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2012-09-06 Taltheilei houses, lithics, and mobility

Pickering, Sean Joseph

Pickering, S. J. (2012). Taltheilei houses, lithics, and mobility (Unpublished master's thesis). University of Calgary, Calgary, AB. doi:10.11575/PRISM/27975 http://hdl.handle.net/11023/177 master thesis

University of Calgary graduate students retain copyright ownership and moral rights for their thesis. You may use this material in any way that is permitted by the Copyright Act or through licensing that has been assigned to the document. For uses that are not allowable under copyright legislation or licensing, you are required to seek permission. Downloaded from PRISM: https://prism.ucalgary.ca UNIVERSITY OF CALGARY

Taltheilei Houses, Lithics, and Mobility

by

Sean J. Pickering

A THESIS

SUBMITTED TO THE FACULTY OF GRADUATE STUDIES

IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE

DEGREE OF MASTER OF ARTS

DEPARTMENT OF ARCHAEOLOGY

CALGARY, ALBERTA

SEPTEMBER, 2012

© Sean J. Pickering 2012 Abstract

The precontact subsistence-settlement strategy of Taltheilei tradition groups has been interpreted by past researchers as representing a high residential mobility forager system characterized by ephemeral warm season use of the Barrenlands environment, while hunting barrenground caribou. However, the excavation of four semi-subterranean house pits at the Ikirahak site (JjKs-7), in the Southern Kivalliq District of Nunavut, has challenged these assumptions. An analysis of the domestic architecture, as well as the morphological and spatial attributes of the excavated lithic artifacts, has shown that some

Taltheilei groups inhabited the Barrenlands environment during the cold season for extended periods of time likely subsisting on stored resources.

ii Acknowledgements

First, and foremost I would like to acknowledge Dr. Peter Dawson of the Department of

Archaeology at the University of Calgary for first introducing me to Arctic archaeology.

Dr. Dawson brought me into the Ikirahak Archaeological Project as a senior undergraduate student to analyze lithics, which became the focus of my honour’s thesis research. He gave me the opportunity to have my first managerial experience in archaeology, first as the project lab manager in 2008, and then as field crew chief during the 2009 season. He supported my research by offering excellent advice and support throughout my graduate degree, as well as monetary support by allocating funding to hire two sets of skilled laboratory staff over two years, as well as the means to present a portion of my research at the 76th Annual Meeting of the Society for American

Archaeology (Pickering and Dawson 2011).

I would like to thank the International Polar Year (IPY) for providing the much of the infrastructure required to undertake the fieldwork, and subsequent lab analysis required to complete this project. I would also like to thank the Social Sciences and Humanities

Research Council (SSHRC) for providing funding to support me during my graduate research. I would also like to express my gratitude to various members of the faculty of the Department of Archaeology at the University of Calgary who taught me much about what it means to be an archaeologist. I would especially like to acknowledge Dr. Gerald

Oetelaar who participated in many, usually impromptu, conversations about household archaeology and mobility, and was always willing to provide useful insights and criticisms about my research. I would also like to acknowledge Dr. Brian Kooyman also

iii of the Department of Archaeology at the U of C who introduced me to the fascinating world of lithic analysis. Dr. Len Hills of the Department of Geoscience at the U of C was also very helpful to this thesis by providing his expertise in identifying lithic material types, and for agreeing to be on my committee.

This project could not have been completed without the hard work of the 2008 and 2009 field crews who braved the bugs, rain, and insane windstorms of the Barrenlands of the southern Kivalliq. Thank you to Howard Cyr, Calla McNamee, Matt Walls, Don Butler, and David Tasseor. I would especially like to thank Luke Suluk of the community of

Arviat, Dr. Dawson’s archaeological collaborator for many years, for providing archaeological insights and expertise, as well as a large amount of logistical assistance in the field. Additionally, I need to thank my two lab crews who spent so many hours under fluorescent light providing skilled and detailed analysis of lithic debitage, thank you to

Tanya Chiykowski, Lorelei Platz, Steve Simpson, Nikki Oakden, and Taylor Graham. I would additionally like to further acknowledge Tanya Chiykowski, Howard Cyr, and

Don Butler, mentioned above, for their skilled work creating planviews and stratigraphic profiles of the excavated house pits at Ikirahak. I would also like to add a special thanks to Lindsay Amundsen Meyer for allowing me access to her extensive knowledge and skills with ArcGis software.

I would like to thank my family for their support during my graduate research. My brother Matt Pickering provided much needed grammatical editing and criticism to this thesis, and my mother Cheryl Pickering offered emotional, and occasionally, financial

iv support while I studied. I would like to thank my children, Seamus and Emily, for putting up with the long hours and extended absences this research required, especially my son Seamus who cheerfully went with daddy and played toys in the lab, so many times, while I worked. Finally, I would like to thank my wife Mary Pickering for providing all the support a husband could ask for, emotional, psychological, and financial, and for being the stable foundation that our family relied upon while I undertook this research.

v For My Wife Mary

vi Table of Contents

Abstract...... ii Acknowledgements ...... iii Dedication...... vi Table of Contents ...... vii List of Tables ...... ix List of Figures ...... x List of Plates ...... xii

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION...... 1 1.1 Introduction...... 1 1.2 Thesis Structure...... 2

CHAPTER TWO: SITE DESCRIPTION AND GEOGRAPHICAL BACKGROUND ...... 5 2.1 Introduction...... 5 2.2 Ikirahak Site Description ...... 5 2.3 Previous Archaeological Research in the Maguse Lake Area ...... 7 2.4 Geology, Physical Geography, and Climate of the Kivalliq District ...... 8 2.5 Fauna...... 12 2.6 Summary ...... 16

CHAPTER THREE: CULTURE HISTORY OF THE BARRENLANDS...... 18 3.1 Introduction...... 18 3.2 Northern Plano Tradition ...... 18 3.3 Shield Archaic Tradition...... 20 3.4 Pre-Dorset/Arctic Small Tool Tradition ...... 21 3.5 Taltheilei Tradition...... 22 3.6 Chipewyan Dene ...... 26 3.7 Caribou Inuit History...... 30 3.8 Summary ...... 31

CHAPTER FOUR: HUNTER-GATHERER MOBILITY AND ITS ARCHAEOLOGICAL CORRELATES...... 33 4.1 Introduction...... 33 4.2 Theories of Hunter-Gatherer Mobility...... 33 4.3 Case Studies of Settlement-subsistence Strategies from the Kivalliq ...... 38 4.4 Archaeological Correlates of Hunter-Gatherer Mobility...... 44 4.5 Household Archaeology...... 53 4.6 House Pits and Mobility...... 68 4.7 Post-Depositional Processes...... 69 4.8 Summary ...... 71

CHAPTER FIVE: METHODOLOGY...... 73 5.1 Introduction...... 73 5.2 Field Methodology – Chronology of Archaeological Investigations...... 73 vii 5.3 Laboratory Methodology ...... 77 5.4 Analysis Methodology...... 85 5.5 Summary ...... 87

CHAPTER SIX: RESULTS OF ANALYSIS...... 88 6.1 Introduction...... 88 6.2 Architecture and Stratigraphy of House Pits...... 88 6.3 Internal Feature Analysis ...... 93 6.4 Debitage Analysis of House Pits...... 94 6.5 Tool Analysis ...... 102 6.6 Spatial Analysis...... 106 6.7 Earlier Occupation Feature 14 Level 5 Analysis...... 116 6.8 Exterior Excavation Units...... 116 6.9 JjKs-7 Surface Finds...... 118 6.10 Faunal Analysis ...... 118 6.11 Ikirahak Radiocarbon (14C) Dates ...... 120 6.12 Summary ...... 121

CHAPTER SEVEN: DISCUSSION...... 123 7.1 Introduction...... 123 7.2 Dating and Cultural Affiliation of the Site...... 123 7.3 Feature Types and Storage...... 132 7.4 Lithic Tools and Debitage...... 134 7.5 Spatial Patterning of Houses ...... 140 7.6 Architecture...... 147 7.7 Season of Occupation ...... 149 7.8 Summary ...... 151

CHAPTER EIGHT: CONCLUSIONS AND DIRECTIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH ...... 153 8.1 Introduction...... 153 8.2 The Collector-Forager Spectrum...... 155 8.3 Correlates of Mobility...... 158 8.4 Season of Occupation ...... 162 8.5 Conclusions about Evidence for Decreased Mobility ...... 162 8.6 Directions for Future Research...... 165

REFERENCES CITED...... 169

APPENDIX A: FIGURES ...... 203

APPENDIX B: PLATES...... 230

viii List of Tables

Table 1 Mammals Hunted by Precontact Peoples on the Barrenlands...... 13

Table 2 Birds Hunted by Precontact and Historic Peoples on the Barrenlands...... 15

Table 3 Fish Consumed by Precontact and Historic Peoples on the Barrenlands ...... 16

Table 4 Culture History of the Barrenlands...... 19

Table 5 Archaeological Correlates of Mobility ...... 72

Table 6 Lithic Raw Materials Types found at the Ikirahak Site...... 79

Table 7 Reduction Stages, Flake Types, and Associated Morphological Attributes...... 82

Table 8 Tool Types and their Functions...... 84

Table 9 Debitage by Level by House Pit Feature ...... 92

Table 10 Lithic Types by House Pit Feature ...... 94

Table 11 Debitage Type by Quantity by House Pit Feature...... 95

Table 12 Debitage Type by Weight (g) by House Pit Feature...... 97

Table 13 Lithic Reduction Stage and Flake Types by House Pit Feature...... 98

Table 14 Debitage Dorsal Cortex by House Pit Feature ...... 99

Table 15 Material Types of Debitage by Quantity by House Pit Feature ...... 100

Table 16 Material Types of Debitage by Weight (g) by House Pit Feature...... 101

Table 17 Lithic Tool Types by House Pit Feature ...... 103

Table 18 Lithic Material Types of Lithic Tools by House Pit Feature ...... 105

Table 19 Faunal Taxa by House Pit Feature...... 119

Table 20 JjKs-7 14C Dates ...... 121

Table 21 Comparison of the Correlates of Residential Mobility with the JjKs-7 Results...... 152

ix List of Figures

Figure 1 Southern Kivalliq District Study Area...... 204

Figure 2 Ikirahak Sites on Maguse Lake...... 205

Figure 3 JjKs-7 House Pit Depression Distribution...... 206

Figure 4 Expected Interior Spatial Arrangement of a Chipewyan Dene/Taltheilei House ...... 207

Figure 5 House Feature 14 Planview ...... 208

Figure 6 House Feature 15 Planview ...... 209

Figure 7 House Feature 19 Planview ...... 210

Figure 8 House Feature 20 Planview ...... 211

Figure 9 House Feature 14 Stratigraphic Profile...... 212

Figure 10 House Feature 15 Stratigraphic Profile...... 213

Figure 11 House Feature 19 Stratigraphic Profile...... 214

Figure 12 House Feature 20 Stratigraphic Profile...... 215

Figure 13 Feature 14 Debitage Distribution by Size...... 216

Figure 14 Feature 15 Debitage Distribution by Size...... 217

Figure 15 Feature 19 Debitage Distribution by Size...... 218

Figure 16 Feature 20 Debitage Distribution by Size...... 219

Figure 17 Feature 14 Lithic Material Types Distribution...... 220

Figure 18 Feature 15 Lithic Material Types Distribution...... 221

Figure 19 Feature 19 Lithic Material Types Distribution...... 222

Figure 20 Feature 20 Lithic Material Types Distribution...... 223

Figure 21 Feature 14 Lithic Tools Spatial Distribution...... 224

Figure 22 Feature 15 Lithic Tools Spatial Distribution...... 225

Figure 23 Feature 19 Lithic Tools Spatial Distribution...... 226

x Figure 24 Feature 20 Lithic Tools Spatial Distribution...... 227

Figure 25 14C Dates from JjKs-7 and corresponding Archaeological Phases ...... 228

Figure 26 Interior Spatial Arrangement of Taltheilei Houses from Ikirahak ...... 229

xi List of Plates

Plate 1 Caribou Crossing the Lake at Ikirahak ...... 231

Plate 2 Feature 14 Unexcavated...... 231

Plate 3 Feature 15 Unexcavated...... 232

Plate 4 Feature 19 Unexcavated...... 232

Plate 5 Feature 20 Unexcavated...... 233

Plate 6 Feature 14 Completely Excavated...... 233

Plate 7 Feature 15 Completely Excavated...... 234

Plate 8 Feature 19 Completely Excavated...... 234

Plate 9 Feature 20 Completely Excavated...... 235

Plate 10 Feature 14 Stratigraphy...... 235

Plate 11 Feature 15 Stratigraphy...... 236

Plate 12 Feature 19 Stratigraphy...... 236

Plate 13 Feature 20 Stratigraphy...... 237

Plate 14 Feature 14 Hearth...... 237

Plate 15 Feature 19 Hearth...... 238

Plate 16 Feature 20 Hearth...... 238

Plate 17 Feature 14 Lithic Tools I...... 239

Plate 18 Feature 14 Lithic Tools II...... 240

Plate 19 Feature 15 Lithic Tools I...... 241

Plate 20 Feature 15 Lithic Tools II...... 242

Plate 22 Feature 19 Lithic Tools I...... 244

Plate 23 Feature 19 Lithic Tools II...... 245

Plate 24 Feature 19 Lithic Tools III ...... 246

Plate 25 Feature 20 Lithic Tools ...... 247

xii Plate 26 Feaure 14 Level 5 Lithic Tools...... 248

Plate 27 JjKs-7 Exterior Excavation Unit Biface/Adze Lithic Tool...... 249

Plate 28 JjKs-7 Surface Finds...... 250

Plate 29 JikU-1 (Kuuvik 1 site) Projectile Points ...... 251

xiii 1 1 ools were taken taken to the explore erest was selected forerest selected was 7). of analysis Preliminary - Introduction 7), over identification of featurescultural 70 and - Chapter Chapter One: and JjKs and 1 - thic scatters, were also noted, but thicnot also but noted, scatters, mapped. were time thethe of At subterranean house pits at the Ikirahak site (JjKs subterranean the pitshouse Ikirahak at - subterranean subterranean pithouse depressions. features, other Many house additional as such - Introduction surface collected tools found indicate this that to site seemed at t these with theassociated Taltheilei tradition an to tradition, archaeological be believed During subsequent During (2008 field subsequent the and seasons project2009), the focused on excavation of four semi occupations of occupations the site. revealed that analysis However, later thiswas assumption incorrect. semi pits and limultiple initial it that survey, with were assumed all was historicassociated features these of Inuit The results thisof archaeological torecordinginitial of survey led archaeological the two at sites Ikirahak (JjKs including: qarmat, tent meat blinds, rests, huntingcaches, rings, and inuksuit, kayak archaeological archaeological survey on Ikirahak, the a theisland narrow of island of located narrows at the lake (Figure 2). Lake, which is located approximately 75 km northwest Lake, of is located 75 northwest approximatelywhich km the Arviat, of community Nunavut (Figure1). thefield During an 2007 area season intof 1.1 Beginning inInternational under was 2007, an project Polar Year culture historyland on tundra,past peoples of use and the around Barrenlands, or Maguse 2 2 - 7. Thethese of purpose - . pits House are a not Ks subsistence system of the subsistence past occupants hly mobile Dene Chipewyan or hly their - s, Features 14, (see s, Figure20 15, 19, and 3), (Gordon 1976, (Gordon1976, 1996) 1 thesis will thesis be Chapter follows: an as 2 overview provides theof ture history of the area including diagnostic artifacts associated turewithartifacts the of past associated historyarea diagnostic including y exploited this period.region duringthe historic reviews Chapter the 4 7). - Thesis StructureThesis Theterm Chipewyan Dene hasbeen used as a compromise between the termsChipewyan, used extensively in the 1 ethnographic literature, and the term Denésoliné currently used by thisFirst Nations group (see Friesen 2004). Inuit. These two historicallygroups having as inhabited were recordedboth and/or seasonall context context of for what like may life past inhabitants this have toregion. been Chapter 3 reviews the cul cultural traditions, well Dene as historyChipewyan and a as thethe of brief Caribou 1.2 The structure thisof geology, the physical geography,of climate, and will region, fauna which some provide settlement systems and and mobility,settlement systems architecture theof lightIkirahakat unusual in the site (JjKs This on focuses thesis theof analysis the architecture, lithicstratigraphy, and artifacts recovered from the theat of excavations four Jj pits house will analyses be to us can about explorethetell Taltheilei lithics what subsistence of the site. The pithouse excavation these of yielded 320 faunal and artifacts. 9,984 lithic elements, ancestors. ancestors. This of implications different may for of thedwellingstyle have level residential mobility,overall and the settlement ancestral ancestral to historic Dene Chipewyan dwelling with type thenormallyassociated hig 3 3 gatherer - this thesis. this thesis. field The facts were analyzed gatherer mobility. gatherer two Italso outlines the - settlement settlement models, one associated with the and Dene, Chipewyan - ei ancestors, ancestors, other withand ei the historicassociated Inuit groups. Caribou 7 will analysis offer the details architecture, artifactsabout stratigraphy, and - d, so that for can be an itas later used Taltheileianalog understanding house 7), results of collection artifactswell as of surface site. surveying as from and the - he JjKs recovered from pits. house these Thisdetail willand types, thetool chapter as debitage Chapter Chapter 6 thethe presents fourresults the of pitshouse Ikirahaksite at excavation of the (JjKs T morphologically, typologically, and spatially. component component of methodology will details about chapter this include how archaeological features werewere recorded, conducted mapped duringthe and how excavations and 2008 fieldand 2009 seasons. how chapter lithic This details arti Chapter Chapter the employed 5 methodologyduring outlines field, and discusses laboratory, the components of analysis and thesubsequent research conducted for archaeological archaeological descriptions of interior among use is space Dene Chipewyan houses presente interiorsIkirahak. at mobility derived debitage, are using tools lithic relationship and and between the lithic artifacts and the mobility, relationshipof use and household archaeology, between the pitshouse and residential mobility. and ethnohistorical, ethnographic Finally their Taltheil From materialabout of expectations data, thisthe ethnographic correlates hunter theoretical background hunter data on subsistence accepted 4 4 idential C dates, C dates, and oriented withinoriented 14 7) site, site, 7) - provide provide n of the comparing site n by of suggestions on toways suggestions gather help further or gaps infill may indata that uncertainties the interpretations presented. mobility land and use past groups of the mobilityfor modelsgroups. vs. accepted of these The partareas of final8 suggest willChapter of future research that offer will opportunities refuteherein, or to confirm presented interpretations and specifically specifically comparing collected fromthe this thearchaeological site evidence tomodels presented in theof chapters earlier regarding theand artifacts spatial their types patterning thisthe ramifications withinand data pits, house forthehas the res Barrenland and Taltheileiforest sites. Finally, 8 offer about willChapter some conclusions the Ikriahak (JjKs explain explain patternsthese by referencing data presented in chapters. earlier chapter This will also explore the and temporalaffiliatio cultural diagnostic tools recovered and dates Ikirahaktools from to collected the from other site Chapter 7 provides a discussion of Chapter 7 withinprovidesthe a patternsChapter discussion presented will6 and well well raw as how types, found,material they artifacts and of were spatially each house. 5 5 s been s been This chapter , for the example, . The site ha istrict Nunavut of istrict is . The island is located (Dawson (Dawson and Suluk necessitating an equally necessitating al al inhabitants. District is presented. District is presented. crossing site crossing 7), well as thea as of brief overview aborigin - - into English the “the as where point into environment environment crossing from mainland thecrossing tothe island and contact contact - site (JjKs site Inuktitut Inuktitut re uring of the 2009 summers 2008 and (Geological Survey of Survey (Geological 1982) Canada (Suluk 2009, personal communication) (Suluk 2009, personal Ikirahak Site Description Background Geographicaland ra or Barrenlands (Figure ra1). Barrenlands or (Figure The site isan located island on in 7) is located approximately 7) 75 northwest km theof isof located community approximately - translates from from translates hundreds caribouof o provide context for the archaeological interpretationsforIkirahako the context the archaeological provide of is a challenging and and is a diverse challenging Chapter Chapter Two: in ordert 7). This - . On multiple occasions d . occasions multiple On Introduction Ikirahak Ikirahak SiteDescription n overview theof Kivalliqtheof physical environment southern D 2007:8) field crew witnessed channel channel is intoseparated two” identified in by a as Arviat elders cariboumajor esker esker during last glaciation the at the Lake narrowest thesplits Maguse and of part lake actually into channels. two In fact, Ikirahak roughly Arviat the in southern District Kivalliqkm and Nunavut, of 140 northeast approximately of the linethe tree tundon the Lake narrowsformed Maguse (see of that Figure2) portionof was theas highest an 2.2 The (JjKs Ikirahak Site provides a description theof archaeological research in Lakethe Maguse area. Additionally, overview theof an geology, the of geography, and climate, Kivalliq fauna site site (JjKs diverse range of p among adaptations 2.1 A presented 6 6 linds, linds, along along (Scott the island on irches irches b (Dawson (Dawson and Salvelinus 7), recorded were - On the island On over warf . d lying tundralying ), - rctic char ( char rctic A 1 and JjKs - red in low site, site, bouldersof composed that Salix arbusculoides Salix ). larger found vegetation This is also ) fishing area. fall Additionally, during the 7 along the southwestern 7 the side of southwestern along - multiple unrecorded featuresadditional unrecorded multiple including ed subterranean house pits, house subterranean meat b caches, hunting - Alnus crispa Alnus : semi e rrows of the lake where therrows lake island where is thesituated of is also a lders ( a 204; Suluk 2009:, personal communication) 204; 2009:, personal Suluk - travel up the Maguse River the fromup Maguse travel the spawn Hudson Bay to ious quartzites and silicified volcaniclastic materials and volcaniclastic were silicified ious quartzites also includ Salvelinus namaycush Salvelinus en reen h g The island island Thealso contain ), and ys. These These ys. . (Plate 1). The na ) that t enter Crossman 1973:203 Crossman Betula nana have have been rafted ice, to shore eastern along edge of by on the thesite and in the beneath the depressions slope leading up toridge. the This iselevated ridgemore vegetation, vegetation, well as largeras littletree willows ( ( the of edges to shore the beaches the lake the of west (Figure 3). This up ridgeareameet slopes to thegraduallythe the to north with lowest area of bench at edge. the its southern cove Thisis area Ten (on pits, house two pitthe site) smaller northand and depressions south the of ends were found at a arrangement inlinear JjKs a large, relatively, north bench flat land by ridgeof east the sheltered an to and elevated production, var as such observed on the island. linear linear storage bilobaterings,rings, pits, qarmat, tent tent and kayak stands Suluk 2007) pits, house rings, tent lithic and scatters. of materials Large quantities rawforused lithic and and 80 archaeological features, (JjKs two at archaeological sites during surve the southern end isa host the of largerunto lake seasonal of alpinus back back again productive lake trout ( 7 - . 7 - , was thewas next y conducted by (1956:256 (1956:256 Figure 73) the of ancestors historic – lar lar to those reported by 2). Three sites, these of JjKs subterranean subterranean pitshouse - - it;boulders un of and cobbles rom then Hudson Bay, the all way and 1 and and JiKu 1 Thule cultureThule - (Dawson (Dawson and Suluk 2007) was the first archaeologist firstto the was visit Maguse archaeologist of the area area. area. epressions found theepressions lake long northern areshore theof represent remainsrepresent of the semi 258) 258) - to 2, contained circular pit depressions simi 2, contained depressions circular pit dominate this dominate - (1956:255 7), (JiKu thesites Kuuvik and - Giddings 1, and 1, and JiKu - 1 and JjKs - Previous Archaeological Research Previous inArchaeological Research Maguse Lake theArea Louis These depressions seemed These depressions which were from known that primarily, at time, Inuit the inAmerican North and Arctic Greenland. (JjKs 7, JiKu Giddings, the though inlocation same by not recorded as Giddings Historic Caribou Inuitoccupations. Dawson archaeologist to visit the area. Followingthe of route originalsurve the Giddings, survey Dawson’s uncovered archaeological foursites, large the Ikirahak sites that that included rings, tent structuresstone, of built surface lithic bifacial of scatters tools, and pit depressions. These pit d of interest withthisat special research, towere that associated to interpreted and time be J. J. Lake. IntravelledRiver the f 1953, he Maguse up up tonorthern end theof the lake. riveralong He sites the thenoted lake a and number 2.3 exposed to exposed theupon littlewind, so grows very vegetation stratified glacial till 8 8 - Superior Superior part of the Hudson partHudson theof central region central theof - , and dolomites, limestones clay, quartz sands, clay, sands, ligniteand quartz thick - (WhitmoreLiberty 1968:553 and formations formations lying arkose and on - youngest group Paleozoic of youngest to Cretaceous d of d fire of . 556) . The rocksgroup second is the shield of middle - 551) - limestones, dolomites, ironlimestones, and dolomites, - hese rocks are middle to late prototerozoic age middle(1.64rocks latehese tobillionare millionyears toprototerozoic 950 erates, erates, well as volcanic as tuffsflows and (WhitmoreLiberty 1968:555 and . rockthirdof isgroup Thethe outcrops Geology, Physical Geography, and Climate of the Geology, Physical Kivalliq the of District Geography, Climate and beds beds marine origin and largely consist by followed limestone, of siltstone, sandstone, and gypsum. The rocks areCretaceous comprise conglom 554) age (450 65 million to million years BP). Paleozoic earlier largely Therocks are of group. T BP). This far contains fewer group and and greater gneisses, of granites quantities quartzites, cherty years BP), are made however and also largelyand up gneisses, thisgranites of province also contains small but significant proportions quartzites (WhitmoreLiberty 1968:546 and BP) and are largely composed of granitic and gneissic BP) rock, largelyand and aregraniticwell as of composed gneissic smaller as quantities of foldedthe highly that in foundsoutheastern rockmetamorphic are Bay. proterozoicrocks Province are Churchill (2.391.64billioninyounger, to early age of further Provincegroups these the thesubdivided intois Superior Churchill and Province, latter portionthetheof which theKivalliq. of southern underlies only province rocksage (3.5are toPrecambrian and of Proterozoic early years 2.39 billion The Kivalliq theNunavut of liesDistrict upon western entirely ShieldCanadian of and contains shield rock three groups. outcrops different The oldest 2.4 Geology 9 9 . is today dry which which eastern coast eastern of coast Hudson Bay, - 7,000 BP 7,000BP theas receded glacier – 968; 1968:208)Robinson (Lee 1 (Lee surrounding thesurrounding bay es into Hudson Hudson Bay. into The Kivalliq southern District, into two regions: regions: two a plain, into characterized marine flatas strict much of the surface is thestrict covered of with much even younger ed ed d i v nnels that formed under the nnels that glaciers, the formed general inrun under northwest a undreds kilometrof s maximum extent between maximum between 8,000 extent s the Kivalliq District as much as 180 m the District180 as inwestern Kivalliq area. much as the had This the glacial glacial period. Tyrrell formedglacial theisthe During periodSea late what over - by elongated drumlins featureslinear the dominating and landscape. esker Eskers, created by melt cha water geographic zones: coastal geographic plain, coastal zones: a and region.hillinterior mountain and plateau, The plain coastal is furthersubdi and shelving into an theinterior shallow waters and plain bay, coastal along characterized lakes and and lakes slow moving that rivers drain referred Lowlands, can be Coast West geographically divided to three theas into Physical Geography Theslight elevation ShieldtheCanadian underlying of and southern verybedrock Kivalliq area District categorized create by served toa of a number poorly drained large effect creatingtheof across Kivalliq a elevated of beach ridgesseries and largecovering portionsTyrrell the of in regionSea sediments from area. the began sea to After thisrebound theisostatic retract as lands raised the around the south the of much as edges the sea 274 as in m while lifting land. land. Tyrrell Theformed SeaLaurentideice began sheet to theas recede and seawater able was to area enter depressed that formerlywas the thecovered by ice sheet. The TyrrellSea reached it post now Hudson Bay and h However, However, the Di within Kivalliq rocks of with origin, Quaternary those theglaciation, and associated especially Wisconsin 10 10 . 209) - community of Arviat.of community The C, C, oftenfor many continuously ° 45 . C between C between the winter the lows and - ° (Robinson 1968:203 (Robinson 19) - present day present C and ° 34 - ost common parent material of most most in soils parent ost the common of materialKivalliq. soils Most (Zoltai (Zoltai and 1978:17 Johnson ied organic materials and soil horizons, soil ied materialsarehorizons, the organic and inmost region, common but ateau region by and ateau is drumlins also characterized eskers, but morealso by frequentlyreaching between , te y ock hills, ock 300 asl., some over and rivers, hills, theas m such large Kazan and Dubawnt that weeks. weeks. Thecool also experiences July along averages summers with thearea at coast Canada with Canada temperatures varying40 than more summer highs. Thethesome of also experiences coldest temperatures area in the countr Clima The climate of Kivalliqtheinof most is extremesouthern one District mainland the other other deposits. glaciofluvial These brunisolspermafrost but also overlie not areaffected by cryoturbation surface, surface, and thereforeand of cryoturbation, are cryosolic order. the Turbic cryosols, including bur static cryosols can be found some areas. in brunisols are on found Dystic and some till Glacial Glacial till m is the are formedout the region m entirepermafrost, of 1 theof normally underlying within the coastal the plain. coastal the regionWestern The Lowlands mountain is of and characterized hill by r broaden into and lakes then large narrow again interior pl common outcrops shield lack of rock, beach ridge of and that a features areon common to southeast to direction southeast the thein of northern Inlet,near partrun region but Chesterfield in a west to indirection east the theof vicinity 11 1 1 - where e line bulges e line westerly westerly and therefore and low pressure pressure low . the During wind, although (Thompson (Thompson 1968:268 (Robinson (Robinson 1968:208) rctic. The Hudson Bay not does A short springs short , m the ro y warm air masses brought y masses up air warm from southern b . 212) - up often does not occur until not in thedoes June areas of until often Kivalliq. occur many up - clockwise movement of upper air air a movement creates clockwise general upper of north - N latitude just north of Churchill, and fromnorthof latitude and a forms lineN just sinuous Churchill, there that C, while inland whileJuly C, temperatures slightly inland theare warmer, lowreaching often ° ° . (Robinson (Robinson 1968:211 about about 59 cuts westward thecuts westward across southern borderLake to eastern end Kivalliq Slaveof the theof in Territories.the Northwest of However, southwest Ikirahakthe tre site the river lake ice and break The climate the tree also position affects theof line. Ineast, is quitethe theline tree low at These These extreme winter late lead to conditions influence the as the bay weather winter theis of over much, frozenKivalliq exhibits similar properties snow thermalcovered Kivalliq theas 284) Kivalliq the isamelioratedof thelargelyeffect Hudson Bay by cooling winter, counter the f airflow pullsmasses air down that cold summer, a this general to leads southwesterly westerly slightly or temperatures are affected occasionally Canada. at However, of effect raising themasses thethe air these intemperature air clockwise upper clockwise air thecentered a over aroundcirculationHudson Bay, zone over northern Hudson Bay Island; itself Baffin the which, veryof expanse a as large cool water, cooling theof temperature air on effect Kivalliq. a has the the During The isclimate largelyKivalliq thetwo of southern by factors:controlled counter a around 10 20s 12 12 . The . 7 (Figure species of species - 210) - (Gordon (Gordon 27 sized cervidsized - contact contact and historic 28; MacPherson 28; MacPherson - - Rangifer tarandus (Gordon1975, 1996) has been been has the single most ) contact contact forpeoples period - ga) environments. ga) environments. While caribou (Robinson (Robinson 1968:209 le morphologycheek teeth, of that District (Gordon 1975:27 pe, and Asia. Asia. and pe, aremost Caribou the sheltered valleys sheltered valleys (deer) family. (deer)family. Caribou are a medium n Rangifer tarandus groenlandicus tarandus Rangifer ( Cervidae Cervidae arrenlands and transitional forest arrenlands(tai and forest transitional B of ten were, at which of least occasionally, hunted humans by le 1). le 1). 491) - (Tab Fauna prominence and low placement dewclaws, of and simp toleads the conclusion that relativelyare the family.of they a member “primitive” deer widespread widespread species of the a number that of of possess characteristics, antlers presence as insuch sexes, both the last 8,000years on of Kivalliq the Barrenlands the barrenground of a tois generallysubspecies caribou be considered found northern NorthEuroacross America, Barrenground Caribou Caribou Barrenground The barrengroundcaribou important resource historic, and faunalby used pre modern, 1968:489 1996:9) peoples using using peoples the thewas primaryresource of groups, there subsistence past human are over mammals found environmentalthese within zones 2.5 Mammals made Mammals up the vast majority(over90%) all theof of diet pre stand stand of trees thenorthof line tree i northward 150 pocket creatingapproximately treesof km 140 from a JjKs km 1). all Tundra thistherevegetation northof areas line, occasional but dominates is the 13 - 13 Research Research . rctic hare Common Name (Banfield 1974:383 tundra muskox black bear muskrat porcupine A aq aq herds ju r i n a Qam shown shown that the ranges theof four 47; Gordon 1996:9) 47; 1996:9) Gordon - Species was maintained was the within Beverly ibos moschatus ibos moschatus arrenland herds is only greater arrenland slightly B Ov americanus Ursus Ondatra zibethicus Erethizon dorsatum Lepus arcticus 143) - Smith Smith 1929:44 . more research shown has that recent the However - Common Name woodchuck woodchuck hare snowshoe caribou moose beaver (Parker (Parker 1972) aq herds in northern Saskatchewan. aq northern herdsSaskatchewan. in However, even these within ju r i Mammals Hunted by Precontact Peoples on Hunted theMammals by Peoples on Barrenlands Precontact n a (adapted (adapted fromBirket (Zittlau, et al. 2003:142 aq aq herds ju social in of social animals normallyfound and least 10 are 15 groups at to ogeneity ogeneity among AmericanNorth r i Table 1 n a Species . Lepus americanus Lepus americanus Castor canadensis Castor Marmota monax Rangifer tarandus Alces alces than than than 50% Porcupineless 50% Alaska, four the inand within theherd within herdsCanadian and and Qam genetic hom herds are overlap completely forrangeinwinter a separate, partialtheof except the Beverly and Qam overlapping herds, homogeneity percent 94 genetic There four northernbarrenground arefound caribou from herds Canada, across which west to include east the Beverly, Bluenose, Bathurst, and done has by thein1970s Wildlife ServiceCanadian the individuals, individuals, inthousands to but the congregate herds into numbering 388) Caribou are 14 - 14 nce nce ; Kelsall Kelsall ; . However, Qamanirjuaq 405) of Lake Baker - (Cooch (Cooch 1968:444 aq Lake, aq most with herds fission into herds fission ju - r i n a (Campbell (Campbell 2005 arrenlands, arrenlands, but a were B herds based herdson based age and and sex, 1967, % 1967, 20 theof - – herds movefor the closer line totree 73; Smith 1975:400 winteringlocations tend be foundto - - herd its wintersthespends in - species of, species mostly birdsmigratory, that aq 70 over ju r i n a herds once again. once herds fallrut, the After inthe late - In the spring, theIn the spring, theonto head out caribou . Qam arrenlands 273) (Gordon (Gordon 1975:70 B - . There over are lation of the of lation thern Kivalliq thern sub fairly largein d groups. Inthe fall smaller the sub arrenlands. arrenlands. These B . For example, during the winter of 1966 duringthe. For example, 1966 of winter wintered near the community of Arviat, and and during of winter near community wintered the the1977, almost Arviat, of - 66) - arrenlands of the sou seasonally dependable resource that seasonally could inbe utilized times stress of 445; Gordon 1996:9) 1975:30; Birds Birds Birds were of on to importance thesecondary dietary people the entire range abandoned its herd southern and invicinity wintered the (Thompson Fischer 1979:270 and lichens lichens that arefavoured the the caribouof winter food during 1968:64 herd over it numbering thethe should portionthat of each year) (oftenbe inherd thousands noted a winter on the in areas that winds that experience clear highground snow keep and of thethe expose the fuse rutinto larger they thewhere sub or or earlyforest the taiga o move boreal closed caribouthe winter, back and into again fordisperse foraging winter start moving toward their traditional calving grounds near near start movingQam traditionaltheir calving toward grounds borncalves between and May July. this During time, thesub large smaller disperse northern and Manitoba. Saskatchewan B The currentcaribou popu transitional portiontheforestforestof borealtheand taiga, closed or inzone, in northern 15 15 e fronted goose d duck - Common Nam ommon loon c rock ptarmigan white whistling swan mallar herring gull mew gull (Lawrence, et al. contact contact and historic . People least hunted at - ). 29) - 46; Gordon 1996:9) 46; 1996:9) Gordon - (Table (Table 2 Species Gavia Gavia immer Lagopus mutus Anser albifrons Olor columbianus Anas platyrhynchos argentatus Larus brachyryncus Larus adjacent adjacent taiga, usually earlyarriving in and June Smith Smith 1929:45 - (Allen and Hogg 1978:28 (Allen Hogg and 46; Gordon 1996:9) 46; 1996:9) Gordon - tailed duck - throated loon - rctic tern rctic loon arrenlands and Common Name long northern pintail duck A A red willow ptarmigan goose canada snow goose arrenlands B B (adapted (adapted fromBirket arrenlands and adjacent taiga, taiga, arrenlands areand round adjacent they available year and Smith Smith 1929:45 - Birds Hunted by Precontact and Historic Peoples Peoples on Birds Precontact HistoricHunted the by and Barrenlands B . wereresource Although, by fish also considered a past groupssecondary (Birket Table 2 Species inhabiting the At At of least 19 species Kivalliq thefish available in southern are 1977:57) periods Fish departing October. by late few theas A such species, willowrock and fullptarmigan, are time of residents the 10 of resident and both species, these during themigratory, pre Gavia Gavia adamsii occupy the seasonally Anus acuta Sterna paradisaea Gavia arctica Chen Chen caerulescens Clangula hyemalis Lagopus lagopus Branta canadensis 16 16 (Burch rctic char Common Name lake lake whitefish A grayling on the Barrenlands rctic char) rcticof werechar) special A . The an was runfallideal subsistence patterns. subsistence These fish 204) man habitation. man habitation. past The Species - ble 3). ble 3). The Arcticof lifecycle char (Ta , whitefish and Coregonus clupeaformis Coregonus Salvelinus alpinus Thymallus acticus fish species were by consumed past peoples fish species seasonality and seven seven Smith 1929:45; Gordon 1975:22; 1996:9) 1975:22; GordonSmith 1929:45; - family(lake trout n large numbers to the same riverssame n numbersthe and large toto lakes spawn Common Name walleye walleye round whitefish lake trout pike , at but least 363; Scott and Crossman 363; and 1973:203 Scott Crossman - Salmonidae ycush ycush Fish Consumed Fish by Peoples and Consumed Precontact Historic (adapted (adapted fromBirket . Smith 1929:45; Gordon 1975:22; 1996:9) GordonSmith1929:45; 1996:9) 1975:22; Smith1929:45) - - Species Table 3 Summary me fish to char forthey in Arctic werebecause vast such numbersavailable The climate, geologic, and biogeographical data reviewed Thefor and region,climate, geologic, reviewed Kivalliq biogeographical thedata that indicates the Ikirahak site well was situated for hu 2.6 (Hunter 1968:362 ti 1986:121) is important understand for to precontact start their in travel theand in spring lakes toocean. lives rivers, rivers down and the the In fall return the i fish these importance for subsistence importancebecause they foravailable weresubsistence in areas abundantly many (Birket (Birket are therefore resource an resource inadvantageous scarcity in times of any season. of Members the Esox lucius vitreum Stizostedion Prosopium cylinraceum Prosopium cylinraceum Salvelinus nama 17 17 7 archaeological - kirahak a as kirahak place for human can habitation ed to provide further for ed the context to JjKs further provide as belongingas to different groups. two cultural next chapter, the the Inhistory culture of the Barrenlands will review be materials. this location. forI the Evidence suitability of be in seen the features number largerecorded archaeological of island, on the identified occupants of occupants into this site termshad ampleresources, lithicaccess fish resources of and and were well intercept situated numbersto the cariboularge crossed of lake they at as 18 18 lands lands n (Gordon arre B s associated with s each associated tradition. into the thiswhich exploreof use ned, ned, tapered, stemmed bases artifact be presented presented (Table be 4). where prominent prominent of archaeological sites where these like projectile points of likeNorthernPlano projectilethe tradition - Culturethe History Barrenlands of (Gordon 1976, 1996; Noble (Gordon 1971; 1991; Stewart1976, 1996; Wright groups. groups. In culturethisthe of chapter, the history 000 years ago. 000 of origins ThePlano thoughtthe areNorthern to human human Chapter Chapter Three: he Northern he Northern Plains . interesting points of Plano is An some feature that after breakage Northern . diagnostic Agate TheBasin Northern PlanoTradition Introduction 1996:22) points were either burinated the edge(s) single doubleor lateral along for secondary use 1976) are described lanceolate as points with thin ground, lie on Great the Plainsthe northern to south. diagnostic artifact Thewith thisassociated tradition similar lanceolate spear point, iswhich to Agate Complex a Basin is verythe point t of The oldest occupation theof with PlanoBarrenlands is theassociated tradition. Northern Northernonto thepeople thefollowed Planonorth newly caribouand deglaciated tundra forest earlyas zones 8, as Chipewyan Dene Chipewyan and Caribou Inuitwill 3.2 of those traditionsappropriate, where traditions have and been located, on diagnostic Finally, overview recorded thethe of historically an of history two groups, the environment by past will focusbe on reviewed a the past with archaeological of traditionsphases origins and 3.1 In and biogeography chapter, thethe theof environmentphysical previous southern Kivalliq District to exploredwas a provide context 19 19 ant Lake, ant Lake, . (Noble Present Present 1300 300 6500 3500 2650 300 2450 1800 nlands nlands Present Present – – – – – – – – – – (Gordon1996:203) . reworkingof This style points Date Range (BP) 1800 1300 300 ~200 8000 6500 3450 2600 2600 2450 Phase Middle Middle Late Earliest Early . at Subsequent excavations the LakeGrant Site Culturethe of BarreHistory (adapted (adapted from 1996) Gordon 1976, (1959, (1959, 1961) Table 4 eilei eilei Dorset (ASTT) Dorset - (Gordon 1976, 1996; 1976) Wright Cultural Tradition Caribou Inuit Talth Dene Chipewyan Northern Plano Shield Archaic Pre . researched sites, Gr as such However, Noble include did earlier firstformallyNorthern defined theof tradition theas artifacts Plano Acasta 105) - (1971) e Complex based e Complex on site based theat done Lake work Acasta eastern at end Great of Bear Shultz Lake, Lake and the Barlow and inarea the Dubawnt KivalliqinRiver MacKenzie districts found Harp by Lakedistrict and foundsurface of other finds throughout theMackenzie 1971:104 Noble Lak as burinsas or gravers continues into Shieldthe Tradition subsequent Archaic 20 20 - the (Wright (Wright ed ed from unt caribou. unt everly herd everly range herd B pointed out side pointed that out ther developed developed thether attributes notched. notched. However, Gordon has has - , Grant Lake, Grant site fur sites within sites the (1996:201) (1996:201) (Gordon (Gordon 1976) (Gordon (Gordon 1976) hat Shieldhat the Archaic is descend t s , Cove site, Blackfly Island and Dot site ort period each summer ortperiod100 staying of within km each , Migod ation. ation. Gordon bladed points in the in Shield bladed the points Archaic, that also included suggest - 93) 93) - (Wright b) 1972a, (Gordon1996) breakage breakage burin - with Wright that continuity between Northern that Wright and with between continuityPlanoShield d , and , and theMigod Sitenearby notched notched lanceolate - suggested that Northern Plano groups stayed toclose that the groupsedge suggested Northern forest and Plano stayed only ly agree (1972b:69;1976:91 , site Aberdeen Shield Archaic Tradition Warden’s Grove site 1976) Barrenlands Shield at foundArchaic areoccupations of District the Mackenzie the of southern N.W.T. Kivalliq theand including District Archaic traditions more introducingis interpretation a likelythan group cultural another into thisthe time area during period. notched notched Shield appear inArchaictradition, later earlierShield points the while Archaic Points are still bladed though shorter and made, side crudely ultimate Northern from Tradition transitionlanceolate theupon pointsPlano based in Northern a Plano to side high ratios post of During the linethe Holocene climatictree itsmid post spread furthest northto optimum glacial position spread allowing further toArchaic Shield to groups h north Wright the forest edge. 3.3 (1996:239) ventured ontoBarrenlands fora the sh (Wright 1976) of from Plano, the theNorthern Plano. Northern After materials examining Gordon 21 21 - defined Dorset Dorset Dorset Dorset - range - 110) - (Minni district of district herd range. herd (1971:107 Qamanirjuaq Qamanirjuaq arrenlands groups. Tools B Noble herd in herd the northern Manitoba, Dorset, or Arctic or Dorset, Tool Small - skatchewan that skatchewan cluster around . . Qamanirjuaq and at Black Black Lakeand at contact contact been associated with been Preassociated - Shield Archaic theShield hunters abandoning 89; 1972) 89; - Qamanirjuaq Qamanirjuaq (Wright1970) led led to . (Meyer (Meyer 1983:148) . herds, Withinranges these winter of the Pre adapted to an inland caribouan adapted following toinland one. herd Pre sites have been recorded in the have inbeen sites boreal recorded northern of Manitoba forest harpoon end and side blades, prepared micro cores and blades, end preparedharpoon and side blades, and cores micro and blades, (Gordon1975, 1996) (Gordon 1975) onally, onally, After a brief interlude of about 50 years Pre Aftera about years brief of interlude 50 (Gordon 1970:88Nash 1975:164; . range theof the Within winter 53) Additi Dorset/Arctic Dorset/Arctic Small Tool Tradition - - . Dorset Dorset and arethroughoutthe sites known Beverly Pre - arrenlands sites occupations occupations the TundraCanadian Tradition a as local ASTt of incentral variant the 1976:51 Thyazzi, and GullyTwinLakes, Sea have sites Horse B areoccupations known Sa infrom sites multiplenorthern the eastern edge Lakeof Athabasca Pre Barrenland Beverly range herdcluster sites Thelonalong Long the theRiver, as such Blowout, Junction, Narrowsare there sites, no and while known types types include bifacial burin/ burin spalls a coastal a huntingcoastal lifestyle, and Dorset tool pre fromsignificantly kitsall varied other tended to made werehighbe of small, cherts. retouched, veryfinelyand quality Tool Around a 3500 climatictrendBP cooling Barrenlands. tradition arrived inarea. (ASTt), thepeople new hunters moved from likely These inland 3.4 1972b) are theElk Island Gods Lakesites the and 22 22 athurst athurst B s e (Noble thapaskan thapaskan A being being ience complexes. ience complexes. Noble a complex of number MacKenzie. MacKenzie. on Based lithic d in theforest boreal closed of as the Taltheilei theas complex on based ie (1951:38) the Hennesey, the Hennesey, Taltheilei, Point, Narrows, Windy then subdivided the then TaltheileiTradition four subdivided into further subdivided into four complexes: Rocknest into further Lake, foursubdivided Rocknest complexes: n reinterpreted the origins of reinterpreted theTaltheileias origins he t herd areas, totheareas, herd Dene Chipewyan Taltheileiand include as later refined the complex into the Taltheilei Shale tradition based Taltheilei thetradition based into refinedthe Shalelater complex (Gordon 1977a) le tradition complexes. le tradition complexes. (1977c) 116) 116) - Qamanirjuaq (1971:110 s conducted s conducted at the TaltheileiNarrowsthe site Lake.of on eastern arm Slave Great TaltheileiSha Taltheilei Tradition The originsTaltheileitraditionmost l likely theof northwest British Columbia Territory, totheissouthern or thought Yukon which be Earliest Earliest and Early PhaseTaltheilei Traditions descendents. descendents. Gordon earliest, phases early, most of late, encompassed middle, and Noble’s which 1971) herd area. Gordon and redefined traditiontheas to ineast theTaltheilei Tradition include further the sites Beverly and Lockhart, Frank Snare FairchildBay, Channel, River, and Resil that suggested this tradition a hisTundra of Canadian earlier tradition, developed out local variant and ASTt, withof ends Historic Dene in livingtheYellowknife the on further of theresearch District conducted in central typology and dating, Nobleradiocarbon limited define with thisassociated tradition including survey Noble 3.5 Taltheilei first definedwas MacNeish by Mackenzie. Mackenzie. This tradition Aurora and River, Timber River. MacKinlay Point, 23 , 23 . , Wardens , Wardens (1977a:74) (Gordon (Gordon 1977c) Earliest Earliest Qamanirjuaq e 1971) , and , and Black Lake 3 at Artillery Lake, 3 Artillery at - , afterthe abandonment (Nobl 239) - ; Gordon well as Lake site uding KfNm (Gordon 1976) (Gordon1996:239) (Gordon 1996:117,(Gordon 239) 1976:267; (McGhee 1970) (McGhee , Migod site site , Migod characteristically long, thick, stemmed lanceolate characteristically Hennessey complex foundsites Hennessey eastern on arms of the (Gordon 1976:267; 1996:238(Gordon 1976:267; (Gordon1996) ranges. ranges. However, there are with a sites of number greater thapaskan speaking people. speaking thapaskan A juaq juaq Dorset tradition during a climatic traditionwarminga during climatic Dorset period (1971:111) - . und 2600 und BP land land of Qamanir (Minni 1976) range Hennesey arerange sites wereHennesey recorded the Artillery at Grove site, LakeGrant site site the Akaicho River, Waldron Beach, Caribou, Hennesey, the Akaicho River, Waldron Artillery Channel, Beach, Caribou, Hennesey, Mattbery, Crown, Saddle, Delphine, Esker and Sandbluff, Drybones, Mayfly sites. the In Beverly Coppermine River Bloody at Falls the site included has Noble’s Great Slave and incl Lakecentral Mackenzie of district more boreal withinintensive occupations taiga forestand the closed which zone, further reinforces the Taltheileiorigintraditionof forest Earliest Early foundand range herdare upper sites theon within Bathurst the points. points. pointsinto these BP, transition By shouldered 2450 long, the thinpoints wide, in EarlyTatheilei tradition. Earliest Earlycover sites and the Bathurst, range entirethe of Beverly, and of by Prethe thearea Earliest projectilephase points are Athabasca, Athabasca, and fromranges thereof the into theand Beverly, Bathurst, caribou herds aro ancestral ancestral home Taltheilei Peace and migrated Slavethe tradition groupsrivers along east Lake to 24 24 - (Gordon . . However, Lake k 7,000 BP), 7,000BP), - herd area. area. herd ordon 1996:85) arrenground caribou herds, (G b (Stewart1991) and the and Heni at Windy Point and and Point Waldron Windy Qamanirjuaq also also recorded the Willowherbat 113) - were sites in sites the (McGhee 1970) (McGhee (1971:112 . lanceolate These points large are surface finds difficultsurface finds arden’s Grove, Grant Lake, Rennie Lake, Jarvis Lake, arden’s Grove, Grant f the ranges of their associated rangesassociated of thef their (Nash (Nash 1975:152) 1 - p . occupations phase Middle the Bathurst area Bathurst herd the , became a common hunting strategy duringthe, common Middle phase strategy huntinga became 86) - and and JqL , theas W well as y, sites associated y, with Noble’sassociated sites (Gordon 1976:122; 1996:85)(Gordon1976:122; . commonlyprojectile phase most long, thin, points ground Middle are River River River, complexes, Pike’s as such River, Portage, Birch MacKinlay Sunken Rand, and and Lapointe in sites (Irving1968:45) Additionall Whitefish Whitefish Lake, Lake,Point, Hornby Lookout Point, Beverly Lake and Artillery sites (Gordon 1996:85 Middle Middle Taltheilei at occupations inBeverly area thesites herd include the Migod site (Gordon 1976) which which of temporalmakes associations high frequencies relative of triangularand endscrapers large large butchering bifacial knives are occupations also characteristic of Middle phase the stemmed, stemmed, lanceolate spear points, stemmed, tanged pentagonal, points thoughareand also found morphologically to Plano(8,000similar very much points earlier Northern Earliest Early and phases. of for Use crossings water caribouabove and mass both hunts, below the tree line 1996:239) groups exploited the o entirety with a tundra to on much term, compared emphasis large, greater theoccupations short Middle Phase TraditionTaltheilei By 1800 duringa BP, trend, warmingcontinued TaltheileiTraditionclimatic Middle 25 . . 25 he eilei eilei Bay . (Gordon 1996:57) (Gordon 1996:56) 700 and 300 BP, 300 700 t BP, and notched forms, though notched - (Nash (Nash 1975) Between Between d corner hnohistorically and ethnographically arrenlands. arrenlands. phase Projectile points during this B Jarvis Lake, and Artillery Jarvis Lake Narrows, Lockhart River, Frank Narrows, Lockhart Channel, River, River, and Snare herd range at Shethanei Lake, range herdLake, EngenolfLake, at Little Lake Duck Shethanei 115) , Mountain Lake,Hills sites , Mountain and Caribou - 84) - ge forced Late phase people to stay in the forestge Late forced the and stay closer longer stay inpeople to to phase to Qamanirjuaq A arrow technology by Late Taltheilei hunters. Latearrow by Taltheileihunters. technology - (1971:113 the ce I and - iance iance arecomplexes the Kettle, Steeprock, River, MacKinlay Warburton, Back, Haig, ittle The Taltheileitradition with Lateends with initial in firsttheEuropeans encounters the half the of eighteenth century. et Afterthisthe time within (Nash 1970:81 Rain, Rain, Hearths, Many Otter, Pike’s Muchmore, Torment, Fatigue, Portage, Alder, Taltheilei Point, and Creek, DrizzeReliance sites. Finally, Late are sites phase found In the district the central inrange,MacKenzie, Bathurst withof herd associated sites Noble’s Rel Late are sites phase found range herdthe at within Beverly site, the LakeGrant Warden’s Grove, Lake, Rennie Lake, Whitefish the tree when the out venturingtoline on are predominately asymmetrical made, side an crudely larger the still stemmed toollanceolate points area of assemblage part By By 1300 changed due BP kits toadoption toolhad Taltheilei tradition huntingtheof bow L Late Phase TraditionTaltheilei Windy Windy Point, Landing, Barnston River, ThompsonTalth Taltheilei Point, and recordedsites in theare District central included. MacKenzie of 26 26 . eastward eastward arc - an an Dene groups that . (Gillespie 1970:61) wy or EatersCaribou by in archaeological and in archaeological eldeli eldeli - en θ graphically Eaterthe Caribou term et . linguistically The and culturally the area north of the Slavearea Great north of Lake . However, ethno (Smith1975:417) (Gillespie 1970; Smith1975) 1996:27; Gordon ll, Manitoba ll, Manitoba ewyan ewyan is a Cree meaning term ‘pointed to way referring skins’, the nd Mackenzie Districtnd Northwest Territories,Mackenzie the of theas well as . range Dene The Chipewyan stretched thefromof historic theearly (Smith1975:414) ipewyan ipewyan as Dene wereto referred herds respectively) herds respectively) referredare to individually Chipewyan Dene remained largely furtrade, and outside the of of,maintained, at their least a portion other other Dene groups been has Chipewyan toused describe the Chipe more conservative and east and of east LakeGreat the inRiver Bear areathe near Coppermine Historically the Ch eastern eastern edge of TerritoriesSlave in Great inLake the a Northwest south down to Churchi near related group, the Yellowknives, historic inhabited “Chipewyan”. “Chipewyan”. “Chip they stretched their or shirtsskins with pointed their behind” beaver to tails and before (Gordon 1977a:72) district of a Nunavut northern and of Manitoba Saskatchewan portion theforest of boreal closed northern during ethnographicperiod, the the is literature historic referred theas in early to 3.6 The and Dene inhabitingtundraNations groupFirsttaiga Kivalliqthethe of southern Qamanirjuaq ethnographic contexts documented documented groups with the Dene theherd), (associated Yellowknifethe and Bathurst central and eastern Dene Chipewyan groupswith (associated and the Beverly 27 27 to - north . However, in obtained by force obtained tablished tablished in 1717 :75) (Gillespie 1975:366 tundra where tundrathe . - (J. G. G. Smith (J. E. 1976b . es was Fort Churchill ce untilstrategies the twentieth early Chief of Chief Fort, peace Yorkof establish to - in - By the By theDene Chipewyan 1720’s had earlylearned . party made the first first recorded made party the a European contact with (Knight 1932:57) aditional settlement/subsistence strategy settlement/subsistence aditional to tradethe withcompany. furs This expedition peace partwas a of (Gillespie 1975) ompany ompany (HBC) C ay ay B for Miles” a 1000 (Friesen 2004:302; (Friesen G. E.1976b:79) J. Smith1976a:13; . udson udson oric Dene Chipewyan groupof winter theduring 1715 1716. to This sent was party good living trtheir with 367) territoriestrap to to fursfewdress but had toproperly, still trade. were They resistant to south intomoving more fur areas to richin fur tradebecome involved they more the made because a very Chipewyan Dene Chipewyan spent most of could be time,their and only therefore from neighbours, fromsouthern movingtheir traditionaltheir through trade, by or south dispersed upon dispersed returningto own their territory the firstfew yearstrade of Fortby Churchill, traded furs Dene at Chipewyan were few and poorly dressed. animals were Fur bearing intaiga rarethe southwest southwest explicitly the for withtradingDene Chipewyan and visited was yearly task groups by that withinwere assembled Dene Chipewyan territory travel to then to Churchill totrade, and between between the “NorthernIndians” (Chipewyan Dene) Cree, toand the theand bring Dene Chipewyan larger to whole Knight endeavour fromCountry“make the a by inpeace Round A H Hist out by Knight, Governor Captain James Chipewyan Dene History traditional settlement/subsisten territories and century 28 28 (Smith and Burch territory until territory until (Smith and Burch Dene Dene phic information about phicabout information witnessed theof witnessed massacre an . A event a similar occurred 105) ns” (Yellowknifens” Dene). After two - Chipewyan Dene Chipewyan “relations actually - ter ter Chipewyan hese have events led “to the hese prevailing T many of who who joined many no theof “with other group , (Hearne 1958:74) Point (near modern Arviat, the of Point community (Hearne 1958:95 Inuit hostility in Northern Canada” Inuithostility Northern Canada” in - hunting residential mobilitypractices, patterns, social and near Eskimo near . ier ier Dene Dene 1772 the expeditions from to Coppermine Churchill River. Hearne was - (Hearne 1958) many many peaceful morethan literaturecontacts ones…the violent been has . maintain However, theInuit authorsthat . and then massacred then nearly of massacred and Inuit. all the , characterized characterized by reasoning” faultya of error combination and sampling 1979:93) anthropological view Indianof 1979:82) included preferentially withInuit group. traded an Dene Chipewyan waited The until sloop the left intent Esquimaux” than murderthe to and decade a half earl Nunavut), a Dene Chipewyan angryof became group wheresloop HBC when an During 1771, Hearne theof summer Inuit theFalls at groupnear by Coppermine Bloody River his Dene Chipewyan and Yellowknife Dene traveling companions Historic Chipewyan structures earlier attempts of histookfailedto mission, the Services on complete Hearne Matonabee, a leader respected Dene a among as guide, the set out Chipewyan and in December of 1771. isjournal a wealth Hearne’s ethnograof an an employee HBC who totasked was through “NorthernIndian”findtravel to territory the source of copper the “Copper by used native India There towerefurther Europeans no en attempts by Hearne’s 1771 29 29 r the Inuit arrenlands (Smith (Smith and B kyed Lake. kyed By - living in livingcabins log , . place between Chipewyan place between Dene Chipewyan he Chipewyan he Dene Chipewyan populations and took me Caribou Inuit land even according a fulltimeKivalliq, the and in southern ed ed . 21) - (Smith 1975:427; J. G. E. (Smith J. Smith 1976b:79) 1975:427; G. . 85) - ng less within their ng within less traditional territory. Over to fewthe next decades, access 1781, a smallpox epidemic greatly reduced t smallpox epidemic reduced greatly1781, a - the area. However, peaceful contact regularly G. E. G. E. Smith 1976b:19 Chipewyan band Chipewyan livingband, land, theBrochet, Lands off settled Barreninthe Manitoba (J. and and traveli medicine and hospitals, schools, radios, and led transportation and air moreCaribou more Eater move permanent toChipewyan into settlements. In final 1967, Eatethe Caribou By By the 1920s theEater became moreChipewyan Caribou sedentary of Eater Caribou margin,near forest territorywhileChipewyan the the Caribou expanded their southern tundra range Kivalliqmost the the over of in District Burch 1979:84 the mid Caribou nineteenth Inuit livcentury, area, once Dene Chipewyan summer territory, bec to theEater Chipewyan. Caribou century The thenineteenth saw end contractionthe of of Kivalliqthe the southern in 1820s. therethisfew time were By Dene Chipewyan using and Caribou the themeetings Inuit near in 1830s in form annual Yath of traditional territory TheInuit Caribou westward from began the expanding the Hudson Bay into led most surviving bands to move south into the closed boreal led forestmost intosurvivingclosed become moremove to tothebands south active infur trade. the a Caribou small Onlyof number inEater stayed Chipewyan their In 1780 30 30 in situ situ in - gue for gue ar century. century. th (1976) (1976) put forward upon put based arrenlands to the west coast arrenlandsthe of to west coast were B and and Beverly herds a as primary has alternatively suggested alternativelyhas that suggested the the hically Inuitto all the definein living 51) 51) existing Thule the west coast along existing base - - 8:49 and Linnamae and Linnamae Clark and Qamanirjuaq Qamanirjuaq (196 that shared a common linguistic that heritage shared a and (1977) . However, Stevenson argued threethese that groups were ith 1929) ith ups. ups. Irving e origins of the Caribou Inuit thee of origins Caribou has been used been has ethnograpused Sm ” - suggested that suggested Inuit the wereInuit fromCaribou originally Copper also suggested that also suggested Inuit theshared ancestry a with Caribou common (Birket (1978) arrenground thearrenground of caribou b (1997) Caribou Inuit “ the d Caribou InuitHistory utilize subsistence resource. Inuitintogenerally Caribou divided The ninerecognized can be The term Kivalliq District of upon Hudson foundBay based thearchaeological remainsRiver Meliadine along west of Rankin Inlet. Caribou Inuit werefrom to Kivalliq theimmigrants coast, to be thearcticand related may the Netsilingmiut. Finally, Clark development of fromInuitculturea Caribou pre the descendents of the descendents a Thuleto forced was that abandon itspopulation lifestyle coastal and move inland. and Thulebecame the above inland This threethen group diverged mentioned historic Inuit gro Stevenson Stevenson other Netsilik, Inuit central the again of on based Copper groups, namely similarities and language and material culture culture, Burch the Central arcticinland migrated that across coast the of Hudson Bay because a resource near collapse theof the 17 end Threetheories formain th different of lines evidence. architecture, similaritiesand language, material in Citing 3.7 The in Caribou origins the been Inuit thehave debated of literature. longanthropological 31 - 31 , , were able (Rassmusen (Rassmusen all all sisting sisting on Harvaqtormiut spent their spent summers their Hauniqtuurmiut , gatherer to groups gatherer - er . These made groupsup were more Europeandependent on Padlirmiut arrenlands region reviewed, was B ously, ously, for the past 8,000 years. Harvaqtuurmiut became became . , , and , some and inhabit thishistoric inhabit environment, the . groups The had territoriesweakly defined Utkuhiksalingmiut and and (Fossett (Fossett 2001) , possibly due a , possibly in to cyclical of low the populations Qairnirmiut , generally spent the entireinland spent the year generallysub Hanningajurmiut , herds iut physically and biogeographically the southern a was physically Kivalliqand biogeographically Padlirmiut , Qaernermiut, Akilinirm Hauniqturmiut , Qamanirjuaq lirmiut miut and some some and several several reported famines . this In the chapter, of the history culture Paat , Ahiar on . first theInuitthe During thecentury of Caribou half twentieth became more Summary to adapt to this environment successfully to for thisperiodsadapt successfully environment time.toof extended The subsistence of settlement systems the final groups two to environment, at least seasonally, environment, and least seasonally, almost at continu These groups came from different but and backgrounds, cultural historical harsh harsh environment, but for resources past hunt one ample with subsist which of confirms conclusions were, that Chapter the 2 people fact, inhabitable in to this 3.8 Chapter 2 that showed goods. goods. theInuit were themajority Caribou In of moved settled 1950s communities into of because the Beverly and subsisting on and resources subsisting coastal moved inland the in tofall caribou hunt 1930) involved withfur and trade thetherefore economy that that allowed movement easy area from to one another. the However, Ahiarmiut, caribou, the while of relatedof distinct thereintermarriagesets families, but between themuch was groups (Burch 1986; Stevenson 1997) 1988; Damas groups: groups: Ihalmiut 32 32 gatherer and themobility, gatherer - review theories of theorieshunter review 7 site. - record theof JjKs Furthermore, next chapter the will archaeological correlates that that the can mobilityinrecognize be archaeological toused Chipewyan Dene Chipewyan and Caribou in Inuit will explored detail chapter themore inbe tonext provide formobility analogies interpretingof past occupants theIkirahak the of the site. 33 33 . - xamining ility ility , and household , household and archaeological archaeological ubsistence/settlement ubsistence/settlement who conducted conducted who gatherer mob gatherer - (Yellen 1976, 1977b) gatherer s - eological carriedstudies in out eological tropical Saharan AfricaSaharan - site site structure, lithic analysis (1978a, b, 1980, 1991) , using bearing in mind the effectsin bearingthat the mind post depositional examine the extent tothe the mobility patternsextent which examine of – gatherer Mobility and gatherer Archaeological Mobility Correlates its and - Gatherer MobilityGatherer - gatherer mobilitygatherer Hunter - settlement in thesystems study area resemble, from, divergeor those gatherer mobility, the mobility, gatherer two outlines and models prevailingfor then - - defined two hunter of defined a of ends spectrum se is thistoof se chapter (1980) (1980) gatherer subsistence and gatherer settlement on Barrenlands. subsistence the The gatherersreflected (lithic arethe remains in material features) culturalmaterials, - - Chapter Chapter Four: Theories of Theories Hunter Introduction Binford foragerssystems, and collectors. groups as Foragersin defined living environments were compared the toNunamiut ethnoarcha other data zones, among especially the San !Kung of Sub The most the influential research concerning spectrum hunter of fromcomes strategies the Binfordof work ethnoarchaeological among investigations thethe of subarctic. Alaskan Nunamiut He processes might correlates. these have on 4.2 hunter correlates for hunter archaeology are then examined which which subsistence of thecommunities theperiod. of descendant historic This begins by chapter e theories of hunter they they leave behind the on landscape. correlates theof Defining archaeological hunter gatherer a of means mobilityareto they the important provide examining degree because 4.1 The purpo hunter 34 34 - . have two basic have . These groups . subsistence This 10) - . Foragers maintenance toolsmaintenance of also s of residential camps base (Binford1980:9) (1980:5 location (Binford1980:10) - ocations are of sites ocations resource extraction urces occur urces occur on simultaneously the landscape (Binford (Binford 1980:10) from the visited camp),briefly,from are abandoned. and then ersely, ersely, Binford with Collectors groupsas “supply themselves specific that defines settlement system when happens settlement criticalsystem reso in different small are locations, skilled task groupsaway sent some distance fromso the employ a re strategy logistical which of mobility in are frequentfarless (lowerresidential task groups but mobility), arefrom sent out often locations these on logistical collecting specific to resources. trips harvest Thisof type Conv throughresources organized specially task groups” The fewleft were at items tools that functionallyrelated locations behind werethe to specific of needs the resource(s) at location that extracted that that radius (usually exist than within residential certainof less bases a a day’s journey). The they locations of isarchaeological lowarevisibility a as spread across relatively large area foragingradius(the occur occur at camps. base at tend camps base to Artifact assemblages be but diverse, contain little foragers the inbecause way storage of tend forfacilities forage on resources to a daily basis, and place. in do stay long one not L site types: site types: residential and camps base locations. arecamps base the of sites Residential domestic life are locations and where activity, also theand most of processing materials brought from inoutside camp of take place. Production and settlement system involves settlement frequentsystem inresidential groupmoves, which a onto”“maps resource (highpatches residential mobility) that that contained that resources distributed the wereand across landscape homogeneously generally available or seasonally, (Binford continuously 35 35 urch (Binford 1978a; B specific specific site types tend to - ial bases, ial or bases, temporarily nearer gatherer from the aroundgroups - er . When forused observing game these 2) these three collector three these found a correlation a foundcorrelation between effective temperature 17) . - . are locations Caches where large resources bulk (Binford (Binford 1980:1 . 12) - und: residential base camps, camps, locations, residential camps, fieldund: base stations, 12) - nd feature storage types that features, include often diverse more tool (Binford1980:13 (Binford1978a:330) (Binford 1980:10 as they allow hunters to observe whether game huntersthey observe areas whether topatternsallow following game predictedof After the reviewing hunt residential 168 mobility of world, Binford be limited to those associated with general maintenance tasks, be withlimited tasks, and those general associated simple subsistence to maintenance activities members of maintainingas eating tools, task groups daily and such out carry activities, sleeping. types of The at found artifacts movement movement harvested at locations are stored near, at, or resident either the locations of extraction. field temporarylocations residence Finally, where are camps other other inareahuman groups the arestations integral strategies interceptcomponents of hunting 1972) (Binford 1980:10 1978b:123; Stations or resources are where about sites task groupssubsistence information gather substantial a house substantial types for time, a activities and and of over performingdense larger variety mixedmore (in of terms types) referred varieties materialof cultural deposits cultural to palimpsets as and caches. and caches. character first The to site types arethose generated twoin by similar foragers, among residential foundcamps except that base collectors tend include tomore base camp base to resources. procure these at types of least five Collectors create while sites carrying their roout seasonal 36 36 - w , Kelly . Binford (1980) (1980) (1980) Inuit, Inuit, Iglulingmiut and gatherer mobilitygatherer five on based - f residential mobility to access f residential access mobility to (see Martin 1983; (see Martin Smith 1983, 1991) analyzed hunter analyzed e a group moved e in a themoved group a of average year, and length 132) - gatherers in higher latitudes, in withETs, latitudes, gatherers higher were lowers likelymore (1995:120 - l Foraging theory. l Foraging theory. the studies these Inamount energy foodof available ET foravailable food inenvironment, he amount but a theas determinant theof found hunter that environment became more expensive than camp expensive new moremoving became toenvironment foraging a amount amount and available fooddistributionof inenvironment. the Binford Like also used variables: variables: per the residential camp number year, thebase moves average of distance werecamps moved, total the distanc logistical collecting trips. variables in then tototal examined relation He these the As an As an alternative afterapproach, examining Bindford’s typological of spectrum hunter gatherer mobility, Kelly were that serial maintained o specialists high levels available prey seasonally species. foraging including Slave, Copper Netsilingmiut Inuit, groupsthe Inuit. groupsthat were However, thewhile suggests author foragers,these verythey are different that from high foragers suggests climates, equatorial latitude and in foragers to be of collectorslower logistically with organized loresidential levels mobilitythan latitude groupswere foragers.likely that morebe nomadic tomore Binford admits that tothere exceptions specifically latitudea this higher were of trend, number in the location, residential move a planned was (1980) in radiusthe the of withincamp environment base weighed foraging was against the the with energy movingassociated costs to camp location. a new foragingcost of food If the (ET) level residential of employingand mobility, studies to modelsopposed as based solely on Optima 37 37 (1995) (1995) tly because tly their because . , identifiedsome exceptions Kelly 130) - among among the and of Basarwa Bakalagadi gatherers faunalfocusing on gatherers resources (1980) - (1984, 1991) gatherer mobility frommobility comes gatherer the (Kelly 1995:129 (Kelly - further noted noted hunter further that . However, like Binford llected llected duringforays can logistical longer be economically es were used instead of residential camp base moves inwerees residential instead of used these 132) 132) 129) - - (1995:131 trian bison hunters (Blackfoot, Crow, Cheyenne, etc). explains short residential He ssitating frequentssitating short moves Another Another of importantaspect hunter ethnoarchaeological research of Kent foragers, co resources procured, by camps transported,base back small to longer groupsand at distances. territories. that large because game suggests animals offer Kelly caloric higher returns, toopposed as the commonlyresources lower tropicalintakeencountered caloric by Kelly required territories tospecies. large prey hunt many logistical However, in cases, forays of small partihunting experience experience rapid thedrops foraging in trips return offs each camp on location, at nece to thisliving among (Baffinland trend Inuit and and thegroups Netsilingmiut), in Arctic, eques moves of both groupsArctic Plainsin by would peoples environments that and noting prey species preymove frequentlyspecies adequate foraging. findto Kelly also discovered a general trend in with increased residential average that per ETmove distance decreases the (Kelly 1995:123 found that of and Micmac Montagnais groups, specifically theeastern Canada, in living temperate boreal quitecamps base environmentsfrequenforest moved further primary biomass, standing the of plant or the added amount in environmentmatter theas other and abundance factordetermininggross food distribution. Kelly 38 38 previous chapter, different different ways. While in houses, in houses, larger constructed better with developed a model developed of a focusing model by site spatial structure subsistence Strategies from Strategies subsistence Kivalliq the - found that anticipated mobility was a mobilitywas importantfoundfactormore anticipated that settlement systems. settlement systems. As mentioned in the - (1991) 42) - gatherer camps. camps. gatherer this In study, anticipated longer mobility was - ) in the diets of the inhabitants of ) theinhabitantsKivalliq the in diets thesouthern of District. concerning human the settlement on Barrenlands have traditionally (1991:37 , Kent gatherer subsistence - Saharan Africa. Kent Case StudiesCase Settlementof - ganization ganization of hunter Ranigifer tarandus focused focused on of ecological explanations, barrenground due the caribouto prominence ( Accepted models Accepted the Chipewyan the Dene Chipewyan were highly followers, herdtheInuit utilizedmobile Caribou a herd interception To strategy much two these degree mobility. levels of with lower arewhat mobilityreflected Ikirahak?patterns at the Chipewyan the Dene Chipewyan and thistheCaribou regioninhabited historicInuit both during period, times. at althoughdifferent though relied Interestingly, on both even primarily barrenground thiscaribou, inadapted each environment group to 4.3 The Barrenlands thea of uniquesouthern study providesforKivalliqcase exploring hunter and and more the numerousof presence houses, larger sites, formal and storage a areas, greater range types. featureof than than of actual mobilityin aspects the and most determining theof structurespatial or linked with per larger amounts space of person anticipates spending spending at anticipates a site of vs. actual amount the time theher In spent site. at research sub on anticipated timetheas of mobility. mobilityis defined amount a Anticipated group 39 39 (Gordon 1975, . tundra and zone) environmental environmental - - . Small of groups closely of the of Beverly from herd od, most theod, most notably journal (Burch 1972) wing model become has the contact contact Barrenlands cultures. The - (notably Parker(notably 1972) as they focus on they as techno e of environment,e thetheof following Barrenlands herd r (transitionalthe in taiga together forest he herd interception model model he interceptionherd (see (see Steward 1955) and and t focused movements of focused on cariboucontemporaryusing the seasonal Herd Following Herd discreet follo discreet herdherd/discreet band , archaeological data collected in the range, archaeological data collected in hen hen movements were cariboupredictable. relatively Larger groups labour settlement settlement systems duringperi the contact early - (1958) (1975) (Gordon 1975) , modernbehaviour caribou of and studies Dorset Dorset Taltheilei tradition Dene and Chipewyan occupations historic - forest edge w made up in relatedof would the assist families come during thistomass together time related families would winte northern portion theof forest. boreal the would toout thecaribou In begin move spring, on totundra. the year The thetookof events thisfirst killmajor timeplace theat at The following model herd movement on focuses of theyear throughout theand caribou then mirrorsmovements to of peoples’ seasonal that prey.their Pre 1976) model model isupon based ethnohistoric Dene that information Chipewyan sources offer about subsistence of Hearne Chipewyan Dene Gordon’s standard employed by studying archaeologists pre presented presented to explain human us model roots in ecology cultural of aspects culture tosite locations and explain functions. Two models separate have been These These models have herds to understand protocontact and have movements, contact their pre population and 40 40 (Smith (Smith and and arrows, or - the larger labour the groups likely not did spear caribou , . hedges to hedges resemble a maze” - other needed itemsfollowing forthe other arrows or speared with lances. or arrows lances. withspeared Hearne Chipewyan Dene Chipewyan . summer the During (Smith (Smith 1975:408) canoes were canoes smaller and unstable compared to he water. he water. uction of uction mile than pounds diameter.of more a in groups. groups. arrenlands. arrenlands. of groups Small hunters using bow B (Gordon 1975:76) Chipewyan Dene Chipewyan st theof st hunt fallsecure enough goal to tocaribouwas outfit all hides r atural, long, narrow, topographic features to long, narrow,caribou funnel atural, topographic pounds into Chipewyan Dene Chipewyan rate back intogroupsnuclear a related of familiessmaller fewhunt to the witnessed the witnessed constr . caribou fromset in Snaresand them entangle were prevent openings to ing ran thehunt summer out, springtherefore, and, thewas of residential time highest for rut. the fi The members of band lodges, with the and clothing, mobility for The where communal fallthe line the place huntsnear had tree took caribou aggregated muskets duringmuskets theera, carried historic smaller these huntsout acquired afterthe meat dur Caribou Inuitkayaks would sepa caribou dispersed on the with arrows they as t of came out in thelike from canoes Caribou water their the from historic Inuit later didkayaks traditional because Caribou were and they as also locations, ambushed riversat lakes crossed known they as traveled tofrom wouldgrounds, the and they be calving speared, shot where or snared, 1975:408) escaping. Caribou then would be shot with (1958:49) where they could easily be killed. to large be stronglyconstructed “fence, Poundsa were made of trees and counter brushy crowded by within kills in which hunters would intercept or drive caribou kills in throughknown would movement drivewhich or intercept hunters caribou corridors using n 41 41 - 179) - to represent a (Hearne (1958:176 ed The goal second . it having without guides came guides came across seem mentioned subsistence - (Smith (Smith 1975:406) Chipewyan Dene Chipewyan These individuals These practicing, practicing, winter, at a least during the that this strange that would groupon live dried said said families would “subsist by would families“subsist id not make very leather itemsid made durablemake and not south to acquire birch for their canoes and and for to birchcanoes funguses their acquire south they they were d who had come down down had from come winter who their on the camp move istoric Dene. Chipewyan February During1772, on of the Chipewyan Dene Chipewyan ce of Wales, ce Wales, of Hearne and his n Herd following. Chipewyan Dene Chipewyan the winter on the Barrenlands. the Barrenlands. on winter the , which suggests that , thewhich was of residential winter suggests time mobility. lowest 51) Hearne recorded that the communal hunts of Hearne that communal recordedfall huntsthe the early late wereand winter - gistical gistical collector the isstrategy foragerquiteaccepted than that model different of lo Dene Chipewyan meat meat throughout task group fromBarrenlands, a sent, residential the logistical on camp foray base to on a collect resources. that suggests This that that grow the for tinderas use fires, found treestheir on birch towhich the be couldn’t on tundra. Matonabee, Hearne’s chief guide, return FortPri trip to another group of Barrenlands. group This had It there the should that withinHearne be isof journal one noted example there that may suggests have the been in some variationabove of settlement system the h occasion to occasion move tents their above once twice or during the winter”entire 1958:50 of toto was this for hunt get secure enough thestorage of partmeat a through good winter. often that so successful making the hides usable. d Caribou hide from replaced material every be this year needed to year. by hides flylarvaewere warble Caribou theduringinfested portionthe earlier of year, inwerefall only by larvae the the thein holes created healed, the thereby hides 42 42 rctic A round. In - to the for human beings to ing. However, Burch’s settlement settlement in the Kivalliq - . groups would sea hunt asonal on dependence asonal both , inland remained year lirmiut lirmiut lirmiut (Burch 1986) Paat Paat ) and primary dependence ) on dependence caribouand primary year would then winter inland subsisting winter on subsisting then cached inland would s and s and collected their while fortheeggs, waiting lirmiut lirmiut lirmiut , some and Paat arrenground caribou move cariboutoo arrenground quickly b Paat miut hunted hunted bird Ahiar . The miut that the contact period Chipewyan that Dene, period the not Inuit, thecontact Chipewyan Caribou were ). For first model, some the Ahiar presented subsistence presented fora Caribou model Inuit recanted later his denial following after herd of levelled at criticisms him miut (1990) (Arima 1984) cured during previous hunt,fall’s withsupplemented the lake trout and Ahiar (1972) (1991) arrenlands for fall thehunt. caribou were These often hunts at out carried water caribou return infrom toforaging winter their the taiga. grounds the caribou When arrived carriedthe huntingin late summer out driving spring/early caribouwas by In the model, second the spring, the meat meat se char began when resources to caribou lowrun B by crossings waiting and them until caribouthen swimming from spearing the were kayaks caribou and ( resources coastal round ( mammals on and thethen duringthemonths coast move summer inland interception accurately strategy describe cariboudidInuitthetheof use Caribou and environment theof Kivalliq. different Burch two provided that uses models caribouof are relevance of withto one thisse associated discussion: Burch Burch by Gordon only to examples appropriate followconsider herd for examining based upon based the premise that follow, therefore be can at onlyintercepted and strategic seasonally locations. Though Caribou InuitHerd Interception Burch 43 43 . (1991) (1991) . ly based ly Chipewyan Dene Chipewyan (engaged (engaged in fur the past past hunters hiding , inuksuit (Arima1984; 1986) Burch Models Chipewyan Dene Chipewyan herd following the model have might been tlement settlement of systems historic - Set stone or stone cairns, - e cached meat e meat cached system was based on based was over system 2,000years lifeof that that theInuit interception not Caribou was model d arrenlands environment because of arrenlands because environment itsand longevitystability ubsistence Chipewyan Dene Chipewyan B nuit logistical logistical nuitcollectors. contrast to Friesen Binford, argued In ng one. one. ng major also cited a Friesen difference in territorial Chipewyan Dene Chipewyan factor driving differences between between thefactordriving differences two these of adaptations groups. e term strategy because theInuit strategy termCaribou because forced wereabandon thisto - compared the subsistence millennia. millennia. He also argue (2004) entieth century evidence to as used this claim. are support Kent’s Similar to lifeway than afterless 200 years. faminesCaribou among The recorded Inuit theduring the tw optimal adaptation for the over the viable a as long trade), further a as that Friesen suggested the interior hunti caribou circumscription who Inuit,were experienced Caribou by followtheunable tocaribouthe below the of of treebecause theline the presence He He argued that th an was followingattempt herds, to cariboutheInuit response apply while Caribou the economic, ideological of lifeway sedentary coastal more and an social structures to a foragers I and Caribou that to differences of the very inresponses two these environmental similar groups conditions and must resources have been culturallyrather than environmental Comparison Kivalliqof S Friesen during forfall then themonths the aggregate communal and summer in hunts the and remain for together the towinter shar through constructed lanes out drive of behind hunting at or crossings. blinds, water Inuitgroups Caribou disperse tended to 44 . 44 . term term - study, the study, (1991) research research also represents e in Kent’s associated with lowassociated residential (2004) (Binford1980:10; 1992:56) Kelly are ller logistical collector returnwith groups (Binford (Binford Kent 1980; 1992; 1991) Kelly Gatherer MobilityGatherer , and therefore be thea as classified site can - subterranean pit represent subterranean structures that simultaneously. simultaneously. - i so so should should of be mobility indicative groupthe theof sem tructure of residential base iscamps of base tructureresidential of interest this study to multiple mp occupations, mp occupations, of presence and the formal storage areas (especially food founddirect anticipated a longer mobilitycorrelation of between the and featureand of diversity types and areas at activity hearths, a as such site, y mobile groups. of number A components their characteristic features (1991) Archaeological Archaeological of Correlates Hunter residential residential ca storage), high and activityand of frequency diversity a areas and features. Additionally, resources forresources and theprocess consume tolarger group Kent processing areas, processing and formal storage features These longer debris leftoverresidential term contain from often camps multiple and processing manufacturing sma as activities, logisticall mobility, residential logistical camps. or base mobilityat isthese first of a Thelarger frequency residential residential camp. base The s because occupying it. in particularinterest differences Of residentially structureare and between The Ikirahak site contains dwellings, on based thecentral of featuresexistence hearth internal and domestic debris and tools located the depressions within pit 4.4 Site Structure unlike landscap Friesen’s the study, thetwoutilizing groups and Basarwa Bakalagadi, were doing comparison comparison of and sites, Bakalagadi Basarwa Friesen’s the comparison two environment,of insame living making but distinct the groups a 45 It It 45 by Kelly used toused correlate with correlate with first first appear. ay of mobility, as Instead, Instead, for for examining m (Crabtree 1972; t identified identified arger labour labour arger l at archaeological sites. sites. at archaeological ithic materials ithicare the of common approach approach common , l and of years more hat fewhat or a a people, single even his correlation his millions millions gatherer archaeological worldwidegatherer sites - (Odell 2004:190) f the length theof f length site occupation. ied as an indicator ied an as mobilitygroupof indicator residential at Additionally, t rritories cultural of factors study pithouse the influencing use. . that amount means foundmaterial Thislithic the of at a - es. es. t cultural indicatorsstudy the of archaeological - cross type found hunter type on (1987) knapping experiments have knapping shown t . than items of farprocesses post depositional Being resistant to more - artifact artifact in his cross gatherer groups had to be mobile to at least gatherer tohad least some degree mobileto ingroups at past to be the - the level of mobility represented by lithic tool assemblages. represented the by level tool lithic mobility of assemblages. The of diversity 57) - gatherer mobility patterns. mobilitygatherer patterns. not However, this simple as is i as - determine lithic been has identif tool assemblages Magne 1985; Magne Whittaker 1994) site is not a necessarily good o indicator examining the a toolsa types of withinfoundsite is Numerous flint person, can create amounts debitage of short inlarge time of period a etc.), lithic and for debitage can tools preserve then follows should that be analysis logically a lithic profitable avenue hunter most most common (Shott 1986:15) material out culture components (bone, organicof constructed antler, shell, hide, wood, Tool Tool Analysis hunter Most exploit withinresources tetheir well well Gilman’sas Lithics and Mobility investments in houses, associated within investments houses, lowassociated residential mobility, was (1992:56 larger also foundinwas investments and labour construction timehouse to longer at anticipated stays si 46 46 . 132; Magne 132; - and and expedient (2001:211) (2001:211) their morphology. s gatherers requiredtools that gatherers - determine large quantities of resources inresources large quantities of uring uring . Therefore, formalbifacial unifacial and (Binford (Binford Hitchock Shott 1978b, 1980; 1987; that mobile that hunter mobile (Cowan 1999; (Cowan Kooyman 1999; 2000:130 ed ed ad of mobility ad mobility being of factor the primary esults of large scale hunts, scale large of benefited esults of use from the were multifunctional, duringwerefail and to multifunctional, unlikely use , that that proc groups ficiently carry them out; ficientlycarry thereforeresidential lower out; mobility them functional that, inste d . that that expedient tools to are out carry able tasks, processing he repetitive criticized and the between mobility, criticized formal linktoolstools and expedient d morerely to sedentary that populations on tended expedient could more tools allowing for greater load stresses to be applied during processing. toapplied forduring load greater be allowing stresses processing. , (2001) (2001) that formal hafted tools decrease strain on the user formal hafted that user and toolsstrain the over control increase decrease on the cknowledge ound f implement limited amounts time, of the as such r formaldue their tobe toolstoefficiently ability hafted. Tomka While a determining type, the themselves toolthe of functiontools of Results this research indicate Tomka and sedentism. He propose 1985:220; ShottParry 1987; and Kelly 1986) tools have been interpretedmoreas highly groups, appropriate for mobile tools mobilefor less groups. could could be resharpened many times Conversely, be discarded when no longer 1986; Yellen 1977a) For have assum decades, archaeologists require tool a to kitdiverse ef with is a associated more diverse toolsset of base camps. camps. base Thisassumptionupon is based argument the a diverse more of array activities will in occur a longer group residence. site at the a stays activities Diverse 47 47 gatherer - (Magne . Aggregate 3) - compared to compared the debitage debitage througha series usually usually then . These debitage types can be nsist of nsist debitage from the (Andrefsky Larson Jr. 2001:3; (Andrefsky Jr. 2001:2 arlier smaller stages, whereas flakes each screen each screen is then be considered toa alysis these studies have also have also studies been these criticized in , . solution this can potential to be in seen A , which consists of , consists sending which . However e the of lithicinvolvement ise easily skilled analysts, and (1989) be broken down into three into be analytical down categories: broken aggregate (Binford1979) or problem with interpretations of mobility problem or the mobility or dependent of on presence interpretations with (Andrefsky Jr. (Andrefsky Jr. 2001:6) first by first defined Ahler dentally left behind because they do because that not toco respond well assemblages results of reductionlithic controlled experiments. This istype veryanalysis of popular it because is fast, requir not does replicable stage of stage reduction e largerflakes withrepresenting represent later stages. These sorted size categories are flake 2004:6) of and weight then screens foundnested therecordingtheof and debitage quantitywithin each screen. differentof Thesizes debitage Studies of debitage lithic can analysis, attribute analysis, and analysis typological is most analysis oftenwith an mass associated then used then a as used forproxyformal tools and manufactured then off site. transported Debitage Studies debitage that debitage studies focus typeon of thedetermining employed industryat tool sites, that specifically studies identify with debitage formal productionassociated tool 1985; Parry 1987; 2001) and and Kelly Whittaker Kaldahl people and were therefore not often left behind unless thepeople and tool were leftor oftenunusable became therefore unless not behind was acci Another Another maj of absence formaltoformal is tools that be tended curated hunter tools highly by 48 48 any any have have been (Hayden . [s] [s] refitting it the examines and and f attribute analysis. attribute analysis. f based analyses, such analyses, based - t “include t I (Bleed (Bleed 2004) investigations investigations . and then attempts to refit and to then attempts , . examination Thetheof because because types produced, reduction types produced, and (Hall 2004) . These . These investigation types of artifact ion. ion. However, aggregate unlike . tages, tages, and and of the type used hammers being (Larson 2004:5) has criticized some attribute criticized has (Andrefsky Jr. Jr. (Andrefsky 2001:9) (Shott2004) sis forsis further analysis (2001:25) (2001:25) ses much more that just mass analysis much mass ses more that just technological criteria to subdivide the entire assemblage before technological the criteriatoassemblage entiresubdivide - . Magne (Odell 1994) Shott 1989; is normally linked to size classes ofis normallylinked classes size to debitage, examines attribute analysis type analyses, type of analyses, not producing that immediately is data archaeologically - which which which which also first debitage by materialseparates parent , , and and Hutchins 1989) percussor as characteristics of characteristics flake commonplatforms is strikingthe typemost o Morphological of characteristics platforms can informative types used theof technology to produce tools undertaken to understand s better reduction employed technologies by past groups distribution an an of populat over attribute entire analysis many other metric morphological and attributes. types of These pieces back back together pieces to process thereverse making engineer tool Attribute of analysis is similar analysis aggregate debitage to determining piece of which fromoriginated and pieces the material then parentsame using new these a categories as ba analysis technique technique that non uses considering the technology a as whole” include minimum noduledebitage which into analysis separates analytical categories by Aggregate analysis Aggregatecompri analysis creation of toolstypes of (e.g.,scrapers), different reduction bifaces vs. different or methods (e.g., vs. bifacial bipolar) 49 49 . The . Based oes through through oes and Sullivan and Sullivan mentioned - (1985) , amount on cortextheof (Andrefsky Jr. (Andrefsky Jr. 2001:6) (Kooyman 2000:46) (Crabtree Whittaker 1972; 1994) . and Sullivan Rozen conventional approaches for conventional approaches increasingly integrated zing lithic assemblages zing assemblages lithic ypes of studies need to of ypes be a such need conducted way studies in that has pointed out, typological has debitage out,analysis typological pointedhas is not linked to specific reduction stages and technologies. and linkedtechnologies. isstages specific not reductionto knapping experiments knapping experiments - ctional or meaning ctional technological or (2001:28) ll and 1987; 1972; Kamming 1994) Crabtree Whittaker have criticized typological analyses for lacking forreplicability, not for typological and have lacking criticized using analyses these models these attempt piece toof a theconceptualize material lithicstages g from material parent finished on of unaltered based to toolmacroscopic analysis debitage The become construction has a reduction conceptual of modelscommon lithic of technique for analy typologically initially the on results flintof criticisms. criticisms. However, However, Magne as continued moretouse successfully forand specific analyses the study thedebitage of contrary to above (2001) definitionsconsistent of debitage types. Instead they called fora that typology uses arbitrary measure and of units (Cottere dorsal indicatorsas scars surfaces, of and platform counts reductionof of stage and dorsal (Magne 1985; Mauldin 1989) and Amick Typological of analyses on debitage by focuses pieces individual placing in them categories that have fun most on common the focus typological types of precursor types of analyses used way. way. relevant. that t He these suggests the infindings system to be larger a can linked and then themeaningful useful cultural 50 50 , . Kooyman (2001:23) (Collins 1975; , or for, relying or (see Magne 1985) (see Magne (Kooyman 2000:49) d . Magne as However, ibutes of each (dorsal proportion, cortex ibutes experiments and and not experiments past acknowledging that . types of These models have been criticized ially resharpening ially flakes. resharpening Thisanalysis of type to create a conceptual a conceptual typological create to model of ing (Ingbar, et al. (Ingbar, et Kooyman 1989; al. 2000:48) knapp (Kooyman 2000:49) (Kooyman wear wear on been platforms has an as used flakealternative wear on flake platforms and and wear flakedorsal includingon surfaces platforms step - - three reduction stages (early, stages reduction three late), well as middle, and flake as lithic reduction process as a as of process series reductionof instead lithic stages the d including a series of with includingseries stages specific a reduction flake types , on combined the results of earlier models results of combined of the reductionmodels earlier lithic also also define (2000) 52) - ined ined by knappers modern hinning, finishing, use, resharpening, and finally discar focusing focusing on of analysis use platform/dorsal angle, etc.). scar count, platform shape, that acknowledged It should be of microscopic analysis use method flakeof types, determining espec (2000:51 types to be withinfoundthe attr and each stage with specific attributeseach stage. withinfound this In model,taken stone toolsfrom are the initial lithic productionraw of toolselection throughthe material blanks, of shaping, t Kooyman Kooyman 1985; Magne Mauldin and Amick 1989) bifacial reducti lithic “[it] itshas tois limitations, also kindssensitive but of certain behaviour production information”. people people may have different used stone totools strategies methods than create the determ admits of debitage analysis typological focusing his workearlier on dynamic it continuous process is too theheavily on results flintof (Collins 1975; Pecora 1985; Magne 2001) for falsely portrayingthe 51 51 r s the gathere - ite soon with the s would have in phase, phase, toolin - . presented a model presented for the 68) - settling , residential residential incamps base which lithic (1985:64 re can can of resource be lithicindicative the site site a primary activity occurring at the site. a occurringat primary activity the site. that Thisdebitage suggests model was was he use of reduction stage models is the most useful of all the previously discussed he reductionof use of most discussed themodels useful stage is theall previously r late debitage. stage phase, contains exploitation the the During assemblage second, patterning debitage firstwhereof two from site thephases occupants materialsdisplaced over a largerarea. a Thehabitation workshop or longer site is highly the of clustered, occupants spatially or areas, thesegregated because s leave the area, materials timethrough having the disperse not had to cleaning behaviour, or foot traffic).scuffage (displacement materialsof through This contrast occupants of occupants the tosite prepare Toolsneeded or longer leave. would no useful also be abandoned during this phase. Debitage created found thisduring should phase be in o approximately all equal debitage proportions of threefrom phases. Finally, theduring abandonment phase, there of is the resurgence in dominance early debitage stage a reduction at assemblages formsites a of inseries stages. first the In manufacture there begins, higher of and is a debitage proportion stage than early middle procurement of strategies past groups. Stevenson formationat of workshop/habitations sites artifact assemblages lithic residentially of mobile groupsNorthernAlberta. in These a sites approaches of approaches the mobilitylithic of for debitage inferringpast hunter analysis groups fora reasons. of number the proportions of relative First, stages reductionof debitage found archaeological at an T fracturing, and polish, for striationsidentifying resharpening factors determiningas flakes (Clark Sheets 1973) 1979, 1985, 1986; 1989; Odell Hayden 1979; 52 52 , can , can be th small numbers flakes in the erm (three to fourmonth)(threeto erm t - (Kooyman 2000:51) gatherer mobility because mobilitybecause gatherer - esharpening esharpening r hat thehat Nunamiut,among tool term few (less than term a weeks) - found t found surmising hunter surmising 226) also found between the correlations also 226) - 335) 335) - of bifacial tools at bifacial manufactured of a curated site being and term stays at sites were also associated wi also associated at were stays term sites - flakes were associated were associated flakes with longer Magne (1985:224Magne (Binford (Binford 1978a:333 resharpening resharpening ction models stage are also useful for sharpening sharpening flakeswith are toolassociated which be ismaintenance, considered to transported to locations. other of resharpening proportions toolsof and flakes. small identificationof Finally, the biface reduction flakes, with tools bifacial theassociated of creation a as used proxy problemfor the resharpening resharpening flakeswith were shorter associated of occupations sites. Shorter British British Columbia. of combined low that foundnumberswithMagne tools high proportions of pithouse occupations, and while higher numbers lower tools of proportions of residential base camps. residential camps. base number formalof of thetools at found proportion sites, and assemblage, the relative in Lillooet regionlength the site interior of occupations of largely a separate activity from all other lithic reduction activities associated largely with from a activitiesall activitytoolseparate associated reduction lithic other production. Binford maintenance largely occurredfield locations, or and often at stations, less camps, at specific specific flake types, of thisthrough determinedtype analysis, can of be indicative specific behaviours that with levels of are different associated mobility. Late stage re Redu inhabited, inhabited, more be, (>3 the materials these displaced larger materialsshould especially cm in dimension), more which maximum toare susceptible scuffage. 53 53 hn - but it but can , or they they , or may not s that have have then s that artifact . Household Archaeology, 234; 2006; Brantingham Ku - (Kooyman 2000:42) gatherer examine mobilityis theto - (Steadman 1996:54) (Steadman . 78) - (Andrefsky Jr. (AndrefskyJr. 2005:233 trategy fortrategyhunter determining informative in the case informativethat of incase the the source the is a material spread over have access to a have access largerrange quality sedentary highmaterialsof lithic than ly in regard to how the organization of these houses can in can reflecthouses regard organizationhow upon to thethese of the mobility (Andrefsky Jr. 2009:77(Andrefsky unctions of society’ unctions society’ of take place” . is that this However, a many materialtypewithproblem lithic types of analysis of Household Archaeology addresses the most elemental withinstructuresocioeconomic ‘mostunit wherethe primaryf especially especially of past theiroccupants. been defined Household archaeology as, has a “as that field 4.5 An understanding the of is and of of functional social organization small households paramount for importancethe being archaeological explored remains this thesis, in be particular large area also also be unreliable, from different materialscan lithic lookas sources alike. Chemical sourcing of it but feasible materialspreferabletechnique, always lithic is isnot the all because quarry must sources be and foundtested 1991) have only macroscopic visual been examination sourced by of been compared of to sources known material. approach Thiscan be valuable, gatherers will of populations because the largerterritory therefore largerdiversity sizes, and of materials that can be exploited lithic from and rawused sources these the to materials archaeological distance site the under study. Itisthat been has mobile demonstrated highly archaeologically hunter Lithic Raw Type Studies Material Another common s 54 54 m aspects of aspects , and , and (Tringha land land 2006; (Dawson (Dawson 1995; . sing sing on the household (Coup Schiffer 1983) Schiffer 1983) criticized early studies for studies early criticized and and area activityanalysis , and , and symbolic (1991:95) (1991:95) critiqued earlycritiqued for studies focusing too (Flannery Flannery(Flannery 1976; and Winters 49) 49) - has noted that noted has earlyhousehold in studies ; Willey 1953) Willey ; 1953) ted that it was at at was ted the that household level it that past the ideal unit of the for understanding ideal analysis social unit (Flannery Wilk 1976; and Rathje 1982) (1996:48 . focu studies the During 1970s (2000:35) (Steward (Steward 1937 has further noted developed furtherhas out an thenoted integrationof on analysis developed ogy , but the term ‘Household , ‘Household Archaeology’ the but coined term was by and Wilk . and Rathje Wilksugges (1996:54) (Hayden and Cannon Cannon 1989; 1983; (Hayden and Janes Mcguire and . Furthermore, Hendon (1982) unctional aspects of unctional aspects households. Tringham media for relations, domestic tensions, dominance gender structures” and 1991:102) and and f makingabout gender implicitassumptions for therolestreating of record materialand reflection a as passive households of human instead of activities, both “as and a a context Archaeologists interested interested Archaeologists in of and understanding symbolic theaspects household social spatial organization have that challenged earlierhousehold studies focused on economic LeMoine 2003; 2008) Tringham Whitridge1991; and Dawson Levy 1977) 2005; McGhee 1982, 1987, 1990; Hodder archaeology emphasized archaeology economic emphasized functional households, morewhereas on recent thehave focused studies social their lives. common As themost social construct profusemost productionand activity group, considered household was the and economic change. Oetelaar 1976; Winters 1976) Rathje that people and mitigatedwere social processes directly the connected with economic (Binford Schiffer b; 1978a, 1972) the as of basic of unit were analysis conducted as Steadman as of settlement archaeol 55 55 . criticisms in 83, 1989) st st intoresources more and time gatherers that gatherers move residential their camp base - on to agree with theTringham towith that most on productive agree in the larger community. the in largercommunity. these With Ikirahak Ikirahak site. e their houses to e houses their a refuse before new location materials within eriodically cleaned removethat cleaned to hindranceeriodicallyare materials to a constructing houses constructing than houses moregroups, mobilethe residentially logistically because Additionally, amount invested in labour theof can be architecture level indicative theof of residential a mobility of group. Hunter frequentlyless inve(logistically will groups) mobile often become become a hindrance, storage materialsof practiced any isand not tosignificant degree (Binford 19 1987; Hayden and Janes Hitchock 1978b; Cannon 1983; continued continued of use useful to potentiallyor thematerials house, moveto storage locations. More ephemerally thoroughlyarethe occupied houses because often as maintained not will occupants mov Some aspects Someof aspects can household organizationarchitecture be as, used less, and or more direct of measures mobility. that to Houses are for longer in be anticipated lived periods of timealso p are past of past occupants the of Correlates Mobility Within Households relations within household and the mind, will thesis to the attempt thisof explorefunctional, symbolic social, aspects and Taltheilei focus on relatehouses, but how towill aspects overall these the themobility of research research in household archaeology of of involves thesymbolic aspects gender study the relations withinstructure relations these households, economic and and how social much much on what performed tooon activities households with emphasis who little what did within the household. Hendon goes 56 56 (Binford . es, or socially socially and symbolically es, along or gender the Basarwa, as did the segregation segregation of the the forBasarwa, didas specific space ility. ility. mobile logistically habitationwe a Interm, longer situation than in a residentially mobile situation. residentially in situation. mobilethan a By way illustration, of Hitchcock d time. However, should that be it noted this segregation domestic of ock ock Kelly Kent 1987; 1992; 1991) strong spatial patterning of a site can only be can strong a as only used measure of proxya spatial of patterning site found the artifactsand of that abundance diversity residential as increased itecture mentioned as previously. evidence evidence for maintenance, storage, as such and mobility, investment household greater in arch of represent people of time, occupations and necessarily over site. longer not the Therefore, lower found withmore residential lines of conjunction mobility when other, indirect, extended extended perio could space also be indicative repeated of of shorter a the occupations site groupby same mobility among decreased activities. Therefore, of expect Ikirahak I the thespatial materials segregation lithic at site should be recordmore inarchaeological ifthefor apparent an the site inhabited was lines withinbe repeated the thedaily much patternsbecause house for longer would a period timeof (1987) However, However, of visibility the spatial degree these divisions can of archaeological be as seen a proxy measure mob of should expect to a see functionalmuch degree stronger along patterning of and social direct of of measures level residential of the themobility household. are houses How spatially organized functionalinto workspac and lines isstatus not indicative residential of mobility, is specific. instead culturally but Conversely, of Conversely, some aspects of the cannot interior be houses as spatial used arrangement organized organized groupsfor longer time anticipate of houses their staying in periods 1980; Hitch 57 57 (Gordon 1976, 1977a, (Gordon 1976, 1977a, settlement practices an as - . Unfortunately, detailed no . Gordon cultural, archaeological, - 511) - ohistorical regardingsources ohistorical the Chipewyan uses have have been previously uses conducted, so the (Gordon 1977a, (Gordon1996) 1977a, (Trigger 2006:510 or ethnohistorical ethnohistorical or historically currentinformation or about Houses Houses act act groups contact Taltheilei houses must firstTaltheilei must contact be houses determined. Taltheileihouses - zed archaeologically as stone circles, to zed with archaeologically assumed be stone as circles, associated cont - Chipewyan Dene as previously as theused Dene Chipewyan subsistence h ntinuation thisof approach. of the all spatial Unfortunately, arrangementsaspects of hnographic, sources. and ethnohistorical et co were Dene Chipewyan houses not recorded sources, these so ingaps by the information will be using fromanalogies filled inrelevant, cross analog analog forTaltheilei earlier practices. historic Therefore Dene Chipewyan houses using seemsan as analogy a for logical those of Taltheileiand houses appropriate precontact only effective can continuitybe and if cultural demonstrated historical between the current and pre 1996) This is an direct application The approach. approach theof historical ishistorical a direct method that ethnographic uses recordedcommunities. groups a as interpreting of means descendant their method Thisis analogy analogy with sources. ethnohistorical, ethnographic, The and archaeological primary source of thisethn of analogy consist will Dene, of the thebiological cultural acknowledged Taltheilei and descendents tradition. conical conical hide tipi, lodge, or structures of archaeological studies Taltheilei ho architecture will and houses these of spatial have arrangement inferred to though be arrangement preof have been recogni Taltheilei/ To forward, this analysis movelikely the and most architectural interior spatial 58 - 58 - (see (see spent spent the , or (Hearne (1958) (1958) Houses Houses (Hearne 1958:207 ribou hides assembled from ribouassembled hides lived caribouin conical (see Oetelaar (see Oetelaar 2000) ca 50 Chipewyan Dene . were Men primarily withtasked lodge. lodge. Samuel Hearne were often erected fouroften on threewere only or poles Chipewyan Dene Chipewyan he covering upper theof Dene Chipewyan lodges were preferentially placed lodges were with door the t . Blackfoot Unlike within them. at however, Hearne does, discuss , and , and rientation of therientationof entire structure s . 208) 208 forexamples) 208 - Chipewyan Dene Chipewyan - Chipewyan Dene 63, 207 sleeping in one, but had little to interior about sleeping insay had thebut little one, Chipewyan Dene Chipewyan - journal types of men theand journal activities women out carried erior of erior a of . (Vanstone (Vanstone 1965:39) nded stays, were nded placed stays, directions opposite door whereas the (Mandelbaum (Mandelbaum 1979:88) (Hearne 1958:25) (Hearne 1958:207 . The per occupants average of number lodge being as recordedwas between 13) - length, throughout his Hearne 1958:25, 57, 62 better better part years two of arrangement. Hearne mention people did slept that in them, and withinthem, socialized that bothoften task sexes out carried Unfortunately, regarding thevery ethnohistorically spatial recordedwas little organization theof int 8 and 10 people Gendered of Tasks the facing south forexte prevailing fewforof (aoccupations wind less) or days short very duration 1958:12 made made init of flaps case shift position simple tothe of a wind the smoke change in direction having shift o without to the 208; Seton 1948:149) for transportof ease Plains Cree tipis lodge, the includingseparately attached was smoke flaps, to frame.the pole This design hide lodges. These lodges were made approximately of several pieces Ethnohistorical on Ethnographic andInformation During entiretheir round, historic seasonal 59 59 ge the cluding d killing d of northern of Chipewyan Chipewyan elated elated Chipewyan Dene Chipewyan omen were omen often W (Jarvenpa 1976, 1977) found on found shore theof south bands inbands Northern processing activities, processing beyond the - . These confirmedstudies many of ically Englishamong the River (Irimoto 1981) (Irimoto (D. Smith (D. 1976) M. Chipewyan Dene. Dene. Chipewyan have been studies Extensive (J. G. E. Smith Smith 1976b; (J. G. E. 1978) Smith bands including: the English River, English the including:bands mens’ roles in hunting, and and the roles and r social inkin mens’ hunting, men men primarycarriedoften the out the of as butcheringcaribou , Hatchet Lake and that is to say that inthey of say is towere charge findingthe animals an ; (Sharp 1977) Chipewyan Dene Chipewyan Chipewyan Dene Chipewyan (Jarvenpa and Brumbach 1997, 2009) society society have been studied ethnoarchaeolog Dene Saskatchewan; the Saskatchewan; Barren Lands band Manitoba; and the Fort band Resolution Great Slave inNorthwest LakeTerritories.the roles The of in women different Mission in the 1970s among late 1960s theand conducted that focused on structures in their place in reinforced traditional huntingroles, society that trapping and in covers. covers. Beyond Hearne’sethnographic journal, research conducted was significant of amount a tasked withtasked carrying back caribou to camp thefrom carcases the the site before kill furthertook place. processing charge caribou processing in of Women were hides, also and with thehide made clothinglod creatingvariousof including itemsand caribou the lodge coverings from camp to camp, and were tasked thewith tasked lodge setting tocoverings camp. up from and camp, thecamp were Women were meat also inof and butcheringcharge all primary dryingout carriedmen, including butchering by meat. well. and formade and canoes wood poles shaped also Men cut for lodgeBarrenland water crossings. with tasked Women werecarrying the inpossessions, family’s hunting caribou them. 60 60 ’s tibia - Chipewyan Dene Chipewyan ’s tools included: moose provided a list of men’s, a provided list women’s, men’s, of at, at, and clothingshelter. However, ican pounding stones. ican tools Unisex 69) 69) - lage lage of Ikirahak site, thepossible is only me animal. is definedifhunting Rather, an as stretching racks, sewing machines, racks, refrigerators stretching - (2009:68 orking other dense materialsdense like bone and orking other antler). equivalents of equivalents the toolstoolkitsthese lithic among theof archaeologically, archaeologically, except for work tools toused hides, caribou and scrapers as such as stone projectile points, while spokeshaves, stone as projectile wedges, and points, denticulate spokeshaves, have tools whilewould been forused for (or woodworking w of Most the would they have women’sthe survived not toolscreated products and Middle Middle Taltheilei ancestors, the within assemb for listed tools. thesome of above would be tools archaeologically foundhunting Men’s and and freezers, rendering grease kettles, pemm and included: butchering hatchets, and tents, knives, snowshoes. canoes, the Determining precontact outboard motor’s forboats, women exclusively while scrapers, steel scrapers, scraper rougheners, files, lard hide lidhide steel wire pail softeners, racks, pyramidal hide drying Additionally, and Jarvenpa Brumbach and unisex tools. Tools included: listed rifles, men’s exclusively as snowmobile’s, and as onlyas the a ga of physical killinglarge entire through suite activities of from game of theand killing, storinglocating processing, of in then animal heavily huntingas women products invested are men. as the authors suggested the that authors suggested women hunting men, as were in well as involved is if hunting not narrowlydefined, itas and archaeologists been anthropologists, has traditionally by gendered gendered activities for women infound Hearne’s journal, transformation specifically the of me into animal products as such carcases finished 61 61 (1991) (1996:242) (1996:242) ary ves. ves. . Gero Houses Houses o discern. Gordon only activity. only - arrowfallenlargely intohad - (Hearne 1958:206) ChipewyanDene and - had already stone stopped producinghad only activitythe only Taltheilei, among if or - while travelling travelling while hearth the within lodge of the placed was in centre dient cutting tools would dient have tools been by used cutting both ipewyan ipewyan Dene the (Gordon 1996:242) (Gordon1996:242) Ch lodges was that lodges was orded regardingethnohistorically interior of spatial arrangement the ethnohistorically. ethnohistorically. By theHearne’s of firstattempt time histo journey at the What What recwas Dene Chipewyan pits excavated pits at excavated the a site withmalecannot be associated Determiningthe Arrangementof Interior Spatial mind, no that seems compelling suggest there men evidence to primwere the flintknappers Ikirahaksite, at therefore,lithicfound the and the thedebitage within house would be dependent on men to produce the tools they used would in used be men dependent tothey dailyon their the liproduce tools Furthermore, that with tools suggests men, particularlyassociated projectile Gero points have been inoveremphasized archaeological interpretations. this criticism Keeping in casually shoot casually at caribou encountered criticizedhas the interpretationslongstanding in assumption men archaeological that were primary stone totool finds difficult that countenance producers, itand women Coppermine River the in 1769, tools in favourmetal of items. trade the Even bow by disuse this time withthe favourof musket, in tradetheto used bow being only men men difficultand women stone tools t isknapped own their that suggested flintknappinghas activity, male primarily thiswas cannot but a be corroborated Determining flintknapping malewhether a was chithos. chithos. unifacial, Bifacial, and expe to sexes perform activities daily 62 62 took House House ves ves (1996:97) (1996:97) away, away, it but also . Gordon was was centre toward the door centre the toward door vided linesvided of along - he Chipewyan Dene fold meaning; the foldmeaning; wife - (see Back (see 1836:447;Back Jenness bou Inuithide bou lodge conical s. an an interesting from deviation Smith 1929:86) is - this disposing of disposing this firestools in to d (Birket , which , which households that di was households no indication no exactly wouldhouse how indication the s these houses were constructed, what of houses these kind gical Analogies for Analogies the gical , this differs from the , this Cari differs from records that when husbands went went away on that recordstrips,when husbands wi Chipewyan Dene Chipewyan of the husband as head of household of while the head as household husband of Additionally 7) that are associated with that Middle 7) associated Taltheileiare (ancestral phase (1956:24) . - gender gender roles arrangementsand of interior providedhas spatial houses ) occupations. relate Gordon Dene Hearne 1958:207; 1948:149) Hearne Seton 1958:207; ( . Jenness 5 and KjNb - Chipewyan Dene Chipewyan some very solid information how about Archaeological Archaeological and Ethnoarchaeolo Thereview proceeding ethnohistorical of regarding and sources ethnographic traditional have have been divided, where the be of different and household expected towould members reside and/or tasks. perform associated with, associated the male head household. of that theresuggests an was ordered This division of within space and status gender. i there Unfortunately, their theplace withinlodge. had a This two statement likely the position assumed meant that that occupied theshe the within normallyoccupied, lodgewas space or ethnohistorical ethnohistorical information death that of that the individual, shows hisupon an belongings were relativesritually destroyed and by friend 1956:28) noted noted that at of hearths weredispose the tools toused sites broken Warden’s Grove (KjNb Chipewyan (Oetelaar (Oetelaar 2000:37) hearth theplacement, beside was door which the floor Blackfoot tipi tended the placed toslightly hearthwhich offhave 63 63 and and cultural - (Mandelbaum (Mandelbaum 1979) raphic of studies small houses. es of household maintenance activitiesof es might household contact Blackfoot intipis, contact compared Blackfoot which he - develop a model develop fora the model archaeological interpretation houses will houses be inferred from cross rical information on information the rical and on functional, symbolic social, tipis were useful useful tipis foranalogs as werethe and functional social gatherer households are of special are importancehouseholds gatherer special of this to - study study preof and material goods at the sites. sites. and goods at material the then returned Janes the to camp (2000) (Tanner 1979) Chipewyan Dene Chipewyan undertook an ethnoarcheological project undertookethnoarcheological among project thean Lake Willow Dene in Oetelaar’s thin tipis, stratigraphy information interpreting as the those well about of as (1989) arrangement Dene/TaltheileiChipewyan of houses. areas areas wi structures. Cree Plains of Additionally, studies ethnographic Cree Mistassani the followingof year remains an and one of out intensive themultiple carried excavation occupation distributiontipi, and providing valuable the activityinsights into features of of precontact Dene tipis. visited a residential this Incamp, study, base author which the had been by used discontinuously Dene fortheLake 35 recording the Willow years, distribution activities of aspects of aspects Plains tipis archaeological to excavation ringof tipi buriedan site. a Next, Janes the western SubarcticCanadian to A number of studies of hunter analysis. the ethnographic and ethnohisto arrangement of archaeological, ethnoarchaeological, and ethnog carried house, out typ and the within what have occurred within. Therefore, this missing information interiorspatial regardingthe activities were them.performed within, performed and who However, this literature review failed much the determine in way to information of activities about were where 64 64 , sites for for sites 989) , it likely seems , experimental and orking, hideorking, and (Hayden and Cannon . Sleeping/sitting areas were likely est itself itself archaeologically est is Hayden and studies of hearth related lithic assemblages of related hearthassemblages lithicstudies have shown that hearthsfocushave are shown that for the often (Hearne 1958:207; (Hearne Seton 1958:207; 1948:149) , and the central placement placement of , and the historicallyhearths central in (1985, 1991) 136; Oetelaar Oetelaar 136; 2000:42) - (Binford 1978a, b; Hayden and (Binford b; 1978a, Cannon 1983; 1 Hayden and Janes e Mayan e highlands. Mayan of The that two results this study themost indicate ethnoarchaeological study among traditional Mayan villages. traditionalMayan ethnoarchaeological study among This (Gordon 1996:97) (Prentiss 2001; Spafford 1991; Stevenson 1985, (PrentissStevenson 2001; 1991) 1991; Spafford . Stevenson’s Finally, (1983) (Janes 1989:134 (Janes (Dawson, (Dawson, Levy, al. 2007) et hern Alberta are incredibly important for understanding how Albertaimportanthernincrediblyfor debitage understanding moves are to dispose of refuse with as little effort as possible” to of dispose with effort refuse littleas possible” as occurred inhouse, preparingas food, such woodw the flintknapping, working recorded Dene Chipewyan houses that a withinhearthfocus centrally for thetheactivities was placed Chipewyan Dene/Taltheilei houses. been forcentral used This activitieshave area that would most combined combined with informationof importance theabout Taltheilei thehearths at refuse disposal archaeological archaeological studies activities that requirehigh visual levels of acuity flintknapping. including When this is according to and size occupation hearthof duration around features. Ethnoarchaeological desire desire 1983:147) in nort communities in th important refuse governing in factors disposal communities, these (1)the “are desire to of dispose hinder refuse manner in (2) it future the activity, a that such and not does Cannon’s Cannon’s research explores the patternsinvariation disposal between households, and refuse across Another Another periodicstudy important for the theunderstanding maintenance of how Dene Chipewyan /Taltheilei lodge manif might 65 . 65 age less age less Therefore, it . should should that be mentioned t h materialsthe being largest to materials cm be (<3smaller in . 79) - . Microdebitage is the least likely of size were taking place. wereplace. taking However, i (Stevenson 1985, (Stevenson Stockton 1985, 1991; 1973) household household maintenance, or it because scuffage, is more ies ies cipated to be lived in for longer cipated to for periods longer in timebe of also lived were (Kooyman 2000:174) (Kooyman p for disposal forwere p placed in disposal secondary discard areas locations by u - erials were margins normallystored theof aroundor house sleeping the under (Binford 1978b; Hayden and Cannon 1983; Janes 1983, (Binford Hayden and Janes 1978b; Cannon 1983; 1989; 2000) Oetelaar al al areas where activit (Oetelaar (Oetelaar Tanner1979:77 2000:42; than than 1 in mm size debitage to throughbe moved the actu the most of reliableof reduction actual way lithic locations areas ascertaining the activity is to frequency analyze the distribution and microdebitage, of defined debit as displaced the displaced furthest laterally follows that debitage cm) areas with(<3 concentrations represent smaller of likely high maximum dimension), which were more likely to be compacted be maximum compacted into floordimension), more which surface, the wereto likely while cm) larger (>3 behind the left get tended on floor materials to redistributed throughout by house scuffage, foottraffic, or the wit useful useful mat platforms leftMaterials thebehind on floor a of tended house initially cleaned being swept to platforms, the under the of dumped or edges house, in, near, sleeping or the fire. the to house later These oftenoutside materials a were moved dump. Potentially Houses that Houses were anti periodically removea cleaned to hindrancewerematerials the of that touse continued house, or locations. moveto useful topotentially materials storage that Materials were tools found theand the of around sides back edges along house of thehouse, the whilethe perimeter storage area thehave of been a as forused wouldhouse personal items and 66 66 areas areas on e head of e head of (2000:54) e sides e of sides the Whitelaw Whitelaw (Mandelbaum (Mandelbaum and Mistassini Cree and Mistassini 41) - (Fladmark1982; Healan uld, any be therefore, infound gatherer were houses simultaneously gatherer - (Oetelaar (Oetelaar 2000:40 has suggested, suggested, hunter has 43) houses lineswere of houses along seperated gender women’s with - 79) . - has noted, based on observation, noted, based has ethnographic and Oetelaar 2000:36 gatherer tools are not gender specific and and co toolsgatherer specific are gender not ( - 225) - tipis were also apportioned in terms of social status, instatus, also apportionedtipiswithplace of termswere the social of honour tional divisions of space tional mentioned space divisions of above. can be of houses ways divided One the 979:89) provide a accurate segregation more representation of past gendered of because space most hunter analyzing analyzing the tools. distributionof specific stone gender However, as (1994:224 corroboratedhas created thearchaeologically, by refuse should gender specific activities household, household, Cree among whereas the theplace withof Mistassani associated was honour both the femalemale household. of and heads of can Division by then space be discerned 1 being placed behind the opposite theall hearthcases. in door three theof In case the Blackfoot and associated thewas withof Plainsthe Cree, the place honour mal person person entering thethrough door). Withinarrangement, women men this and spatial would work, respectiv socialize, their property and on store their personal tipi. well as Plains Additionally, as Mistassani, Cree Blackfoot and socially socially is along linesgender. of Blackfoot (Tanner 1979:78 the left the side of men’s on right(fromtipi, of sides hand the and the a perspective functional and social spaces. functional and social spaces. that likely Dene/TaltheileiChipewyan It seems then, houses were subdivided of to of social aspects reflect the occupants, lives their well as theas func As Oetelaar As Oetelaar likely theto structurewithin floor become theimbedded of 1995; Hull 1987) 67 67 . 4 Chipewyan Chipewyan house data. house house willhouse be a as used n a Chipewyan Dene Chipewyan house. n a (Mandelbaum 1979; Oetelaar Oetelaar (Mandelbaum 1979; house as seen in seen as house Figure Chipewyan Dene Chipewyan , there thisindication is no how of Chipewyan Dene Chipewyan pt under consideration under when the pt comparing Chipewyan Dene Chipewyan (Gordon Jarvenpa and 1996; Brumbach 1997, included in formulation theincluded theof expected xpected historic xpected historic (Jenness 1956:24) (Jenness en ed Chipewyan Dene house should provide ed Dene Chipewyan thehouse analogy closest Taltheilei houses with the assumption that with assumption Taltheileihouses the the social and any other archaeological research other any other Ikirahakresearch than the archaeological site has not be not has Taltheilei house; however, as no detailed Taltheileidetailed of excavations Taltheilei house; however, no as precontact precontact era. This expect Therefore, theand differentiation status gender data precontact precontact house figurehouse but (Figure be 4), will ke . Dene Dene Ikirahak site archaeological materialsthe to expected and associated tools listed and previously associated 2009) 2000; Tanner1979) Furthermore, there is no evidence that Chipewyan Dene houses were Furthermore,Dene houses spatially arranged is no Chipewyan there evidence that according on tobased either, likelythe though gender differentiationseems it tasks of However, However, were Dene while houses spatially is some evidence that there Chipewyan along segregated lines of status differentiationstatus itself have spatially i wouldmanifested cannot cannot be tested against materials. precontact precontact for the have ever houses been conducted (before thesis) the this of validitycomparison this This spatial arrangement an of e comparison for functional will within division space houses of have historicbeen developed during the All thisof data be representation can combined form then thetoa of visual expected interior of typical space of arrangement a part theof house. 68 68 s to set in set up a was was . However, the Therefore, these Therefore, these subterranean subterranean pithouse - 55) in Sonora, Sonora, and in Mexico - per person person day. per per 3 of excavating pit structures (1965) subterranean subterranean they not their do offer - lodge, lodge, tipi, or that, of soil of could a be a person by soil excavated in 3 bterranean structures bterraneanhave shown that these . The costs relative su energy to the maintain desired because temperature - calculated calculated a of total 1.4 m explored by Erasmus by explored verstiy of Minnesota verstiy 1976:53 Minnesota of study, study, 2.6 m subterranean houses also energy take less to to also subterranean bringup the houses - were n surface the dwellingsmaintain soils surroundingbecause a (1973:73) a (1965:285) r past occupants. past occupants. r previously, greater in As mentioned investment in Western Europe. Europe. in Western the studies these authors In conducted experiment (1973) House House Pits Mobility and structures do offer that a in being disadvantage semi structures are insulated and fromtemperature wind, heat theand their holdoutside (Underground Uni Space Center constant constant temperature. Semi desired temperature, requireless and energy less is lost to through the environment walls. the outside pits also pits also offer an over advantage dwellings in of surface terms efficiency. thermal their Studies of in efficiency thermal semi lose less houses heat th Regardless of Regardless which figureobviousis that used, seems ita semi requires farmore tothan effort a construct surface matter thethehours of end by women at each day’sthe of of travels household. House ascertain ascertain the amount effort pitof excavate required to structures diggingwith wooden sticks. Erasmus’ In single day while Coles (Gilman Kelly Kent 1987; 1992; 1991) with non implements metal Coles mobility thei of residential architecture anticipated is lengthindicative increased an of of a site stay at 4.6 The at also be architecture houses the an as used Ikirahak indicator site thecan of theof 69 69 itions: itions: cotin, - house pits practiced pitshouse practiced se processes can can processes se , Eagle Lake, Chil o a post of number , of at preshistoric many and the season and use low season residential . subterranean pit or subterranean structures, around pits, house - linked to cold (Schlederman 1976) were in the interior of British British the Columbia. in interior of (PrentissSpafford 2001; 1991) These These findings that suggest groups using (Wilkins 2009:154) rctic Thulerctic l Processes Processes l A (Magne (Magne 1985) analyzed analyzed the semi of use subterranean houses subterranean houses - Depositiona - (1987) house pits were used during the cold season, werepithouse second season, duringthe used partpits was house use cold (atof Post excavations at at excavations the Ikirahakt likely site been have subjected change change the provenience and in morphology artifacts of that ways can seriously lead to misguided interpretations taken account. intoifthey not are Thefrom recovered artifacts It recognized must that recovered and be artifacts features from archaeological are sites not infound a state, have by pristine been but acted and on naturalprocesses cultural thesince time deposited by they occupants/owners. weretheir The and and Lillooetsites 4.7 where semi mobility the among of occupations Keatley Creek while living pits. house in a low residential fora each mobility lifestyle year,of likely partcold season. during the These findingscarried are archaeological research confirmed out by northernlatitudes in the world, all that and that pitsfoundhouse groupsused conformedto cond three first, least) settlement pattern,a biseasonal relied and foods on third people primarily stored Gilman occupants as many as specifically occupants optionscooling forregulation,the as interior, thermal above ground structures 70 70 - . 841) Spermophilus Spermophilus - , this could on artifacts revious occupations. revious occupations. (Schiffer 1975:840 transforms include frost heaving, transformsheaving, frost include - excavation excavation of structures, these - s Arctic( squirrelsground . the cryosolic soil, cryosolic cause which the may s are any any s natural,areenvironmental, or processes ox that may damage and/or ox may artifacts that displace damage have that - transform - processes can can be broken processes down intocategories: basic N two . These include or recycling reuse artifactsforof featuresor - (see (see Schiffer1972, 1976) 840) - have included the partial or total re have partial included the total or transforms. transforms. N - may may ) that roots, and can artifacts; plant of growthdisplace or dwarf as birchsuch transforms consist transformsof that consist transformation can cultural act processes up - Additionally, inhabitants thecould of recent site have pitsmore house area these used as refuse dumps, middens. or structures would type add This reuse these of of additional mean mean reuse structures, of for reoccupation for or purposes. pitsdomestic other house as This process which may have completely partiallyor evidence for obscured the p similar, werefor, originallycompletely functionsthey or intended thereby different than moving items these theback context. into systemic theIkirahak In of case C (Schiffer1975:839 not yet a such rodents, been burrowing buried; by undulates littletree that willowcan artifacts. also displace frost formation cracking, and within ice lens movement soil of column; throughthe variousarchaeological trampling materials by animals, caribouas such musk or transforms and C that can act upon featuresor afterartifacts abandonment Within the N Ikirahak site at potential environment the These post These post depositional depositional processes, they since depositional processes, left context thesystemic theirand entered archaeological context 71 71 obscure obscure or confuse gain gain lead mightto incorrect gatherer mobility have been gatherer been mobility have - c, c, literatureand ethnohistorical contact Taltheilei later in contact houses a chapter - tical tical be mobility might measured using: the settlement of systems the recorded historically - cesses, both naturalcesses, and have cultural, thehad could on depositional depositional pro - the polar residentially foragers thisof ends logistically spectrum: mobile and transformsthe included site at may miningpits house also have for toolsthe - Summary In chapter, theories spectrum about hunter of this the as theas architecture thethemselves. of houses analysis, however, Such the hinges on impact that post (Figure 4). Furthermore, logisdegrees of types, frequencies, the within pits; house and artifacts lithic well as of spatial patterning An An examination theof ethnographi archaeological, describing the Dene interior providesa house of arrangement suitable typical Chipewyan analogies, which willtoused interpret be pre associated with lowassociated levels of were residential also examined at mobility a site both level, and a household level. mobile collectors. the Next, subsistence Dene Chipewyan and Caribou Inuitwere presented, fit the which intwo well theof ends mobilityforagers respectively. spectrum and as archaeological collectorsThecorrelates explored. been Special has placed two on emphasis themobility defining types expressing interpretations parton author. the the of 4.8 houses. houses. C and/or rawfor at use locations, a materials other which material culture to the existing assemblage, material could to which cultureassemblage, the existing interpretations the of spatial theactivitiestypes, orientations, of occurringwithin and 72 72 the ing ussed in ussed emblage tools/evidenceof bifacial sable lithicmaterials around activity areas along functional larger materials (>3 cm) storage of tools and/or u peripherythe of the house and near sleeping platforms greater labour investment architecturein Low Residential Mobility high number and diversity of feature types extensive use of storage features, especially food storage high diversity of tool types small proportion of bifacial tool manufacture vs. expedient tools high totalnumber of toolsvs. smalla proportion of resharpening flakes in the debitage ass low proportion of exotic lithic raw materials and a high proportion of local lithic materials spatially segregated and/or social lines evidenceof periodichouse maintenance includ debrisbeing deposited in hearth,the sweeping and displacementof larger materials theto periphery of housethe or near sleeping platforms, especially Archaeological Archaeological Correlates Mobility of Table 5 torage features concentration of materials around the o storage of toolsor useable lithic materials detail. degree to which Taltheilei mobility resembles, degree toTaltheilei resembles, or from,which mobility fordiverges their that expected Dene Chipewyan descendants. chapter, thethe In record, next methodologies toused excavate, and analyze archaeological materials from the disc Ikirahak site are consideration, consideration, Tableillustratescorrelates the of 5 expected archaeological and highlow residential mobility. These will expectations withbe results of compared the archaeological at investigations the in Ikirahak site (presented Chapter to6) examine smaller labour investment architecturein archaeological features and artifactsthe Ikirahak at site. Taking thisof into all lack of evidencefor periodichouse maintenance including hearth area, lack of size sorting of materials across houses n low totalnumber of tools vs. a largeproportion of resharpening flakes in the debitage assemblage high proportion of exotic lithicraw materials and low a proportion of local lithic materials lack of segregation of activity areas High Residential Mobility low number and diversity of feature types few,or no, s low diversity of tool types large proportion of bifacial tools/evidenceof bifacial tool manufacturevs. expedient tools 73 73 fact types i (Dawson (Dawson and Suluk gatherer archaeological mobilityand gatherer the - Methodology ing the summer ing from2007 travelingtheof the by summer . ures, taking handheld global taking ures, positioning handheld (GPS) system Chapter Chapter Five: explored. explored. methodologies employed this In chapter, theto Chronology of Archaeological Chronology Investigations. Archaeological of – and tools from the site, as these were the from most and the were these as abundant tools site, art Field Methodology Introduction 2007; Dawson, 2007; Dawson, al. Suluk, et 2007) island island noting archaeological feat coordinates, and encountered. archaeological photographingfeatures magnetometer A survey of and also theconducted areas was surroundingpits house Survey theof island conducted was dur communityLake toArviat and of then thethe end theup lake southeastern Maguse of to island of Ikirahak. Pedestrian out carried judgmentally survey then by thewas traversing 5.2 2007 FieldSeason discussed. discussed. Special willanalyze placed the on toemphasis used techniques be describing lithic debitage recovered duringat investigations Ikirahak. archaeological from Ikirahak site were the excavate, record, and archaeological interpret materials the site and at arearchitecture the 5.1 In chapter, thethe theoriesprevious hunter of correlates of relevant the tologistical interpretation archaeological mobility of materials 74 74 n or n or . r . ere chosen ere chosen l Information l subterranea - to be torecorded (Dawson, (Dawson, 2009) al. et ystem ystem (DGPS) toused was . This DGPS fo allowed S 7 site - 7 was completed, completed, was pitshouse 7 were two - ositioning ositioning eological eological fieldthe returnedto site and crew P lobal lobal pits at the pits JjKs at G ature elements (<5 ature cm (<5 elements accuracy) Features 15 and 19 (Figure Features3). 15 These (Figure and two w 19 houses ifferential ifferential – D complete house complete house two all all site archaeological mapping the feature at s, and s, surrounding pitshouse a geochemical sampling and area, theof controlled Topcom HIper LiteTopcom HIper PS point. the In of constructed case out entirely features cobbles/boulders, of as such After of featuresmapping at archaeological JjKs forchosen excavation System System (GIS) using the database ESRI package. ArcGIS software Excavation Methods recorded at intervals, or in the case of many tent rings, recorded encircling at the of stones in intervals, or case tent the were feature many rings, recorded. recorded All data then was DGPS incorporated in Geographica caches, caches, fish storage pits, bilobaterings short tent all and with walls, accessible werecobbles/boulders recorded. thefeatures In of case that were semi on the surface, ground rings, thethe pits of house as such tent was or outlinefeature Features were then tip placing pole mapped theby attached the toof handheld the receiver directly inused cobbles/boulders of the recording inconstruction centre and a G A complete extremely accurate feof positions excavations of excavations Mapping Methods conducted extensive mappingconducted extensive of features, archaeological a collection surface of lithic artifact 2008 FieldSeason During 2008, a theof largerarcha summer 75 5 7 . it were assigned a it assigned were the first unit of each the each house of first unit after nly excavated nly to excavated pitthe edge theof . coordinates Horizontal were measured atum point established for established point atum each pit. house Lithic (XYZ) mal and expedient) and and materials in expedient) faunal mal >1 cm ether from ether unit stratigraphic and level. each All soil where three units were excavated outside of whereexcavated unitspithouse three were the d, and excavated. foundartifacts hearths All withinwere , point provenienced provenienced point - Feature 19 to explore an anomaly associated with toa survey associated an magnetometer conducted at explore anomaly the collected collected together level. by x m and 1 1 unit stratigraphic features Hearth found within were houses separately mappe were within. all large, foundunmodified cobbles/boulders faunal Lithic debitage and materials <1 cm tog were collected through screened was excavated 6 mm all mesh lithicand faunal were and materials measured measured by linefrom a level standard d tools and faunal on also of cm recorded as materialsa were map sketch >1 each unit, During toolsexcavations, lithic(for diameter were three fromcorner whilesouthwest coordinates wereverticaleach theexcavation of unit, in order site. Units were excavated vertically until the sterile glacial Units were tillverticallyexcavated glacial theencountered. was untilsubstrate sterile Units around o pits the were theperiphery of house One exception was excavated withexcavated trowels in, stratigraphicinitially, 10 arbitrary cm levels. However, once the natural determined, was the of stratigraphy features excavated, was the remainder in excavated unitsstratigraphicof natural were levels. perpendicular perpendicular tolakeshore. the coordinates Grid for each p house unique originpoint thegrid. corner southwest at each of units werex m 1 then 1 based on based their the berm perceived especially gravel integrity, each. surrounding First, a 1 x 1 placed was gridover to m orientedgridnorthroughlypit each house an arbitrary 76 76 south axes. south axes. - as left across across leftas ld season ldand season ithin each each naturalithin them 1 1 units. x After all west west and grid north - Archaeology Archaeology Lab the University at . along project Thewith director judgmentallyagain, the author, initial again excavations were arbitrary conducted first in10 levels for the cm of unit each house, until stratigraphyconfirmedwas that natural it thethe of pitshouse (Dawson, (Dawson, et al. 2010) the chose upon two based the houses perceived integrity theof structures. Excavation grids were fie duringas the set 2008 up theinfashion same over thehouses During 2009, the withtheof Ikirahak summer site revisited was a (of new crewfield which the included) was author two excavate tofurther structures site pithouse at the of Calgary for analysis. 2009 FieldSeason excavations were excavations complete, thewere from and angles houses photographed multiple then backfilled soil, pit.house withscreened the from each individual artifacts All and excavation notes were then theshipped back to Arctic stratigraphic later layer described and sampled forwereanalysis. After the of stratigraphy recordedeach was house the baulks were by excavated stratigraphic and natural level according to rest of thethe as excavation same methodology the approximate the centre grid east along each house of The of then stratigraphywas house recorded thephotographing creating by and sketch maps of the the observed withinchanges soil column. Soils w found To a interiorthe preserve 20 wideof stratigraphy pits the house baulk cm w separately separately collected and recorded. were samples also collected Charcoal fromand soil the features. interiorhearthof 77 77 eason. eason. Excavation al al cm materials in <1 he supervision of, the he supervision of, sectioned. sectioned. Aftercompletion with the debitage was - Calgary Tropical Archaeology Calgary retains all or retains original thesome of gary Arctic gary Laboratory Research for laid out to dry. laid of Afterdrying, out each piece n 2008 Materials 2008 – Laboratory Laboratory Methodology pieces of pieces lithic flakeevidence of withthat material removal itself inof is not a and tool; platform defined flakes, bearing debitage as that First, recordedfieldinformation all associated provenience recorded. Next, intoseparated was different fivedefineddebitage categories: cores, as author. and washed was the All debitage debitage then was individually analyzed, measured, staff.and the catalogued by lab Debitage Methodology All debitage and cleaned was analyzed at the of ArcticUniversity Calgary Research Laboratory by, designed lab using by staff procedures and t under analysis. analysis. 5.3 Lab. and features Internalcross hearth were again isolated, of the excavations pitshouse photographedextensively were and again backfilled. All artifacts werereturned then University to Cal of diameter diameter recorded,were quadrant. screened, collected by and formal Additionally, all tools encountered during carefully collected (handled excavation were little) for very future in analysis theof starch grain/phytolith University previous fieldexcept forunits the were season following: 50 subdivided excavation into cm x SW, SE), quadrants50 debitage (NW, and NE, all cm faun and conformedthe previous the s patterntofield basic during encountered identical methodologywas topits house of fieldduringthe that 2009 theof season 78 78 ; Kooyman Prothero 2000; is point, complete is was foranalysis wear on the edges. the edges. wear on Lithic identified materials - al surfaces or surfaces remains al of strikingany a platform; f use (Table 6). Material types that (Table 6). could Material be not identified by debitage were in (length,recordeddimensions debitage width,three were (Andrefsky Jr. 2005; Blatt and Tracy (Andrefsky Jr. 2005; and 2011 Blatt ving weighed 0.1 g because theving actual because weighed weight 0.1 g could be not , or aid and 10x comparison thethe withtowith stereomicroscope, the lab of werestaff at author Dr.Hills sent toLenthe theGeoscience or of Department the University Calgary of for identification. th At University of Department lithic Archaeology Calgary of referencematerial collection, and literary sources and Schwab 2001; 2001) Winter The raw lithic type material then was for each determined piece debitage of by unaided visual inspection determined due the 0.1tog lack some of precision of laboratory than on greater the scales. and thickness) and tothickness) mm withincallipers. digital with 0.1 the weight Additionally, each of piece of artifacts debitage recoded within was weighing that to less 0.1 0.1 g, g while were recorded ha as materials identifiedby further the debitage as wereanalyzed lab themselves. staff The attributesmetricthe of dorsal/ventral furthersurfaces from a modifiedbeyond core,unmodified or detachment lithic show materialsevidence o that by lab tools as cores staff or were for aside further by put analysis the author, while that that no has discernable dorsal ventr or and have tools, had of their pieces as materialsdefined lithicand/or that edges striking flake platform; fragments, that defined clearlyhas debitage as discernable dorsal and ventral but surfaces remains a of platform; debitage no as striking definedshatter, 79 79 s poor 7 ism, grained, fine grained,good JjKs - - grained,fine grained,good grained,good grained,good - - - - ptocrystalline,often Characteristicsat keable ine to coarse grained, medium flaking characteristic fine flaking characteristics coarse grained, not fla very fine flaking characteristics softmaterial, not flakeable fine flaking characteristics fine flaking characteristics f excavated specimens morefriable/brittle than specimenscollected as cobbles,variable flaking characteristics:good to poor medium largeto crystal size, often included with other materials, good to poor flaking characteristics fine flaking characteristics Cry included with fossils/impurities, fine flaking characteristics Coarsegrained, partial metamorph flaking characteristics coarse grained, very poor flaking characteristics m to d to solution - k rbonate content very littlequartz, high grained glass in its - Formation eat/pressure acting on silicicalstic eat/pressure acting on silicicalstic ntrusiverock, abundantquartz, heat/pressure acting on sandstone, breakspass through sand grains heat/pressure acting on sandstone, breakspass through sand grains i orthoclase,plagioclase content, low ferromagnesian content h sedimentary mudstone(<0.0039 mm particles) causing initial cement beto replaced by silica high calcium ca heat/pressure applied to coal deposits h sedimentary siltstone(0.0625 m 0.0039 particles)mm causing initial cement to bereplaced by silica lithified pyroclastic material thathas abundantfine matrix thathas been converte silica cement crystallinestructure, common mineral found manyin types of roc extrusiverock, abundant plagioclase and ferromagnesian content directprecipitate beds;in re nodulesin heat/pressure acting on sandstone intrusiverock, plagioclase and moderate ferromagnesian content Schwab Schwab 2001; 2001) Winter ) 2 Lithic Raw Lithic TypesRaw Materials Ikirahak Site at found the Geological Type mineral (SiO metamorphic metamorphic sedimentary metamorphic metamorphic igneous metamorphic igneous igneous sedimentary igneous sedimentary Table 6 - grained al Type - (adapted (adapted 2011; fromAndrefsky Jr. 2005; Kooyman Prothero Tracy 2000; and Blatt and Materi grained quartzite, medium quartzitefine quartz silicified siltstone silicified volcaniclastic mudstone limestone porcellanite diorite granite silicified metamorphosed sandstone basalt chert 80 80 f - . were (2000:51 1 platform – 99%, The %). and o 100 number - 75 %, 79 %, 75 - wear wear of analysis all platform flakebearing - . reductionflake thethe Next, of was stage 62) 50%, 51 50%, - powered microscopes was powered considered the microscopes best option. - - form and dorsal scar counts. counts. dorsal form scar and 0 Flakes with 25 %, 26 25 - were considered considered late werestage. If number and dorsal the platform of (Clark 1986; Odell Hayden Sheets 1979; 1973) 1979, 1985, 1989; then then the platform taken of was number toscars indicate the of stage (Kooyman 2000:61 (Kooyman , tage of analysis for platform bearing flakes was determiningwas for tage flakes analysis theof bearing reduction platform wear wear analysis . for used Thiswas all types, approach resharpening flake including flakes, as - scars disagreed scars reduction. and and dorsal were scars considered early flakes with stage, 2 dorsal on scars surfaces the and platforms with considered middle 3+ wereflakes on stage, scars theand dorsal their surface and platforms observed observed upon. determined by plat comparing dorsal dorsal and platform for each scars piece were counted. of Incase dorsal the scars, only with scars a width werewere than mmscars greater whilecounted, only 5 platform counted if were the enough cross of platform they largetowidth striking they the analysis with the assistance withof analysis the low assistance First of the dorsal in areaestimated surface and was the covered recordedcortex a as percentage range %,(0 0 use Performing a use complete microscopic platforms farwas the of in assemblage scope beyond so macroscopic the this project, stage and stage flake type theoutlinedeach piece of Kooyman by method by using 62) toopposed alternate flakeson based methods identifyingof resharpening microscopic The next s flake fragments platformflakes and furtherwerebearing whileshatter, to subjected analysis. 81 - 81 of nce nce of , with dorsal dorsal step step terminations, in wear wear can be seen - (see (see Kooyman 2000:57 wear, morphology the - wear wear theidentified was flake - wear. Use - erial end from theof the worked . (Kooyman 2000:52:Figure31) 19) - angle plane; plane; hinge which angle terminations, in - 000:19; Whittaker 000:19; 1994:17 Whittaker (Kooyman 2 . of If dida of thedisplay use flakeevidence not platform st of st each flakechecking of the use platform for signs the end the includes some of of coremat and tool the or piece gradually the inuntilthinner edge terminates a thin very sharp edge; which the right flakeinabrupt terminates an the flake inoutré roundedinends terminations; flake which a edge passé the overshoots grinding theand theon dorsal theof flakes distal of perimeter margin termination type flake. These termination types included flaketerminations, feather inthe becomes which each of each stage reduction their can be inattributes and seen common Table 7. Other or features included on recordedthe abse platform flakespresence bearing angles, angles, in form the of theor presence platform. of absence The of cortex amount dorsal present on the flakes of also considered, was dorsal surface theas of presence cortex of is indicativeThe oftenearlierstages of reduction. flakestypes of within found 58) the flake determine examined was to type flake particular of on the emphasis theacute shape, exterior presence platformoutline and was categorized categorized was a as resharpening flakein late reductionand stage the placed category even if from the dorsal this scar previous counts contradicted and of stage platform analysis, and regardless of morphologyflake of any factorsother under under rounding as magnification arrisesor separating scars the the of platform as rounding perimeterthescarring. of dorsal use If platform Once Once the reduction each flake of stage flake determined, was the typeby determinedwas fir 82 82 sually Lipping Platform yes variable variable no no no no u no no weight, as weight, well as te Shape . modified Marginally videnceof used can becan elongate; dorsaly convex usually short variable variable;often thick variable;often thick variable;often thick e corestriking platformson dorsalsurface rounded elonga Scarring imple to complex complex variable none simple simple variable s medium medium (Kooyman 2000:172) (Kooyman 99 – % Cortex% 0 0 variable 100 1 0 variable usually 0 usually 0 wear on 2008 field season fieldwere 2008 by analyzed season the and author were 2008 Materials 2008 including length, width, length, width, includingthickness, and (adapted (adapted from Kooyman 2000) , platform – Use no no no no no yes no no no es was measured measured was using es a goniometer. lithic The types material e tools that were pieces of lithic material toolsof that pieces (often e flakes) werelithic were that Flake Type Reduction Stages, Flake Types, and Associated Morphological Reduction Stages, and Types, AttributesAssociated Flake core rejuvenation shaping thinning biface reduction finishing resharpening primary decortication secondary decortication secondary Table 7 Stage middle late early early discarded discarded when no longer requiredor useful tools include retouched flakeflakes retouched or fragments. flakes Retouched still Expedient tools ar marginally a task and modified, complete then, presumably, unmodified used toor were then determined the eye of withor assistance stereomicroscope. by a To categorize the tools, first either was each tool formalan as classified tool.expedient a or handled handled littleas to possible as starch minimize contamination. metric The of attributes each tool were first recorded of angles working edg Lithic MethodologyTools All toolstheduring excavated 83 83 . Like :177) all tools was all (Andrefsky Jr. (Andrefsky the tools. Formal tools , previousas well as (Kooyman 2000 emoving a series flakesof fromseries emoving one a . of function The ive flaking faces of tool.both over the wear wear flakes damage, are small removedor utilized flake utilized fragments. Utilized - modified by r modifiedby re use wear wear the present of on edges - were 1976, 1996; McGhee 1970; Noble 1976, 1996; 1970; 1971) McGhee (Gordon Examples of unifacial tools scrapers, unifacial are knives, and spokeshaves. Examples of bifacial denticulates, tools and are bifacial chithos points, list (Tableprojectile 8 knives, a can can be and divided bifacial two intotools. categories: basic unifacial tools Unifacial exhibit face flaking evidence of of tool,of well as most all over the or extensive as one edge modification, while tools bifacial have extens constraints constraints (to integrityfuturepreserve of starch grain/phytoliththe didanalysis) not allow for a use detailed study theof research research on unifacial types and tool and their lithicbifacial attributes 2005; Kooyman Odell Whittaker 2000; 2004; 1994) determined alone, angles by morphologyand overalltime as handling edge working and Formalwith images of types werefrom toolby Middle determined tools comparison Taltheilei sites from occurs edge of thethethrough the action tool, using retouched flakes, flake and all typereduction features information stage/flake was recorded. expedient expedient tools are flakesoccurring that definedwere had that suitable as edges naturally to some task and for were modification. the withoutused need forthe Evidence of use toolsthese isalong seen tool whe edges ventral scars, lipping, etc.), the as grinding, of stage well as and type. reductionflake Unmodified and utilized tools included flakes retained the but platform, striking or lateral more edges. recorded flake were All (numberdorsal also features of and 84 84 antler/bone, Probable Use rving wood/bone/antler cutting or sawing through bone/antler/wood working hide splitting wood/bone/antler graving,gouging or ca cutting scraping hide/wood/antler working wood/antler, possibly for working spear/arrow shafts attachment a to wooden shaftfor use as a projectile or stabbing tool cutting working or shaving wood/ cutting, or possibly used as an exacavation tool rdingthe technique wear - orking theof and tools, any other irFunctions Distinguishing Features base suitable for hafting 1994) denticulateor “toothed” edge flatdisc with fairly steep edges rectangular or triangular piece with a flatedge on one end and a fairly acute edgeon the other end piecewith sharp protrusion showing evidenceof reworking or use damage acute edge angle steep edge angle on proximal end concave edgewith steep angle acute edge angles, pointed tip, area near acute edge angles assymetrical working edgewith moderate angle at end of piece Tool Types and the ToolTypes and 7 and their likely functions). 7 and functions). likelytheir described by tools All werethe 2009 Materials 2009 - Table 8 – bearing flakes. flakes. bearing were found The techniques been tothree have - Flaking Type bifacial bifacial bifacial, sometimes unifacial unifacial/bifacial variable variable unifacial unifacial unifacial bifacial aper ge Tool Type (adapted (adapted fromKooyman Andrefsky 2000; Gordon Jr. 2005; Odell Whittaker 1996; 2004; used toused detach platform within used hardthe (madeinpercussion; a assemblage: hammer hammer hard which of Debitage Methodology Debitage from field catalogued was and 2009 analyzed identically that season the to of the 2008 except category season, fieldthat fora an of reco addition distinguishing distinguishing features. of types foundtool JjKs at author the focusing section), (both outlinecross morphology each on toolof and the flaking rew patterns retouchexhibited, evidence of or graver denticulate chitho wed projectile point bifacialknife biface/adze uniface endscr spokeshave 85 85 . A of number h a made hammer of h arnered fromby the assemblage (Kooyman 2000:79 provides Figure a 43 list 2009 Materials 2009 s meant that the tools had had meant the to that toolsinside originaltheirbe s kept – (Crabtree 1972; 2000; (Crabtree1994) Kooyman Whittaker . ools closely. ools closely. res are considered when assessing flakeres are detachment typeconsidered when including:assessing platform Analysis Analysis Methodology focusing focusing suchon of different assemblage reductionas aspects the stages, flake and types, lithic raw types. material were Tools on also described based tables generated pivot from pivot tables in Excel results. describing Microsoft the and Queries were todesigned maximize g the amount that be information of could 5.4 Lithic from quantifieddebitage compared assemblages running each werehouse by and field air.fortobags analysis, so not as the be to exposed Therefore, detailed less descriptions of on author the ability tolimited produced thetools the of were thedue part to examine the t Cataloguing Cataloguing of and lithicanalysis season thefield tools identical was that 2009 tothe of previous year, place to controlsin stricter except avoid werethat of starch contamination the tools. These new control of features) these Lithic MethodologyTools flake featu and size morphology, bulband salience morphology, percussion of of prominence ventral rippling, well as thickness flakeas and size softer softer (antler,materialagainst theis wood) pressed or bone, edge theof objective piece until a is detached flake stone) stone) directly core; hammer in strikes the soft whic percussion, softer (antler,material thewood) and or which bone, core; pressure flaking; ina strikes 86 86 each each house point - west of west axes - . type Thismap of was Illustrator their Illustrator at planviews correct south and grideast south - ool types, ool lithic tooltypes used materialtypes, raw Adobe Adobe (Longley, et al. al. et (Longley, 2011:110) unit level. level. unit are a maps method Choropleth visualizing of data overlapping areas, in which each area areas, is which overlappingcoloured ineach to shaded or cm for Features 14 and 20) and placed placed over forand Features and 20) cm 14 each unit the on ng quantitative data because it ng a data because clear quantitativeprovides visualization theof - spatial arrangement for symbols tools, of spatial arrangement threefield all ncluded ncluded unmodified interior encountered cobbles features, and house during excavation, chosen forchosen displayi range of represented. values spatial arrangement the maps of debitage Choroplethof of field the provenienced at from non invalues symbolize a value, rangeor values of excavation excavation grid. These create polygons a map towereused Choropletheach of then featurehouse theillustrating debitage thewas of spatial withinarrangement that house provenienced provenienced tools were the placed on positions. (1Polygonsexcavation unitthat 1 were for Featuresmatched x created m each 15 and 19, 50 50 x cultural materialsthe within included. was profiles To thevisualize along along the gridnorth baulks along running the were also converted format. intodigital a about Information types and the colourssoil (recorded the well as in field), and information disturbances of as inclusions about using using Adobe Illustrator of planviews to four pits. house create the These planviews i the interior edge each pit.house berm of of stratigraphicmaps Sketch recordedprofiles All maps produced sketch the inwereto field then converted a format traced digital and each assemblage. each assemblage. These tables focused on t production, tool and attributes. 87 87 with the with of residential residential mobilityof of 7) have been discussed. 7) have been discussed. the In - gatherer mobility generated in mobility Chapter generated gatherer 4. willto This lead - methodologies employed to record methodologies and employed record analyze as excavate, to well as lived there. lived red within indicate quantities to debitage a of types debitage unit, therefore the who who es of es artifact spatial types theirrecovered distributions the and within houses. Summary interpretations the of activities, types spatial of organization and activities, these of that occurred site, at to activities these relatetheand the how level the people These These results will compared thethen in historywith be culture to Chapter presented 3 positively identifyinhabitants the affiliationof and cultural thesite, of the past forexpectations hunter the(JjKs archaeological materials Ikirahak from the site following theIkirahakwill presented includingchapters, results the of at be excavations frequenci 5.5 In this chapter, the quantities were first judgmentally toa down of into broken number maximize classes the visual/informational theof clarity map final product. different different material lithiccreated. sizes, and types were Choropleth polygons were colou 88 88 terranean sub - ecture. four All re at excavated and 8), were and oriented8), ts of an analysis tsof of analysis the an excavations will excavations be presented, though employing methodologies discussed in methodologies discussed employing Results of Analysis Results of Analysis Chapter Chapter Six: will be presented. be will presented. thefield During semi 2007 10 season, 7), four7), units well as (Figures 6 as exterior and excavation 7). Finally, - Architecture Stratigraphyand House of Pits Introduction houses were houses approximately 3.5m diameter,maximum inirregular oval had and outlines, raised gravel berms the around outside perimeter the(Platesof houses 2, 3, 4, and 5). Two theof Featuresstructures, excavated 14 (Figures 5 and 20 6.2 House PitArchitecture The four pits house Ikirahaksite at shared excavated a the similar archit description description of faunal recovered thematerials from a of of detailed scope analysis materialsthethese this is thesis. beyond and and 20 the 8).chapter resul (Figures 5 present This willand architecture pits, house and these of stratigraphy well as of an as types and analysis the spatial arrangement lithichouses. of these within found artifacts Furthermore, brief a During the 2008 field season, During two season, thefield Featurespits, house 2008 15 and 19, we Ikirahak (JjKs duringtwo moreseason werethefield at 2009 excavated pitshouse the Features 14 site, house pits, werehouse mapped depressions and (Figuretwo yet of smaller, as unidentified, 3). Additionally, small surface were collection a artifacts lithic mapped of and collected. 6.1 In the this chapter results research of conducted the last chapter 89 89 e e unclear. r e east marginseast are re 14 also seem realso seem 14 of the house house theof ed around the of edges ed the the around or depressions, pit was observed to contain observed of was to a number large her the elevated ridge to ridge of east the thesite, her elevated and north the or south south axis. - northeast northeast axis, 15 while (Figuresand Features 19 and were7) 6 - ed ed were stones either in floor arounda located central concentration the Feature in 14 placing half inconcentrationthis large stones of They represent a could thoughsleeping platform, tops areof the stones rounded the and platforms. majorityand unmodifiedcobbles of Theboulders Featu within to have been along side of deliberately the placed veryeastern as the stones house, few were found the inthe western of half house. The of intentions the of past occupants of the house pit floor, which suggests that most of these stones wereof stones these placed that th the which floor, most pithouse suggests of deliberately by forused the the be of workpast occupants seating or tohouse possible originally been thehold theplaced the aroundof theto of edges edges pit down hide superstructure erected over pit. the majority Featurethe of within stones However, the20 were oriented a regular linear the inmoreand southwest northalong pattern these unmodifithese areas of of the arrangeddepressions, thepit the edges thealong of floors along or pits, the perimeter along theof the pits berm. within stones the the of Many pitshouse may hav have have been transported from eit from lake the(Figure shore tothe3). thedirectly west of site orientations The these of boulders and differcobbles pit. from to pithouse house Features Within15, 19, and 20 unmodified orientcobbles boulders and within (Plates themselves 6, the 9).depressions 7, 8, and are These unmodifiedstones not located thesurface on the inof immediateand depressions, the pitwould area have to Following featureexcavation, each along along a southwest oriented along a north 90 90 20 cm cm 20 – 10 cm thick) cm 10 thick) – sod (5 sod layer - ce is based ce isupon based would place doorstheir as veryas (Figures similar 9, 10, is inferred along to the be Dene Dene which which had a mat lyingdense lowof during final site during the occupation theof wyan wyan features features a reddish browna reddish silty egardless of egardless length occupation. theof A cations in the architecture the that the of cations in houses southeast direction southeast (Figurelongitudinally 2). However, it - mentioned factors. mentioned - statement statement that Chipe the 13) - (1958:12 thick). Levels 1 Both were and 2 thickest the closer features, house to centre theof and thinned out the the toward of and edges at pithouse terminated the berm. gravel Level 2 11, Plates and/or 10, 12 13). 11, 12, and Level 1, tundra of sod and it,vegetation consisted rootingrowing a (5thin layer characterized by dark silt. brown Level was 2 House House PitStratigraphy The stratigraphy basic fourpitshouse excavated w all of indicated indicated a southern location, door location thea of completely was assignment and predicated on the above southward southward facing the would door for view because a have thealso of allowed good lake island trends in a northwest should be noted there that wereindi no opposite opposite the at prevailing stays a for and south short for site, facingwind extended stays. As the prevailing at theof wind Ikirahak is out north or facing a southward northwest door likely would r been have preferable, The Ikirahakdoors location the of theof house southern margin (Figures 5, 6, 7, and theof 8). pits inferen This Hearne’s and and may signify theno be was toused. that pithouse longer uneven, uneven, a possibly or seating area workor area. platform that Itis also possible this very different may placement stones have of occurred 91 91 transforms - ratigraphic 10 cm thick). Level 10 thick). 4 cm – n of pits. house all Artifacts south profile that is thesouth likely - silt silt (3 - Feature 20 of a showed thickening depositional processes, or processes, N depositional - were also discovered within 3 Level . h, littletree willow, alder h, littletree greenthe or within pit brown gravelly sand that sand to seems represent the gravelly brown - d grey e of post natural , such as cryoturbation, as ice lenses, , ice as cryoturbation, as lenses, fissures, such and cracks werefrost (Geological Survey of Canada (Geological 1982) Canada of Survey in Levelsinterpreted 2 rising1 throughthe have by and up soil been column as processes of bioturbation and cryoturbation. The of by in breakdown seen level debitage can be Table 9. in all features, Levelthe especially pithouse bottom 3, and 3 it Levelof where transitions into is Levelconsidered occupatio tothe main 4, be cultural Hearth feature staining and associated Hearth artifactsfeature associated staining and within Features 14, 19, and ishearth inst only 20, though staining thevisible profiles Featuresof 19. 14 and Though were artifacts recoveredLevels 1 from through3 underlying forming thematrix theof esker island Ikirahak and of culturalcontained no materials depressions that depressions may have resulted inthe withinbeing material soil cultural moved column. of Level consisted sandy an 3 richorganically comprised was of a packe densely Level north 1 completely 2 theLevel that bisected in grid result recently of rootmass. decayed These may root represent previousdisturbances growth largerplants, of dwarfas bircsuch observed observed in thiswith well as level, root bioturbation as plant associated growth. Feature 15 root had an withinand level, existent mass this tended tended to evidenc show the most (Schiffer1975, 1976) 92 92 - llowish tional presents presents re that that like soil soil that like - Feature 20 6 9 439 n/a 454 t Featuret Feature 19 36 66 1096 n/a 1198 excavation and/or and/or intensive excavation cleaning the of house quadrant of Feature 14 layer,cultural of another quadrant Feature 15 - 966 305 3694 n/a 4965 northwest northwest Debitage by Debitage House byPi Level Level 3 of Feature 19 was discontinuous across the across discontinuous entirewas 3 19 Level Featureof Feature 14 1 78 3045 47 3171 n the n directly beneath Level 4, and directlyLevel facet likely another theof 4, beneath and highlights Table 9 Level 1 2 3 5 Total occurring l withincomponents that important respective stratigraphy their for are r theof part house. layer greysandy of This consisted ash ratigraphic that profile in stratigraphy theof esker underlyingdeposit. of depressions depth Theexcavation theof pit between occupations. 4, Level Beneath new, previously Additionally, a and unrecorded stratigraphic encountered. was layer 7 Level a was poorlysorted ye brown sand pit occupied times, was multiple associated withartifacts separate possible these could occupations not be naturedue the determined toaddi ephemeral these of stratigraphic bands, past repossible or feature. a Thiswas centresingle layer level theof the over feature, split two but into discreet silt sandy at bands the characterized eastern edge, by 6 Level slumping of gravel between theoccupations. berm Thoughthis that house indicates the house than house those found level in3. Feature thedeviated stratigraphy most basic from 19’s st Level discovered 5, underneath was the layer not was gravel sandy that represented in any othe contained culturalan (Tableearlier represent and materials may 9), occupation theof Beyond Beyond the stratigraphicbasic profile Featurespresented 20 above, 14 contained and additiona interpreting site. this I 93 93 within Featurewithin ing ing cm to cm cm below 50 inapproximate theof the centre t a t potential feature.hearth However, within Feature within littlecontained very 20 burnt observed observed (Plates 14, (Plates 15, and 16). The hearths within discovered discovered e roughly oval in outline, e roughlyoval quantitiescontained of inhigh atial atial analysis below). The originathearth with cobbles, while the Feature 14 hearth consisted largelythecobbles, 14 consisted with while Feature a hearthof The hearth The defined defined internal defined featurehearth internal was - s for the within only of reductionpit, house lithic though small quantities debitage Internal Feature Analysis approximate floorcentre that represen theof may no burnt/calcined thischarcoal or within bone, alignment foundwas a stones, of but small Within roughlyFeatureof a alignment observed was insparse, 15 stones oval the of floortheof depression. the pit The Featureto within also seemed hearth serve 20 a as focu were located within hearth the itself. stained stained area containing an that veryburntmaterial of abundance only was loosely outlined with stones. material, regular, had and but a dense, concentration circular very incentre stones of the surrounding of largest thedebitage contained quantities lithicobserved thewithinhearth (see debitage sp houses these 19 stronglywas bone, bone, well as Featurewhereas charcoal, as 20’sdarklycontained onlyhearth stained soil. These central featureshearth wer debitage, represent and to a seemed focus for reductionlithic the area because house pithouse floors 14, 20 Features of 19, and Features 14 and of large 19 fragmentedquantities contained highly calcined and burnt 6.3 A well by the approximately of past variesoccupants from45 features these surface (bs) 70 Featuresin 19 14, in15 20. cm Feature and and bs approximately 94 94 re we Feature 20 439 15 454 Feature contained a 19 Feature 19 1198 55 1253 the excavation of the fourthe excavation theof pits house 210 lithic artifacts, %)38 210 (1.2 which lithic of , ithic materials withinfeatures werematerials thisithic house Feature 15 4958 54 5012 Feature 20 contained 454 20 artifactslithicFeature contained or which or 15 Lithic Types byPitTypes LithicFeature House Feature 15 contained the of Featuremost tools contained lithicand debitage 15 urnt within this house urntpit of because thiswithin house the charcoal Feature 14 3171 38 3210 ts, of which 55 (4.6 %) were tools remainingts, %) and the (4.6 which of 1,198 55 171 (98.8 %) consisted of %) (98.8 debitage. of 171 consisted , ature 15, as 15, well as ature theas quantity (Table9),materialhigh lithic of Table 10 Lithic Type Debitage Tools Total 929 lithic artifacts were recovered from artifactsrecoveredlithic were929 from , Feature 14 contained a total of 14 total Featurecontained 3 a of 253 lithic 253 artifac , %)were debitage. Finally, % were tools. were% tools. Debitage House Analysis of Pits 3.3 tools and the 3 remaining total of 1 (95.4 all all onlyfeatures Ikirahakat 1.1% excavated made tools the up though thesite, of and assemblage, the % remaining l of 98.9 debitage. Debitage Type Analysis A total 9 of at the Ikirahak site (Table 10). suggests that thissuggests structure workshop represented and my a house. not have a 6.4 within the in much the feature Thethelike hearths pits. house excavated other lack a of defined hearth Fe within whether whether hearth this stone alignment represents a feature actually we not, or do though know that b was some material concentration. Thisserved a as area focus thecentral of forreductionalso house lithic concentration of recordedwas it charcoal adjacent tothe to southeast. Itis unclear 95 95 - 1 0 platform 177 126 135 439 Feature 20 2 1 583 532 106 1198 Feature contained the 19 next Feature 19 ntains the highest proportion e 15 0 3 410 significantly the of different 11.8% at 1636 2916 4965 in, comprised the largest proportion of ores and and core make ores fragments up that less Featur . C 7:9973) up 7:9973) madekes theof 37.7% debitage - quantity. quantity. Finally, 15 Featurewithin 2 2 186 1746 1235 3171 Feature 14 bearing flakes by quantity by bearing (48.7 (51.0 and quantity %), %). flakes weight - bearing aga flakes, bearing 7:9966) weighs 318.5 g alone. 7:9966)weighs 318.5 - - Debitage by Debitage by TypeFeatureQuantityPit House directional coredirectional (JjKs - Table 11 bearing flakes - bearing flakes, the debitage type with the flakes, most debitage (55bearing thisvalue type the analysis tothe with %) - otal Debitage Type cores corefragments platform flake fragments shatter t directional cores and core fragments comprised 0.17directional cores fragments and and % theof 0.08 core% comprised directional coredirectional (JjKs - - weight weight respectively. assemblage by weight, assemblage if by 0.2 % only by bearing quantity, assemblage % flakes comprised 33.0% 41 debitage only but theof by weight. fragments by Core0.06 % made 2.9 % quantityup assemblage and and theof that that feature’s by (40.3 debitage quantity%), (onlyassemblage %). not weight but by 37.0 A single quartz multi assemblage by quantity, assemblage % and weight and 22.3 % by 0.06 respectively. Within Feature 20, platform multi highest proportionof platform Multi by %)quantity(57 (Table 12) weight and by 0.1% each. The of by proportion weight cores is but assemblage, this is that easily explained factby one thelarge volcaniclastic silicified Table that 11 co Feature illustrates debitage assemblage 14 of platform 96 96 ence ence (Table 13). Feature that that the reduction lithic within which which reinforced isby further bearing flakes recoveredbearing fromflakes the - observed observed eature we a see on eature much emphasis greater r of early and and middle r flakes, stage of earlyof many as re 20 shows a slightly on 20 emphasis increased early reshows d within this feature.d thiswithin flake The common type most any feature. any the most of – ge Analysis Middle stages flakes comprised Middle stages 74.1 followedtheof late % flakesassemblage stage by some some dorsal cortex Feature 15 middle emphasized most reduction, afterstage Feature the(Table 13). 20 stage reductionstage compared all features, toexcavated other examining that Tableshows 5.1% 14, which flakes from20 all of Featureexhibited was thinningwas followed% flakes comprising assemblage by theof 43.5 shaping debitage flakes at 25.4%. 4.0 reduction made up the Biface flakes of % while assemblage, resharpening flakes only 1.1 %. Featu the smaller finishing resharpening late especially flakes, stage flakes, and have would through passed the 6 screen. mm it still that being late That seems less stage said, reduction occurrethan stage middle middle reduction,stage a slightly on reduction,stage emphasis and greater early much on less late reduction.stage strategy However, the employed sampling during excavation may in have thebiased favouassemblage 20, feature the the amount containing smallest materials, the lithic of highest contained proportion %, flakesby stage followed at middle of late %,78.5 flakes stage and at 11.9 finally %.by flakes stage at early 9.0 Inf this four the features it pithouse Ikirahak site, at was all featuresthe sequ emphasized reduction middle theof stage Reduction Sta After of platform conducting analysis additional the 97 97 ce fa emblage emblage s Feature 20 196.5 0.0 192.9 70.1 61.4 520.9 bearing flakes isbearing - was the was shaping flake bearing flakebearing as - 481.7 Feature 19 565.3 1.5 1266.3 421.4 227.2 2 red Tablewith 14, we that see only Feature 15 0.0 0.0 99.1 1380.7 1316.8 579.5 3376.2 bearing flakes frombearing19 middle Feature are - platform Feature 14 381.6 48.2 1838.9 798.5 160.8 3228.0 rpening flakes rpening comprised 5.8% theof 7.0% assemblage and y 33 pieces of y pieces any 33 cortex debitage their have surfaces, on dorsal Debitage Type by Weight (g) by House Pit (g)by Debitage by Type Weight Feature House e bearing flakes Table 12 - Debitage Typ cores corefragments platform flake fragments shatter total examined examined (Table onl 14), which amounts to theof 2.8 % assemblage. The 19 exhibits Feature debitage assemblage reduction flakes and resha respectively. of thesmall Again, reduction amount on proportionally emphasis primary is reinforced the on cortex amount platform when dorsal of observed stage flakes, stage followed late22.0 % and flakes, stage 6.5% by flakes. stage early most The common flakein also the was typethisshaping flake %), assemblage bi (42.2 while feature. According Tableto 13, of 70.0% for respectively. feature this Tableis compa When 13 18 of pieces dorsal debitage present, had only cortex any the of which 0.4% comprises assemblage. Thisreinforces further occurring thereduction lack theprimary of within flakes. flakes. The flakerecordedmost common typethis within feature (31 theof % assemblage). note that Itreductionagain interest of biface toflakes isand resharpening the flakes platformcomprised and 7.5% of 6.4% at at 25.0 %, flakesand stage at early 0.9 %. sampling strategy the Again, employed during excavation may in have the reductionbiased favour early middleassemblage of stage and 98 98 2 1 7 12 15 45 77 17 21 16 Feature 20 177 139 8 4 8 55 41 17 38 34 246 165 130 42 Feature 19 583 411 1 2 7 4 15 170 104 499 457 255 122 e assemblage emphasizedoes e middleassemblage 411 14 Feature 15 1633 1211 le and late stage reductionstage thislate within lefeature. and of the assemblage, theof flakeswhile reduction assemblage, biface 1 8 2 15 26 34 70 265 323 550 299 149 bearing flakbearing - 752 1742 71 919 Feature 14 Lithic Reduction Stage and Flake Types Lithic by FlakeReduction Stage PitHouse and Feature ed (Table 13) at 53.1%, followed by late stage (Table13) flakesstage followedat 53.1%, late 43.2%,at by and early shaping thinning undefined biface reduction finishing resharpening undefin bipolar corerejuvenation primary decortication secondary decortication secondary undefined Table 13 dlestage reduction rand total middlestage total late stagereduction late stage total g Lithic Reduction Stage early stagereduction early stage total mid resharpening resharpening flakes that 18.5% made up made up 8.6%. flakes is lowfurther The reinforced proportion stage when earlyof that that there on a was emphasis middsimilar It reduction is interest also dominates of notewhilethe stage to that entire middle (especially assemblage shaping at flake54.7%), most second common type the was Finally, 14’sFeature platform though reductionstage flakesstage at 4.1 %,taken into when strategy the it is plausible account, sampling seems Feature 20’s assemblage. Feature 20’s assemblage. a greater than 15 early of emphasis Featureon less reduction, stage but than an emphasis 99 99 Feature 20 430 3 2 1 1 2 439 grained at quartzite2.3 %, grained - 4 contained that largest contained that 4 largest Feature 19 1165 4 3 7 9 10 1198 s, s, as, such metamorphosed sandstone, the lithic materials, lithic reduction the thecores, of Feature 15 4940 7 5 3 4 6 4965 lithic materials were procuredmaterials lithic some distance at of cores, and then further cores, then of reduced theinto within and houses 5 any amount of dorsal cortex. amount dorsal of any Feature 14 312 8 14 9 2 13 3171 Debitage Dorsal Cortex by House Pit Feature Debitage by Dorsal Feature Pit Cortex House Table 14 50 % 75 % 99 % 25 % – – – – grained quartzites at 1.3 %, grained 1.3%, quartzitesmaterial other at DorsalCortex % 0 % 1 26 51 76 100 % Grand Total - medium the lithic assemblages. the lithic assemblages. 15 Feature Table that demonstrates 1 proportion material 90.7% quantity,lithic comprisingthis of by theof assemblage. The next most abundant %,type material at is quartz fine4.6 then Lithic Raw Type Analysis Material Within all the redpits house Ikirahak dominated at site, volcaniclastic excavated silicified material likelywas broughttoin house form large of then thethe blanks (possibly flake performs), withsmall number a tools. from reduction site, that theprimary and of mostly was completed at theat or procurement site, some intermediary location. Lithic When When the forreduction data stage four pitshouse Ikirahakexcavated fromall the site are considered together, clear seems that it compared Tablewith 14, which that 1.5 % shows fromonlydebitage recovered all of within this exhibited feature 100 100 able able included: included: but less so so than less but Feature 20 1 5 127 2 33 271 439 one and porcellanite. one and porcellanite. Feature 19 18 40 67 25 145 903 1198 Feature 15 33 112 189 108 43 4473 4958 quite friable/brittle (leading to increased friable/brittle increased quite to (leading is Feature 14 11 21 147 41 74 2877 3171 p identical an proportion (90.6almost theof assemblage iclastic iclastic - Material by Material TypesQuantityPit House Debitage of by Feature medium fine grained - - grained quartzites comprised 3.4 % of the assemblage, grained while assemblage, quartzites chertscomprised themake of 3.4% up Table 15 ained - Material Type chert other materials quartz quartzite gr quartzite silicifiedvolcaniclastic total %, still made it the dominant lithic material type in type the materialmade %, the lithicit assemblage, still dominant However, However, silicified volcan %, followedmaterial other %, 7.9%.by types at These other types material Medium 8.2 silicified siltstone, granite, metamorphosed sandstone, limest material type. by volcaniclastic The weight frequency(Table relative16), silicifiedof 79.7 by quantity. the(Tablewas abundant typequantitynext Quartzmaterial by most at 15) Table 15 that typewas, materialvolcaniclastic theshows lithicagain, silicified dominant within % Feature assemblage comprising by the15 of 90.2 count. frithe Again, in naturefavour assemblage thisof material lithic thehave skewed thisof may lithic silicified made volcaniclastic u %) by does itas quantity. %. breakage), be inwhich skewing the may favourthisassemblage of type material by quantity. material When lithicconsidered by (Tablethat 16) types see are weight we silicifiedare at siltstone, finallyand by 0.7%, granite, at mudstone, diorite, chert and 0.3 101 101 by weight. by weight. 0.9 0.9 the Feature the 20 Feature 20 0.4 0.4 15.9 205.6 277.8 0.8 20.4 52 Feature 19 15.1 166.4 1010.3 11.6 19.5 19.8 1242.70 grained comprised quartzite2.1 - d within 14 and Features 15, but siltstone, siltstone, granite,slate, limestone, Feature 15 25.9 257.5 2572.7 266.6 111.8 23.1 3257.9 cified at at 3.3%. Medium Feature 14 3.2 3.2 38.1 2925.3 111 49 101.4 3228 grained - grained white quartzite comprised 0.7 grainedthis quartziteof debitage % feature’s white comprised - Material Material TypesWeight Debitage of (g) by by FeaturePit House fine medium grained quartzite made up 12.1 % of quartzite grained the by 12.1 % followed made assemblage, up quartz - – - Table 16 Material Type Chert Other Materials Silicifiedvolcaniclastic Quartz Quartzite grained Quartzite Grand Total %. %. fine Finally, This between discrepancy the of relative made theproportions up quartz assemblage by can be explained factmaterialby quartzverythe that that is heavier a dense is much than features. features. This the explained is on by much likely emphasis greater quartz thiswithin feature. Quartzby and theof 28.9% quantity53.3 made % assemblage up Finally comprised smaller a silicified percentage much of volcaniclastic by both assemblage quantity%) (61.7 by (39.4to %) other weight and compared all at at 5.6%, and materials other sili including: basalt, and metamorphosed sandstone %, chertof 1.5% assemblage. while comprised the %), than foun though less the significantly proportions the relative % increases, calculated by tofrequency weight (Table 81.3 16). By quantity (Table fine 15), assemblage. assemblage. Feature 19 high of also contained by proportion volcaniclastic (75.4 a silicified quantity 0.8 102 102 ion of entireion theof grained quartzites grained quartzites - flakes and fragmentsflakes and grained and quartzite - t material numerous was fine 7:9972)recovered from thisiswithin featured house - %. %. m the base of the point. the of m base point. the is quite Thisflaked,finelylarge, but point a has ifaces and biface fragments comprised ifaces fragmentstheand biface largest comprised proport b , Analysis Analysis %. %. 18 that Table shows toolsof this 55.3 % werewithin feature made silicifiedof %, spokeshaves at at 10.5 %, at %, a wedges making 5.32.6%, % spokeshaves single chitho and up of grained quartzite at 18.6%, grained materials at including: quartzite by followed 18.6%, siltsone, other silicified - Tool Tool the distance the frodistance irregularflake lateral may from todiscard the theitsedge that have of near tipled the The (JjKs complete point projectile a white quartz lanceolate point. point shoulder Thefoundthis was of one third of about 13.2 volcaniclastic, followed by %, by and at finally quartz 18.4 other materialsat both 10.5 18.4 the assemblage. retouched Withinexpedient tools thecategory, comprised 16.0% tool thewhile of flakesassemblage, and utilized made fragments up classified formalas classified %) tools tools (28.9 and (Platesand 11 expedient as 18). 17 the Of formal tools toolat 26.3 %,pointat assemblage followed bases and a point projectile projectile by 6.5 Table tools, 17 that (71.138 which of 14 shows %) 27 Feature lithicwerecontained mudstone, mudstone, and at metamorphosed 2.8%. sandstone Finally, medium comprised 1.8%, %.and one at piece chert of 0.6 silicified volcaniclastisc silicifiedby volume. volcaniclastisc the next Afterquartz, mos fine 103 103 1 1 3 3 1 2 1 1 8 7 15 7:9970, 9971, Feature 20 - 7:9786), 7:9786), and - 1 2 3 1 1 6 5 4 1 7 1 1 5 1 15 ure 19 24 30 54 Feat 2 3 1 6 3 5 2 2 4 1 7 1 1 1 15 29 25 54 Feature 15 4 2 2 4 3 2 2 8 1 3 1 6 27 11 38 7:9969). - t a has irregular somewhat and base. outlineunground Feature 14 Lithic Tool Types by House Lithic FeaturePitToolHouse Types by bases were made of red silicified were(JjKs volcaniclastic silicified made bases redof Table 17 projectile point bases within this house withinpit bases thisalso appeared point projectile portionshouse to be of fe ient tools five retouched flakes retouched flake fragment utilized flakes utilized flake fragments scraperfragment projectilepoint projectilepoint bases projectilepoint preform denticulate graver perforator spokeshaves unifaces uniface fragments wedges bifaces biface fragments biface fragment (ground) bifacialsymmetrical kni chitho endscrapers sidescraper exped expedient tools total grand total formal tools total Tool Type formal tools grained grey grained(JjKs quartzitegrey - 9980), constructed each was one of base point while white (JjKs quartz fine lanceolate lanceolate projectile points. point appeared unfinished. of All bases projectile these Three pointthese of tool. Itappears unfinished, i as The other 104 104 grained quartzitegrained - eature was triangularwas in eature (53.7 %) (53.7 formal tools were tools withinfeature toolsthis were 4.8 %). 4.8%). most Theabundant 7:2148) found within7:2148)found this f - ols were Featureobserved within(Table ols 17), (44.4 19 which of %) 24 were %), %), %), (7.4 materials %). other quartzite %), (3.7 and (1.9 chert %)flakesfollowed and (1 retouched fragments by four four to - owed by scrapers (11.1 %), unifaces (7.4 %), spokeshaves (3.7 owed (7.4 %), by %), %), (11.1 scrapers unifaces a spokeshaves chitho, a %), followedflakes (16.7 utilized %). by that Tableshows the of 18 highest proportion tools were (31.5manufactured%), silicifiedof out by volcaniclastic followed foll denticulate tool, perforator,wedge 1.9%). (each and at a a most The abundant expedient tools were retouched (38.9comprisinglargest flakes, portiontheof assemblage the tool classified formalas classified (55.6expedient and as tools, tools%)30 (Plateswere classified 23, 24, 25, and 26). were most formal abundant tools (16.7the (Table Of 17), %), bifaces complete point Feature in found14. Fifty The projectile(JjKs preform point outline pointsand found projectile smaller than and substantially bases that the within Feature 14. a This much yield preform, if finished, wouldsmaller than point projectile the made made of volcaniclastic, by silicifiedfollowed(22.2 fine quartz %), (11.1 formal (13.0 (14.8scrapers %), followedtools%), were bifaces (11.1 wedges %), by unifaces (3.7(7.4 %), by a and spokeshaves %), (1.9 a graverfinally %) projectile and point (1.9 preform %). % that Table shows all of 53.7 16 the largest flakes proportion and utilized theof fragmentswith assemblage, up making (31.5 Feature which 15 tools 29 lithic(Table 17), contained 54 of and %)25 19, (42.7 and expedient (Plates 22). were 20, 21, tools Expedient comprised 105 105 Feature 20 0 0 2 1 10 2 15 7:6307). - Feature 20. Feature 20. Thoughit Feature 19 5 7 9 1 15 17 54 hich 8 hich (53.3formal %) tools, were and Feature 15 1 2 12 4 6 29 54 %), other %), materials other (9.3%), (13.0 chert %), grained quartzitegrained up makes the majority theof uched flakes and fragmentsuched most were the - ine 7:7060) was recovered from recovered 7:7060)was ure 14 - 7:3742), and a sandstone chitho 7:3742), sandstone (JjKs and a - Feat 0 4 7 2 4 21 38 grained Lithic Material Types Lithic of ToolsLithic PitHouse Material by Feature - fine – Table 18 symmetrical symmetrical (JjKs knife Material Type chert other materials quartz quartzite quartzite silicifiedvolcaniclastic total %, as well as a single wedge, denticulate, uniface, a and as %, single projectile well wedge, as that uniface, base denticulate, point grained quartzite (27.8 %),grained (16.7 (27.8 quartzquartzite - A pointsingle projectile(JjKs base was onlywas a fragmentpoint, the and of thiswould likely original, unfinished base likely an Table quite 18 clearly illustrates f that toolat 67.0and %,volcaniclastic assemblage quartzfollowed silicified % both at by 13.3 each, and finallyby 6.7%. quartzites other at comprised comprised 6.7% each (Table 5.57). Reto common expedient well as (40.0%).tools, theas tools inmost assemblage abundant the Utilized flakes and comprised thefragments of 13.3feature.% tools lithic from this seven (46.7seven expedient tools%) were(Plate 27). formal tools, the Of comprised scrapers 27.0 bifacial Feature 20 tools contained w (Table of 15 17) fine and quartzite%). (1.9 tools Two noteof from thiswererecoveredwithin feature a 106 - 106 - Additionally, a was hearth 5). 5). ecause the it only ecause represents discernable cultural entre of the house. theof entre house. This contained largehearth the excavation of the feature. feature. the excavation theof Feature contain does a 14 ulturalLevels within 1 the of featuresmaterials and pithouse 2 . that This the illustrates figure vast clearlymajoritydebitage of 13 for b this analysis n stratigraphic evidence for multiple occupations, occupations, stratigraphic other these evidence for multiple occupations e Distribution and Size Sorted DistributionsSizeande Distribution Sorted s Spatial Analysis quantities of charcoal. debitage, lithic calcined and bone, tools, debitage Thedistribution can be in seen Figure observed observed within (Figure thehouse eastern portion theof recorded the within approximate c Overall Overall Debitag Within 14, the (Level layer bouldersfirst cultural a largewereof Feature of number 3) northwest northwest quadrant. c All have been interpreted have through thebeen totransported throughpost soil column and depositional processes, have therefore unsuitable for been deemed spatial analysis. were not discernable during secondary, earlier, Level occupation not has in this 5, level be but forchosen spatial because analysis it only was a located insmall the section of pithouse itswithin Level 3 chose was occupation forFeature been has 15, 19, previously and it 20, that thoughacknowledged Feature 19 show Spatial of Debitage Analysis An of analysis recorded the artifacts lithicspatial of distribution withinfour the pitshouse excavated conducted was on materialsLevel withinfeature.found 3 each of 6.6 have have been a a portion of tocomplete lanceolate (JjKs projectilesimilar point the point, 7:9972) found and bases Featurepoint within 14. 107 107 within, near the near ifically the concentrated concentrated lower quantities bothlower of west of feature thewest of edges. edges. to that is It interest of note of centre theof the oval stones, of arrangement 3 cm in maximum dimension, of and >3 dimension, cm that cm, themaximum 3 indebitage < trending out from the location fromtheof out trending hearthbe location topointing theseemed s located within, s located within, adjacent to, or inoblongthe feature hearth an ebitage ebitage north, northwest, and southeast northwest, and southeast north, . There and of ina was cobbles boulders concentration an smaller irregular 6) urnt etc.)thisbone, that areahave suggest served a as feature.would would hearth nmodified cobbles were found in a haphazard arrangement nmodifiedthroughout werea featurecobbles inhaphazard found thearrangement and and to the but there in a was concentration second materials the lithic of b However, previously as concentration foundwas mentioned, a burntmaterialof small adjacent to this area. The thisconcentrated debitage was distributionof featurein (Figure oval near floor no thewas this(charcoal,of there centrepit, other house but evidence Within Feature the layer cultural15, a large of wereof number boulders around the the of several perimeter and smaller pit, house centrewhile boulders and u still centered on the hearth and its immediate surroundings, still centered whilehearthitson immediate the and surroundings, are debitage sizes located around house. the theof edges When When the spatial isof distribution of compared, sizes debitage different spec distribution debitage of distribution little.changed very the In case larger and were smaller this both debitage towards the potential of located was small concentration location, and door a debitage near the door. when when a of potential (southern location door thepit) perimeter house is considered, direction d of within the wa house pattern, the smaller foundamounts while were around 108 108 was was outh along northwest, northwest, and oncentration seemed to seemed oncentration provenience provenience for the north, north, ). ). The debitage distribution of 7 . debitage However, because e to the north, one to the east, and e theone the the of one the toto north, east, floor in centre of of the between the central Theof different distribution. difference sizes only h featuresecondarily to the along then and toand east the south thenorth, and south the perimeter pit.house theof concentrations than to Other previously the the south mentioned, debitage littlepresent thewas veryaroundperimeter feature. theof the When heart perimeter feature, theof hearth thelocation, and door the itself. within near probable Two towest and thesmaller adjacent tohearth inconcentrations s thewere the the house pit associated the pitwithhouse theassociated (Figure featurehearth within debitage Level concentrated Featurewas of that around(Figure 3 shows 15) 19 the Within Level Feature number of 3 19, a and unmodified cobbles of boulders were observed. four These unmodified were the concentrationsstones inwithinfound house pit: one the on to south, concentration along the western perimeter of the house concentrationpit. along thehouse western theperimeter of This c be made up debitage exclusively of <3 cm. of concentrations todense the with less pithouse the slightly southeast debitage that was to the debitage be >3 did located the cm seem withinnot smaller When When the>3 cm distributionof <3 debitage compared was cm theredebitage and little the change observed from distributionin overall the all of dispersal thedebitage in feature. Both cm thecm around floor centre and <3 debitage the>3 concentrated the of further patterning to the spatial distribution of the debitage. debitage. further the tothe spatial patterning of distribution perimeter (Figurepithouse 14) of pithouse onlywas it 1 to1 level recorded x precision difficult m of was discern a any to 109 109 red than 3 lithics cm < th the overall itage clustered ved ved along the northern or the is not northand but south, e sorting the debitage d within d the the and within hearth southern along concentrates adjacent to the hearth theto adjacent concentrates to hearth t is considered, is considered, more theis much pieces these distribution of limited. greatest The concentrations of thisobserve debitage were perimeter the of thelocation. door adjacent house to probable the hearth thelocation. door near probable Aftersiz distribute inexact patternsame overall the theas distribution. >3cm debitage When the was similar similar was to the of features. excavated other that Feature In 20, deb adjacent to the feature,the hearth,hearth to northeast the toof southwest. and the large A concentration of perimeter tohouse south debitage theof also located was near thetheof Within Level Feature much of smaller 3 of recove 20, was a amount debitage from three other features. excavated the However, the lithicspatial distributionof debitage withinfeature the this that (Figureoverall shows 16) debitage distribution of found in the in hearth. abundance also clustered to Larger debitage the the south along perimeter the of near probablepit house thelocation. door southeastern perimeterssoutheastern of the pit. house larger, When the >3 cm, debitage was considered, the patternthe overall same. is However, debitage slightly clusters large differentlyin i that clustered clustered around the to south thealong hearth, within the the hearth, and the toperimeter, west of the hearth. However, the not was smaller obser debitage distribution compared was debitage in of wi <3 dimension cm maximum debitage distribution, the observed distribution similar.is very Smaller debitage 110 110 almost almost east, and and east, grained grained - was was of fineof re 18) r the theof inhouse north, of the hearth the of feature. the Additionally rest e house. e house. lithic other Assorted materials edge of hearth, edge the of small quantities theof while southwest southwest southeastern southeastern grained quartzite was also located adjacent adjacent quartziteto grained also thelocated was hearth central and - 7), red silicified volcaniclastic, redalmost mirror perfectlyvolcaniclastic, to7), overallsilicified seemed the Medium ughly points the oval door toward that probable pattern location. The spatial oncentration of to material the the identical identical Figureto of (compare that the 14). all debitage with material This90.2 made up % and theof is thereforeassemblage observed in areas of house, all especially the only to directly and thethewest of hearth. south The redFeaturedistributionof within (Figu volcaniclastic silicified15 seemed to seemed be innortheastern ththesection of clustered almost aroundexclusively the feature, found hearthwas chert whereas debitage of thiswere material the also observed perimete along south. around the nearlyproportions, of outside moreperimeter materialin though equal the debitage debitage around house. the outside theperimeter of The concentration quartzite located was on the material directlywere the and the in hearth foundin adjacent areas to it. quantities Small distribution material,theof volcaniclastic in silicifiedthere that thewas greatest c of thebe tended distributionthetoclustered quartz feature around quartzhearth less with greatest greatest of abundance the located was within, material adjacent a to, or the in hearth ro distribution most theof abundant type, quartz,next material differed from somewhat the (Figure 1 distribution material(compare lithicof 13). Figurethe types within with house The Distribution LithicbyDebitage Type of Material The rawthespatial lithicdistributionof 14 type most material Feature abundant within 111 111 ea. ea. Small perimetertheof of the central area, theof central area, west west n the centre of the floor the of the floor n centre with northern overall debitage distribution f it. recovered No was the quartzin o of the potential feature.the of hearth chert No east this area. this area. The thisdistribution of lithic perimeter of the house. perimeterof house. the The most second perimeter of the house of pit.house theperimeter The distribution of the most abundant the lithic most silicifiedabundant material portion of the house pit,house the near perimetertheor of portion theof of but was also absent but on also absent was the western western western western northern northern ent ent from the of feature, southeast well as the western from as the west, west, southwest, and southeast grained inquartzite grained the of thealso was concentrated was feature, centre and - was located located was in the grained quartzite was concentrated in the area grained of concentrated central was in quartzite withthefloor, the only perimeter feature, theof - Within Featuredistribution 19, the (Figurevolcaniclastic almost was 19) identical the to amounts of materialsthese thiswere around central observed theall except area, to north and southeast. feature ineastern portiontheof thehouse. materialsthislithic within Other foundfeature were concentrated inpotential area to the hearth and thejust thiswest of ar perimeter concentration. The debitage highlydistribution was chert concentrated within, and just to the debitage feature. Fine distributed aroundarea and tonorth, directly west. this east, the lithic This type material notably was abs material of typedistributions than silicified is confined either themore or volcaniclastic quartz. Like thisnot was material observed withinquartz, concentration the on the western concentration of the debitage on medium small amounts of debitage located outside abundant abundant material, mostly was concentrated just quartz, to the and then this within and area, thejust to south concentrated concentrated around (possible hearth)thefloor areacentral i a secondary concentration in the 112 112 ). 16 grained debitage isquartzite - ained quartzite, exhibited ained a different gr - the hearth. the hearth. Small amounts thisof were material verall debitage distribution debitage withveralldistribution (compare Figure er of the house, and along the and the of southern along er house, perimeter adjacent to . were located Highest adjacent concentrationsto hearth, the 15) rials were also found along the perimeterrials found pithouse the were the thealong of inalso east und the perimeter of Feature 19 along the perimeterFeatureund of northern along edge. the 19 Chert debitage was d These around materials areit. the not hearth, also but observed entire along inside the hearth the near perimet the probable location. door The material most second abundant quartz, type, was again again very to theof similar o that Concentrations of thisand near were thematerial southwest tonortheast thefound probable location. door this material Smallerconcentrations of located type of east were The spatial reddistributionof within(Figure volcaniclastic was 20) silicified20 Feature southern southern and western margins the of pit. house Medium locate the southern perimeterthe of pit. house along along south. the perimeterthe and of ineast pithouse the quartz No debitage was recorded aro observed within and the thetoand north, adjacent and to hearthsouth, along east, the perimeter the of pit. house lithic Other clustered adjacent to materials the not hearth, but within it. These mate and south of house. the to, and Quartzthe and within debitage hearththen adjacent was adjacent adjacent to the tonorth. hearth the A the smaller of observed was materialconcentration adjacent to the and east of south sides also located within the thehearth, towest, adjacent to hearth the and the southern along the next finemost abundant material, lithic distribution red volcaniclastic. than silicified material This most was concentrated (compare Figurewith within thealong perimeter hearth, of the and pit.house southern the The distribution of 113 113 found Most toolsMost 7:9972) - 21. grained quartzitegrained - grained quartzite was located located was in quartzite grained small amounts d 10 were complete. complete. d were 10 thein Of 13 tools broken - es, es, while of the consisted half other two endscrapers, two observed throughout the western western pit, half house observed withthroughout the of thisof less e of this area and closer to the edges of edges e thisof the area to a house and of number thecloser this materialpart the in this found southern was the of near probable pit house the complete and brokenand recorded cores were tools including:complete endscraper, a biface, flake, retouched wedges, cores. and two two A brokenof number implements retouched flakes, biface. and one The projectileonly (JjKs complete point recovered from this located was within featurejust outside this of area the to south theof hearth. Also outsid this area, were bifacial(4 projectile6 broken 2 tools pointwhile bifaces, the bases), other 6 were expedient and tools, one core. thecomplete Of tools10 in,near, found or the hearth, were half spokeshav found thiswere to,within feature feature. located hearth within, adjacent or the the Of 23 tools within were this13 broken, area, an Spatial of Tools Analysis The 14 Level lithic inFiguredistributionof is shown in3 tools Feature of was spread spread was out the across entireThe of pieces pit. house two medium that were recovered located just thetheof feature, were east hearth whilesole piece of chert debitage thefound of was thepit. house northern along perimeter amount amount of door along thisrecorded of location, was but thematerial northern none perimeter theof feature. recovered was thelittle materials, Veryin way lithicwhat other of was and the material the across eastern half. Fine adjacent to thein hearth, western and the house. portions eastern and theof A small recordedhearth intonortheast. adjacent one to onlyconcentrationthe the amounts Small of thiswere material 114 114 jorityof . The ma 22 the south, south, and thenorth west, dscrapers, dscrapers, with exception were one, of the that with only the that brokenonly exception twowith of was was oser to the perimeter on the southeast side of to southeast on thetheoser the perimeter house f the hearth area including: three projectile point bases, f threehearthone including: bases, point projectile the area were located within, or adjacent wereadjacent or to located thewithin, not thehearth, and around edges), edges), on or (projectilehouse the the side of east point points, Another Another trend thiswithin pit house bifaces, all tools broken perimeter theof structure. house pithouse northernon and thewestern sides. tools, associated the Formale projectile point preform,also foundwas cl were pit,observed north and wedges spokeshaves theof towhileof east or hearth the it. biface fragments. Female associated biface tools, fragments. Female associated en not found were thehearth, but near potential instead located thecloser tothe perimeterof hearth feature. Theobserved to concentrations were additional of feature.the hearth potential Thetools were majority expedient of located the within potential feature,hearth feature, the tothisor west of the weremajoritybifaces as of and The distribution of lithic tools within Feature 15 is shown Theshown in Feature lithicFigurewithindistributionof is 15 tools tools withinfeature located to withinthiswerefeature. the hearth adjacent or potential Tools were in and recovered within four adjacent directlyto potential concentrations, the bases). bases). werewith Tools (endscrapers) located femalewest associated on theactivities side of the house. activities, as discussed in activities, Chapter discussed as 4, tonorthof found either hearth the werethe (spokeshaves and w were also found outside o biface, core. and one Itis interest withalso noteof most totools that maleassociated 115 115 observed observed xpedient xpedient were ). E were ssociated tools (associated 24 except for except one to it. it. to All expedient along the western western along the ecorded ecorded were found adjacent were adjacent tofound the . The majority toolsthe of 54 23 e three cores recordedthree this withine house found along the edges of found the the northern along edges along pithouse the were and and eastern periphery, r was and that base a point projectile edge of the pit. observed observed to the interest itand east theto west of that ishearth, of notethe complete werescrapers foundthe thepit.house a located Male on western side of wedge and a denticulate) the perimeter (uniface, structure scrapers, wedge). thedenticulate, of For example, tend endscrapers to be located the around perimeter the of pit, house broken scraper the withinfound hearth. scrapers associated Thoughfemale Lithic the (Figure20 featurespread out toolsFeature are within across tools tend toaround central formalcluster the hearth, toolswhile tend cluster aroundto near near the southern perimeter theof house. th Of pit, located was feature,within hearththe one other the thewere whereas near two found south and perimeter southwest theof house. house pit.house and scrapers chitho Femalethe associated one hearth, towest, withtosouth. mostly but the one the spokeshaves associated and Male a wedge were all the thetoof east foundhearth. tools, except one Bifacial tools (retouchedwithin and flakes) located this utilized except area, for were three utilized retouched flakes and recovered flakeone were closer tothat the theperimeter of The Feature of distributionFigure tools isin 19 seen within thiswere directlyfeature or inside foundthe hearth, adjacent 116 116 was was of theof grained - two biface were , the most bearing flakes bearing - associated tool inassociated found directional core - - gender is bearing flakes (n=24,bearing % debitage of 51.1 - f 33 artifacts were found infound 33 f four which werethese of unitsartifacts were 27 Feature 14 Level Feature5 Level 14 Analys . total A o 7 ke the assemblage recovered fromassemblage ke the middlethe pits, house reductionstage portion of the house. portion house. theof were Onlyrecovered lithic 50 fromof artifacts this level Exterior Exterior Excavation Units Earlier OccupationEarlier is emphasized inis emphasized four these degree lesser to than but 19 units, a inside Feature(only 55.6 % vs. respectively), latewhereas % reductionstage 70 up makes of a larger proportion made made up (n=15,of % the debitage largest assemblage theportion theof 55.6 or debitage assemblage). Li The four of exterior tounits southeast were excavated Featurethe located and are19 shown in Figure debitage, and lithicsix were tools. Of debitage recovered, the platform this level, western chitho found was side of the (female tool), house. the on the 6.8 fragments, thefashioned out other silicifiedone redof volcaniclastic medium gray flakedquartzite,tool final while red chitho thea was bifacially silicifiedmade of (Platevolcaniclastic 28). Itonlybe noted the should that also also found this within level. overwhelminglywas Debitage this within level of composed red silicifiedwhite remainder(n=44, while up quartz93.6volcaniclastic %), or the made of Level the(n=3, 6.4 %). 5 or assemblage three the Of tools recovered, abundant abundant debitage type platformwas assemblage), and of (n=20)% flakes, stage middle these, by followed83.3 were early (n=3,stage %). and 12.5%), or late (n=1, One stage 4.2 or multi northwest northwest which 3 were 47 debitage. of tools pieces and debitage recovered the Of 6.7 Within located was inLevelFeature earlier a 5, 14, an small occupation, section 117 117 hin e units , and is it 24 by quantity ake ake up each. 14.2 % the Chert most iscommon (n=1 Iteach). to is interest of noteone particularly that large dze, mattock fordze, tool a as used was possibly house or excavating the not all bifacial all and tools, not thebifacial cutting sole unifacial wit foundtool, are 7:6305, bifacial7:6305, an a largewith asymmetrical very tool edge workingwith grained quartzite) make 7.5make grainedup than theless of quartzite) % assemblage - - that that latformflakes (33.3bearing vs. respectively). % % 22 proportion Theearlyof stage interesting one unit. represented represented a large a pits by occupants. their tools The can be in seen spatial distribution of Figure up 14.0 % of the assemblage up 14.0% assemblage theof artifact, JjKs heavy usewear, found was 27).(Plate this exteriorin area This may tool have uniface fragment, retouched flake)m and lithic toolby type material making (n=3)thequantity.42.9% of assemblage up other All material types and (silicifiedvolcaniclastic, coarse volcaniclasitc) quartz, make siltsone, Bifacial Bifacial toolsadze or (2 toolsbifacal mattock cuttingand possible bifacial one tool) make up 42.9% exteriortool all types (denticulate, thetoolscraper, of other assemblage; lithic type material (n=5, 18.5%). or types (chert, material quartz,other limestone, All and medium and weight 29). (Plate respectively). from the Silicified assemblage volcaniclastic, again, thes dominates (n=14, 51.9 %). or is the most second abundant metamorphosed By sandstone quantity the p reductionFeature identical % 19 istoinside 6.5 nearly% both (6.7 and and exterior 118 - 118 7 were - shouldered shouldered - grained quartzite - 7:6285) constructed was - he highest proportion assemblage, thehe of highest clastic whileclastic the piece finalmade was of r 36.4 %), followed%), r fine by 36.4 . Though this projectile . Thoughthis point projectile isis unfinished, likely, it grained quartzite (n=2, or (n=2,and 18.2 %), quartzite and then siltstone grained by - of interest to note that the bifaces found interest of note thethe to that bifaces on surface JjKs of of this thesis, of thesis, of briefbut findingshere. overview thisa the is presented Dr. 7 (n=6 debitage, and n=11 tools). 7 debitage, n=11 (n=6 tools). and Of the debitage of six all foundpieces - grained grey grained quartzite - 7 Finds Surface - Faunal Analysis JjKs Lisa Hodgetts at of Department the theAnthropology University of Western of Ontario A of comprehensive analysis the materialsfromfaunal recovered the Ikirahak site is beyond the scope some some of tools Ikirhak the at foundsite 30).(Plate largest the 6.10 based on based its and size itoverall have that become a would morphology, low lanceolate spear point found pointsimilar projectile Featurethe (JjKs in to complete 14 7:9972). Itis also (n=3, medium 27.3 %), or quartz (n=1,9.1 % or each). projectile(JjKs The preform point out fineof followed retouched by flakes (n=2,and 18.2 %), or a point projectile preform, uniface fragment, and flake % utilized fragment (n=1, each). 9.1 or The materialmost common type silicifiedwas (n=9,volcaniclastic o metamorphosed sandstone. metamorphosed sandstone. flakes Two and reductionone shaping biface flake comprised the platformflake bearing assemblage. component the(n=4,of %)Bifaces and 36.4 or biface fragments (n=2, 18.2 %) or t made up surface of JjKs but one redof werevolcani silicified made 6.9 During17 lithic seasons, fieldtheand were the2009 2008 artifacts collected from 119 . 119 397) - or were that at at that the ture 19 faunal 19 ture 401) 401) - Feature20 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 2 Artiodactyla . This orderis Rangifer tarandus (Banfield 1974:396 Feature19 13 0 59 1 27 20 5 0 125 (Banfield 1974:383 Artidactyla Feature15 2 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 3 . prefer wooded Moose environments, but mammal, terrestrialmammal,mammal, largelikelyor also hoofed mammals mammals hoofed - Feature14 7 1 0 1 6 20 0 155 190 Faunal Taxa Faunal by FeaturePit House ractured,of and large one the mammal cut exhibited bones nly speciated taxon speciated at found nly tothe site) completely s from the site. s from A of wereelements total faunal 320 . proportion theof significant Additionally, Fea a (caribou) Table 19 (Dawson (Dawson and 2007) Suluk Taxon Rangifer tarandus Tetraonidae Artiodactyla largebird large terrestrial mammal terrestrial mammal mammal indeterminate Total It four theof identifiedshould that be faunal noted orderas elements found f been tospirally have they they can be occasionally farfound Inlet as Chesterfield north as The faunallarge identifiedas materials represent caribou, though musk ox, moose, specimens. also they represent bear or could Ikirahak site could be represented by caribou or moose. Ikirahak represented site could by moose. or be caribou most that However, it likely is also bones represent these caribou, identified theas site been has a as primary caribou crossing location assemblage (n=27, assemblage or 21.6 %) order as classified was commonly referred theas tocloven indeterminate bones. caribou Itis that noteworthyfound, materials inidentified were very at small in fourquantities, houses a known all historically caribou location hunting (Dawson and Suluk 2007) recovered could fourfrom be the eight subdivided intopitshouse taxa excavated that (Table 19). level ( species infrom taxa Therangethe specificity barrengound is the caribou o analyzed analyzed the faunal material 120 120 . graded on its e more to e susceptible (Allen 1978:28) and Hogg one collagen. one materialsfaunal used All e present (BP).e Thepresent to the thisexception is depositional processes occurring processes within depositional the - C than the modern thereference C (AD than standard. 1950) 14 o Features 14 infound and which 19, some of was previously mentioned date previously pMC have also been mentioned C dates recorded in C recorded dates 20 presented as Tableare 14 C) Dates C) 14 of the bones identified as large from terrestrialtheof mammal as identified bones within one C were processed for processed Ikirahak site. C were the weredates radiocarbon All 14 depostional processes, highas such depostional processes, soil acidity. - C date for recordedFeature 15. presented in date percent This is carbon modern Ikirahak Ikirahak ( Radiocarbon 14 All forradiocarbonthe except dates presented a as calibrated date in AD. years and/or BC Itimportantto that notetheis first (pMC) itas tofound was have more forradiocarbon were from layer dating cultural recoveredthe main each pithouse of feature (Level 3 all in cases). All conventional radiocarbon indates years befor 6.11 A total ten of AMS on fromprocessed samples terrestrialmammal b bone is less dense bone than and dense is mammalian thereforless or bone, avian certain post though very was found fourmost material houses faunal de the within exterior is surfaces, likelyto which post due pit depressions. of may remainsabsence This explain infish the the fishas assemblage, identified willow of part as which family Tetraonidae ptarmigansincludes theand rock ptarmigans that found Kivalliqarethe insouthern Interestingly, any of pits, house recoveredwas excavated fish from theno bone the A small amount birdbone of als was marks. marks. Additionally, Feature split 14 fractured, lengthwise. spirallywas while was another 121 121 - 2 C dates). dates). C , 14 7) has been been has 7) - sigma calibration) alibrated Date(BC/AD C Cal ADCal 450 to 450 ADCal 460 to 480 ADCal 530 to 640 ADCal 540 to 650 ADCal 1440 1640to Cal BC170 to ADCal 30 Cal ADCal 550 to 660 ADCal 250 to 420 ADCal 390 to 560 N/A ADCal 1680 1770to ADCal 1800 1940to ADCal 1950 1960to ADCal 600 to 680 sigma sigma standard reportederror, as 1 - 0.4 40 40 40 40 40 40 40 C Dates Dates C - 40 ------40 - 14 - 7 sigma) - Age(BP Radiocarbon Conventional 1490 +/ 1480 +/ 360 +/ 2050 +/ 1450 +/ 1690 +/ 1590 +/ 102.3 +/ pMC 90 +/ 1390 +/ JjKs Dated Material ollagen Table 20 bone collagen bone collagen bone collagen bone collagen bone collagen bone collagen bone collagen bone c bone collagen bone collagen n dates are presented a n with1 aredates presented Pit Pit House Feature 20 15 19 19 19 20 14 14 14 15 ty of accuracy (see (see Figurety representation for accuracy of a of 25 visual the 275 854 255679 255680 255681 255682 275853 275850 275851 275852 255678 – – – – – – – – – – C Sample Number 14 Summary Beta Beta Beta Beta Beta Beta Beta Beta Beta Beta stratigraphy, regardingthe and faunaltools, founddebitage, briefly materials within. The 6.12 In this data the chapter, thecollected Ikirahak site at (JjKs archaeological presented. in Ikirahak pitshouse The have termsbeen analyzed architectureof sigma sigma calibration with the to range theassociated possible show dates sample withof a 95 % probabili conventional conventional radiocarbo by the the lab processed results, arethedates that calibrated whilepresented 2 with a 122 122 use pit. pit. use Artifacts e forexpectations the explored, and the results of these analyses will be tested against explored, will against th the analyses be results these of and tested interior houses, and Dene/Taltheilei Chipewyan theof arrangement archaeological correlates in of residential and Chapter mobilitylowpresented high4. excavated outside of excavated thefrom pitsfinds house and site have surface also been the analyzed. chapter, thetrendsthe In the in next data current chapter from be will debitage debitage and and tools proportions have termsbeen analyzed in types of each found, of as well a of as spatial analysis withinfound was where each each typeho 123 - 123 t the t Ikirahakin the thesite presented Discussion Discussion eilei houses, eilei of houses, mobilityand correlates logistical ffect of evidence of ffect and occupations multiplepost evidence of Chapter Chapter Seven: hat hat thetheof Dene (Figureexpected Chipewyan formulation House in is, 4) ons for logistical mobility in residential base camps, ons for residential camps, mobilityinbase the and logistical cultural t depositional processes, and depositional processes, how thiseffect might of interpretation the - Dating Cultural and Affiliation Site the of Introduction d post proportion spatial artifacts. distributionof and stratigraphy of the houses will be discussed instratigraphy terms thewillof of houses be discussed evidence for occupations multiple an determined of conclusively to Taltheileitradition. be the must Thisbe done to demonstrate fact, Ikirahak for comparison an the withappropriate analog houses. Additionally, the Before of proceeding the with discussion Ikirahak site how materials thecompare with the expectati chronological affiliationrelated the of and artifacts, pits, house from be the site must at at residential presented incamps base (Table Chapter 5).4 7.2 depositional processes may have depositional had processes on site interpretations. Finally, the archaeological materials fromthe for with be expectations site will compared interiorthe the arrangement Dene/TalthChipewyan of Chapter Chapter 3 theof to temporal/cultural site. affiliation ascertain the stratigraphy Next the of the e termssite is inanalyzed the of 7.1 In the this a chapter, first, results excavations of previous chapter of Barrenlands arepresented toculturein the compared the history 124 124 275854 is than older 275854 the – 275582 fromthe 275582 featuresame C dates recovereddates from C Feature – C date date that overlap not C does 14 275853 is much much than 275853 younger theis 14 275851 from Feature275851 14. – – C aredates contaminated either or 14 C date Beta C date 14 hese two hese T C dates processed fromC processed dates fromFeaturesbone collagen way. way. Beta Sample with three of the other samples in this set. other with set. in theof samples three this These six 14 rror. rror. any any 679 from Feature 15 were fromreturnedfromFeature679 the lab 15 a with n 255 - coincides coincides . or theor early period. historic Beta Sample ith dates BP (before present), and there ith(before evidence that present), and is BP no dates these C dates recovered from the Ikirahak recovered dates Ikirahak site, from compellingC the the evidence most sigma sigma standard e 14 - ely dating the occupation of the house pits at at dating the of the ely thepits house large site from comes occupation the 255678 and Beta – at at other thisleast three set, indates sample Beta Taltheilei tradition, 20 were returned w were samples contaminated i six recovereddates withinfrom LateFeatures falls 19 14 thethe of phase and and based on based intrusive remains faunal from the analytical not and surface, value areany for of the interpretationtheof theof chronology site. two The pMC, pMC, or modern ratio, percent carbonthat which means are generally samples younger than 1950. deemed older was possibly However, thesamples these of than second this of because the 2 There overlapfour remaining fromisdates no between the 15 and Features 20. Samples Beta sample, sample, and this sample falldates tradition withintheof Middle to phase Taltheileiaccording the Gordon (Gordon 1976, 1996) 14 (see and Table 19 20, Figure 25). one There is only with However, this overlapdoes sample the with for positiv degree of between the overlap six Chronological Discussion Chronological Discussion Of AMS the ten 125 125 (Gordon the 1:1 found 1:1 - (Gordon (Gordon ng blunt ng is also is also very site site Migod Migod 16: JiNf 1 and . This point - . one complete Only the any degree confidence. of any are often associated with are associated often (Gordon (Gordon 1996:89) (Gordon 1976:227) (Gordon1976:227) . two Ikirahak Therefore, the chithos at found cannot Level 2a, the Middle Level Taltheilei the 2a, Middle theof component, - (Gordon 1976, 1996; Noble 1971) (Gordon 1976, 1996; but not to any one phase. phase. not any but toone Additionally, toolsthese have been 7:9972) was found during excavations within 7:9972) Feature(Plate duringexcavations found was 14 17). - 7 all also appear to come from biconvex lanceolate spear 7 also appear lanceolate spear points from all to (top biconvex come of described as “crude, usually sandstone, described usually “crude, as abrader[s]sandstone, curvi with - 2:686 from2:686Sub - C dates discussed above must be with C correlated discussed dates diagnostic stone excavated 14 . six other (five projectile Thefrom Featurebases from point Feature14, one inely flaked, yet unfinished, flaked, point yet inely unfinished, biconvex is lanceolate morphologically very , Lake, is Dubawnt located the Lake, at which in Beverly just Grant herdnorth of 1976:124) 20) at found JjKs south south of tree inBeverly the Herdline the area similar to KkLn Migod site foundLake, Grant treeon in rangethe line north of Herdthe Beverly This f similar Taltheileito points JiNd Middle projectile as such phase The be trulytostone used tool onlythis can site assign traditionto types that diagnostic a or arephase points projectile projectile (JjKs point 1976) area in the District western Kivalliq be toused site narrowdown toTaltheilei tradition withthe the edge[s]… used edge[s]… forused preparation” hide Taltheiei traditionsites, found in associated, at occupations small with quantities, ASTt recovered tool then from types, in other sites compared and stone toolsthe with archaeological region. Chithos, To a timechronologicalassign with and period affiliation a group, past cultural dates recovered dates withinfrom EarlyFeaturesfalls 19 14 Taltheilei the and and theof phase tradition. 126 . 126 arm o a uth of 72) appears appears 72) subterranean subterranean - that that this site is - 7. This projectile - 42 so found - (1971:113) 1:71)(Plate both are31) ssed into the of Middle phase - (Dawson, (Dawson, al. 2007) Suluk, et 2) were an located upper on (Gordon1996:90) - the arecompared points they being has stated stated has . 16 site site 16 than than 1, JiKu 1, - - 75) - 1:70 and JlKu 1:70 and . Noble - . noted It that be pointsprojectile these are should 1 (JlKu 1 - (1977a:74 15:4, a projectile point found point theprojectile on Barrenlands the15:4, of a - thirds the size) the thirds size) - ound JiKu at 7:9980 fromis 7:9980Featurestrikingly that pointto 14 similar a base - (Gordon 1996:88) (McGhee 1970:72:Figure(McGhee 10a) smaller smaller two (about 7:6285) was lanceolate with a rounded base. base. 7:6285) a lanceolate withroundedwas Thist similar is verypoint - and 25). and 25). do finished of appear be Most not completely tobases pointthese ntly 16:6)found the Middle at Taltheilei JiNd - iNd to. Interestingly, Kuuvik surface one projectilefound (JlKu the1 of points very similar TaltheileitraditionprojectileLate to JkNf as such points, morphologically to similar KbNa Beverly Herd range significa house pitshouse of to similar Ikirahak very those at morphology The f two larger points the Kuuvik also resemble projectile 1 from Middle site Taltheileisites. points As mentioned in Kuuvik Chapter (JiKu 2, thesites on the of northwesternLake. portion Maguse contained 10 sites Thesemi the Taltheilei by GordonComplex ExaminingLake, larger Maguse of surface the threecollected area projectile from points point Coppermine fromRiver recoveredthe the site Willowherbnear in Bathurst the Herd ( Range part theof River encompa later Waldronwas Complex that An An unfinished thepoint projectileJjKs on surface also recorded was at point (JjKs the exception of JjKs (J Plates 17 frommaking and itbases to points them projectilesites, difficult other withcompareto 127 . 127 line s associated s associated (1977a:75) (1977b:76) 972) Feature from 7:9 - . Thethe of addition 72) the with is72) combined - 1:62 ) are) 1:62 combined with - lKu shaped depression shaped - ei ei Tradition by Gordon hat hat theof association depressions pit , to is similar Channel Frank and 1:71, JlKu - ed ed at the Ikirahak 1 and areKuuvik sites of on the eastern eastern edge Lakeof the Athabasca, and on 275853), likely the 275853), seems the of that use it subterranean houses for houses subterranean at least a portion theof – - 1:70, 1:70, JlKu - 3 m) diameter,m) saucer 3 (1971:132) (1971:132) – (Gordon 1996:59) hly suggestive of a connection connection with hly a of features, these suggestive this but 10 ft (2.4 (2.4 ft m 10 – C date from FeatureC (Beta date from 20 14 C from dates and (JjKs Featuresdiagnostic point19, and 14 the these featuresthese archaeologically other presence totheir than note probablethat Taltheileithe Lake suggests of use Rennie Lakepitshouse at these recorded four, ft 8 with a Taltheileicaribou at Late Lake, Rennie harvesting located tree site below the in the Beverly Territories. area the herdin Northwest author investigate Thenot did include some of use pits. house Itt noted should be with Lake is Taltheilei occupations not toMaguse area. uniquethe Gordon year. fromthe small side notched 1 When point Kuuvik (J youngest Lake Maguse area by Taltheilei groupsinto Late and extended to well seemed the phase, 14 14 at pictureof use Ikirahak, extensive emerge a begins Laketoan theof Maguse area by Middle Taltheilei inhabiting groupssemi connection connection cannot be taken for granted. When the largerKuuvik points (JlKu 1 an unknown relationship to the house pits at these sites. an sites. unknown relationship the these topits house at fact tools Thethese are that found features, house these of adjacent to made most and toolssimilar these of arethat lithic rawis hig types, material later later theof amalgamated phase intoTaltheil Latethe It the collect should that surface be findsnoted the tree inBeverly rangeline the Complex points defined Noble by 128 128 Level 3, – possibly possibly . This may the trend warming have allowed ccupied ccupied theduring Middle has Taltheilei period ). Each house pit has a ).black Eachorganic has pithouse layer 7 site o was Middle phase of Middle phase Taltheilei tradition. the this During period, it - (Gordon1996:239) wever, within Feature 19, Level Featurewever, within the3 19, across discontinuous was there is no way to ascertain what distance, isto no there ifany, line ascertain way what tree distance, may the have the distance between the between thedistance Ikirahak the forest. site and However, no ing line to advance line toposition advance than north (Figureto further its 1), current house pithouse of and theThis thesplit discreet edges along bands feature. into is highly of suggestive multiple the could of occupations occupations these pit, house not though overlain by rootlayers, mainrepresent sod pits. and layer house the culturalwhich theof Within FeaturesHouse Level15 contained and the for3 20, only evidence of occupations pits. house these Ho The stratigraphybasic fourstructures excavated is thethe of (Figures 9, same 10, 11, and 12 and Plates 10, 11, 12, and 13 advanced duringadvanced this period. Stratigraphic Discussion decreas paleoclimatic of studies the lineconducted in tree have Kivalliqbeen the southern District, so has been been has interpreted Taltheileithe the that ventured out furthest to Barrenlands groups on than at any time other tree implications for the in of interpretation distance theof toregard possible site the the site to the line. tree It previously in3 was a climaticmentioned that Chapter trend warming underway was during the The fact that JjKs thethe structures may thehave been Barrenlandsmuch of areas widespread outside more the southern Kivalliq District. 129 129 among among d within, d within, (1989) . A related within !Kungwithin 226) - (Hitchock 1987) (1994:219 om Features 14 and 19, it seems likely seems that the Featurestwo 19, other it14 om house and een demonstrated ethnoarchaeologically by een demonstrated Janes ethnoarchaeologically s of were all whether multiplepitshouse or occupation dwellings ons stratigraphically. lack possibility for of Another the hout most most theof hout feature. Additionally, a occupation second was phic evidence for these occupations is simply simply phicnot isevidence for occupations visible these the withinpits house hown hown archaeologically tend that to cultural spatially cluster groups activity excavated between occupations, between occupations, excavated thereby obliterating the theevidence of previous - phenomenon phenomenon been has demonstrated by Whitelaw households. this In thestudy, superimposed foun artifact distributions Whitelaw artifacts will withinhouses or more throughhave remainedconsistent the less time. It been has s areas the site longer intend residential stay at they to a occupation. occupation. Regardles not, of purposes study, that for be thewill assumed this theit thespatial of patterning separate any separate occupati stratigraphicpits wereseparation at partially that house Ikirahak was the completely or re This phenomenon b has drainage Dene Mackenzie tipis in the western Arctic. In study, found afterthis Janes that excavating a tipi that forused over had years, could floor been not 30 discontinuously he because there because littlewas featuressoil development between the occupations, withinso the were occupations deposited witheach. no between visual break pits excavated pitsat excavated the Features site, 15 multipleand features 20, were well. as occupation Theduring either was forevidence occupations other excavation, missed likely, more or the stratigra beneath beneath the features. bottomhouse stratigraphy all theof in other on Based the stratigraphic evidence fr be detected be detected throug observed within Level Levelfound Feature that be 4, which 5 beneath was to14, was 130 130 from Features 14 at if different, at if different, but evidence evidence of of reddish browncryoturbation the there is there he soil matrix likely he soil had matrix likely theartifacts movingof effect he cryoturbative processes. he cryoturbative processes. represent the These processes most l Processes Evident Processes in l Stratigraphy the hic debitage debitage inof upper found hic the layers theexamined, structures pit are Depositiona sod sod layer the (Level inform 2) and ice of ice lenses, fissures, cracks. These types of - - transformst occurringwithin - and and 20 found were the% layers, respectively, 2.1 in% a upper slightly whileand 2.5 larger foundwas proportion 19’sFeature Levelsof assemblage within 1 %. and 2, 8.5 layers of 15. Feature Table 9 very assemblages that theshows of a small debitage proportion proportions litof we that see there large of in upper found is a amount thedisproportionately debitage effect on t as artifacts likely of explanation presence in for artifacts the lithicthe layers the upper of pitshouse (Levels 1 the (Level primary 3). and layer culturalabove 2) However, the when N vertically the within soil column. thisroot Additionally, thelevel, from a evidence of in mass Feature root20 15, Feature and could a thein similar mass have decayed had Post Within four all houses, excavated silty site site by of the should groupsame maintain the conventions of similar spatial segregations their through domestic space time. among among from households sites. different Therefore, we can surmise th related similarlyfamilies houses their pattern synchronically, theof use diachronicthen a and and around, from 73 and houses found!Kung distributionssites, these different that were very similar. foundregular, very there of use and Whitelaw that patterneda was space 131 131 adly adly depositional depositional - 4 % in foundwas the root action in the stratigraphy rootaction the of in stratigraphy depositional processes occurring processes in depositional the - depositional that depositional process should be mentioned e upper layers. e layers. upper forevidence a There is no floor, - transform may be responsible. be responsible. transform may reuse of Specifically, - ed pit depression as an outdoor an as reductioned depression lithic outdoor as pit or site, transforms, cryoturbation and transforms, than other that would have affectedartifacts, lithicwould that thetramplinghave by though animals - that that thethe withinfoundbe soils features house (low quite may acidic pH). Evidence beyond beyond the of thesis. scope this compared with material, recoveredfaunal lithicand that b was the material was degraded. in of ongoing,pH However, analysis theof thewith houses along other geochemical soil partas analyses, of Ikirahak Archaeological overall Project, the and is is for fromthe that thismaterialfact comes so faunal little foundwas houses, the within four pitshouse or that human have other no left recognized occurred, could activities may but traces be archaeologically. The post possible final convenient convenient location materialswaste for dumpingfrom another, actively occupied house. There forphysical evidence any is post no other hearth, occupation in any or human layers, artifactother upper assemblage these so this not does but represent represents the likelya repurposingoccupation the later of house, of the area theof vegetat this house, this house, it likely a seems C that the featurea date location, later a as midden,at would surface flintknapping a as or explain the large thdebitage of in amount process was at at was process work in 15 Featurethiscausing discrepancy. other is no As there physical evidence for N Conversely, Conversely, a 3 Feature significant of assemblage, proportion 15’s upper stratigraphic layers. that This some other suggests discrepancy post 132 2 132 ature type ature ared the with other mined (Figure 3). (Figure3). mined These No No types werefeature other , followed Feature by 19, 180.7 . 2 2 with an an average of withartifacts/m 705.9 lithic 7 have not 7 been have deter - d to the southeast of d Featurethe of theas to southeast surface 19, well as ifacial cutting withifacial unitto (Figure tools a cutting next 23). a scraper This and finally Featureand by 20, 63.9 lithics/m 2 its, its, proximitybut close areathis of activityto the 19 Featureof is suggestive a most prominent feature type at the site is the house pit. most thetype prominent featurehouse site at is the Features have 14, 19, and 20 Feature StorageandTypes However, However, should that of functionbe it mentioned the thesmaller structurestwo pit located at the northand south JjKs of ends link between the two. appears appears to be whereand a butcheringhidelocation possible activities processing was occurring. However, thisbe related area stratigraphically the cannot to occupation theof p house finds foundoccurring were the houses. show that across site, outside theactivities The thereexterior because is a Featureexcavation units concentration are near 19 interesting of bifacial un and positively positively identified the site. at The m four1 1 units excavate x of floor feature. can space, discernable hearthbe and This comp no Featurehouses: 14 had a density 452.1 lithics/m of lithics/m three structures, internal recorded.was feature an hearth Thefe other only identified represent tosite 15, a at which is itFeature workshop seems the because contains a very density lithic of high material The been positively identified category to feature.belonging of as this these each of Within 7.3 Feature Types 133 133 7 . - ould , it out represent represent (Janes 1989:135) (Janes also also y 9, 191 for for examples) 9, 191 also states that families that c also states they they ma hough internalpits no storage t 51) ; - ossible that foodoccurred the ossible instorage (1958:50 (see (see Hearne 1958:25, 7 , though this practice not has , been among though recorded this , located approximately 750 m southwest of , located 750 southwest approximately m JjKs , similar Featureto 15. However, cold weather. weather. cold Hearne awson, awson, et al. 2011) records kept could that for be an meat year dried entirewith (D (Dawson, (Dawson, et al. 2009) 1 site - (1958:79) jKs seems likely seems that familiesmeat, these in forwere off stored houses their livingdried months at a time. as Hearne as never mentions features, the the formal of use describes storage techniques but for length drying and meat pounding at Hearne spoiling, in especially often for duringsubsist communal fall acquired theand the hunts, half theon meat winter later later reused Caribou by Inuit. the it Finally, is p themselves, houses largelyand consisted meat driedof were Dene foundtipisfound like the western within houses inthose features associated with features Caribou associated Inuitkayak stands, and huntinglocated houses, at blinds the J (Figure may constructed, used, Taltheilei have by 2), been and originally and groups, practice of been has as meat snow caches storing in recordedby used thebeing Caribou Inuit the it area the Dene Chipewyan or Taltheileisites. at archaeological the stone cache Additionally, smaller smaller workshop spaces storage pits. at forfoodthe features possibility includesite might Another storage the structures seem structures toseem represent be to residential too structures small being only, approximately, m diameter. 2 in represent small these depressions that Itis possible 134 134 ols including the ols including projectile points, points, projectile 10 formaltypes of basic tools lly Feature contained 11 19 types. el el 2a, identical was that to of , which contains the most most , which of detailed contains theanalysis toolslithic 142) - All houses contained contained at houses types of least seven All to ). Table 17 (Gordon1976:122 Lithic andTools Debitage lacking lacking at Migod. diversity formalof tools Lev Migod types at site, the Ikirahak site only a as morebut 19 whole, Feature contained diverse types (11) tool than Migod. Interestingly, at thereemphasis Ikirahak on to is expedient an seems toolsbe that of recorded any Middle Taltheileisite. site contained This (projectile gravers, bifaces, points, unifaces, wedges, scrapers, punches, perforators, chithos, and choppers). found. expedient reported have as toolsbeing No are The This diversity reported types can withbe tool of compared Taltheileithose for the Middle component (Level site (located thetheof 2a) Migod on Barrenlands theof Beverly herd range) of formal tools. Feature onlythe 20 with types, least varietyFeatureseven had while 14 contained eight types, fina types, 15 Feature nineand expedient expedient tools flakes(retouched flakes) and utilized were fourrecorded the among pitshouse ( two types of tools flakes), and (retouched utilized at expedient as types fiveleast well as A total (bifaces, 10 of formal types of basic scrapers, tools chithos, denticulates, gravers, unifaces, wedges) spokeshaves, and perforators, 2 types of 7.4 Diversity of Tool Types 135 135 ce ce reduction another (5.8 another and % 4.0%) - . proportion in TheBRFs of , so , so the proportionbifaof gatherers tend togatherers formal a toolscurate tomuch - (Kooyman 2000:51) (Kooyman (Binford1979) of the Ikirahak houses. it Chapter Inthe 6 shown that was dient vs. Formal Tools/Biface FormaldientReductionTools/Biface vs. Flakes he fewest with only 15 tools recovered. he fewest toolswith recovered. 15 only first The mobilityisof correlate 19 and to and similar 20 19 one contained proportions res 15, res 15, 19, Featureand significantly 20, while formal14 emphasized tools it hunter been has shown that 19, %,% 50.8 %, (46.3 19, and and 20 respectively), 46.7 while 14 Feature as as while Feature (Table 13). These show that greater a figures was on slightly thereemphasis biface manufacture most withinof that bifacialassuming each pithouse thethe tools site at used were carried another away to location of the similar debitage Features assemblages 14 % (8.6 isand and % 15 respectively), 7.5 higher higher expedient degree ones then flakes (BRFs) should in be indicativeeach assemblage bifacialof emphasis tool the use over use expedient. However, contains contains only 28.9% tools. expedient that These proportions suggest the use, and/or manufacture of to,tools nearly, emphasized the was degree expedient same formal as tools in Featu related torelative formal thethetools expedient proportions of and in artifact assemblages. theis similar tool Theexpedient of intools assemblages inproportion Features 15, number number featurelithic within forof found Features is identical 15 each pittools house and 19, with Feature tools contains fewer both (Table 54 17). 14 38, and 20 tools, Feature contains by fart as stated stated inas Chapter 2 are (Table theconcerned 5), types foundwith toolproportions of within the assemblages lithic ProportionsExpe of A with number logistical associated theof mobility correlates residential camps, base at 136 136 with with f an o forthe term summer term (Gordon - bearing flakebearing - s may d have to eems to be similar toeems the be to similar includes a problematic includes a problematic ter ter the in degree other than ring flakes n=536) grea (1976:207) at at be all,this or an may artifact of bea a - Gordon Gordon , which is significantly higher than any any , which of than higher proportional is significantly values the n that of and shows overalltoolin BRFs but the all expedient proportions cases 247) - assemblage is 64.1assemblage % total(BRFs n=344, platform 1976:241 kill and processing killsite, didand expedient use processing toolsnot toolsthese being unrecognized unreportedat or Migod. TheBRFs of proportion (referred to Levelflakes) platform thinningthe bifacial as in2a Migod expedient expedient tools in infound none Taltheilei thisbut werethe study, Middle occupation. This may the mean theof that occupants interpreted a Migod as site, short compared Taltheileito only any because Middle the other sites results formal of tools have been analysis published in any detail. tool category various Migod at for site occupations that the the s houses. houses. Unfortunately, proportions these cannot formal expedient be of easily tools/BRFs to the suspected differentialthe suspected Featureof functiona as workshop, lithic 15 a toopposed as residential structure. structure primary thethis was If of function themanufacture of formal been tools these curated tools, may tohave emphasis on emphasis formal reduction biface flakes. tools and thisexception correlation Thetois in is nearlyFeature theof tools identical 15, emphasis that where toexpedient Feature of 20, are toFeatureBRFs emphasized but a degree 14. similar as Thi one there is agreement. on In formal 14 is Feature well an as there emphasis theas tools on greatest emphasis biface Features 19 reduction and whereas 20 flakes, o show less manufacture in 15, inand 14 Feature a emphasis features. and the decreased two other A compariso 137 137 higher higher formalof proportion criticisms of the link between criticisms theof between link (2001) al tools because of al the naturetoolsrepetitive because the of it should theIkirahak should that inhabitantsalso the itbe of noted site highly mobile period, so we should expect period,expect to mobileso we on an highly should see emphasis the is great variation between the four houses. is great four houses. between thevariation 15 and Features 19 similar show very values having values 54 toolsand respectively, 6.4% 61 proportionsof 7.0% stage and and late resharpening respectivelyflakes in Tablesassemblages (comparetheir 13 and 17). Ratio Tool of Flakes Abundance Late toResharpening Stage When considering the total reduction of stage ratio proportion tools lithic lateto flakes of there production bifacialof tools. would followinglikely monthsduringthe have mobile been caribou, summer highly and that theIkirahak wouldmanufactured tools the for they have later been at site intended duringuse this butchering and hide processing butchering activities. and hide processing at of households Ikirahak seemed four the All to expedient as tools. relytools bifacialto least an on equal at degree Even if Tomka’s criticisms are incorrect, mobility Taltheilei likely considered, and all tools seems bifacial are that it caribou hunting groups, regardless of residential of mobility, be level their highlywould dependent on the haftableof use bifaci sites differ.sites It mentioned ifTomka’s should that also be That being said, it seems clear That clear seems that being it contained the a said, Migod site tools and then to BRFs the but tosay Ikirahak site, is impossible itwhat two degree the houses at at thehouses Ikirahak site. sampling strategy debitage to However, theused at collect the site is not accurately. reported, way twoisto no so there the site correlate assemblages 138 138 4:48, 4:48, and - m few (a r (Magne (Magne 48, EeRk (1985:133) - ccupation in ccupation sites of e houses (silicifiede houses volcaniclastic) is ea. ea. on research Based ethnographic ations, EkRoas such ations, 1, CR 92, 92, (exhibiting 1, and CR larger numbers19:1 - and and that site. theof Ikirahak Magne term occupation of these house pitshouse for was three four occupation to term these of - study of and the study lithics o of of duration 226) ered ratio(intheir debitage) stage largetolate toolsof to a degree. - found at sites, at found sites, EeRj as such itage <5 Ikirahakwhereas mm maximum in debitage dimension, was . Itshould that difference be was in noted sampling there the debitage (1985:224 TheFeature 14 werevalues Feature and comparable20 short with te 55) - (1985) . (associated with (associated lower toolsof resharpening proportionsand low flakes, numbers of eature 14 contains only 38 tools, and the highest proportioneature resharpening 14 38 flakeshighest and onlycontains (18.5 tools, theof The theproportions of made four materialsassemblages excavated up is local veryof high theas foundmaterial most common th within where the clust sites Proportions Local of Exotic and Materials Lithic recovered frommma 6 screen. This the that Ikirahak site’s resharpening may mean flakes are relatively would this have affected likely greatly underrepresented, but not 1985:53 strategy study between Magne’s analyzed deb weeks or weeks pit,less) house open site air occup and 12:6 or of toolsof low resharpening proportions and moderateflakes) numbers term Lillooetpithouse ar the in occupations study within his study longarea, months interior we Columbia, 15 findthat British and Features closer 19 tovalues arevalues the Magne of tools resharpening proportions of and flakes), smaller that interpretedwere longas resharpening resharpening flakes (1.1 %). compared are When values withresults these of the Magne’s F %). thefewest 20 tools Feature lowest (n=15)proportion theand has also of 139 139 ne of is an 7 followingwere lithic reductionlithic - e. e. This differential to that note tants of JjKs in late summer and fallin and late summer interesting interesting ase camp ase isindicative morea logistical emphasized middleemphasized and late likelystage . After the abundance of . cariboufish, o abundance and After the for of the stages reduction a lithic high at ound in at numerous ound locations on at innumerous the island. It is not house pitshouse in and abandonment phases of phases site and us inabandonment (1985) (1985) - case the of case Ikirahak site n the excavated that the featureshouse n excavated early suggests reductionstage theof grained quartzites, cherts, siltstones, metamorphosed sandstones, etc. metamorphosed sandstones, quartzites, grainedare siltstones, cherts, - within the excavated s grained well containing as scatters quartzites, lithicquartziteas and silicified - e presented presented by Stevenson mobility fromAlberta.groups This type groupsbehaviour, collect, of sending out to partly process, return and toresources b then the workshop/habitation sites in Northern Alberta and the sequence that deemphasized workshop/habitation that theearlyin sites sequence deemphasized NorthernAlberta and reductionstage at that inhabi Ikirahak further the illustrates a differentwith pattern the than associated reductionresidential lithic that higher of emphasized duringemphasized the settling on emphasis early reductionstage reductionbetween foundthe “typical” sequence at then then transportedfor furtherthe topitshouse reduction. This differs from pattern the model residential mobility inearly site, is reductionwhich stage workshop/habitation deemphasizing early deemphasizing reductionstage (Table 13). lack This of stage evidence for early reduction withi lithic flake materialssomewhere else, roughblanks or occurred and that preforms were abundance of abundance rawlithic However, it materials. is sequenc reduction screen mesh size, afterconsidering whilethe the by bias introduced available available locally or not. may be indicator level This a not strong residential of very theof mobility the in the primaryfor camping motivators location at this volcaniclastic materialsvolcaniclastic have been f known iffine known known tofound the be on island Ikirahak. of and cobbles Additionally, boulderslarge of medium 140 40 1 own own that t this materialt this gatherer that groupshave sh - (see Binford 1978a; Binford (see Binford 1978a; Kelly 1980; 1992, hich suggests that this material that hich this highlyby was suggests the valued (Binford 1978a, 1980; Janes 1989; Oetelaar Janes (Binford 1980; 2000; 1978a, nts of this material are found of material on sides found nts this all of arethe suggesting hearth . features all silicified Withinred the was four volcaniclastic most n a foragern one a a pping all centers on in features hearthinternal features 14, 19, and (Features 20), ary lithic tend have spatially moreclustered toconcentrations, materials which . Spatial Patterning Houses of s arein theFeatures 20. concentrations 15 spatially quartzsegregated and It should be noted noted that of largefoundmaterialbecause of the amount all way the itaround hearththe that been has assumed this is whereactivities occurred,reduction lithicbu differential practices for Thedifferent types. cleaning material most obviousof examples thi Second may either suggest temporally,knapping morespatially, events, or or segregated particularly, large amou either carried knapping multiple theepisodes at locations within out house, different or multiple time knapperssame at working at theseated different the around hearth. places abundant abundant lithic type, w material site occupants. type is As inthe lithicfound it most within, abundance abundant material and adjacent to features, pits. house hearthexcavated all within Feature In 14, is consistent withis consistent of studies temperate other hunter hearths are centres of activity Stevenson 1985, 1991) Functional PatterningPits Spatial House of Flintkna or that central have had around may may, or a floor (Featurenot, areas hearth 15). This 7.5 collector collector strategy th 1995) 141 141 silicified silicified rial largelyrial (Stevenson 1985, (Stevenson 1985, concentrations likely recorded for recordeddebitage under under cm maximum 3 in The distribution of distributionof The . ept ept up, or deposited there, otherwise adjacent to thelocation door adjacent probable of s of excavated microdebitage, microdebitage, excavated not of thiscollected in . Analysis (Fladmark Healan 1995; 1982; 1987) Hull with the further eventual of throughthe intentionit of door. disposing Feature Within 15 the secondary concentration is near western foundperimetertheof not the house, and dimension. dimension. Lithic reuse limited has value size for thedebitage this of tools. of production Additionally, proximity materialthese of the featuresthese this refuse was suggest that sw was refuse disposal refuse areas. disposal more seems However, thelikely the explanation latter because debitage found areas largely these of in consists debitage Features 14, secondary concentrations these were15, and 19 found the near southern perimeter locations of door features. probable the These secondary represent, areas where either stored materialslithic forwere later or use, secondary as In fourfeatures house all smaller secondary concentrations of mate lithic of composed silicifiedfound werethe volcaniclastic near perimeterthe of pits. house In this is difficult tothe of exact provenience less ascertain because within two these features. Feature 20 a confiningshows definite silicifiedof reductionvolcaniclastic to a the of locus to southwest central thehearth. activities withinvolcaniclastic a suggest moreFeatures to 15 confinedseems and 19 area of silicified reductionvolcaniclastic thehearth, potential aroundor central areas, hearth but 1991; Stockton 1973) research, isreliable the actual most way location ascertaining reductionof the lithic of is composed islargely composed dimension of tomaximum and <3cm likelyin is less debitage by displaced foot or behaviour largermaterials traffic than cleaning 142 142 two has noted, noted, has (1996:242) (1996:242) (Hearne 1958; Jenness (Jarvenpa and Brumbach 1997, pers. pers. This of gendering tool certain his seems like a refuselike of area his disposal seems because the term refuse disposal area itas refuseterm would disposal be to easy as not - ols within the four excavated fourpitshouse excavated at olsthe withinIkirahak are ial outside the house as refuse placed placed near a outside door. the ial refuse as house me exceptions, such as the 2 foundscrapers me the exceptions, within theas eastern such half 9). 9). Itshould that chitho be inon noted thefound 14 Featurerepresented is not , and ethnographic studies of the Chipewyan Dene , Dene ethnographic the of and studies Chipewyan . location When totheof se. se. entiretyLevelwithin theof quadrantthe 5 foundnorthwest theoccupation of only was hou chithos, chithos, (Features respective houses of both located the withinwere western portion their 14 and 1 Figure foundwas 5, 21 it Level the because within lower, occupation. However, the location). Thereare so of side of foundFeature broken and the 20. 2 15 on eastern Featurescrapers the Of 2009) examined (Figures are scrapers mostly 21, 22, found23, and we 24) that thesee within western half the of entering(left house likelytheside of when house through the door associated with women, associated chithos as such and scra types can be documents confirmed examining by ethnohistorical 1956) possible gendered division of space within the houses. gendered possible division of the within houses. space As Gordon certain tools specifically can withincludingbe material dense associated men knives, working (wedges, and adzes, toolsspokeshaves), projectile others points, can be whereas Social Patterning Spatial House of pits of pitshouse Analysis also has a revealed the a toolsthese of distribution withinfound this like area seems a long more then redeposit the mater near near thelocation. door likely t Again, concentrations lack in of the debitage unlike within,features, found other large but the 143 143 ay have have ay the eastern eastern the found withinfound the r point bases r within bases point were found within status male status area m - were s that thewere side leftof on found f the hearth. thef only Additionally, the suggests that the of suggests Chipewyan male head a rimeter of rimeter theof house. The two materialdense (1956:24) a special a place special put for aside thehis withinuse but, lodge, occupied occupied working tools (spokeshaves, wedges, working and (spokeshaves, found denticulates) areboth tools on archaeological archaeological analogy. Jenness Dene household The theallocation of higha theas house of potential back some support throughthrough ethnohistorical and and account, ethnographic an working and wedge weretoolsFeaturesingle withinspokeshave found found 19, a within the eastern portion well. as house that of denticulate denticulate found Feature foundwithinwas the 20 northern along the perimeter of house pit, the may storage represent thisforand of toolfuture theuse, spokeshave onlywhile recovered foundwas the eastern along pe the werehouse northinfound central features the thehearththeof of “back” houses opposite the door locations. This can trendbe in seen 14 a Featureconcentration where and foundwas of wedges northspokeshaves o the eastern portion house, of near likely hearth just thethe location. of door south the material Dense of sides thebut, houses tool these of interestingly, all portion point thewhereas the two of remaining other bases house, western half theof house. Taltheilei lanceolate point complete Thefoundwas Middle along the house, central in but thetheaxis proximity of close to fou either on the right side (eastern portion) of the houses or either behind right on side (eastern (north houses thetheportion) of thehearthof location). bases Feature Within 14, four point projectile The distribution of tools associated Thewith more was toolsof distribution foundmale associated likely activities be to 144 144 study study of (2000) lodges, lodges, where the authors on the men’shand on left side, gender gender and can as be status in seen female head of female among seen household as - . 15 this Feature exhibitsin an anomaly therefore therefore rules social division of space of Mistassani Cree Mistassani , ale includes secondary refusesecondary areas disposal includes is area would be located thewould within house. is area The study study of . (Hearne 1958) , or a , or shared m (1979) (1979) study of Plains Cree tipis, study Plainsback of of allocated Cree was a as tipithe tipis, the (Tanner1979) (1979) (see (see 1956) Jenness of the house. theof house. Theretwo forexplanations are probable first that this: this . This of all confirms diagram theof the elements Dene Chipewyan expected 26 Mistassani Cree Mistassani found (Features southern along threefour houses perimeter excavated 14, in the the of 15, and 19) a as thelocations, door refuse areas, near probablehearthsdisposal used well as Figure (Figurehouse hearth as such and areas 4), centred sleeping areas/storage areas, activity around the perimeter theof also houses, but spatial spatial distribution fromartifacts this of make study, a quitefor argumentthe compelling division of Taltheilei along Middle houses lines of the The combination archaeological these of and analogies, combined ethnographic the with structure a was residence workshop and a not were femalerelaxed, more temporarily thisacting or by area head as of inhabited a was household would have been a married male pattern isfoundscrapers in a there the concentration that and northern along wedges of periphery areas areas were found the on right hand side. Instudies, these well of as both as Mandelbaum’s place of the of tohead Dene Chipewyan honour household, inhouse of case the which a Blackfoot Blackfoot Tanner’stipis and found found storage that and were places women’s seating unfortunately, not does where mention th social division of along well lines matches Oetelaar’sspace gender with 145 145 , oints, oints, ts as opposed ts opposed as , because (see (see Gero 1991) r excavation excavation r and (2000) males males gendered spaces. gendered spaces. Unfortunately, specific specific tools, p projectile - gatherers tool gatherers types have been criticized - 7 houses were lithicand we as debitage, 7 were tools houses - odic maintenance of odic houses. these maintenance In houses, all gender gender and status. However, reiterated should be it that, has speculated that were flintknappers.speculated has themen primary , archaeologically corroborated by and Oetelaar (1996:242) (1994) except except Feature of 15 toolscentral aredebitage within and and hearths, disposed debris is deposited in refuse southern areas along thenear periphery of the houses thethe indoor Household StorageMaintenance and There periis some evidence for the internal spatial analysis of Taltheilei and historic Chipewyan houses isinternal required houses Taltheileiof spatial analysis to and Chipewyan make historic any about generalized statements the Taltheilei of spatial arrangement houses. to above lodges). ground presented inarrangement is Additionally, an Figure the26 idealized arrangement on do based houses, but multiple trendshouses not in seen all necessarily exhibit the of spatial aforementionedall divisions. Furthe dense materialdense working and (wedges, denticulates), and spokeshaves, tools scrapers, chithos, were thistoused model. create isupon based only Thisfour analysis excavated houses, constructed using (house an pi Taltheilei houses unusual method for flintknapping we cannot assume flintknappingthisproduced material assume by we was cannot though Gordon Thereforerange verydocumented of gender a narrow the processes of the processes gendered is a tasks better of indicator the foundonly remainsthe withinJjKs have no ethnohistorical/ethnographicdocumented Dene Chipewyan that sources by Whitelaw most tools by used groupsnot these specific, that created aregender through refuse and as the division of space based the as on based division space of gendered of divisions upon based hunter space 146 146 Itis quite ; Janes ; 1989; Janes However, there is little However, there isevidence (Binford Hayden and 1978b; . . The storage toolsof conforms largely earth, hearth, earth, locations. possible or Very uture use use uture (Hayden and and Cannon 1983 (Hayden s of the houses, houses, but were fews thethereof very unmodified (Stevenson 1985, (Stevenson 1991) and 20, and along the 20, and western along edge and Featureof 15. houses during houses an extended occupation. oted that in Features 14, 15, and 19 a in large that debitage of Featureswas oted 14, amount 15, and or scuffage or bifaces and bifaces and unifaces are stored the around well. theas periphery of houses Itshould be as as noted that and a formalinfound broken small expedient toolsof number tools werethese tools, tools, storage toolsthese suggesting of forf Cannon 1983; 1983, Janes 1989; 2000) Oetelaar to mentioned thedivision status space of gendered above, unisex and tools, though such few of expedient foundtoolsmargins arethe the aroundpits. house tools are When found the around perimetersthey predominantlycomplete formal are houses these of The spatial pitshouse distributions exhibit toolsof the within some interesting trends. Expedientfound tools and flakes) in(retouched featureshouse utilized are all predominantly within, h adjacent or to, central was not was cleaned out. have These been materialslikelytoa would hindrance the of occupants these materials of the themay this within size lack the houses explain of patterningof debitage. It should also be n found areas and the the around hearth hearths between the sleeping/seating that probable that that larger(>3 is material under being cm) displaced systematically potential sleeping platform the peripherie along areas or of pieces debitage rangein withinfound houses. this size the Thisunmodified of paucity were displaced were theredisplaced by cleaning activity Oetelaar 2000) case of case Features 14, 19, likely small that theamounts debitage of around foundthetheperimeter of pitshouse 147 147 . 284) - and and ols are mostly ols are (1965:283 (1973:73) of earth. of Feature had a 20 3 hat hat this required labour the of n per approximately or day, one a sented a sented significantly larger eria set set up by Erasmus eria we find that Features 14, Features requiredwe would 15, find that and 19 have 1.8 of fill. fill. of When volumes these are withvalues correlated the (1965) as a baseline a as for baseline comparison. our Features all 14, 15, and 19 had a 3 journal the women women a of theDene journal Chipewyan household could the set up hese requirepitsof hese would removal the 4.8 m (1958) by Erasmus by (1965:285) adult, or fromwomen, the adult nearly household forthree that out hours calculates Architecture provided person of days Featurerequiredlabour, would days. while 20 have 2.6 person Using similar similar diameter to excavated was the of a features, but to other cm depth requiring 70 bs, the removal 6.7m of Erasmus diameter of to excavated and 50 of a 3.5 m wereapproximately cm. depth The excavation of t Torequired labour theof thedetermine excavate amount pit to at the depressions Ikirahak by Coles site we theuse presented values will experimental two to wom an investment labour of hoursindividual per six day of labourerusing for thework a critheavy Hearne’s family’snever few specified lodgethe a of hours, though within exact amount Hearne time required, the journey.end at a of day’s t assume If we 7.6 The construction the pitshouse of Ikirahak site at repre investment of erection than hidelabour a theof lodge surface required.would have In 15, Featureand flakesflakesand inin19, utilized retouched 19. 15 Feature perimeter the areas, inthey minority. but are tools and Broken expedient to found within, hearthadjacent or to, central inareas, broken notably Features bifaces 14, 148 148 ereas ereas , wh (Coles 1973:70) required required a superstructureto some sort of be Ikirahak houses would houses have required Ikirahak even a steel steel soil while probe taking a samples. This matrix experiments were carried out in less densely werein packed soil. densely out carried less experiments that the investment of tothe increases that investment 3.4labour person of days /damaged /damaged ried out packed chalk densely deposits in el el 7). This matrixdifficult is very to metal withexcavate implements, er values, two people could excavated er two the excavated values, people shallower depressions could pit values we find we values been labour been extremelywith excavate intensive to wood, bone, stone or urs that would be required for two people ursrequiredfor totwo that be surface erect people lodge, we would a can see (Erasmus 1965:283) (Erasmus (1973) these houses. houses. these would These houses then have erected over There the evidence for iswhat pits. no type have structuresof been would Additionally, noted tothe needs that it be becausemore than labour the they just consider values thediscussed only labour investment required facet only the excavated thewhich of pits, one to isconstruction of features and for higher 4.8XFeature 20. day), or Featurewould 2.4 days, while 20 14.4 have hours. taken this is compared When to theho 3 that this investment, is labour a higher for labour thesignificantly3.4X more shallower Erasmus’ Erasmus’ Using the high (Features 14, or 15, and labour in19) (based on work 10.21.7 hours heavy hour days a 5 digging tools. two When tochoosing which values to theexperimental of apply the Ikirahak like by the seems thea site, Coles value better because presented analog were excavations car (as the 2008 excavation and crews a experienced), and 2009 packed so that densely was member theof crew bent would have the Ikirahakis closely packed mixturegravel site and sand (Level interspersed 4) with (Levlenses sandy Coles’ Coles’ for 19, and Features 4.8 person 14, 15, and for days Feature 20. matrixunderlyingof The 149 149 third most thirdmost 4 and and 20. 4 arrengound caribouarrengound of the house pits theof house b two n Dene preferentially harvested ed ed be thisas thewould typethe structureof inhabitants pits would likely take take at likelypits much wouldleast as to a as time erect recorded that that Chipewya recorded the es and 17.4 hours (2.9 days) 20, which for out Feature (2.9 calculates and es days) 17.4 hours 128) - termined on indicators. based faunal Though some faunal foundwas material (1958:127 Season Season of Occupation owever, fact considering recovered caribou the that at bone thewas albeit small site, in Hearne caribou inforfall hides. the ideal Caribou not forearlieruse hides are the in year preparation an was houses at important activity theat the site. is further This corroborated the two of one by presence each inchithos found, Features 1 both quantities, quantities, and weremost scrapers abundant theartifact type in (Feature most second abundant 20), 15 inthe the (Feature19), and another and abundant in final the to (Feature then house 14) stands reason it that hide caribou within some thetheidentified of houses, including excavations pit bone, foetal wereno indicate bone of recoveredtheteeth or could season that occupation. H 7.7 The of Middle primary Taltheileioccupation season of the Ikirahak site cannot be the precisely de for shallower featur the to lodge and 4.4Xlabour morerespectively. 5.8Xan above than ground superstructures placed superstructures placed over the historic Dene Chipewyan lodge would. Therefore, the amount required for time two of people wouldto be completely pit these and 13.2excavate erect houses (2.2 days) hours of followingthe have whileused site would duringthe caribou summer season. of Regardless whether thisisnot, we assumption correct can safely the expect that or erected erected over theseems itdepression, excavated likely but a lodge, or conical that hide tipi, been us would structure have 150 150 . It of toolsthese of When When this . (Gordon1976) of ethnographicallyof ly among using house pit (Hayden 1979; Odell for 1981 ut, ut, activitiestools so these the actual cultural study cultural - (Gordon (Gordon 1976, 1996; 1970; McGhee Noble (Andrefsky (Andrefsky Jr. Kooyman Odell 2005; 2000; lothing and and lodge covers had be lothingtoacquired cross king tools is not a conclusive indicator isking conclusive fall not tools a a of wear studies wear studies - (1987) (1987) tool morphologytool . However, use on toolsthese been o have carried not , (Magne (Magne 1985; 1976; 1991) SchledermanPrentiss Spafford2001; and working edge attributes as demonstrated inedge archaeological working attributesliterature the and demonstrated as , cultures recognized pattern of thernal is offered combined knowledge our theby advantages with recorded structurespithouse werethe that found found always author was use, these to be part settlement pattern,a duringof used and biseasonal cold were usually season, the the winter. This been has recordedpattern archaeological The at architecturehouses Ikirahakis of another theindicator of season potential theof occupation at the Insite. Gilman’s examples) were for used determined not full confidence. could be with 1971) regarding generalized stone 2004; Whittaker 1994) should should also be noted the the of that function have tools been author that identifiedby the or scrapers as chithos is an on based assumption morphological similarities to those found Middle Taltheilei other sites at correlation caribouand of hide bone wor occupation of working theand caribou as hidesite, found bone tools other have been at Middle Taltheilei at as such site sites the summer Migod occupation and processed. and processed. Ikirahak, At evidence fortheof combinationthe hunting, and caribou of abundance hide a toolsworkingof isfall suggestive of site. occupation the This because they arebecause infested fullwith flies holes. warble and of are all the During fall, the hides needed for next to year c the provide 151 151 on with for Late phase forphase Late ture, lithic artifact types, Universtiy of Minnesota Universtiy1976; Minnesota of y winter, months. However, it he results results of he for comparisons these the 7 houses, it likely 7 seems that Ikirahakhouses, the - gatherer residential base camps. residential camps. base gatherer These analyses - mentioned correlation correlation between caribou mentioned elements faunal - (Underground Space Center Center (Underground Space ructures , and , and the above mmary subterranean subterranean st - Su mobility of the past inhabitants of the Ikirahak site will be discussed mobilitywill in theIkirahak be theof site discussed past inhabitantsnext theof chapter. whereas others, whereas theas such lack diversityof types, feature formal in especially storage features do (Tablenot 21). The of implications t results of the the for with comparisons expectations logistical mobility have shown a of series mixed the inof results, architec which aspects certain and spatial distribution conform within houses artifacts of expectations, these the to have shown have shown that the occupied duringthesite most was the heavily of Middle phase Taltheilei but there tradition, that evidence is also some corroborating of occupations the the pitsand house Ikirahak Lakeat site, the larger Maguse area. The information presented in earlier chapters of this thesis, information in specifically forearlierchapters thisthe of presented thesis, of purposes determining site, for and temporal the affiliations of culturaland comparis correlates of hunter logistical mobility at 7.8 Thein at relationbeen results excavations of the discussed Ikirahak site tohave should should would be mentioned thehave had that theexcavation of to houses have occurred in fall themaking frozen summer the theinpossible before or excavations became ground with stone, wooden implements. or bone, digging and and hide toolstheworking withinfound JjKs pit were houses occupied duringthe probabl fall, and semi Wilkins 2009) 152 152 Level of Mobility Indicated low low low low low high high low low/high 7 Results 7 Results - rpening of known 7 Excavation Results es JjKs significant labour investment in architecture proportionsof resharpening flakes for Feature20, low tools and higher resharpening flakesfor Feature14 high proportion of local lithicmaterial (silicified volcaniclastic), but provenienceof most lithic material typesun spatially segregated activity areasalong functional and social lines some evidence of house maintenance (debris in hearths,secondary refuse concentrationsnear doors), butlittle size sorting of material types, and materials stillconcentrated centrein of houses evidencefor tool storage around periphery of the hous low diversity of feature types, only houses and a possibleworkshop no direct evidence of storage features smaller proportion of bifacial tools/evidenceof bifacial manufacturevs. a higher proportion expedient tools high total toolsvs. low proportion of resha flakes for two features (Features15 and 19), low total tools and low e ntial Mobility Correlates of Mobility Correlates theResidential with JjKs Low Reside sleeping platforms evidenceof periodichous maintenance including debris being deposited thein hearth, sweeping and displacement of larger materials to the periphery ofhouse the or near sleeping platforms, especially larger materials(>3 cm) storage of tools and/or usable lithicmaterials around the periphery of housethe and near flakes in thedebitage assemblage low proportion of exotic lithic raw materialsand higha proportion of local lithic materials spatially segregated activity areas along functional and/or social lines small proportion of bifacial tools/evidenceof bifacial tool manufacture vs. expedient tools high totalnumber of toolsvs. a small proportion of resharpening high number and diversity of feature types extensive use of storage features, especially food storage high diversity of tool types Comparison Comparison theof ing flakes in Mobility s High Residential Table 21 o storage of toolsor n useable lithic materials periodic house maintenance including concentration of materials around the hearth area, lack of size sorting of materials across houses lack of evidencefor high proportion of exotic lithicraw materialsand low a proportion of local lithicmaterials lack of segregation of activity areas low totalnumber of toolsvs. a large proportion of resharpen debitagethe assemblage of bifacial tool manufacture vs. expedient tools low diversity of tool types large proportion of bifacial tools/evidence low number and diversity of feature types few,or no, storage feature 153 153 rows of e summer Smith1929; - arrengound arrengound b Research Research major caribou (Birket a e to spawn ine spawn fall to the seasonally, forseasonally, the past 8,000 years n they not they n could hunt caribou . caribou However, thepredictable werealways not that seasonally inhabit seasonally the that summer area every they as Conclusions and for DirectionsFuture aq herd aq herd task groups to take advantage the annual task groups take runschar advantage to Arctic of as 7) located on the Island of Ikirahak located 7) Island on thelocated of thein nar ju - r i . Finally, rawa of considerable amount suitable formaterial lithic . the made largeby was possible This numbers of n a the northern portiontheof forest the boreal breedingtheir on northern to grounds the Qam . Chapter Chapter Eight: (Gordon 1975; Smith1975) (Gordon1975; Introduction they come up the Maguse they River come toMaguse up end thethe of southern lak the (Dawson, et al. 2011) and and fall returntotree they as the line. is Additionally, well troutthe situated for site lake fishing, forsending and Maguse Lake well Maguse was situated for exploit to a duringresources past of groups number the fall summer (Figure and 2). months Theis the location site of crossing of the large is lake by used numbersthat the animals duringthe lat Gordon 1996) The Ikirahak site (JjKs tundra in movements, their thisso were past groupsregion on rely able using tosecondary resources, birdsas such and fish whe (Gordon 1976, 1996) caribou theof travel northfrom biodiversity thisthat a day, to challenging is, toenvironment in. live human Nonetheless, groupsin have thissubsisted environment, at least 8.1 The a regionBarrenlands theof is southern Districtextreme and of Kivalliqlow weather 154 - - 154 what what can light theof light hapter, C that dates (see (see Gordon grained grained - 14 associated with preassociated riefly riefly reviewed. Next, ei ei tradition was an an was as unexpected discovery, gatherers, gatherers, presented in4, were Chapter 7)? 2 Chapters through have provided4 - - gested. subterranean pit subterranean houses discovery Taltheileithisof unique Middle discovery - settlement and mobility,systems in e - . Th 1630 BP BP BP, and 1630 1350 ilable in the formof ilableboulders the locations inon at and cobbles various the ng type associated ng with type a associated large (n=9929) lithic of number led has the artifacts to on the theof subject matter willsug thesis be gatherer from studies mobility, case as region well as the be will b the evidence for mobilityIkirahak at reviewed the and be site on will conclusions, based the archaeological data, be will presented. potential for future research Finally, directions expectations forexpectations logistical mobility for hunter compared to results from 21).(see Chapter theTable 6 this In chapter, theories hunter of unusual unusual architecture Ikirahakat (JjKs the site the background to information results of necessary evaluate the archaeological at excavations the site that in were Chapter presented 6. Inprevious c the housi proposition inthe of this following of research Chapter thesis: question stated 1 lithics tell Taltheilei us about subsistence dated dated the site totime the period this housing type never withhas Taltheil been the associated 1977b:76 forone exception) possible It is therefore not surprising that a high density of archaeological Itarchaeological features iswere surprising therefore density a of not located high that on the island. However, discovery semi of the contact Middle Taltheilei corroborated by were tradition artifacts, that island island of Ikirahak. reduction, red and volcaniclastic varioussilicifiedspecifically medium quartzites, are ava 155 d 155 em em (see (see (Gordon ers move their subsistence subsistence syst - ity areas, and houses . Forag intensive housing, these as intensive , recordedhunte were having as (Kelly 1992) groups, the Chipewyan groups, the Dene Chipewyan iddle iddle . Smith1929) term campsites duringcampsites term themonths, summer - - (see (see Birket gatherers can be considered to a can be exist spectrum on considered gatherers with - Forager Spectrum - and Inuitand Caribou The The Collector environment ephemeral, was short utilizing and retreating tofor forest the thethe herds and fallback with caribou winter can can be categorized frequentresidential a as forager moves system, which involved following annual throughtheir migration. caribou These groups’ theof use Barrenlands on the Barrenlands the of southern Kivalliq. two employed these However, verygroups different even strategies while primarily subsisting settlement subsistence the on same resource, caribou.barrengound settlement The Dene’s Chipewyan During culturallytheperiod, two Historic unrelated Hearne 1958) segregated activitysegregated areas, labour and permanent, and more groups tend in longer out tosend one task stay place and groupscollect toresources (Binford Kelly Kent 1980; 1992; 1978a, 1991) evidence evidence of activ segregated storage, diverse and spatially less less that labour requireless to construct. residential Conversely, of camps base the collectors tend tomore features, contain diverse storage especially features, spatially more though all fall past groups the somewhere in m frequentlyresidences patch tothey as resource move resource from patch. The residential of camps base foragersfewer, to and diverse and features, tend less have little The hunter mobilityof residentially mobile end mobile at foragers and the one logistically collectors other, at 8.2 156 ) 156 miut (Burch Ahiar ou Inuitpattern ou lly. thethe In of case . The strategy theof 2) ey subsisted foodon ey stored subsisted . The Carib seasona including high residential residential high including ipewyan ipewyan Dene strategy that , (Burch 197 (Burch thereby runningminimizingthe thereby risk of , (Hearne 1958) (Hearne line in the in fall then line to back and north on the h of treeh theof . gatherer mobility spectrum. mobilityspectrum. gatherer should It be noted these however, that . Theinland Inuitof groups Caribou (such strategy theas - iesen 2004) iesen ibou meat meat iboufor whilethe Barrenlands. on remaining winter, the In late the (Fr . largest between the The differences mobility of groups the two are: these Caribou o gather forresources o theenough stored gather winter stored stored car n 1972) Inuit the not didtrip sout make accumulated accumulated during fall events thekill mass actually was quite similar Dene Chipewyan that to theof mobilitymobilityin caribou residential thehuntingtheand inlow winter summer roamed widely the across highlyBarrenlands caribou.following the mobile However, winter residential oftenwas timethlowmobility as quitea of ends of ends the hunter groups changed their mobilitythetoof situation level suit Dene, Chipewyan summer residential indeed was high mobilitytheas a of timegroups out foodof These when strategies considered a as yearlyround two represent seasonal toseem the resources forresources the of theuncertainty increased interceptable herdand winter to being the they as returned theto opposed as Ch to Barrenlands, the involved roundstaying to close year the all herd then then follow the for then largeon tundra the out huntscarrythem summer, and inscale the fall t Caribou of of Inuitfarwas on because subsisting stored therisky more necessity o spring/earlythe caribou summer they as groupsinterceptthese came wouldnorth and 1975; Smith1975) quitewas different groupsthese as large would conduct hunts inand fall then the subsist 157 157 l pattern of pattern residential l high mobilityand of ephemeral types of features, type, and and spatial distribution features, type, types of lithic of . strategy. strategy. group If food,a out ranDene Chipewyan they stored of he architecture, lithic tools, and architecture he site. and at architecture, foundtools, lithic the 179) - settlement settlement - ld not moreprocuremajority the easily locate of as was and caribou, herdthe as mentioned, recorded historically exception? Toanswer thisa of question, number - al strategy, where a group was living on the Barrenlands duringal where strategy, on a theliving was group thewinter will be presented. of occupation likelythe Additionally, of be site the season will determined on based t expectations regardingexpectations the artifacts, will investment well as in be conclusions the as summarized architecture and represent represent a deviation normafrom the summer of use Barrenlands environment, similar morethe that Inuit, to Caribou theof or above (Hearne 1958:176 One of thisis: of pitsthethesis house do questions located Ikirahakcentral site at the the among among the Dene Chipewyan there also a was recordedto historically the exception norm on subsisting stored that resources sent logistical out forayforest a collect resources to locate locate and procureresource. thisof more Inuitiftheran food of Caribou Conversely, out they cou likely hundredsforest. kilometres of the away in However, should that also itbe noted subsistence were situated closer the tomajority the of in easily forest, morecaribouthe and could Barrenlands in the late Caribou summer, farand spring/early Inuitthe were more dependent on their resources, incurred and risk stored therefore a inlevel higher of their 158 158 urable for for urable (Coles 1973; (Cowan (Cowan 1999; (Gilman 1987; , an ephemerally was also also favowas subterranean subterranean pitshouse - (Binford1978b, 1980; culturally - (Gordon1976) that that semi n of the Ikirahak,pitshouse at Features of 15 e. e. All at houses Ikirahakfar contained two found withinfound Featurethe comparison 19, and n Migod, which which did contain n all, not and any Migod, at t fort a en 1977a) 1977a) en ed ed withIkirahak archaeological data thein Chapter 7 . in residential been has investment Greater architecture lower lower residential mobility cross cipated have cipated been tooccupied, periodfor an time. extended of . higher of the Next, diversity tools ur intensive to construct construct lodgeintensive ur tothen structuressurface Correlates of Correlates Mobility production. found Additionally, we tha and 19, ratiosthe the of thetools resharpening of proportions of number and flakes higher higher expedient proportions of tools th far flakes reduction smaller that biface proportions of are indicative tool bifacial of Kooyman Kooyman 2000; 1985; Magne Kelly 1986) ShottParry 1987; and reduced mobility compared the with when Migod site occupied caribou sit harvesting and processing Kelly 1992; Kent 1991) Hitchock 1987; 1986; Shott Yell of ratio thereduction formal expedient bifacial of of tools/evidence to were far labo more Erasmus 1965; Hearne 1958) with repeatedly associated occupied, occupied, or least anti at The residential forevidence most decreased the mobilitycompellingwas architecture of the Ikirahak It been houses. has show conclusively These These were expectations compar (Table 21). results of this In section the will this comparison be summarized. A number that of suggested the the of comparisons site was data the with mobility expectations Positive Evidence for Decreased PositiveMobility Decreased Evidence for In Chapter logistical of 4, a mobilityexpectations wereof number presented (Table 5). 8.3 159 159 (Binford hic and is highly and 7 also - there still was there a , n at (Stevenson 1985) (Stevenson along the houses southern along theperimeter of 1991) term (threeto term in four occupations month)pithouse the - s some s some evidence for cleaning of the houses . Thisdue the that may to fact thisso of be little larger, (Magne (Magne 1985) e sorting of lithic material, especially those >3 e cm sorting inmaterial, lithic of especially maximum term occupation of the site. site. occupation term theof fact Thethere that some evidence of was - modified, found lithic the debitage in houses. was The on lack emphasis of early stage workshops/habitations sites of sites workshops/habitations residentially groups mobile of suggestive a logistical at organization the Ikirahak mobility site. of However should it reduction at locations. these These task groups then or flakewould transport blanks preforms residential camp base thefor back further to for reductionthe of creation tools. This frompattern forreductio a lithic model previously differs proposed reduction within the excavated houses suggests thatreduction suggests the withinhouses excavated task groups known were to sent out of sources raw lithic of the materialsprocurestages initial complete to lit and dimension dimension away fromor the area hearth due scuffage maintenance activities to (Stevenson 1985, 1991) un large amount found the material that have around lithictheof hearth could in area presented a hindrance of tooccupants house. thethe little Additionally, was evidence observed regarding siz (near 3 the storage intheas of doors) of houses, well toolsas around complete the perimeter lends credence interpretation.to theof depressions this pit should it However, be noted wa that there though indicated indicated a longer household maintenance and placement of systematic secondary refuse materials 1980; Hitchock Kelly Kent 1987; 1992; The spatial withindistributions artifacts some lithic of the JjKs pitshouse at compared compared favourably longer with Lillooetregion B.Cof 160 160 n, n, Mistassani Mistassani and and , patterning to be topatterning 979; Oetelaar 2000; tions of the the pitshouse by (Oetelaar (Oetelaar 2000) functional and social division space, of (Mandelbaum 1 (Mandelbaum lithic raw materials rawwere lithic available island on the gatherer houses houses gatherer - er o systematic exploration systematic Taltheileio of Dene Chipewyan or . door Thearea hearth, behind opposite the an the was area term occupation of these houses, occupation ithouses, as term these of be expected that would - . isrelativelydivision considered This space patternof strong social of (Tanner 1979) Prior to this study, to Prior thisn study, the houses, the spatial distribution of tools associated with specific associated gendered the houses, the spatial toolsdistribution of as presented presented as in Figure is important currentbeyond the 26, Taltheileiof exploration mobility. same groupsame of evidence of Featuresthroughtime, which is14 in there people and 19. Only in previously evidence is with other the combination mentioned social division the of considered an space indicator mobility. of This mentioned above because mentioned there above of because are to no Taltheileihouses compareexamples other to, and this occupa pattern also be indicative could multiple of evidence evidence of longer ephemeral would occupations not enough for thistime allow type of archaeologically. emphasized the of However, thisweakest theis considered all evidence associated with highassociated individuals status (exclusively except men Featureall in cases 15) similar to temperate other hunt Tanner 1979) (Figure 26). The is interpreted being as houses these side of lefttheof domain wome and the right side a as male to similar area, Blackfoot Cree houses Within activities along led has gendered to and the lines of the status Ikirahak houses division to therange fall camp mobilebase a could of theforaging residentially within daily foraging group. be mentioned that,the at some of least, of reduction that procurementIkirahak, earlymaterials these theand of so close and stage 161 161 7 (see - hich seems hich seems . four The , is which found Featureswithin . However, the small pit Gordon 1976) Gordon ( , or that snow caches , may snow have caches that or (Dawson, (Dawson, et al. 2011) st st Featureof (Figure may 23) 19 evidence that result offersmixed evidence forthe a of of ere is an expected layout expected of erethat houses isthese an (Hearne 1958) term campsites during term the recordedwinter campsites - usly interpreted being as Caribou originusly interpreted Inuit in ow th ow . N 1 site previo - (Binford 1980; Kelly 1992; (BinfordKent 1980; 1992; 1991) Kelly may have been initially constructed initially Taltheileimay by at have JjKs the been constructed also possible that dried meat was stored within the houses, the that withinalso possible houses, meat w dried stored was the Ikirahak materials. Ikirahakmaterials. the no Therewas direct features evidence for storage is ever ever been conducted d ord 1978b, ord Yellen 1986; 1977a) Hitchock Shott1978b, 1980; 1987; suggestive of suggestive higher mobility. The linefinal level of number Ikirahakisthe of that ratiotools of mobility at compared thethe to have have to be to excavated ifthis determine is so. diversity Additionally, types tooltheof (Binf 14, lower was 15, and observed Migod at site 20 than the exterior theexcavation unitsto southea excavated represent and an butcheringoutside hide area, processing theof morearea but would to be the pattern associated to with be the longer associated pattern historically among the Dene Chipewyan been they as used have been among theInuit Caribou caches located located at caches the JjKs (Dawson, et al. 2009) Figure 3). It This lack storage resemble of theand to types seem does feature residential camps base with foragersassociated on thedepressions margins theof represent site storage may features, and the stone A number resulted in theresults of logistical when of mobility expectations mixed compared with at the verysite, generally visible diversity features a and low archaeologically types. of Ambiguous Evidence for Decreased AmbiguousMobility Decreased Evidence for houses ha houses can be compared residential futureresearch sites. withat Taltheilei 162 - 162 s of semi air site site air occupations - (Underground Space . d during fall, and the also give them access to them the also giveaccess being processed being at processed this an site with . This interpretation is corroborated (Hearne 1958) ere atures 14 areand atures to20 found line, and would line, and arrenground caribou crossing toarrenground island of caribou the . b term (a few weeks (atermor weeks few pitless) house open or - (Magne (Magne 1985) ibou, quantity,ibou, an w of unknown winter months. the This have Middle allowed Taltheileiinhabitants would e fall arethe e infestation theof warblehides free because of animals by flies because they can heat because be retain longer heated faster, and , early Conclusions about forMobility Evidence Decreased Season Season of Occupation Ikirahak their on the south journey to tree Arctic char River. the spawning runsup Maguse coming kill mass would caribouof A possibly possibly of fullthe take site toadvantage of 8.5 When the archaeological correlates logistical of evidence for mobility and seasonality the are combined, occupie was likely the seems that Ikirahak it site use duringuse th that forafflict them summer spring monthstheand by the that fact car on emphasis hide preparation, proportion evidenced by hideof the toolspreparation (scrapers and chithos) the withinfound houses. most for acceptable hides are Caribou subterranean subterranean structures is that thermally efficient they farthan more are surface structures Center Universtiy1976; Minnesota of Wilkins 2009) 8.4 that Finally, suggests architecturehouses this the the site of intended be was toinhabited during(fall season the one winter) thecold advantage of and/or because main in Lillooetregionthe proportion resharpening stage flakes for late of Fe correspond with shorter 163 163 used used resource - who who line findthe herds. to caribou lothing, lodge and covers, other and transport materials these transport back to and the ntensive pit featurentensive pit excavate. to This i - ened because their ened foodbecause stored out, for or ransome ithin within places their the houses. designated Hide made the trek south of the made treethe south trek of . the19 inhabitants Feature Theof people and he site during the fall and winter, logistical task falltask groups site duringthe may logistical and he have winter, . may This have happ (Kent 1984, 1991) Feature 15 due better to possibly thewere to stay site at able longer, stored planning. While at t contradiction to seems evidence represent between the and a architectural artifactual difference between the actual themobility of anticipated and inhabitantstwo these of houses contradict the mobility,evidence forarchitecturaldecreased in especially toregard Feature 20, which labour thewas most present present (Figure of climatic because occurringduringthis1) trend warming a period (Gordon 1996) other reason. probableunknown The occupation to shorter of seems houses these Sometime fall of duringthe thewinter late earlyinhabitants or Features20 14 and abandoned their and houses The journey length have been shorter thissomewhat of may that than is at timeat it out w toby sexes bothsome degree working (bone, and or materials dense antler, were the wood) within houses. also worked reduce the flakecores to preforms, blanks or camp. base the camp, At base furthermaterials lithic were reduced the within houses, and in formalthe intoand workshop(s) expedient tools. carriedtask likelywas Quite this utilitarian for the itemsfollowing year. main While thegroup the site, at living was logistical task groupsdesirable lithic would materials, locate rawhave to been sent out have have allowed quantities theof of for occupants site the to meat as winter thelarge dry well acquireas enough hides to caribou c manufacture 164 . 164 (Hearne 1958) line been has as ps that inhabited the site site inhabited ps that the y residing wereduringthe cold fall and winter. and fall winter. actual The line, other to or locations totundra urces during urces this season ces from Maguse Lake. from ces Maguse ance to the ance to herd. Living over hundred a esources became became depleted the energy esources settlement represent model, but toseem a does it - (Campbell 2005; Thompson Kelsall 1968; and 2005; (Campbell line of meant the not line that members this could group aq herd. aq herd. If stored r ju r i n a , or possibly that toabove possibly , or caribouthe remained hunt tree Qam . It likely the many, or or seems grouthat all, kilometres north tree theof periodically monitoranimals theof in of location case need. Ifran forfoodsout stored expenditure high. lower was of findfood,chances to and success the However, the logistically mobile at residing thegroupthe on Barrenlands Ikirahak site their increased level risk of dramaticallythe of dist because residing in forest littleof season the risked because during this proximitytheir largeto a portion theof during and the lived oftenreso winter, off stored The the primary withtochange has location the due where and season, the level withrisk increased of thisassociated change. Dene Chipewyan seasonal shift seasonal towards more logistical mobility during the mobility groups we much may theses have because of changed that duringthisnot season know Dene oftenfrom historical restricted had that Chipewyan sources quitemobility the This scenario not does a radical represent of alteration forageraccepted model the of Dene/TaltheileiChipewyan subsistence would have eventually below had travel the to tree find were caribouwinter more store they able reserves on, tothesufficientunless as wore for entirefish or on theresour winter, subsist recorded duringthecentury twentieth Fischer 1979) been sent been sent out recordedwood to historically theirfungus or collect descendants like (Hearne 1958) 165 165 son, son, s was a nlands region. nlands region. year year period. during the winter of winter during the - 179) - (1958:176 more work to needs to more be understand done efore the of process the efore locating animals could ted by the presence of ted the a by presence large caribouof number on subterranean subterranean structures, to similar ifany, the ones settlement settlement strategy that onlywas intermittently - - Lake should be more Lakeintensively more surveyed to should be ascertain settlement settlement strategy among Middle Taltheilei in groupsthis area. - subterranean dwellings, appeared subterranean todwellings, in experiment sea be a appeared an cold - Directions for Future Research First, aroundregion theMaguse how many contain sites semi more 8.6 Beyond the research presented in this thesis, this unique subsistence understand understand the implicationsmobility thisinof experiment the across Barre constructing constructing semi logistically mobilized, subsistence successful for livingrequired households More site. research different at fullyis to the practice that at carriedtowas least a some 1,000degree out, over Inby Middle Taltheilei groups, inhabitationIkirahakconclusion, site thethe of that that had foresttheir come collect from camp recordwinter resources. tundra to When this by that Hearne Ikirahakshows is thecombined the with of thisuse data, Barrenlands the during by Dene descendent the season the Taltheilei and cold Chipewyan their the tundra, while occupying people the were site. This patternof habitation winter of the Barrenlandsrecorded was historically by Hearne 1772 when hisencountered task groupparty a logistical Dene Chipewyan of inforest the climatic conditions during this period that may have climatic shifted conditions theduringthis line that have periodtree north. may This risk would, mitigacourse, somewhat of be this group, a requiredlongwas very walk b even begin, be at shorter possibly it present though ameliorateddue than wouldto 166 166 - n what what was n a . Toincrease excavations excavations 7 on the island of 7 the on island of 1956) - (Dawson, Suluk, et al. Suluk, (Dawson, et al. luding all all luding debitage. 2) - inc , 7. These - (Giddings 1 and JiKu - cted cted by flotation either or screening, 2 m outside theof grave the2 of berm – iated from areas of fromsecondary refuseareas iated disposal. northern section northerntheof section island Ikirahak, of and and locating leaned in the house and and deposited outside. the leaned in house The of pattern quadrant level x level quadrantcm 25 (25 cm). for Thisactivity allow will - f o - . further of needed toexcavations pits controlled house Next, are offer the depressions at the north end of the lake at thethe of thedepressions end north , followed the pitshouse set of north found by second JjKs of refuse would throwndoor. primarily have the been out then the This to be can compared houses. houses. This discovery of refuseallow of extension willpotential for theexterior areas after disposal materials were c this exterior refuse of may the houses, itas location also reveal door the is expected that areas areas within theto houses be different Excavation gridsextended at should least 1 be thesis. thesis. Additionally,be microdebitagecolle should the of use screens. meshed finevery Microdebitage collected in theshould be screens collected at the quadrant point structuresproveniencingartifacts the all of withinfound This will trendsof fordetailed the morewithin analysis allow data spatial th with possible the precise provenience forless recorded the research contained thiswithin Ikirahak, and the value recovered theof excavations, from some data methodological subsequent are changes suggested. Excavation should be methodology refined to for three allow further at to tofour JjKs already compare data the excavated should initiallyfocused at (JiKu be thesites Kuuvik 2007) mapping foundthe the depressions in 1950s pit on by theof Giddingsthe lake north end (Giddings 1956) found Ikirahak and at Kuuvik the sites. surveying Thisand mapping includes theof set of second pitshouse on the 167 167 surface (Gordon defining defining ch ch contained rom site site he . ations, Lateations, not and may may aid our in Rennie Rennie Lake nly had a greater spatial nly spatial greater had a contact Taltheilei contact be lifeway - C date from Ikirahak fromIkirahak (TableC 20). date 14 of the this theperimeterof (southernstudy, in door used houses) and cupations found in the study area, especially those inon study cupations found especially area, the the island Ikirahak. of n but greater previously also a thought, rangetemporal would in that aid a in the District of Mackenzie in the Northwest Territoriesthe in DistrictinNorthwest Mackenzie theof 7, which valuable may insights intof not offer transitionor whether the - odges toodges Taltheileipitshouse by changed thesubstantially Middle types of groups within of thisit thesis, that then pre is thisproposed variant Lakethe designated Maguse complex of Middle Taltheilei the tradition. T corroborating the phase Late Finally, future theresearch corroborates inregion resear if archaeological the occupations then occupations this would this housing show that type o not range th these houses are houses these found to Taltheileiwith be Middle associated occup Taltheilei thissuggested, Gordon as will this experimentshow that Middle Taltheilei by people had a footprint. wide geographic Ifconfirmed Late are be they Taltheilei to Archaeological Archaeological investigation pitsof at potential the thehouse 1977b) understanding of type geographic among spread thisthe of Taltheileigroups. house If l activities, segregation of of duration of space, and occupation houses. their Taltheilei oc The could excavations these results then of tobe compared the those of pitshouse at JjKs Additionally, be stone circles, excavate profitable would toto it withlikely be associated assumed location assumed to adjustments the interpretations can be houses these altered of needed as 168 168 n pitshouse on the and evidence for and for evidence social division of subterranea - space in space regard gender to and status. residential residential of structures, the maintenance evidence forperiodicfloors, house evidence of storage of artifactslithichousehold perimeters, around characteristics of characteristics this the complex semi of areuse Barrenlands during lithicof evidence season, the manufacture cold extensive the within 169 169 Lithic Debitage Context, Lithic . 2nd ed. ed. . 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Yellen, Yellen, E.J. 203 203 FIGURES FIGURES APPENDIX A: A: APPENDIX 204 204 Southern Study District Kivalliq Area Figure 1 205 205 Ikirahak Sites on Maguse IkirahakSites Lakeon Maguse Figure 2 206 206 7 House Pit Depression 7 DistributionDepression Pit House - JjKs Figure 3 207 207 Expected Spatial Interior a of Arrangement Dene/TaltheileiChipewyan House Figure 4 208 208 Feature 14 Planview 14 FeaturePlanview House House Figure 5 209 209 House Feature 15 Planview 15 FeatureHouse Planview Figure 6 210 210 House Feature 19 Planview 19 FeatureHouse Planview Figure 7 211 211 House Feature 20 Planview 20 FeatureHouse Planview Figure 8 212 House Feature 14 Stratigraphic Profile 14 FeatureHouse Stratigraphic Figure 9 213 House Feature 15 Stratigraphic Profile 15 FeatureHouse Stratigraphic Figure 10 214 ature 19 Stratigraphic Profile19 atureStratigraphic House FeHouse Figure 11 215 House Feature 20 Stratigraphic Profile 20 FeatureHouse Stratigraphic Figure 12 216 216 Feature Debitage Distribution14 Size by Figure 13 217 217 Feature Debitage Distribution15 Size by Figure 14 218 218 Feature Debitage Distribution19 Size by Figure 15 219 219 Feature Debitage Distribution20 Size by 16 Figure 220 220 Feature Lithic Material Types14 Distribution Figure 17 221 221 Feature Lithic Material Types15 Distribution Figure 18 222 222 Feature Lithic Material Types19 Distribution Figure 19 223 223 Material Material Types Distribution FeatureLithic 20 Figure 20 224 224 Feature Lithic Tools14 Distribution Spatial Figure 21 225 225 Feature Lithic Tools15 Distribution Spatial Figure 22 226 226 Feature Lithic Tools19 Distribution Spatial Figure 23 227 227 tion FeatureLithic Tools20 Distribu Spatial Figure 24 228 28 2 7 and Archaeological corresponding Phases - C Dates from C from Dates JjKs 14 Figure 25 229 229 Interior Spatial Arrangement of Taltheilei from Interior Taltheilei Houses Arrangement Spatial Ikirahak of Figure 26 230 230 PLATES PLATES APPENDIX B: B: APPENDIX 231 231 cavated cavated FeatureUnex 14 Caribou Crossing LakeCaribou Ikirahak the at Crossing Plate 2 Plate 1 232 232 Feature 19 Unexcavated FeatureUnexcavated 19 Feature 15 Unexcavated FeatureUnexcavated 15 Plate 4 Plate 3 233 233 Feature 20 Unexcavated FeatureUnexcavated 20 Feature 14 Completely Excavated Excavated Feature Completely 14 Plate 5 Plate 6 234 234 Feature 19 Completely Excavated Excavated Feature Completely 19 Feature 15 Completely Excavated Excavated Feature Completely 15 Plate 8 Plate 7 235 235 0 Completely Excavated Excavated Completely 0 Feature Stratigraphy 14 Feature 2 Plate 10 Plate 9 236 236 Feature Stratigraphy 19 Feature Stratigraphy 15 Plate 12 Plate 11 237 237 FeatureHearth 14 Feature Stratigraphy 20 Plate 14 Plate 13 238 238 FeatureHearth 20 FeatureHearth 19 Plate 16 Plate 15 239 239 Feature I Lithic Tools 14 Plate 17 240 240 Feature IILithic Tools 14 Plate 18 241 241 Feature I Lithic Tools 15 Plate 19 242 242 Feature IILithic Tools 15 Plate 20 243 243 Feature 15 Lithic Tools III Feature III Lithic Tools 15 Plate 21 244 244 Feature I Lithic Tools 19 Plate 22 245 245 c Tools c IITools FeatureLithi 19 Plate 23 246 246 Feature 19 Lithic Tools III Feature III Lithic Tools 19 Plate 24 247 247 Feature Lithic Tools 20 Plate 25 248 248 Feaure 14 Level 5 Lithic ToolsFeaureLevel Lithic 14 5 Plate 26 249 249 7 Excavation Exterior LithicBiface/Adze ToolUnit - JjKs Plate 27 250 250 7 Surface Finds - JjKs Plate 28 251 251 site) site) Projectile Points 1 (Kuuvik 1 1 - JikU Plate 29