizabeth H. Riorden (2006), 81-89.

Lohr, Steve. (1987) Making Cars the Volvo Way. The New York Times. Sweden.

MacKay-Lyons, Brian. GHOST. New York, NY: Princeton Architectural Press, 2008.

Matthews, Chris. Construction Jobs are on the Rise. Fortune Magazine. 1 May. 2015.

67 68