Information Paper #2

ISRAEL'S WATER DILEMMAS; WATER AND WATER-RELATED AGENCIES IN ISRAEL; ISRAEL'S WATER LAWS

25 April 1988

Associates for Middle East Research, Inc. 2400 Chestnut Street Philadelphia, PA 19103 INFORMATION PAPER Israel's Water Dilemmas

A severe water shortage looms on the horizon for Israel. To meet its water needs, Israel has, in the recent past, consistently used over 100 percent of its renewable resources. The situation has become par ticularly acute with subpar rainfalls in recent years. In 1985/86 Israel's aquifers were overdrawn by 247 Mem, or more than 40 percent over the renewable amount (#3911). In that year Israel consumed a total of 1987 Mem (#3697), while we have determined that Israel's total renewable water resources is around 1800 Mem. Israel, therefore, used over 110% of its water in 1985/86. The total groundwater deficit that has accumulated since Israel began overpumping has been estimated at around 1700 Mem 1300 from Israel's coastal plain aquifer which as a result has become dangerously saline, and 400 Mem from the Yarkon-Taninim aquifer Israel s aquifers, especially the coastal aquifer, are nearing the "red line , the point at which further pumping will do irreversible damage And should this line be crossed the aquifers would be destroyed and be come useless to future generations (#3911). Last year, 1987, was an exceptionally good rain year for Israel, but this has done little to relieve the huge groundwater deficit. It would take several such good years in a row to begin to improve Israel's water situation without con servation measures being taken. The impending disaster has fueled debate in Israel on how best to resolve the situation, with various groups all trying to promote their own interests. The debate centers around subsidies for agricultural water. Israeli farmers pay a much lower price for their water than do mestic users. (Industry is also considerably subsidized, but uses a relatively small amount of water, only about 5% in 1985/86 (#3697) ) The price they pay (about $.09 per cubic meter) is, in fact, well below the * wJI2ri,of Producin9 and delivering the water (about $.27 per cubic meter)(#3756). Furthermore, it is argued that only one-fourth of the total subsidies are actually budgeted. Three-fourths of the roughly $200 million in subsidies is "covert", meaning that the depreciation of the water system is not included as part of the water budget, so that rates even before the addition of subsidies, are based on artificially low calculations of production costs (#3892). The opponents of the subsidies, led by the Ministry of Finance and the local water authorities argue that the artificially low prices pro mote waste. As water is wasted and becomes more scarce, the costs of producing it go up. And the domestic users are the ones who bear the brunt of these costs. A newly formed scientist's lobby argues that any further increase in the water deficit could have disastrous, permanent consequences. Already it is uncertain whether the coastal aquifer can be salvaged. Removing the subsidies to let water price reflect real water ?S?Lo?u1d dlscoura9e waste and might help the cause of conservation (#3888).

-1 The supporters of the subsidies are led by the Minister of Agriculture and the powerful farmer's lobby. They argue that there are no "covert" subsidies. The depreciation costs of the water network are a national obligation as part of national infrastructure, and should not be paid for by just water users. They argue that the "overt" subsidies are necessary to encourage the agricultural sector. Agriculture has always had a special prominence in Israeli ideology. Agricultural settlements are an effective means of population dispersion, and agriculture is needed to create the "food security" deemed vital for Israel's indepen dent existence. ,*,.,

Opponents of the agricultural lobby have directed much of their •Wi criticism at cotton production. Cotton is a tremendous water consumer, as well as a soil destroyer, and has not been very profitable. However because of the low price of subsidized water, it is profitable for far mers to grow it. Proponents of cotton praise it as the "pride" of Israeli agriculture and say that its troubles have been due to a glut on the world market. Furthermore, they argue that cotton thrives on re claimed sewage water and so does not waste natural reserves (#3757) Cotton's detractors contend that if cotton growing was phased out 200 Mem a year could be saved (#2338). The elimination of cotton also poses no threat to the ideal of "food security". Opponents of the agricultural lobby also find fault with the current water administrative structure. The Water Commission, to whom re sponsibility for and control of all Israel's water resources is given is not independent but works within the Ministry of Agriculture Agriculture, it is argued, maintains a disproportionate share of in fluence on water policy, and is able to disregard the interests of the other sectors as well as the warnings of scientific experts. Opponents of agriculture have suggested moving the Water Commission out of the Ministry of Agriculture and into another Ministry, possibly the Energy and Infrastructure Ministry or the Economy and Planning Ministry (#3759) The local water authorities, who are also under the auspices of the Ministry of Agriculture, wish to be moved elsewhere, as they feel their interests are not adequately addressed (mainly because their quotas have been cut, and their prices have been raised) (#3893). The local water supply networks are in notoriously bad condition, losing an average of 25 percent of their water through leakage. With the current pricing system, ?SL1S no incentive ^r the local authorities to repair the networks f $ ; Politics may play a part in all this debate, but it is not clear* to what extent. The Minister of Finance is from the Liberal Party in the Likud bloc, while the Minister of Agriculture is in the Labor Party of the Alignment. The Water Commissioner is a political appointment from the Liberal Party, but has since gone into collusion with Labor (#3891) The heads of the two Ministries suggested as new homes for the Water Commission (Energy and Infrastructure or Economy and Planning) are both with the Labor Party (#3914). In the past agriculture has been more closely identified with Labor, but in fact, the debate seems to cut across party lines, with Agriculture (and the settlement groups) on one side and the other water consumers opposed (#3922).

-2- Technology is seen by many as a way to solve the water shortage dilemma without dramatically altering policy. Desalination is used on a small scale, though the costs are still prohibitively expensive, and reclaimed sewage water is used increasingly in agriculture. (However, in 1986, 70% of farmers who received reclaimed sewage water did not have their fresh water quotas cut back (#3760).) In 1986 the Water Commissioner responded to the crisis by cutting agricultural water quotas by 200 Mem. These new quotas were not exceeded, and so remain in force (#3895). Last year the area of land under cotton shrank to half what it was in previous years. There has also been discussion in the Water Commission about the possibility of reducing subsidies, though not eliminating them, and attempts to change domestic habits could save about 30-40 Mem per year, according to a Water Commission source (#3922).

-3- WATER AND WATER-RELATED AGENCIES IN ISRAEL

Drainage Authorities Created by Drainage Law of 1957. Have "practically unlimited power" in regulating floods and runoff (#3921).

Knesset Contains a Water Committee, which approves the Ministry of Agriculture's plans to set fines and levy water prices, but not its plans for subsidies. The Water Committee is a subcommittee of the Finance Committee and is heavily under the influence of the agricultural lobby (#1477). Contains and Interior Committee which is heavily under the influence of the lobby of the Local Authorities, representing urban interests against agriculture (#3893).

Local Authorities Buy water from Mekorot and distribute it to consumers. Their prices are set by the Ministry of Agriculture and the Ministry of the Interior (#1477). Set conditions for sewer systems and determine sewerage charges Issue licenses for industrial waste disposal (#3921). Organized together in Center for Local Governments. Propose their own projects and bargain with Mekorot and the government over water rights (#3922).

Mekorot Founded in 1936 by the Jewish Agency and the Histadrut "to develop resources on a larger scale". The government has since taken over one-third of the shares (#1118). Jewish National Fund also has an interest (#2695). Responsible for taking samples and testing the domestic water it supplies in Ministry of Health approved labs, and sendinq the test results to the Ministry of Health (#2449) Responsible for construction, operation, and maintenance of national water supply system (up to 60% of Israel's water used). Appointed National Water Authority by the 1959 Water Law (#2695) Carries out all water works in State budget, supervised by the Ministry of Agriculture (#1438). Set its own prices until 1978 when the Ministry of Agriculture bv authority of the 1959 Water Law, fixed its prices. Supplies water to Local Authorities, not individual homes, and performs its own recharge and other water preservation schemes (#1477) Reduces or shuts off water supplies to moshavim or towns in debt' /2oo?f ^?«?d t0 renew SUDDly (#oolo,#3818). by Ministry of Agriculture Founded in 1937 by Keren haYsod, the Jewish National Fund, Palestine Land Development Co., and Nir Co. Government and the Jewish Agency now own a majority. The Minister of Agriculture sits on the board. Operates the National Water Carrier, water supply pUnu'o^l)5 f°r teStin9 and research' and sewa9e Purification Almost everyone now buys water from Mekorot because most private wells have become too polluted (#3922).

-4- WATER AND WATER-RELATED AGENCIES IN ISRAEL

Mekorot (cont'd) Director - Yehezkel Zakai (#3811). Spokesman - Mordechai Yaakobovich (#3754). Former Director General - Ze'ev Ashkenazi (#1297).

Ministry of Agriculture Responsible for carrying out the 1959 Water Law. Formulates policies on pricing and allocation in consultation with the Mater Council, and can declare rationing. Minister is Chairman of the Water Council, supervises Mekorot, selects nominees for Water Tribunal (#1438). Prescribes rules for calculation of water prices, after consulting Mater Council. Began fixing tariffs on municipal water in 1976), and on Mekorot water in 1978. Can fix tariffs on water supplied to a Local Authority after consulting the Ministry of the Interior. Can only fix tariffs on water distributed by. a Local Authority with permission of the Ministry of the Interior. Tariffs on other water charges are set after consultation with the Water Council and a public hearing. Prescribes fines for water misuse, but must consult the Water Council and have approval of the Knesset Finance Committee. Sets levies in consultation with Water Council, and with permission of Knesset Finance Committee, and sets subsidies just in consultation with Water Council. Director General of the Ministry is vice-chairman of the Water Council (#1477). Can order Mekorot to renew water supplies it has cut off (#3816). Head of Ministerial Settlement Committee, whose membership also includes 7 other ministers and 7 World Zionist Organization executives. This Committee formulates settlement policy, pending cabinet approval. The budget of the settlement department of the WZO is part of the Ministry's budget. Ministry supervises Nature Reserves Authority which helps in acquiring land in the territories. There is a "Green Patrol" which polices these "Nature Reserves", also under the Ministry of Agriculture Nominates members to Tahal Board of Directors. Director General is Chairman of the Board at Tahal (#3898). Sets sewerage standards for agricultural use. Hesitant to regulate agricultural means of production that pollute water sources (i.e. fertilizers). Sits on the board of Mekorot and supervises the Water Commission by signing all regulations it produces (#3921) Minister - Arye Nehamkin (Labor) (#3914). Deputy Minister - Avraham Katz-Oz (#3759). Director General - Meir Ben Meir (#3761). Former Ministers - Pesah Gruper (#1297), Ariel Sharon (Herut) (#1232), Moshe Dayan (Labor, later Herut).

Ministry of Defense Approval sought on projects in the occupied territories (#3819). Responsible for security and administration in the territories (through the Civilian Administration), but management of resources (water and land), while nominally also under the

-5- WATER AND WATER-RELATED AGENCIES IN ISRAEL Ministry of Defense (cont'd) Civilian Administration is in reality controlled by the Ministry of Agriculture and Mekorot, and the Ministry of Justice, through the Attorney General, respectively. Other responsibilities in the territories formerly delegated to the Military and the Ministry of Defense have been given to the Ministry of the Interior, the Ministry of Industry and Trade, and the Ministry of Housing and Construction, as well as to private industry and the World Zionist Organization (#3874). Minister - Yitzhak Rabin (Labor) (#3809). Former Ministers - Moshe Dayan (Labor, later Herut), Shimon Peres (Labor), Ezer Weizman (Likud, now Yahad (#3914)), Ariel Sharon (Herut) (#3874).

Ministry of Energy Runs Ashdod Power Plant which provides desalination (#3817) Minister - Moshe Shahal (Labor) (#3914). Former Minister - Yitzhakh Modai (Liberal) (#3915,#3914).

Ministry of Finance Controls Treasury. Provides money for water development and water subsidies. Usually ends up releasing more money than budgeted to keep water prices down (#1477). Nominates members to Tahal Board of Directors (#3898) Minister - Moshe Nisim (Liberal) (#3900,#3914). Director General - Emanuel Sharon (#3805). Former Director General - Nissim Bauch (#3914). Water specialist - Yossi Strauss (#3757). Former Minister - Itzhak Modai (Liberal) (#3914). Former Minister - Yigael Hurwitz (Ometz) (#3915). F0rT^oo,xisters " Yigal Kohen-0rgad (Likud), Yoram Aridor (Likud) (#3891). Former Ministers - Levi Eshkol, Pinhas Sapir. Both rose up throuqh Mekorot (#396). 3

Ministry of Health Responsible for drinking water quality once it enters supply systems (i.e. after it leaves the Water Commission's domain). It oversees regular water testing by either taking samples and testing them, testing samples received from Local Authorities, or, in the case of Mekorot and the Jerusalem municipality, receiving test results from labs it approved (#2449) Sets water quality standards (#3899). Sits on National Sewerage Council. Supervises industrial waste disposal licensed by Local Authorities. Has power to regulate the use of sewage for "economic gain" (#3921). Minister - Mordechai Gur (former commander of the Northern Command) (Labor) (#1033,#3914).

Ministry of Housing and Construction Involvement in urban construction includes "supplying" infrastructure such as water and sewerage (#3874). Minister - David Levi (Herut) (#3914).

-6- WATER AND WATER-RELATED AGENCIES IN ISRAEL

Ministry of the Interior Runs Environmental Protection Service (#3908). Runs Central Bureau of Statistics. Approved municipal bylaws on water pricing until 1976 when Ministry of Agriculture fixed the prices with tariffs. Consulted by Ministry of Agriculture on tariffs on water supplied to Z.oca7 Authorities. Approves tariffs on water distributed by Local Authorities (#1477). Sits on National Sewerage Council. Sets construction standards for private purification systems and lists industries that pollute water sources (#3921). Minister - Shimon Peres (in 1984) (Labor) (#3914). National Sewerage Council Created in 1963 and again in 1969 to monitor sewerage development on a national scale. Members of the Ministry of Health, the Ministry of the Interior, the Ministry of Housing and Construction, the Water Commission and Tahal are represented Includes an advisory committee that contains members from Tahal, the Water Commission, the Nature Reserves Authority (under the Ministry of Agriculture), and the World Bank (#3921). Tahal (Israel Water Planning Corporation) Founded in 1952. Ownership is as follows: Government - 52% Jewish Agency - 24% Jewish National Fund - 24% (#1118). No legal standing in 1959 Water Law. Researches and plans most water development projects. Acts as advisor to government and to Mekorot (#2695). "Undertakes chief drainage schemes". Assists the Ministry of Agriculture in supervising Mekorot (#1438). Representation on Board of Directors is proportional to ownership with government holding the majority. Chairman of the Board is the Director General of the Ministry of Agriculture. Members of the Board are nominated by the Ministry of Agriculture and the Ministry of Finance. The "head" of Tahal is selected by the Chairman of the Board. Advises other institutions on planning and development of water resources. Gives advice on regional issues of major importance. In occupied territories, Tahal's main concern is with the Western West Bank aquifer. Tahal used to be the only water authority, but its role now is strictly advisory. And now its advice is often not heeded as political considerations take precedence. Tahal is listened to more often in times of shortage (#3898). Sits on National Sewerage Council. Plans for the Water Commission and advises both Water Commission and Mekorot (#3921) Chairman of the Board - Meir Ben Meir (#3898). Former Director General - Dr. Aharon Winer (#3888). Water Council [also called Water Board, or Public Water Council] Created by 1959 Water Law. Has 39 members, of which at least two-thirds are "representatives of the public". Must be

-7- WATER AND WATER-RELATED AGENCIES IN ISRAEL

Water Council (cont'd) consulted before any decision is taken by the Water Commission or the Ministry of Agriculture (#2695). Has 27 to 36 members. Minister of Agriculture is Chairman of the Board. At least half the members must represent consumers (#1438). Chairman - Menahem Kantor (former Water Commissioner) (#3888).

Water Commission Under Ministry of Agriculture. Authority by 1959 Water Law to issue licenses for water exploitation (#1118). Responsible for preventing and correcting pollution of water sources until they are turned over to Mekorot or another supplier. Can enforce regulations by withholding water supply. If Ministry of Health disapproves of a supply, the Commissioner must take the water back and use that water for non-domestic purposes (#2449) Supervises water prices. Given authority (by Water Law amendment 6/13/61) to fine water misusers. The Commissioner manages a "balancing fund" that provides money to even out water prices for consumers in different parts of the country (#1438). Commissioner manages the Water Prices Adjustment Fund. Prepares policy proposals for the Ministry of Agriculture. The office through which all water supply is licensed. Fines water misusers, though these fines are not considered an effective deterrent (#1477). Appointed "water controller" for occupied territories (#1232). Can shut down any well that overpumps, as of an emergency regulation (#3888). In the 1950s Commissioners were engineers out of Technion. Previous Commissioners were engineers and politicians. The current Commissioner is a purely political appointment. Appointment of the Commissioner requires approval of the Cabinet. Lobbies for water budget. Prepares and promotes pricing structures, and works for compromise between the Ministry of Agriculture and the Ministry of Finance. A "flag-carrier" for water resource development. May be, but not required to be, consulted on resource development in the Territories. Coordinates with Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Cabinet on issues of regional Waioonx0nflict' Involved in a11 stages of long-range planning (#3899). Sits on the National Sewerage Council. Vice-chairman of the Water Council. Claims industry is the worst polluter of water sources, but avoids blaming agriculture for pollution. Produces regulations which are approved by the Ministry of Agriculture when the Minister signs them (#3921). Departments of the Water Commission include: The Hydro!oqical Service - which gathers hydrological data, and acts as a policy advisor. The Allocation and Licensing Department - which issues licenses keeps records, penalizes abusers.

-8- WATER AND WATER-RELATED AGENCIES IN ISRAEL Water Commission (cont'd) The Department for the Efficient Use of Water - attempts to implement conservation devices and methods. Has 4 sections: 1) municipal water use 2) agricultural and sewage water use 3) industrial water use 4) prevention of water pollution The Department of Drainage and Soil Conservation - supervises drainage projects. The Legal Office - which drafts laws and contracts, and acts as legal advisor. The Economic Office - which evaluates profitability of projects, and acts as policy advisor, including pricing policy (#2695) Commissioner - Zemah Yishai (#3762). A Liberal Party political appointee, he has since gone into collusion with Labor (#3891). "Head" of Urban Water Department - Yitzhak Levin (#3766). Former Commissioners - Meir Ben-Meir, Menahem Kantor (#3888). Water Prices Adjustment Fund Created by 1959 Water Law to assure balanced prices throughout the country. Through it, the Ministry of Agriculture sets levies on cheap water and subsidizes expensive water. Levies and subsidies can be different for different sectors. A corporation managed by the Water Commissioner. Only 20% of its finances can come from levies on agricultural or industrial water (#1477).

Water Tribunal Created by 1959 Water Law. Consists of one judge and two "representatives of the public". Grievances against the Water Commission or the Ministry of Agriculture in their execution of the Water Law are brought to this body (#2695). Representatives are chosen from a panel nominated by the Ministry of Aqriculture and the Water Council (#1438).

-9- WATER LAWS 1959 Water Law - Comprehensive law giving all water resources to the State. Gave Water Commission broad powers to allocate and regulate water use through licensing, and to protect water resources from pollution Bodies with considerable public participation were created to be consulted and make recommendations. Among these were the Water Board the Planning Committee, the Water Tribunal, and the Drainage Board, this law also declared Mekorot to be the National Water Authority (#2695) According to source (#1438) the broad powers of policy-making are given to the Ministry of Agriculture. An amendment (June 13, 1961) gave the Water Commission the authority to impose fines, appealable through the Water Tribunal. A "balancing fund" was also created, managed by the Water Commissioner, which helped to even out water prices throughout the

Sought to manage water use on a nationwide level by licensing all water supply. Created Mekorot as National Water Authority, created Water Prices Adjustment Fund, operating under the Water Commissioner, to balance out water prices nationwide. Gave Ministry of Agriculture the power to determine methods of calculating prices, to fix tariffs, and to set levies or subsidies through the Adjustment Fund. Fine policy and levies have to be approved by the Finance Committee of the Knesset, but not subsidies. Water Commission was given powers to license all water use and fine water suppliers who violated their licenses. Suppliers were given the right to pass these fines on to consumers (#1477). The Water Metering Law - no water can be supplied without beinq metered (#2695). Passed in 1955 (#3921). The Water Drilling Control law - a drilling license must be obtained from 1955 (#3921?/n/n7SS7°r7 9a"eW Wel1 iS drilled (#2695)- Passed in The Drainage and Flood Control law - all drainage schemes must be approved by the Ministry of Agriculture, in consultation with the Drainage Board, before implementation. The planning and execution of 7^oa?e is 9iven to various regional (#2695). s

-10- REFERENCE LIST

396 Galnoor, Itzhak "Water Policymaking in Israel", Policy Analysis [University of California, 1978], v. 4, p. 339-65.

1033 Goell, Yosef "Cloud over the Golan Heights", Jerusalem Post International Edition [Palestine Post, Jerusalem, 01/26/85], p. 11.

1118 Blass, Simha Weiner, Aaron Adar, Joseph "Ch. 8: Water and Irrigation", Israel Pocket Library - Economy [Pocket Books, Israel, 1973], p. 152-79.

1232 Ginat, Abshalom "Pump Water to Samaria", Hotam [04/20/79], v. 16/437, p. 3.

1297 Ro'e, Natan "Representatives of the Water Authority and 'Mekorot' are Working on Reconciling Their Differences", Davar [JPRS, Tel Aviv, 02/08/84];

1438 "Israel's Water Economy", Land Economics [University of Wisconsin Press, Madison, WI, Nov 65], v. 41, p. 361-64.

1477 Selbst, Nina Water Policy Alternatives for Israel - Water Pricing Policy [Samuel Neaman Institute, Haifa, Nov 81], p. 1-124. i^mue.

2338 "Dangerous Overdrafts", Ha'aretz [Ha'aretz, Tel Aviv, 06/03/86], n.p.

2449 Hal perin, Ramy "Ch. 8: Assuring Drinking Water Quality under Conditions of Scarcity", Water Quality Management under Conditions of Scarcity- Israel as a Case Study [Academic Press, New York, 1980], p. 189-210.

2695 Jacobs, M. Litwin, Y. "A Survey of Water Resources Development, Utilization and Management in Israel ed Chow, V.T. Csallany, S.C. Krizek, R.J. Preul,H.C, Water for the Human Environment: Proceedings of the First World Congress on Water Resources [International Water Resources Association, Champaign, IL, 1973], p. 225-47.

-11- REFERENCE LIST

3697 "Ch. 15: Energy and Water", Statistical Abstract of Israel 1987 Israel - Central Bureau of Statistics, Jerusalem, 1987], v. 38 d 408-14. ' p'

3754 "Ch. 9: Water Consumption", 7e7 Aviv - Yafo Municipality Statistical Yearbook [Center for Economic and Social Research, Tel Aviv, 19861 v. 26, p. 237-39. •"

3756 Krivine, David "Two Ways to Eliminate a Water Deficit", Jerusalem Post [Palestine Post, Jerusalem, 07/18/86], n.p.

3757 Court, Andy

08/21/87],n£l)ow!l?,Cottonn.p. is Highn' Jerusalem Post [Palestine Post, Jerusalem,'

3759 Getzler, Dvorah "Water Wrangle", Jerusalem Post [Palestine Post, Jerusalem, 10/31/86],

3760 Court, Andy "Threat to Water Resources", Jerusalem Post [Palestine Post Jerusalem, 07/03/87], n.p.

3761 Court, Andy "Ministries Debate Merit of Milk Subsidies", Jerusalem Post [Palestine Post, Jerusalem, 12/29/86], n.p.

3762 Wallfish, Asher "Herodion Project Dries Up", Jerusalem Post [Palestine Post, Jerusalem, 10/27/87], n.p.

3766 Meisels, Martha "Waste Not", Jerusalem Post [Palestine Post, Jerusalem, 07/25/88],

3805 Krivine, David "Agricultural Sector is Thriving Despite Setbacks", Jerusalem Post [Palestine Post, Jerusalem, 07/29/86], n.p.

•12- REFERENCE LIST

3809 Morris, Benny Greenberg, Joel "Water Scheme Worries Peres", Jerusalem Post [Palestine Post, Jerusalem, 07/09/87], n.p.

3811 "Samaria Linked to National Water Carrier", Jerusalem Post [Palestine Post, Jerusalem, 01/18/87], n.p.

3816 Rudge, David "Tap Shut on 3 Indebted Moshavim", Jerusalem Post [Palestine Post. Jerusalem, 11/20/87], n.p.

3817 "Power Station Being Used to Fuel Desalination Plant", Jerusalem Post [Palestine Post, Jerusalem, 08/06/86], n.p.

3818 Court, Andy Fletcher, Elaine R. "Not a Drop of Water in Town", Jerusalem Post [Palestine Post Jerusalem, 01/28/87], n.p.

3819 Morris, Benny "Inner Cabinet Authorizes Large Water Drilling Near Herodion", Jerusalem Post [Palestine Post, Jerusalem, 08/27/87], n.p.

3874 Benvenisti, Meron Abu-Zayed, Ziad Rubinstein, Danny The West Bank Handbook: A Political Lexicon [Jerusalem Post, Jerusalem, 1986], p. 1-228.

3888 El ad, Eli Zohar, Avraham "Scientists will Demand from Peres Initiative to Rescue the Water Economy", Ha'aretz [Ha'aretz, Tel Aviv, 06/01/86], n.p.

3890 Tomer, Israel "One Cubic Meter of Water Costs Municipality 22.5 Agurot, You Pay the !*^8L?f 10° Aaurot"> [Yedioth Ahronoth, Tel Aviv, 06/13/86], n.p. Yedioth Ahronoth

3891 Singer, Zwi Ringel, Hoffman "Water Resources in Israel -- the Red Line", Yedioth Ahronoth [Yedioth Ahronoth, Tel Aviv, 06/20/86], p. 9-12

3892 Mosenson, Ran "Stop Water Subsidizing", Ha'aretz [Ha'aretz, Tel Aviv, 07/28/86],

-13- REFERENCE LIST

3893 Tal, Chaim "A Demand to Separate Water Authorities from the Ministry of Agriculture", Ha'aretz [Ha'aretz, Tel Aviv, 08/28/86], n.p.

3895 "Water, Water with Delight -- Interview with Water Commissioner Zemach Yishai , Davar Agricultural Supplement [Histadrut, Tel Aviv, 01/25/88], n.p. m

3898 Interview with Yehoshua Schwarz [unpublished interview, Tel Aviv 03/14/88], n.p.

3899 Interview with Yona Kahana [unpublished interview, Tel Aviv 03/14/88], n.p.

3900 "Knesset Approves State Budget, Details Reported", Davar [FBIS-NES-88-058 3/25/88, Tel Aviv, 03/24/88], p. 47-48.

3908 Kanrak, A. Sharar, D. "Dan Region Sewage Reclamation Project Activity Report for 1984/85", ed. Hirschberg, Joseph, Biosphera [Israel - Environmental Protection Service, Jerusalem, Mar 86], v. 15/6, p. 3-5.

3911 "Water Commission -- Water in Israel: Sources and Allocation for Various Purposes", Report of the State Comptroller of Israel for the Year 1986 [Israel - State Comptroller, Jerusalem, 1987], v. 37 p. 543-74.

3914 "Israel - General Elections - Formation of National Unity Government - Economic, Security and Foreign Developments", Keesing's Contemporary Archives [Longman Group, London, Nov 84], v. 30, p. 33242-45.

3915 "Israeli Panel Proposes a Cross-Country Waterway", New York Times [New York Times, New York, 06/12/80], p. A16.

3921 Laster, Richard The Legal Framework for the Prevention and Control of Water Pollution m Israel [Israel - Environmental Protection Service, Jerusalem 1976], pp. 1-330. '

3922 Interview with Yona Kahana [unpublished interview, Philadelphia. 04/18/88], n.p. K

-14. WATER ADMINISTRATION IN ISRAEL

Ministry of Ministry of Water Ministry of Knesset "Water Ministry of Health Finance Council Agriculture Committee"* the Interior (water quality) (advisory) ^prices) (municipal, -local issues)

en i

Agricultural1 omestic Users Users* Users

policy- ^ management* -^; water supply- agricultural users have a strong influence in the Knesset "Water Committee". J