403 Ancient Water Management in The

ARAM, 13-14 (2001-2002), 403-421 U. AVNER 403

ANCIENT WATER MANAGEMENT IN THE SOUTHERN NEGEV

UZI AVNER

INTRODUCTION

The southern Negev is an extremely arid area, with summer temperatures above 400C, an average annual precipitation of 28 mm, and an annual potential evaporation rate of 4000 mm. This negative water balance causes the area to be poor in water sources and limits the Saharo-Arabian vegetation almost totally to wadi beds. Certainly, the desert presents several obstacles to the development of human communities, the foremost of which is the scarcity of water, for drinking, for everyday uses, for animals and for agriculture. Considering the environmental conditions, one would expect the Southern Negev to be almost devoid of ancient remains of human presence and activity. However, the harshest part of this area, from ‘Uvda Valley and southward (see Map 1), is surprisingly rich in archaeological sites. A complete sequence of settlement is found during the last 10,000 years, with a wide range of activi- ties such as hunting, grazing, agriculture, trade, copper production, some gold production and others (Avner et al 1994). In this article I will describe several methods of water exploitation in the region. The first will concern the early agricultural settlement in ‘Uvda Valley, 6th to 3rd millennia B.C., the others relate to the Nabatean and the Early Islamic period.

AGRICULTURAL SETTLEMENT IN ‘UVDA VALLEY

‘Uvda Valley (Wadi ‘Uqfi in Arabic), 40 km north of the Gulf of Aqaba (Fig. 1), was first briefly described by A. Musil (1907:180-182, 1926:85). He described the Îaiwat Beduin cultivating the eastern side of the valley and rent- ing plots to the residents of ‘Aqaba. Musil also recognized ancient remains on this side of the valley. The first archaeological survey was made by Rothenberg (1967b:303-307) who documented 15 sites, while citing others distinguishable from the air. During 1978-1982 I led a survey team which was part of the Negev Emergency Survey, under the auspices of the Israel Depart- ment of Antiquities (today the Israel Antiquities Authority). The survey was intended to precede the redeployment of the Israeli army from Sinai, while ‘Uvda Valley itself was selected for a new air base. The survey was never completed. The western side of the valley was only briefly surveyed and revealed a small number of sites. However, one third of the area on the eastern 404 ANCIENT WATER MANAGEMENT IN THE SOUTHERN NEGEV side was meticulously surveyed, resulting in the documentation of approximately 400 sites in an area of 50 sq km (Fig. 2). This site density was unex- pectedly high considering the present environment. The remains in the valley present a complete sequence of settlement, from the Pre-Pottery Neolithic B (PPNB) to the present. A major excavation operation took place in February 1980, when 22 sites were excavated by 20 archaeologists and 180 volunteers. These were later followed by smaller scale excavations, and conservation works (Avner 1998 with references).1 Most surveyed sites were dated to the 6th-3rd millennia B.C., i.e. the Pot- tery Neolithic, Chalcolithic and the Early Bronze Age. They included 154 habitation sites, 32 corrals, 40 tent camps, 30 threshing floors, water installa- tions of various types, and many cult sites (Fig. 2). Ample agricultural tools were collected during the survey and excavations, among them flint adzes, hundreds of sickle blades and grinding stones, and two stone plough tips, the earliest found in the Near East. Botanical remains included a few olive pits and grains of domesticated cereal, while indications of other crops were also found. Quite surprisingly, grazing was only of secondary importance to the agriculture in this area. A demographic study demonstrated that ca. 3000 people lived in the area at the settlements’ climax, in the 3rd millennium B.C. (Avner 1998).

THE CULTIVATED FIELDS AND FLOOD IRRIGATION

A unique combination of environmental conditions, fertile soil and hydrol- ogy situation, made this vast agricultural settlement possible. The soil along the eastern side of the valley contains lime-sand, which is rarely found in the world. It makes the soil light, well-ventilated, easily tilled, and highly water absorbent. At a depth of 0.5 m it consists of 50-70% lime-sand, 20-40% silt and 10-14% clay. The soil is slightly alkaline (Ph 7.8-8.35), with a low level of salinity, only 0.9-2.3 milimo (units of electrical conductivity). The water ab- sorption capacity is very high, up to 39% of its volume.2 The clay percentage increases with depth, reaching 18-23% at a depth of 1.2 m, a situation which minimizes water loss through seepage. This fact, along with the high water content capacity, enabled excellent watering of the soil at the “efficient root- depth”, for cereal, bushes, and even trees. These qualities are well demon-

1 Initial plans for the air base required destruction of 104 sites. However, after long negotia- tions, the plans were re-adjusted so that all but one site remained outside the base perimeter. The U.S. Army Corps. of Engineers constructing the base also displayed a high sensitivity to the ancient sites and avoided damage. Today, the sites are accessible and an archaeological park is in an advanced stage of planning. 2 I thank Igor Mindel, of the Jewish Agency in Beer Sheva‘, who provided this information. Mindel tested the soil during 1983-1986. U. AVNER 405 strated by fairly dense plant growth on the eastern side of the valley, outside the wadi channels, in contrast to the rest of the southern Negev. Sand Worm- wood (Artemisia monosperma) a Mediterranean plant, remains large and green even through the summer, and White Saxaul (Haloxilon persicum) reaches 5 m in height, the tallest known in the Negev and Sinai. In a situation of low precipitation, as in ‘Uvda Valley, only floods can supply the amount of water necessary for cereals. The drainage area of ‘Uvda Val- ley is ca. 400 sq km, mainly to the south, 550-892 m above sea level. Most of the surface is barren rock which absorbs a comparatively small amount of the rain water. In addition, most desert rains fall in a concentrated way (Shanan et al 1967; Finkel & Finkel 1979; Sharon 1979), so that even a small amount is often enough to create floods (Fig. 3). Here, another element becomes important. The gradient of the valley is moderate, from 500 m above sea level in the south to 415 m in the north. The gradient is 1% in the south and only 0.3% in the northern part. The flood water flow is slow, does not wash the soil away, and is well absorbed.3 Since the eastern side is lower than the western by 20 m, all wadis merge on this side, which is better irrigated (Fig. 4). Following a flood, a thick growth of wild cereal appears (Fig. 5). These natural conditions were successfully exploited by the inhabitants of the valley. Observation of surface and aerial photographs reveals a system of low earth embankments perpendicular to the water channels, sometimes with one layer of rocks on top (Fig. 6). These embankments may have contributed greatly to the quality of the cultivated land. They retarded the flow of water, further increased the amount of water absorbed by the soil, prevented soil and seed erosion, increased the sedimentation of new soil enriched with organic material with each flood, and widened the irrigated strip. Another long em- bankment running south-north is discernible, west of the water channels (Fig. 6), most probably constructed to limit the irrigated strip to approximately 500 m. This actually turned the east-west embankments into a series of “limans”. This produced an important result, that the inhabitants were able to plough and sow the land before the first flood, not 2-3 weeks later as practiced by the Beduins. In addition, the enrichment of the soil with organic material brought by the flood, as well as dung from animals grazing on the stubble, allowed cultivation year after year, with no need to lay the fields fallow.4 The embankments in ‘Uvda Valley were not well dated. However, several arguments favor early dates: 1. The Neger Beduin did not attempt to control

3 The total drainage area of N. Hayun, including ‘Uvda Valley, is 1116 sq km, and the annual average flood water volume in the northern end reaches 1,000,150 cu m. This is the second larg- est amount of flood water in the Negev, after N. Paran, with 2,005,000 cu m (Finkel & Finkel 1979:134). 4 Repeated cultivation of fields without fallowing or overuse of the soil is described by Marx (1988:90) in connection with Beduin agriculture in the Beer Sheva area, even though in this case it was not flood agriculture, and the only source of fertilization was the animal dung. 406 ANCIENT WATER MANAGEMENT IN THE SOUTHERN NEGEV flood water in any way (see Avner 1998:175-177). 2. Flint and pottery of the 5th-3rd millennia B.C. predominated in every surface collection of finds near the embankments (on their eastern end), and this is the period of most of the agricultural remains. 3. In N. Paran, 40 km north of ‘Uvda Valley, I discovered the remains of an agricultural field based on rectangular limans and water con- duits (Figs. 7, 8). The limans are surrounded by embankments identical in technique to those of ‘Uvda Valley. The present remains cover seven hectares, and on the surface many flint adzes were collected (Fig. 9), dated to the late Neolithic and Chalcolithic.5 The site, its function and date, indicate that water management and engineering already existed by the 5th-4th millennia B.C., and this could well have been the case in ‘Uvda Valley.6 The cultivated strip in eastern ‘Uvda Valley is 12 km long and averages 500 m wide, equal to 600 hectares (Fig. 2). Another plot in the south-center of the valley provides an additional 150 hectares. Remains of low stone terraces in the wadis to the east of the valley indicate another 250 hectares of cultivated fields, and embankments in Nahal Hayun, which drains the valley to the north, add approximately 200 hectares. Altogether, these cultivated fields covered at least 1200 hectares. This brings to light a special aspect of ‘Uvda Valley. While in the Negev Highland cultivated plots are divided into relatively small wadis, ‘Uvda Valley provides large, uninterrupted fields with high quality soil, efficiently irrigated by floods.

DRINKING WATER

The availability of drinking water for people and animal is critical to the ex- istence of any settlement, especially in the desert. Five natural water sources are found around ‘Uvda Valley, within a half day’s walk from the heart of the settlement, but only one, the Yotvata Oasis, supplies abundant water (see below). Nonetheless, during the survey we encountered three different methods of collecting rain water and utilization of underground water: 1. In 36 sites, a series of dams was found in small wadis (Fig. 10). Usually only limited remains of 3-6 dams are visible, but in one site, 17 dams were found in a single wadi channel. All dams are situated near dwelling sites of the 5th-3rd millennia B.C. Since these dams are generally in a poor state of preser-

5 For the dating of the adzes see S. Rosen 1997:98; Barkai 1996:25-35, 52, and for the occur- rence of adzes in the LN in the Negev see Forenbaher 1997, Fig. 4:9. Barkai examined the adzes from N. Paran, and dated them to LN-Chalcolithic in general, with no indication of preference for either. 6 For a possible Chalcolithic flood irrigation method in the Beer Sheva‘ Valley, based on water conversion walls and “micro-catchments” see Levy 1987: 55-58, 77-78. Support for the pos- sibility of flood water irrigation at Shiqmim was found in the morphology of phytoliths (A. Rosen 1987, 1999). U. AVNER 407 vation, one may assume that many others were totally eroded or covered. An- other variant of this method was the conveyance of flood water into caves, which has been detected in two sites. 2. Along the cliff edges east of the valley a series of closed depressions de- veloped from vertical faults in the rock, filled with marl and clay soil. These naturally collect and retain rain water. Inside or near most of these depressions, dwelling sites of the 5th-3rd millennia B.C. were built, enabling utilization of the accumulated water (Fig. 11). Beduins also used to dig cisterns to collect and store rainwater in some depressions. They cleaned the cisterns before winter, and when full, they covered them with plants, to minimize evaporation. It is highly likely that similar cisterns were also excavated in these depressions in the past. 3. In the same area east of the valley, four wells have been found to date, two were incomplete. One was fairly well preserved, enabling a study of how it functioned. The well's neck is 0.8 x 1.4 m, cut into a hard and cracked layer of limestone which has a low gradient from east to west (Fig. 12). At a depth of 1.5 m the rock changes to a soft chalk where the well widens to a bell shape, presently filled with debris. The cracks in the hard rock enable drain water to seep down, while the chalk layer blocked the seeping water, causing it to flow slowly and drip into the well. Flint and pottery collected from around the well date it to the 5th-3rd millennia B.C., and today the well’s face still remains moist. The well in ‘Uvda Valley is one of the earliest dated in the Near East. The oldest known are two wells in Haçilar, Anatolia (Mellaart 1970:35) and in the submerged Neolithic village near Atlit, northern Israel (Galili & Nir 1993). Both sites have been dated to the 6th millennium B.C. A well, in the site of Abu Hof, central Israel, was dated to the Chalcolithic period (Levy & Alon 1987:59; Alon 1988), as was the well in Wadi Sirhan, northern Saudi Arabia (Zarins 1979:76). This date is also suggested for the wells in ‘Uvda Valley based on the collected artifacts. Another well was discovered by A. Shapira on Ma'aleh Shaharut (Avner 1989). It is covered by clay soil (of “Ora formation”), but the fill is moist even during the summer. A few flint pieces were collected near the well in addition to recent Ghaza ware. In May 1989, a flow of water appeared 20 m below the well, with a supply of 100 litres per hour, while another spring appeared 500 m to the south. Both are still active today and have created a narrow grove of tamarisk trees.7 Ancient remains located below the springs indicate activity during the 5th-3rd millennia B.C.

7 The springs were first noticed by N. Minkowski, from the Ma‘aleh Shaharut settlement. Shortly thereafter, the flow measurement was taken by A. Greenberg from the Agricultural Re- search Center in Yotvata. 408 ANCIENT WATER MANAGEMENT IN THE SOUTHERN NEGEV

Of the three artificial means for water collection described above, the series of dams are the most important quantitatively. An average series of dams can contain at least 100 cubic metres. If, in the past, annual water consumption per capita was 1 cubic meter (Rosenan, in Amiran et al 1978:14) this amount of water could support 100 people. If we consider water loss due to seepage and evaporation, and use for the herds, it could be estimated that a series of dams would support one extended family, ca. 25 people with their herds. If so, the 36 series of dams identified during the survey could supply water for 900 people. As stated above, however, the original number of dam sites could have been much higher. If the dams became depleted, the inhabitants could have walked to one of the natural water sources every four days to water the herds, returning to their home with filled water bags.8 In general, we may assume that utilization of all water sources, natural and artificial, could support a consider- able population, even throughout the summer.9

NABATEAN TO EARLY ISLAMIC IRRIGATION SYSTEMS IN THE SOUTHERN ‘ARABA

Several sites in the southern ‘Araba Valley belong to the Nabatean-Roman period, and previously, many more sites were identified as Byzantine (Rothen- berg & Cohen 1968:29-30). Since 1971, however, it became clear that most “Byzantine” sites should be dated to the Early Islamic Period (see discussion in Avner & Magness 1998). Little information is available today on the precise dates of the sites, but it seems that a Nabatean population maintained continu- ity of settlement long after the annexation of their kingdom to the Roman Em- pire, until the Early Islamic era. In ‘Uvda Valley alone, Nabatean pottery was found in more than 100 Nabatean dwelling tent camps and in most threshing floors, indicating that the economy of the population included agriculture, as in the earlier periods. One public building, excavated by Cohen (1980), probably served as an administrative center. Hundreds of tent camps are also found throughout the southern Negev and Sinai, but unlike in ‘Uvda Valley, most of them represent a pastoral population. The Yotvata Oasis is an important water source in the southern ‘Araba Val- ley, 40 km north of the gulf of ‘Aqaba. Archaeological sites known to date cover a sequence of the last 7000 years, including Nabatean remains and three

8 In Sinai, Beduin shepherds camp and graze their herds up to 15 km from water sources, or a distance of two “grazing days”. The black desert-goat can survive on dry food, and drink water only once every 4 or more days. The water and food demands of sheep are much higher. For the unique physiological adaptation of the goat see Shkolnik 1977:109-112. 9 Accumulating evidence on the paleoclimate shows that the area was a desert during the dis- cussed periods, but somewhat moister than today. See discussion with references in Avner 1998:182-187. U. AVNER 409 fortresses: Iron Age, Late Roman and early Islamic.10 Water wells, water holes and sometimes even a flow of water over the surface were described by several researchers (Kitchener 1884:209-210; Hull 1885:82-83; Musil 1907 II:183-185, 253-256; Frank 1934:231-241, 263; Glueck 1935:40). Two different irrigation systems are distinguished in the Oasis. One was based on 11 water pools spread along a north-south strip of 3 km. Each one was excavated to a depth of 3-4 m and penetrated a high water table, the larg- est is ca. 40 x 40 m (Figs. 13, 14). In the past, the water was probably elevated from these pools into channels by means of a wooden arm (shaduf), and ran into the cultivated fields (Fig. 15).11 The time of the original construction of this system is unknown, however, Nabatean, Late Roman and Byzantine pottery scattered over a large area, indicates its main use during these periods. Aerial photographs (Fig. 16) show the ancient water channels, emphasized by vegetation lines of Bunchgrass (Desmostachya bipinnata), a nonindigenous Sudanian plant, introduced to the area through cultivation. Probes into these lines revealed simple, unlined water channels, dug ca. 50 cm wide and 50 cm deep into the original surface (Porat 1985:134). The second irrigation system at Yotvata is based on “Qanat” (= “Fogga- ras” or “Karez”) which are series of underground water tunnels dug into the alluvium, several km long, with a minimal gradient of ca. 0.2%. On the surface rows of circular dirt mounds are usually visible, 10-20 m apart (Fig. 17). A depression in the center of each mound denotes the location of a vertical shaft which reached the tunnel, but is filled today by dirt. During the tunnel’s construction, the shafts allowed ventilation for the workers and elevation of the excavated material, and later they served for maintenance of the system. The deeper end penetrated the aquifer, while water surfaced by means of gravitation at the other end. The main Qanat system in Yotvata is 4.5 km long, aligned north-south, partly paralleled by a second tunnel and with several tributary tunnel joining from the west (Figs. 13, 17). Calculations show that the deepest shafts in the north are ca.15 m. Another independent system, ca. 2 km long, was built in Nahal Aragaman, south of Yotvata, reaching a total length of over 10 km. This is the longest known system in Israel (but still short when compared to those in

10 Limited excavation was made by J. Porat (unpublished) in a large Nabatean public building near the spring, which may be a good candidate for a temple shown in the Tabula Pointingeriana, most probably dedicated to the goddess Diana. The three fortresses were partly excavated by Meshel (1990, 1993). 11 In Porat’s opinion (1985:132-137, 1987:109-111) these are “mother wells” of Qanat systems, but this needs correction. First, in the better preserved Qanats at Yotvata and Evrona, no such large depressions are observed. Second, in probes made by Porat in the channel of system C2 (Fig. 14) many Melanopsis and Melanoides, fresh water snails, were found. These were also found in large quantities in open channels in Yotvata and Evrona (Fig. 24), but were not found in the excavated Qanat at Evrona, since they do not live in the dark. Their presence in the probes indicate that this was an open channel, not a tunnel (see also note 12). 410 ANCIENT WATER MANAGEMENT IN THE SOUTHERN NEGEV

Iran, see e.g. Wulff 1968; Lambton 1992). One shaft was re-excavated by Evenari et al (1971:175) it reached the water table and the tunnel at a depth of 6 m. This tunnel was found lined by stones, but collapsed. Open channels distributed the water from the outlet of the tunnels to the cultivated plots. These channels are also emphasized by vegetation lines (Fig. 16), and several ancient plots are seen as a “checkerboard” pattern indicated by present vegetation. This pattern of ancient fields was still in a much better state of preservation in 1956, it covered 400 hectares and resembled modern cultivated fields (Evenari et al 1971:176, Fig. 108). It was previously suggested that the Qanat systems were introduced into the Levant during the Roman-Byzantine period (Rothenberg 1971:212, 218) or even the Persian period (5th-4th century B.C., Evenari et al 1971:178). How- ever, excavation in Qanat sites in Israel, in Fatsael, Ein Yahav and Evrona, demonstrated that they were all established during the Umayad period (Porat 1987:114). In three different locations at Yotvata the Qanat systems are inter- secting or overlapping the Nabatean-Byzantine water installation. Therefore, they were later and match the date of the other Qanat sites.12 The Qanats had several advantages: They exploited the aquifer without exposing it to evaporation (through open pools), and thereby saved water, minimized the water and soil salination, and made the managment of the complete irrigation system possible without the need of man-power to elevate the water. Today, it is not possible to distinguish between the Nabatean-Byzantine and the Early Islamic cultivated fields. Most probably, the earlier fields continued to be cultivated, but they reached their maximum dimensions during the Early Islamic period, with the advantage of the Qanat systems, The farm in Evrona was constructed on typical desert ground, with no previ- ous cultivation. It is based on a high water table, as indicated by the Evrona well 3 km to the north, but only the Qanat irrigation system enable its development. The total length of the Qanat remains unknown due to insufficient preservation of surface remains. The main line consists of two parallel tunnels, observed to a length of 600 m (Fig. 18), but an unfinished survey by ground radar (by U. Basson) added 500 m to the previously known length. Another branch, 400 m long, joins the main tunnel from the western side. A section of the eastern channel, 18 m long, was re-excavated by Porat and Avner between two shafts (Porat 1987:111). It was dug into the stony solid soil of the ‘Araba

12 The distinction between the two water systems at Yotvata and their relative chronology es- caped the attention of the earlier scholars (Frank 1934:250-263); Evenari et al (1971:173-178), Rothenberg (1967a:139-144, 1967b:291-293), Porat (1985:132-137) and Meshel (1990:33). Porat interpreted the remains as two stages of construction of the Early Islamic Qanats. Until recently it was not clear enough whether Qanats were known outside Iran before the Early Islamic period, 7th century A.D. Now, reports from Libya indicate that water systems safely identified as Qanats. became obsolete during the 5th century A.D. (Mattingly et al 1998:137-142) I thank A. Wilson for the information and the reference. U. AVNER 411

Valley, 5 m below surface in this section, unlined but well preserved (Fig. 19) and now open to visitors. The southern part of the system, which is closer to the surface, consists of a roofed channel built of stones, into an open ditch, and then covered (Fig. 20). The lower part of this channel is lined by hydraulic plaster, with sedimentation of travertine indicating the original water level, 40 cm from the bottom. A stone valve was found in situ in an open section of the roofed channel (Fig. 21), placed for regulating the flow of water into the reservoir. The roofed channel reaches a reservoir, 17.5 x 13.5 m, and only 0.8 m deep, built at the northwestern corner of the cultivated field (Figs. 18, 22). Three sides of the reservoir were sloped and lined with clay and cobbles (Fig. 23), the southern side was built as a vertical stone wall, lined by hydraulic plaster. A stone slab with a circular hole 12 cm in diameter, incorporated in this wall, served as a water valve for irrigating the field. During excavation of the reservoir, ample Melanopsis and Melanoides, fresh water snails, were found (Fig. 24), indicating sweet water (Avner in press). The cultivated field was well prepared, carefully leveled, cleared of rocks and surrounded by a stone and mud brick wall. On the western side a rampart was built which provided protection against floods. An aerial photograph (Fig. 25) shows the remains of narrow irrigation channels crisscrossing the field. Only 2 hectares of the field are preserved today; the rest was gradually washed away by floods once the farm was abandoned in the 11th century A.D. How- ever, additional remains of the rampart, found 1.5 km to the south, indicate that the original field covered ca. 300 hectares, close to that of Yotvata. The entire irrigation system was based on gravitation only, i.e. opening and closing the valves; no elevation of the water was necessary. The remains of crops found in the excavation included many date pits, as well as olive and peach pits, almond shells, carob seeds, wheat and barley. An attempt at pollen analysis was unsuccessful, and therefore the list of crops is surely incomplete. Based on the botanical finds, circular depressions barely observed in the aerial photo, and comparisons with present, traditional desert agriculture, it is possible to imagine “double story” agriculture (Fig. 26). A plantation of date and other fruit trees may have covered most of the area, while other crops, such as vegetables and legumes were grown underneath and between the trees. Three buildings were preserved in the farm. The main one, adjacent to the reservoir, originally contained only two rooms, but with later additions gradually extended to 26 x 29 m. At some point, one of the two original rooms was converted into a mosque. The farmhouse most probably served the overseer’s family and the professional staff, while the majority of the workers lived in tents. During the excavations, which remain unfinished, several notable finds were discovered, including seven Umayad coins and a few ostraca. The most 412 ANCIENT WATER MANAGEMENT IN THE SOUTHERN NEGEV complete ostracon (Fig. 27) is inscribed with a list of names and sums of money in derhams, apparently a list of salaries or debts. These ostraca represent the bureaucratic order of the farm. The farms at Yotvata and Evrona present a picture of intensive and success- ful early Islamic agriculture in the extreme desert conditions of the southern ‘Araba Valley. This picture concurs with the overall view of intensive early Is- lamic attempts of agricultural development across their empire. In addition, many new crops, especially from the Far East were introduced and spread over the empire, including spinach, eggplant, sorghum, sugar cane, banana, coco- nut, mango and several citrus varieties. Other crops, such as watermelon, rice and cotton, previously known only in limited areas, now became common- place (Watson 1983, Amar 1996). The products from the farms in Yotvata and Evrona, as well as near the city of Ayla, supported the cities’ inhabitants, the population of the villages on the western side of the ‘Araba Valley, the workers of the copper and gold mines and production camps, and the caravan mer- chants and pilgrims (Avner & Magness 1998).

SUMMARY

This paper presents several examples of ancient water management in the harsh desert of the southern Negev and southern ‘Araba Valley. The first were late-prehistoric, indigenous solutions for the need of water, for everyday use and for agriculture. The embankments of ‘Uvda Valley, and especially those in Nahal Paran, are the earliest well preserved remains of runoff water harvesting systems known to date in the Near East, beginning in the Chalcolithic or even Late Neolithic. This innovation, and others, enabled the population to develop a large scale, sustainable and durable settlement, in an area that today enjoys only 28 mm of an average average annual precipitation and some 4000 mm of annual potential evaporation. The Qanats, on the other hand, represent an imported technological solution. In Yotvata they enabled more efficient irrigation and a better water supply, which allowed irrigation of a larger area. In other places, however, as in the case of Evrona, the use of Qanats, most probably imported from Iran, enabled the establishment of agricultural farms and settlements where they were not previously possible.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Alon, D. 1988. The Extent and History of the Chalcolithic Settlement in the Southern Shefela. In D. Bauman and E. Stearn (eds.), Men and Environment in the South- ern Shefela, Israel. Pp. 84-89. Giv'ataim (Hebrew). Amar, Z. 1996. Agricultural Production in the Land of Israel During the Middle Ages. Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Bar-Ilan University (Hebrew). U. AVNER 413

Avner, U. 1989. Survey of Macaleh Shaharut. ESI 7/8:114–6. Avner U., I. Carmi and D. Segal. 1994. Neolithic to Bronze Age Settlement of the Negev and Sinai in Light of Radiocarbon Dating, A View From the Southern Re- gion. In R. Kra and O. Bar-Yosef (eds.), Late Quaternary Chronology and Paleoclimates of the Eastern Mediterranean. Pp. 265-300. Tucson. Avner, U. 1998. Settlement, Agriculture and Paleoclimate in ‘Uvda Valley, Southern Negev Desert, 6th – 3rd Millennia B.C. In. A. Issar and N. Brown (eds.), Water, Environment and Society in Times of Climate Change. Pp. 147-202. Dordrecht. Avner, U. In press. Evrona, An Early Islamic Agricultural Farm in the Southern Aravah Valley. Atiqot (Hebrew). Avner, U. and I. Carmi. In press. Settlement Pattern in the Southern Levant Desert, 6th-3rd Millennia B.C. in Light of 14C Dating. In I. Carmi (ed.), Proceedings of the Radiocarbon Conference, Jerusalem 2000. Jerusalem. Avner U. and J. Magness. 1998. Early Islamic Settlement in the Southern Negev. BASOR 310:39-57. Barkai, R. 1996. The Flint Assemblage From Nahal Zehora I, A Wadi Raba Site in the Menashe Hills: The Implications of a Technological and Typological Analysis. Unpublished MA thesis. Tel Aviv University. Tel Aviv. (Hebrew). Cohen R. 1980. Excavation of Site 13 in ‘Uvda Valley. Hadashot Archeologiot 74- 75:42-3. (Hebrew). Evenari M., L. Shanan and N. Tadmor. 1971. The Negev, the Challenge of the Desert. Cambridge Finkel, H. and M. Finkel. 1979. Water Runoff in the ‘Arabah. In A. Shmueli and J. Gradus (eds.), The Land of the Negev. Pp. 125-139. Tel Aviv (Hebrew) Forenbaher, S. 1997. A Terminal Neolithic/Chalcolithic Lithic Assemblage from Har Harif (Central Negev Highlands). JIPS 27:83-100. Frank, F. 1934. Aus der ‘‘Araba. ZDPV 57:191-280. Galili, E. and Y. Nir. 1993. The Submerged Pre-Pottery Neolithic Water Well of Atlit- Yam, Northern Israel, and its Palaeoenvironmental Implications. Holocene 3:265- 270. Glueck, N. 1935. Explorations in Eastern Palestine II. AASOR 15:1-202. Hull, F. 1885. Mount Seir, Sinai and Western Palestine 4. London Lambton, A.K.S. 1992. The Qanats of Yazd. JRAS 3:21-35. Levy, T.E. (ed.). 1987. Shiqmim 1. BAR Int. Ser. 356. Oxford. Levy, T.E. and D. Alon. 1987. Excavations in Shiqmim Cemetery 3: Final Report on the 1982 Excavations. In T.E. Levy (ed.), Shiqmim I. Pp. 333-355. BAR Int. Ser. 356. Oxford. Marx, E. 1988. The Ecological Base of the Beduin Society. In J. Eini and E. Orion (eds.), The Beduins, Notes and Articles. Pp. 73-95. Ben Gurion University, Be'er Sheva. (Hebrew). Mattingly, D.J., M. al-Mashai, H. Aburgheba, P. Balcombe, E. Eastauh, M. Gillings, A. Leone, S. McLaren, P. Owen, R. Pelling, T. Reynolds, L. Stirling, D. Thomas, D. Watson, A.I. Wilson and K. White. 1998. The Fezzan Project: Prelimnary Re- port on the Second Season of Work. Libyan Studies 29:115-144. Mellaart, J. 1970. Hacilar I. Edinburgh. Meshel, Z.1990. Yotvata Oasis, Its History Landscape and Sites. Eiloth Regional Council. (Hebrew). Meshel, Z. 1993. Yotvata. In, E. Stern (ed.), The New Encyclopedia of Archaeological Excavations in the Holy Land. 1517-1520. New York. Musil, A. 1907. Arabia Petraea, Vol. II. Vienna. Musil, A. 1926. The Northern Hegaz. New York. 414 ANCIENT WATER MANAGEMENT IN THE SOUTHERN NEGEV

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Fig. 1. Map of the southern Negev, with location of sites mentioned in the paper. 416 ANCIENT WATER MANAGEMENT IN THE SOUTHERN NEGEV

Fig. 2. Survey of ‘Uvda Valley (due to the map scale, not all sites are shown). U. AVNER 417

Fig. 4. Flood in eastern ‘Uvda Valley, from north.

Fig. 3. Waterfall in N. ‘Issaron, eastern ‘Uvda Valley, following a short rain.

Fig. 5. A growth of wild cereal in eastern ‘Uvda Valley, following a flood.

Fig. 6. Remains of enbankments in eastern ‘Uvda Valley.

Fig. 7. Remains of limans in N. Paran.

Fig. 8. Ground plan of limans in N. Paran. 418 ANCIENT WATER MANAGEMENT IN THE SOUTHERN NEGEV

Fig. 9. Late Neolithic-Calcolithic flint tools from Fig. 10. Remains of water dams in eastern ‘Uvda N. Paran limans. Valley.

Fig. 11. A 4th millennium B.C. habitation site in eastern ‘Uvda Valley, built in a depression which collected rain water.

Fig. 13. Map of water systems in the Yotvata Oasis as surveyed by Evenari (1971, Fig. 105b), Fig. 12. A 5th-3rd millennia B.C. water well in with addition of open pools documented by Frank eastern ‘Uvda Valley. (1934, Plan 26). U. AVNER 419

Fig. 14. An aerial photo of a Nabatean-Byzan- Fig. 15. A water pool at Yotvatan, with a chan- tine water pool north of Yotvata (temporarily filled nel leading to the cultivated fields. with rain water).

Fig. 16. An aerial photo of vegetation lines at Yotvata, indicating ancient water channels (inter- sected by a modern road.

Fig. 17. An aerial photo of Qanats at Yotvata, a Fig. 18. Map of Evrona Farm. Solid line denotes section of the main line. exposed or excavated elements, broken line denotes below surface or conjectured elements. 420 ANCIENT WATER MANAGEMENT IN THE SOUTHERN NEGEV

Fig. 21. Water channel at Fig. 19. A reexcavated section Fig. 20. A section of the roofed Evrona, with a regulation valve, of the water tunnel at Evrona. channel at Evrona. With a plas- temporarily filled with rain tered bottom.. water.

Fig. 22. Water channel at Evrona, crossing the Fig. 23. Remains of the clay and stone lining in field's fence and reaching the reservoir (during the Evrona reservoir. excavation, from north).

Fig. 24. Fresh water snails from the Evrona reservoir. U. AVNER 421

Fig. 25. Evrona farm, an aerial photo of the cultivated field, from west, showing the surrounding fence, the rampart for protection from floods, the reservoir (before excavation), remains of irrigation channels and the main building (during excavation).

Fig. 26. Traditional “double story” agriculture in Fig. 27. An ostracon from the main building in northern Sinai. the Evrona Farm, apparently with a list of salaries (Porat 1987:112).