The Bureaucracy of Honor. the Habsburg Consular Service and the History of Emotions

ADMINISTORY

ZEITSCHRIFT FÜR VERWALTUNGSGESCHICHTE

BAND 3, 2018 SEITE 164–184

D O I : 10.2478/ADHI-2018-0041

The Bureaucracy of Honor. The Habsburg Consular Service and the History of Emotions

ALISON FRANK JOHNSON 1

Mich schreckt kein Tod, als Mann zu handeln, and satisfaction comes entirely from the bureaucratic Den Weg der Tugend fort zu wandeln. archives of the Austro-Hungarian Ministry of Foreign Schliesst mir des Schreckens Pforten auf!2 Affairs. Through these records, the storytellers transform one gentleman’s personal embarrassment Es ist meine Pflicht, ihm als Freund entgegenzutreten.3 into the business of bureaucracy – a group project, that is, representing a shared commitment to protect the honor of the empire itself. Introduction Around the turn of the twentieth century, Austria- Hungary’s Ministry of Foreign Affairs sent diplomats and This is a story about bureaucratic storytelling, about consuls all over the world. Every consulate produced civil servants whose impartiality and professionalism stack upon stack of paper.4 Thanks to what István Deák lay at the core of their self-identity and about the called »centuries of bureaucratic punctiliousness«, the emotional richness of the records they kept about their paperwork sent back to Vienna was preserved in an professional lives. The protagonists served as consuls archive.5 The management of paper was a core part of in the Habsburg Monarchy’s large foreign service. The what made the bureaucrat a recognizable professional emotions were honor and, most particularly, the rage type: from the lowliest postal official to the emperor and astonishment that came after insult. The insults himself; the processing, organizing, producing, and were slurs, slaps, scoldings – over cards, over a cab, over distributing of paper lay at the heart of the management the use of Hungarian – over incidents that now seem of empire.6 Countless boxes were sorted by place trivial but were of mortal importance to the men in these (»Yokohama«7), by subject matter (»Slave Trade«8), or by stories. The stories in question explained the legitimacy name (»Czerwenka, Waldemar«). Some consuls’ papers of the outrage and the necessity of (occasionally life- were spread out across the files of the various consular threatening) actions taken to restore equilibrium. The posts they held. Other consuls’ files, however, were resolutions ranged from fully satisfactory to personally given their own folder in Fach 4, »Personalia«. devastating. The evidence for these stories of insult

That is the case of the three consuls whose stories (Consuls likely did not know that the moral character are examined here. I read through their files for and financial circumstances of their brides became the reasons unconnected to the subject of this essay – each subjects of »discrete« police investigation.12). But, not of them had submitted a complaint about the Austrian one of these files is professionally irrelevant. Marriage Lloyd.9 I was curious about the consuls’ credibility was discouraged because consuls had to be constantly vis à vis the Lloyd, a private but publicly subsidized mobile; absences affected the functioning of the offices; shipping company that was among the largest and illnesses might endanger the suitability of the consul most powerful corporations in the Habsburg monarchy. for future employment. Everything in these files is Could I learn more about the Lloyd by looking closely there because of its relevance to the management of at the consuls who criticized it? Perhaps the consuls’ the consular service and not because of its value in personnel files would provide evidence of how reliable recreating the personalities of the consuls themselves. their supervisors considered their reports. I looked for When an engagement was called off, there was no evidence left by a rational bureaucracy – whom did speculation about the cause, no expression of regret the experts believe? What I found was evidence that at a heart possibly broken (his? hers?).13 Such musings the glue holding the consular corps together was not would be out of place in the records of the bureaucracy rational bureaucracy but a homosocial honor culture of masculine respectability. that repeatedly synthesized emotion into the language Yet, despite their ostensible commitment to of dispassionate evaluation. Austria-Hungary’s professionalism and dispassionate reporting of their consular bureaucracy was a community created not daily business, the files also offer glimpses of the only by training and purpose but also by feeling.10 But, emotional lives of men in the consular service – the those feelings were carefully circumscribed – certain consuls and their colleagues and supervisors. They feelings, in certain locations, and at certain times, were show, at times, the emotional resonance of the spirit of absolutely compatible with the professional decorum of solidarity that emerged from the common commitment the gentleman-bureaucrat and were, moreover, part of to the consular corps. Consuls were expected to be the consulate’s business. impartial in their treatment of Habsburg subjects In some ways, the personnel files of Waldemar abroad who required their support, intervention, Czerwenka, Dominik Szathmáry Király, and Maximilian or service; they were expected to embody standards Kutschera are opaque and unrevealing, shorn of uninflected by emotional engagement. Superiors personal detail. The files are full of notifications of treated transgressions severely, yet consuls could their arrival at or departure from various posts, call on one another’s empathy and support when acknowledgments of reassignments, requests for their misbehaviors were considered understandable reimbursement of expenditures for professional responses to emotional challenges they faced in the purposes, permission to go on vacation or take leave field. When a consul’s honor was insulted, for example, for mandatory military training, complaints about his colleagues rushed to support his attempts to gain local inflation and requests for pay raises, assessments satisfaction. These files doubly undermine the notion of of eligibility for promotions, requests to marry, and bureaucracy as dry and rational – first by acknowledging reviews of eligibility for pensions. Some of these are consuls’ emotional responses to personal challenges clearly professional – they involve the appropriate use and second by marshaling the bureaucracy’s resources of funds, the maintenance of necessary staffing levels, to respond to those challenges. In other words, they blur the functioning of the office, and the assessment of the boundaries not only between the consul’s personal promotions and raises. Sometimes, they border on the and professional lives but also between one man’s very personal. Processing a lawyer’s request to track private affairs and the bureaucracy’s business. down a consul’s income for a paternity suit divulges more It is tempting to think of honor – especially the honor about the consul’s past than he might wish.11 Processing of a nineteenth century European ›gentleman‹ as the Alison Frank Johnson — The Bureaucracy of Honor Johnson — The Bureaucracy Alison Frank

a consul’s request for permission to marry exposes more most personal of attributes. It speaks to a man’s outer

165 information to the historian than to the consul himself. bearing and his innermost worth. »Honour«, Ute Frevert AD INISTORY 3/2018

has written, is »an emotional disposition focusing on a be more precise, a disposition whose emotional power person’s moral and physical integrity«.14 What could has more or less vanished«.21 These documents were be more personal, more individual, than »moral and composed at a time when their readers counted honor physical integrity«?15 One might thus expect individual among the »most noteworthy emotions«.22 Frevert, honor to have no place in an advanced, modern Julian Pitt-Rivers, Frank Henderson Stewart, and others bureaucracy. »Bureaucracy«, Patrick Joyce explains, have defined honor at length, in multiple studies.23 As »depends on the extinction of the individual personality Henderson Stewart has discussed, at the heart of most of of the bureaucrat and its replacement by what is these definitions is some recognition that honor implies designed to be regarded as the neutral, and therefore, both an internal and an external element.24 Henderson autonomous, personhood of the bureaucrat«.16 The concludes that honor is a »claim-right«, that is, the right nineteenth century German jurist Rudolf von Jhering of a bearer, who has certain qualities that entitle him (in remarked on the same phenomenon in anguish, the case of the gendered male honor under discussion perhaps even disgust, when he contrasted the rights of in these cases) to respect, to claim from the world that people of »especially high birth« and even »officers« to he be treated with the respect he deserves.25 Since these defend with violence insults to their honor against the consuls were officers in the Austro-Hungarian military, expectation that »civil servants (Staatsbeamten) cannot they were considered, in Kwame Appiah’s words, to be afforded the same«. This state of affairs threatened, be people »of the right station« who knew how to according to Jhering, to make of Germany a »society »keep the codes« of their »honor world«.26 The phrase of moral eunuchs«.17 In each of these cases, personnel »honor world« raises the question of the relevance of in the consulate and in the Ministry of Foreign Affairs William Reddy’s concept of the emotional »regime«, cooperated to defend the »moral and physical integrity« which he defines as »The set of normative emotions of an »individual personality« by making his honor and the official rituals, practices, and ›emotives‹ that their business. A consul’s ability to defend his honor, far express and inculcate them; a necessary underpinning from being extinguished by his professional obligations of any stable political regime«.27 »Style«, he continues, to the bureaucracy, was promoted by it.18 »becomes ›regime‹ when the sum of the penalties and Each of these cases involved the bureaucratic exclusions adds up to a coherent structure, and the issue processing of a man’s – and indeed an entire consulate’s – of conformity becomes defining for the individual«.28 response to an insult made while the consul himself was The consuls’ emotional regime was maintained not ›off-duty‹. Insult, like marriage or mental health, was a only through negative consequences – shame and de- matter of professional relevance. A consul’s honor, to commissioning (for officers) for failing to uphold one’s borrow a phrase from Ute Frevert, was »a professional honor – but also by what amounted to informal state asset of crucial importance«.19 Bureaucrats recorded, in subventions for those who did conform. the administrative record, their response to threats to I am, however, also struck by the limits to this nearly the honor of a consul, even if those threats took place unimaginable world of honor obsession – that is, by outside the consulate itself. The necessity of demanding the traces of a very easily imaginable reluctance to die satisfaction (Satisfaktion) was part of that response. over a few words uttered in irritation over a game of Satisfaction implied an obligation to be willing to break cards. The consuls were willing to risk their lives to the law in order to remain professionally relevant and protect their honor. But they were not indifferent to personally honorable.20 life or death; this is where their peers in the consulate In reading these files, I was struck by the juxtaposition played such a critical role. »It is neither the bullet nor between the emotionally familiar and the emotionally the sword that kill«, noted the infamous nineteenth foreign. Historians are trained to expect emotions to be century wit, Alphonse Karr, »it is the seconds!«29 A variable across time. The consuls’ files show a concern duel that took place was the result of the failure of the with honor and ideas about the appropriate ways seconds to propose, persuasively, an alternative method Alison Frank Johnson — The Bureaucracy of Honor Johnson — The Bureaucracy Alison Frank

to respond to insult that are hard to relate to today. of providing the insulted party with ›satisfaction‹.

166 »Honour«, as Ute Frevert argues, is »a lost emotion, or, to These three cases provide an example of how such a AD INISTORY 3/2018

›failure‹ – and the resultant duel – could be justified discipline around the maintenance of honor, however, to governmental authorities who knew very well but also helped them meet expectations and preserve that dueling was illegal. They also show examples honor. The files, that is, record not simply the honor of of how consuls had a different notion of what was individual bureaucratic functionaries but honor as a required to maintain their honor than, say, journalists. function of bureaucracy. Affairs of honor – wounded feelings, volatile tempers, The openness with which consular officials endangered lives – both penetrated and repurposed the reported that they had recommended dueling to their bureaucracy’s administrative apparatus. subordinates, served as seconds, helped to arrange Austro-Hungarian consuls belonged to two different, duels, overseen the production of ›rules of engagement‹ overlapping »honor worlds«, each with its own codes of for duels, and warned their subordinates of the conduct. Piskur’s Consularwesen and Malfatti’s Handbuch consequences of not dueling is revealing. Dueling in des österreichisch-ungarischen Konsularwesens, in Austria, remember, was illegal according to civilian and multiple editions, laid out regulations and expectations. military law.36 Leo XIII issued an encyclical addressed Consuls, however, were also often reserve officers and to the »Archbishops and Bishops of the German Empire had a responsibility to protect the corporate honor of and Austria-Hungary« condemning dueling.37 Yet, even the officer corps.30 After the new military law of 1868 men who regarded dueling as barbaric and antiquated introduced universal conscription, a graduate of the still felt the need to demand »Satisfaktion« in order Consular Academy could only get an attaché post, or to prove they were not cowards. Renowned socialists Elevenstelle, once he had completed service as a »one- dueled to defend their masculine honor.38 The Anti- year volunteer« or Einjährig-Freiwilliger.31 Completing Dueling League condoned some duels even as it strove this year of service also entitled him to sit for an to reduce their number; it should really have been called examination that, if passed, allowed him to become the Anti-Frivolous-Dueling League.39 A 1908 New York a lieutenant in the reserve.32 Both Szathmáry Király Times article lamented the fact that a diplomat stationed and Czerwenka were reserve lieutenants in the army; in Central Europe who refused to duel became a coward Kutschera had served as a full-time lieutenant in the even in the eyes of people who found dueling childish, navy. As civil servants, consuls knew how to consult anachronistic, and barbaric.40 Faced with the choice instruction manuals. Nineteenth century publications of losing a diplomatic post over breaking the law and about honor and dueling codified strict expectations »foreit[ing] whatever social standing and prestige he for maintaining honor and horrible consequences for may have previously had in his own country« as a result losing it. According to Frank Stewart Henderson, »the of his cowardice, the author concluded that »it is better most intensive and sophisticated discussion of honor to fight, even at the risk of dismissal from the diplomatic in any European language is probably to be found service«.41 One Austro-Hungarian officer who attempted in the writings of the German lawyers during the to refuse to duel on conscientious grounds in 1900 was nineteenth and twentieth centuries«.33 Dueling codes stripped of his commission because, a court of honor laid out in great detail how that was to be done – and concluded, he »had wounded the honor of the corps by represent, borrowing a phrase from Stearns, documents avoiding a duel through the citation of inane pretexts establishing the »emotionology« of the officer corps.34 and unjustified preconditions«.42 Dueling undeniably The officer’s social pressure to demand satisfaction came with a cost – but the cost of not dueling sometimes when insulted and to accept a challenge, if offered, seemed greater.43 was documented in literature, in the press, in military Wherever they traveled, Austro-Hungarian consuls personnel files. There is no doubt that a man of honor brought this honor world with them. In 1904, there who refused to respond with the appropriate degree were 493 Austro-Hungarian consulates, with locations of outrage to an insult put his career at risk.35 That is on every inhabited continent.44 Consulates were »public the world in which these three consuls, Czerwenka, government agencies« responsible for »representing Alison Frank Johnson — The Bureaucracy of Honor Johnson — The Bureaucracy Alison Frank

Szathmáry Király, and Kutschera, lived and worked. foreign trade and shipping interests abroad, protecting

167 Their professional communities not only enforced Austrian nationals abroad, and supervising, promoting, AD INISTORY 3/2018

and strengthening the international relations of the behavior towards all« and »strict impartiality« as imperial state by means of orderly official activity at two of the consul’s foundational duties.54 Habsburg the most important commercial locations«.45 Consulates consuls were bureaucrats, and their correspondence served the needs of individual expatriates in distress and records were meticulously preserved in reports but were primarily intended to cultivate trade and to the Ministry of Foreign Affairs in Vienna. These serve domestic interests; consuls, although frequently documents were numbered, and stamped, and filed transferred from one post to another, were expected away. Indeed, the very production of this paperwork to develop specific expertise in each geographic area – the »labour of opening, reading, docketing, drafting, where they were stationed.46 Unlike high-ranking writing, copying, filing, and posting letters«, in David diplomats, who were often chosen on the basis of family Vincent’s words – was constitutive of the bureaucracy’s connections, they had the biographies and family »rationality« itself.55 As Patrick Joyce has explained, backgrounds of typical mid-rank civil servants.47 »bureaucrats as well as the institution of bureaucracy Most consuls were highly educated.48 They were, at were produced through the routines and material a minimum, expected to be familiar with law, domestic practices of bureaucratic work«.56 Consuls submitted and international politics, and the principles of business receipts, noted comings and goings, and recorded administration. They were required to be proficient promotions and reassignments. They submitted reports in German, Italian, French, and a variety of other on economic opportunities, exports, and imports. languages. »Spotless moral character« was expected, Mountains of paper became monuments to impartiality although Deusch’s compendium of biographies makes and rationality. When consuls were evaluated, they clear that spotlessness, like honor, was a difficult were praised for being »eminently useful«57 (vorzüglich matter for bureaucrats to judge.49 There were periodic verwendbar) or displaying »exquisite official usability«58 complaints that the consuls’ education was shallow, their (vorzügliche dienstliche Verwendbarkeit), which turned knowledge of foreign language superficial, their fluency usefulness, serviceability or suitability for work into an in codes of conduct and social mores inadequate and that accolade. they needed more »social education« and »instruction But consular officials were not automatons. As in propriety«.50 These complaints emphasize how representatives of the imperial-royal government, they much was expected of the role – »exact knowledge of had to be dispassionate, yes, but they were also expected the fatherland’s own institutions, laws, and governing to use discretion, to care for their charges with feeling. principles as well as of the needs of Austrian commerce As not only ›advisors, protectors, and intermediaries‹, and trade«, not to mention specialized expertise and but in some countries also judges for Austrian and local language based on the assignment, all this on top Hungarian nationals, they represented the Imperial- of the »general professional qualifications for state Royal government. »Their important position«, the service«.51 author of an 1862 manual on the Austrian Consular Expertise, however, was no substitute for high birth, Service explained, »as discriminating correspondents and, as in other European empires, consuls did not [einsichtsvoller Berichterstatter] and as intellectually enjoy the status of diplomats or aristocrats.52 They were agile [geistig lebendiges] agents of state power« required chosen not to stand out for personal excellence but to »peculiar« forms of »preparation«.59 Consuls were the blend in to a bureaucracy of reliability and competence. government’s eyes and ears abroad – they needed to By the late nineteenth century, European powers observe carefully, with sensitivity, and report back to like the Habsburg Monarchy had highly developed Vienna on what they had seen. They needed to anticipate bureaucracies staffed by career civil servants. True to commercial opportunities and obstacles and to respond type, consular officials were expected to be competent to Habsburg subjects’ needs with discretion. They were and impartial, in Max Weber’s oft-quoted formulation, not only calm, cool, collected, but also quick-witted »functionaries who have specialized training and who (»geistig lebendig«). In mid-century Britain, there was Alison Frank Johnson — The Bureaucracy of Honor Johnson — The Bureaucracy Alison Frank 53

by constant practice increase their expertise«. The some pushback against the idea that »expertise« was

168 Habsburg Consular Service Handbook listed »respectable enough to make a good representative: »Brilliant talent AD INISTORY 3/2018

and great acquirements are far less useful than moral In February 1886, Szathmáry Király was still a qualities, in the holders of permanent offices«, wrote young man – just barely 29 and not quite six years into Early Grey in 1855.60 Those moral qualities reflected his service in the consular corps. He was a reserve on the individual and the office he held. Habsburg lieutenant and a vice consul with experience in Trieste, consuls were proud – of their own standing, of their Shkodër (Scutari, Albania), and Pljevlja (Montenegro) emperor – but also respectful, even of the most modest behind him and had been serving in Galați, Romania, subjects entrusted to their care. »The consular official, for three years. One cold winter morning, Szathmáry and especially the head of an office, is obligated to Király was approached in his office by Robert Matsek, protect the prestige of the imperial government and the a reserve corporal (Unterjäger, the lowest rank of Austrian name, as well as to conform externally through Unteroffizier, or non-commissioned officer [NCO]) who his tactful bearing as well as his dignified, respectable was traveling abroad as the mechanical assistant of a behavior, both on and off-duty, to the position accorded panorama owner and needed to report his presence in him«.61 For a consul who took this charge seriously, his the area. When Szathmáry Király had trouble finding personal standing and the prestige of the empire itself the relevant stamp in Matsek’s military pass, Matsek were intertwined. reached across the vice consul’s desk69 to show him the correct page. Szathmáry Király reprimanded Matsek for gesticulating »directly under [his] nose« and told him Dominik Szathmáry Király62 to stand at attention. Although Szathmáry Király was a reserve lieutenant and Matsek a reserve NCO, this The archival record leaves little doubt: Dominik interaction occurred in civilian attire, while neither Szathmáry Király was a difficult man. One superior man was on active duty. Matsek refused to take orders complained about his »headstrong and disagreeable from Szathmáry Király. Their conversation became ever disposition«.63 He fought in at least two duels,64 his more heated until Szathmáry Király slapped Matsek superiors confidentially requested his transfer at least twice and ordered guards to remove him from the twice,65 he was the subject of at least three civilian consulate. Matsek filed a complaint, first in person with complaints for discriminatory and unprofessional the consul general, who tried to make peace between the behavior,66 he was transferred once as part of a two men, and then formally in writing. The consulate disciplinary proceeding,67 and he was once sent to the conducted an investigation during which Szathmáry tropics to replace a man who had died of yellow fever Király, Matsek, and the panorama owner (as a witness) – one can only speculate about the hoped-for outcome provided sworn testimony. of that assignment. The head of a legation in a country Szathmáry Király’s own statement regarding his where he served as general consul noted with despair altercation with Matsek concedes his heightened state that he »was duty bound to consider him a friend and of emotional agitation. Even after Matsek reached not an enemy« but found the task exceedingly difficult.68 »under [his] nose« (unter meiner Nase70) toward his Yet, his promotions continued apace. It seems likely that military pass, Szathmáry Király spoke »in a calm tone« most of the men who worked with Szathmáry Király did (im ruhigen Tone), whereas, he reported, Matsek spoke not like him. It is nevertheless possible to distinguish in »an animated tone« (in animirten Tone) and in a clearly between those bouts of anger that his peers »defiant manner« (trotziger Weise). As Matsek become understood and defended, and those that left their »more agitated« (erregt), Szathmáry Király confessed brows furrowed. Szathmáry Király’s case demonstrates that he »also became agitated« (ich bin auch erregt clearly that there was considerable sympathy for worden) and even indignant (ungehalten). Szathmáry – or at least tolerance and enabling of – a consul’s Király’s demand that Matsek stand at attention left the emotional volatility under certain circumstances but latter »beside himself with rage« (ganz außer sich zu that channeling those emotions in approved ways was a bringen). Then came the critical moment for Szathmáry Alison Frank Johnson — The Bureaucracy of Honor Johnson — The Bureaucracy Alison Frank

critical component of professional, that is, bureaucratic, Király. Matsek »stamped with his feet on the ground

169 competence. and gesticulated with his hands, as one commonly AD INISTORY 3/2018

does in order to emphasize something one has said to share a view of »gentlemanly« behavior that had taken through gestures«. Although Szathmáry Király could hold in Britain: the gentleman »endureth all things, later describe these hand gestures as »common«, in the keeps [his] temper, and keeps [his] tongue«.74 Szathmáry moment, they enraged him. »This behavior of the man Király’s agitation was understandable, but it was also caused me to lose my composure and I screamed at him, unprofessional. Since Matsek was not satisfaktionsfähig, ›You, if you continue with this, I don’t know what I’ll there was no appropriate outlet for Szathmáry Király’s do, if you keep up this shameless behavior, you’ll get anger. He could not demand satisfaction, so he could slapped‹«. receive none. Unsatisfied, he had acted on the principle This, predictably did not help Matsek regain his own of »Ehrennotwehr« – but a more appropriate way to have composure, and as he stamped and banged on the table, protected the dignity of his office would have been to Szathmáry Király confessed, he »was carried away treat Matsek with paternal severity but without physical by a surge of emotion and slapped him twice in quick engagement. The disciplinary panel in Vienna agreed succession« (ließ mich in meiner Aufwallung hinreißen, that Szathmáry Király was at fault and disciplined him demselben rasch zwei Ohrfeigen zu versetzen). It did with relocation to a different consulate at the same not take long for Szathmáry Király to regain his lost pay. Since his relocation was a punishment, he was not composure; he calmed down as Matsek tussled with the entitled to the subsidies of moving costs that normally guard sent to expel him from the consulate. Szathmáry were provided. Király, a native speaker of Hungarian himself, heard Szathmáry Király’s disciplinary transfer to Matsek speaking Hungarian and »realizing that I had Bucharest, if it taught him anything, did not teach him insulted the man«, he politely invited Matsek back into how to control his feelings. Nor was that really what he the office, this time switching from German to their was expected to do. Szathmáry Király’s transfer might shared language in order to appear more sympathetic. lead one to believe the Habsburg foreign service held Matsek, however, did not deign to acknowledge their true to the expectation, apparently prevalent in Britain, common tongue and replied »roughly« in German that that a gentleman »avoids what the French call scenes – he would not come in. Szathmáry Király knew he was occasions of exhibition, in which the vulgar delight. He wrong to »assault the man physically« and reported his of course has feelings, but he never exhibits any to the mistake to his superior in the consulate. In the written world«.75 Easier said than done. Less than a year after report that he submitted as part of the disciplinary the incident with Matsek, Szathmáry Király’s ›violent inquiry, he noted, »I sincerely regret that I wronged feelings‹ once came to his superiors’ attention, and Matsek and insulted him; but I regret still more – and beg this time, they rushed to his aid. It was 6 January 1887, you to permit me to express my genuine feelings in this the day before Szathmáry Király’s 30th birthday. He regard – that through this incident I injured the esteem was returning to Bucharest by train, in civilian dress. and dignity of my office«.71 (Although consuls were entitled to wear uniforms, with In evaluating his misconduct, the Commission noted ribbons and buttons and trim all regulated as carefully as aggravating the fact that Szathmáry Király had carried as military uniforms, they were not regularly required out the misdeed »in office and while performing his to wear them.76) Upon his arrival at the Bucharest North official duties«. As mitigating, however, the Commission Station, Szathmáry Király gave a porter his handbag considered Szathmáry Király’s »agitation« (Aufregung), and the claim check for his luggage. The porter placed his »violent emotions« (heftige Gemüthsbewegung) Szathmáry Király’s handbag in a cab (Fiaker) and went and his sincere regret.72 The consular commission’s to retrieve the rest of his luggage. At the same time, a investigation was reviewed by Department 10 in Vienna, Romanian officer, whose uniform identified him asa which concluded that »Szathmáry’s [sic] behavior did not Dorobanti Major in the Royal Romanian Army, came involve anything exactly dishonorable, but nevertheless, from the train, exchanged a few words with the porter the coarse, nearly brutal conduct of this consular official as they passed in the hall, and then went to the wagon Alison Frank Johnson — The Bureaucracy of Honor Johnson — The Bureaucracy Alison Frank

towards one of his wards (Schutzbefohlene) does not allow ›reserved‹ for Szathmáry Király and tossed the latter’s

170 for a mild punishment«. Here, the commission seemed handbag on the ground (in den Koth). AD INISTORY 3/2018

Szathmáry Király approached the wagon and said, Király then stepped into another wagon that had been in French, »Pardon, Monsieur, this wagon has been procured he knew not whence and rode into town. occupied for me, as you saw«.77 The officer replied, in As was his duty (unerläßliche Pflicht), he reported the Romanian, that the wagon was not already »occupied« incident immediately in person and followed up with a and that he himself occupied it, a statement he made written report the next day. Such a breach of protocol factually incontrovertible by climbing into the wagon by a representative of the state required a full and open as he spoke. »Very unpleasantly affected (betroffen) by confession. the officer’s behavior«, Szathmáry Király demanded, Yet, it turns out that the protocols in question were repeatedly and insistently (wiederholt und eindringlich), not those governing the behavior of civil servants but that the major acknowledge his claim to the wagon. those stipulating the responsibilities and prerogatives of The major screamed (according to Szathmáry Király), gentlemen. Karl Heidler Freiherr (Baron) von Egeregg, alternating between Romanian and French, that the chargé d’affaires and highest-ranking diplomat in Szathmáry Király was a barbarian and (all interviewed the Austro-Hungarian legation in Bucharest, provided witnesses agreed) punched him in the face, which Szathmáry Király every imaginable assistance in »immediately caused his upper lip to swell«. Szathmáry his effort to secure satisfaction. Heidler personally Király countered (ripostirte) with his umbrella. The approached the Romanian Minister of War to uncover major called for the gendarmerie, and Szathmáry the identity of the renegade major. The minister not Király felt himself pulled backward from behind; his only provided his name – Major Lazaresco – but placed hat tumbled to the ground (in den Koth). At the same him in arrest within his garrison. At Heidler’s insistence, moment, a porter, who recognized Szathmáry Király, Szathmáry Király chose as his seconds Consul General »crossed himself« and called out: »For God’s sake, what Alexander Ritter von Suzzara and a Romanian who have you done, that’s the Austrian [sic] Vice Consul!«78 »belonged to the first society locally«.81 These two The gendarme immediately released Szathmáry Király.79 convinced Lazaresco of the necessity of a duel with Free to move, Szathmáry Király approached relatively severe terms (Lazaresco’s seconds suggested the wagon and said to the major, again in French, swords, and they insisted on pistols; Lazaresco’s seconds »Monsieur, you owe me satisfaction, I ask that you suggested one shot at 40 paces, and they demanded two give me your name«. The major replied, »I will not shots at 25 paces).82 The men met at the racetrack at 9 in give you satisfaction, I will not tell you my name«.80 the morning on 8 January. Both survived. Immediately Szathmáry Király offered his calling card, while saying following the duel, the seconds confirmed that »honor »But, Monsieur, you heard that I am the Austrian [sic] had been satisfied«, and the two duelists »shook hands vice consul, here is my card«. The major refused to and embraced (umarmt)«.83 Major Lazaresco explained take the card. Szathmáry Király laid the card in his that the insult had been directed »not at the imperial lap, repeating »you will give me satisfaction, tell me royal vice consul and reserve officer Mr. von Szathmáry, your name«. The major said not a word. At this point, whom he did not even know, but at an utterly unfamiliar according to his own telling, Szathmáry Király was person«.84 Where there had been disrespect, even »beside« himself (»ich war hierüber außer mir«) and deathly enmity, there was now a »fraternal bond« – looked in all directions for a witness to this travesty. exactly what the rigorously ritualized structure of the He saw two Romanian officers three or four steps away, duel was supposed to accomplish.85 and turned to them saying, »Pardon, Messieurs, you This case generated dozens and dozens of pages are witnesses that this gentleman (Monsieur) refuses to of documents, now preserved in the Haus-, Hof- und give me satisfaction and to tell me his name«. One of the Staatsarchiv. Heidler sent a report about the incident officers replied, in Romanian, »nu cunoştim«, (we do not to Vienna with six attachments: a) the seconds’ know) and they turned away. When Szathmáry Király documentation of the rules of engagement for a turned back to the wagon, he saw the major ride away, planned duel to resolve the matter; b) the seconds’ Alison Frank Johnson — The Bureaucracy of Honor Johnson — The Bureaucracy Alison Frank

exclaiming to the police as he departed the station: »I official report after the duel occurred; c) a statement

171 leave him to you, as your responsibility«. Szathmáry made by the omnibus driver, a witness; d) the result of AD INISTORY 3/2018

an investigation by another employee of the consulate; Bucharest, both men ›won‹ the moment they appeared; e) the general consul’s description of the duel; and f) as Ute Frevert has explained, »the point was not to kill Szathmáry Király’s report. Then, there were telegrams, one’s opponent, but to prove one’s own courage by inquiries, responses, and explanations – nearly 60 pages showing up«.89 It was not, however, only satisfactory in all. It was a matter that required the attention of the because Szathmáry Király behaved well or because entire leadership of the legation and supervisors back the major eventually responded honorably, or because in Vienna. The open issue was not to manage diplomatic the person whom the major had dared insult had not relations with Romania – Romanian authorities had been a Habsburg consul or a lieutenant in the reserve eagerly assisted by identifying and arresting the major but rather only a ›stranger‹, although all that helped. It and even the gendarme who had grabbed Szathmáry was also satisfactory because it resolved the emotional Király by the collar – but rather to safeguard Szathmáry needs of the participants. Suzzara had initially Király’s honor. Both states shared an understanding considered the emotional damage so great that he felt of who had violated a code of conduct that was, from that Szathmáry should be transferred since »the sight of their perspective, universal in its applicability to every Romanian officer will involuntarily remind him gentlemen. In the general consul’s words, »it was our of the physical insult«. After the duel, however, Heidler unanimous opinion that the matter called for, indeed, explained that Suzzara had made this recommendation in consideration of Mr. von Szathmáry’s character as only in consideration of Szathmáry Király’s earlier an officer as well as the violent nature of the insult, »great agitation« but that since the duel, »the desirable absolutely required, a resolution with weapons«. That pacification has taken hold« and Szathmáry Király was such a resolution was illegal did not make its open once again »eminently professionally useful«. In order discussion in the Ministry’s records any less advisable. to function as a consul, Szathmáry Király had to receive In the voluminous official correspondence about satisfaction. It was a question not only of personal Szathmáry Király’s dispute with Lazaresco, attention honor but also of the emotional stability required for repeatedly turns to the former’s emotional state. bureaucratic competence. Unlike following the incident with Matsek, Szathmáry Szathmáry Király’s colleagues provided him with Király’s agitation was treated with empathy and countless forms of support. He himself had been unable understanding rather than criticism and discipline. even to ascertain the name of the man who had insulted Szathmáry Király himself confessed that he was »very him; Heidler used his professional connections to unpleasantly affected« (sehr unangenehm betroffen) by identify the assailant. He had been unable to persuade the major’s initial refusal to leave the carriage; »I was Lazaresco to accept his challenge; his seconds quickly beside myself« (außer mir), he wrote, when the major and efficiently scheduled a duel under conditions that refused to state his name and accept Szathmáry Király’s would give it a »serious character, if not the murderous challenge. Heidler was pleased to report that »from one that Mr. von Száthmary [sic] himself had desired«.90 the moment of the challenge on, the behavior of both The extent to which Szathmáry Király peers rallied Mr. v. Szathmáry and Major Lazaresco and his seconds to his defense is, at first blush, surprising. It is, after all, was completely correct and in every way exemplary«. the threat of losing one’s honor in the opinion of one’s Szathmáry Király received the satisfaction he demanded peers that makes demanding satisfaction so important. – not only through the duel but also through the apology In Ute Frevert’s words, »Violating [a man of honor’s] that Lazaresco offered, as honor required, only after he integrity brought disgrace on the person who had been had stood and taken the shots aimed in his direction.86 offended. Above all, it meant lowering and shaming The resolution of this incident was thus entirely him in front of an audience of peers. Those peers were satisfactory. Consul General Suzzara declared after the concerned about the offence and demanded a vigorous duel that »Mr. von Száthmary’s honor is, once again, reaction. A man who failed to react in an appropriate spotless«.87 The ritualized violence of the duel had the way, who shied away from calling the offender to Alison Frank Johnson — The Bureaucracy of Honor Johnson — The Bureaucracy Alison Frank 91

opposite effect of the impetuous violence Szathmáry account, was judged a coward«. Given the emphasis

172 Király had displayed against Matsek in Galați. In on honor as an essential characteristic of an individual, AD INISTORY 3/2018

one might expect that the other men in the consulate silver, and the Mexican »dollar« (or peso). Czerwenka’s would be a passive audience – waiting to see how the monthly payments (in tael) fluctuated according to offended consul would respond, ready to judge him the value of silver to gold. As the »youngest official, against their standard for honorable behavior. Yet, who has to make do with the smallest remuneration«, the response in this case seems less an individual he had seen the monthly payments he received in tael action than a careful social negotiation. In Szathmáry decline over his year of service, even though his salary Király’s case, his peers became directly involved as his in Crowns had risen from K517.01 to K571.12. The helpmates, and this applied not only to his seconds – a situation had reached a crisis where his »earnings ha[d] support role understood as critically necessary within reached the level of a craftsman or worker« which led the ritual of the duel – but also to the head of the Austro- to the »absolute impossibility of living according to [his] Hungarian legation in Romania and his supervisors in station (standgemäss)«.96 Vienna. All this support was available for a man who Other records in Czerwenka’s file provide insight had already been reprimanded for not being able into what exactly the young consular attaché thought to control his temper. Just as the honor of Austria– »living according to his station« required. Czerwenka Hungary and its emissary were indistinguishable in the was 25, unmarried (although he had already been person of Szathmáry Király, the homosocial network of accused of fathering an illegitimate child, back in brokers and seconds who regulated and oversaw the Vienna), and needed a respite from the maladies that socially acceptable channeling of masculine anger was had afflicted him since his arrival in Shanghai. He indistinguishable from the imperial bureaucracy itself. played bridge in the Shanghai Club nearly every day.97 For all concerned, Satisfaktion was the only means of The Shanghai Club, »the centre of the business and restoring personal and imperial equilibrium. social life of the Settlement«98, was a primarily British social club on the »Bund«, the most prestigious street in Shanghai’s International Settlement.99 By joining the Waldemar Czerwenka92 Shanghai Club, Czerwenka showed a conviction that his profession allowed his social position to float far Waldemar Roderich Czerwenka was in many ways above his disposable income. His contemporary, Otto Szathmáry Király’s opposite. A successful and highly Friedländer, half jestingly referred to such sensibility competent consular official, he was recognized by his as snobbish: »An official belongs without doubt to the superiors for »precision, conscientiousness, and factual ruling class. Even if an official is poor, he needn’t be solidity« – a model bureaucrat. His route to the relatively ashamed, poverty is only honorable for officials«.100 comfortable status of consul, a title he obtained in 1912 But he also showed that he understood what Patrick at age 32, began with education, not birth.93 Joyce has called »the extra-office environment« of the The son of a sawmill factory manager, Waldemar civil servant, especially those who, like consuls, were Czerwenka attended a German-language school in stationed abroad where they were »on display«. This Czernowitz; graduated from the Consular Academy in display of European cultural superiority required »a Vienna; and entered the consular service on 15 October peculiarly intense training in social etiquette, which 1904, when he was 24 years old.94 He was immediately was in practice a regulatory technology« in which a assigned to the General Consulate in Shanghai with a new arrival like Czerwenka was »actively mentored salary of 6000 crowns a year and arrived there in late by superiors as he encountered the social life of the January 1905.95 At the same time, he was granted a club«. Austria-Hungary’s small »colony« of expatriate commission as a reserve lieutenant in the 15th Dragoner merchants in Shanghai hardly compares with the Regiment. A little over a year later, Czerwenka reported network of British bureaucrats stationed in India, but his first cause of dissatisfaction with his situation in Joyce’s observation that »in India, far from the personal Shanghai. His salary was set in Austrian Crowns (on the life of the officer being rigidly separated from the job, Alison Frank Johnson — The Bureaucracy of Honor Johnson — The Bureaucracy Alison Frank

gold standard), but the local economy functioned using as one part of the logic of the public servant would

173 two different currencies: the Chinese tael, a weight in suggest, it was an active part of it« nevertheless sheds AD INISTORY 3/2018

light on the professional importance of Czerwenka’s head of a company, as well as in consideration of his gentlemanly comportment at the Shanghai Club.101 minor son, who would be otherwise left alone in East At the card table, Czerwenka often encountered Asia, he could not possibly get involved in a duel with another Austrian, Theodore Bume, who, according to firearms«. Czerwenka, on the other hand, alleged that Czerwenka’s colleague in the consulate, was generally he had been too weakened by extended illness to engage known for his »loud and explosive demeanor«. Bume in a sabre duel. »As a consequence of the responses of frequently criticized Czerwenka’s style of play, even both opponents, a duel appeared unfeasible and had to calling him a »silly fool«. Since Bume’s choleric temper be abandoned«, the vice consul later reported. was well known to lead him to frequent outbursts, those With no other option, Czerwenka filed a complaint who knew him believed they were »not intended as against Bume in the consular court.104 He accused insults« and Czerwenka and Bume were initially on a Bume of a »violation against the Assurance of »friendly footing« despite friction at the card table. With Honor«105 (Sicherheit der Ehre), through verbal insult time, however, Czerwenka became more aggrieved. (Verbalbeleidigung) and the threat of abuse (Drohung In early September 1906, Czerwenka went so far as to mit Misshandlungen).106 Czerwenka further requested declare in front of other persons that he was not inclined that Bume be forced to pay the costs of a public to play at the same table as Bume – a declaration that announcement of a judgment against him. Far from Bume initially took as a joke. Even when, on the following producing a resolution of the threat against Czerwenka’s day, Bume saw that Czerwenka was absolutely serious, honor, however, the hearing only gave Bume further he neither demanded ›satisfaction‹ nor requested an opportunity to express his scorn. The judge, Vice Consul explanation. The two men silently avoided each other Miloslav Kobr, reported that »Theodor Bum [sic] flew not only at bridge but altogether. If Bume approached a into such a rage [in eine derartige Aufregung … geriet] game in progress, when the rubber was over, instead of against the plaintiff, that his behavior nearly caused drawing cards to see who would have to make room for me to use the fiercest disciplinary measures available«. him, as was customary, Czerwenka would simply stand The defendant admitted to having said »insolence of the up and leave. highest order«, which was confirmed by two witnesses. At about five o’clock in the afternoon on Sunday, 25 He refused to either confirm or deny having made a November 1906 – just two weeks after Czerwenka’s 26th threat to box Czerwenka’s ears. The consular court birthday, Bume entered the game room and found that officially confirmed, beyond doubt: Czerwenka’s honor there was only one game in progress and that Czerwenka had been insulted. was seated at the table. Bume indicated his intention to Not surprisingly, given Bume’s behavior during the join the game, but to his surprise, Czerwenka did not hearing, the judge was inclined to believe Czerwenka’s immediately leave. Instead, Czerwenka participated in account of the events and found Bume guilty of violating a drawing of cards to see which current player would §496 of the State law, which banned »Übertretungen make room. Bume, »in the presence of multiple other gegen die Sicherheit der Ehre«, by using the phrase persons«, cried out »This is insolence of the highest »This is insolence of the highest order« and of making order!« and – allegedly – threatened »Watch out, I’ll box threats that suggested his intention to follow up with your ears!«102 assault, although it was not definitively proved that On the following day, in front of three other members he used the specific phrase »Watch out, I’ll box your of the club, the insulted Czerwenka challenged Bume to ears«. He was sentenced to three days of arrest, a a duel.103 Attempts to negotiate an amicable settlement sentence in the middle of the spectrum of possibility. failed »due to the great bitterness of both parties«. The judge declined to impose the most serious sanction Czerwenka took advantage of his right as the offended since »although admittedly in the rooms of a Club the party to determine the weapon and requested a duel with expectation of decent behavior is imposed on every pistols. Bume responded that he would happily engage man«, the Club still did not earn the expectation of the Alison Frank Johnson — The Bureaucracy of Honor Johnson — The Bureaucracy Alison Frank

in a duel with swords, under whatsoever conditions, but kind of reverential behavior that pertained to a church.

174 that »in consideration of his responsible position as the A further mitigating circumstance was that Bume’s AD INISTORY 3/2018

outburst had occurred in a moment of »violent emotion« possibly emerge from the incident with his honor intact. (heftige Gemütsbewegung). »The intense excitability He had ordered Czerwenka to hold his tongue; he had and sensibility of the accused, his violent emotions, gallantly agreed to a sabre duel under any conditions and his previously spotless moral conduct were all Czerwenka cared to impose. Czerwenka, however, considered as mitigating circumstances«. On the other although a lieutenant in the reserve with the Dragoners, hand, however, the defendant’s behavior during the refused a sabre duel »with the explanation that Mr. hearing only underscored the accusations against him Bume is much stronger and that he would thus have – outbursts such as »fictional misrepresentations!« no chance against him« – a situation that the Hirlap constituted an aggravating circumstance. described as a »Schlamastik« (mess) that could hardly Bume had as little respect for the decision of the be repaired by a suit in consular court. »It is certain«, consular court as he did for the consular attaché. A wrote the Pesti Hirlap, »that Czerwenka will have to Hungarian newspaper covering the story noted with resign his commission – but this is a pathetic bandaid amusement that Bume filed an appeal with the consular on Austria’s severely wounded reputation – at whose appellate court in Constantinople and simultaneously cost the local English colony is scornfully amused. … sent all the files related to the entire affair, showing the At home such scandals can be somehow hushed up. lieutenant’s »retreat« (Retirade) from a duel by sword to But it is an intolerable state of affairs if our … consular the Dragoner regiment where Czerwenka was a reserve officials stage the most indescribable scandals here, far officer. overseas, where personal and national reputation is a The appellate consular court in Constantinople was thousand times more valuable«. The article called on less impressed by the severity of Bume’s misbehavior, the Foreign Ministry to ensure that only officials »with finding it impossible to prove that Bume had made a better character and irreproachable moral conduct« threat »loudly and in order to be heard by others«.107 were sent abroad: »How can we demand that foreigners The appellate court found, moreover, that Bume’s respect our joint flag if our own offices besmirch it?«110 behavior in the court was irrelevant to the judgment; The Pesti Hirlap expected this incident to end he was on trial for insulting Czerwenka’s honor, not Czerwenka’s career, but it did not. Nor did he lose his the judge’s. Finally, the appellate court noted that officer’s commission.111 Czerwenka’s career was cut for a man of Bume’s social standing, an arrest would short not by pride or failure to protect his honor but have »disproportionately severe consequences«. The only by the dissolution of the monarchy itself. Only a appellate court, still finding Bume guilty of having said few weeks after this incident, in January 1907, he was »this is an insolence of the highest order«, fined him 100 promoted to vice consul. In 1908, he was sent to the Crowns plus court costs.108 Hours and hours of inquiry provincial court in Trieste where his »competencies recorded over pages upon pages about a two-minute and hard work« were commended and, in recognition dispute between a mediocre card player and the local of his successful service, he was entrusted with cases loudmouth. involving bankruptcy, assault and battery, property Czerwenka’s reaction to the appellate court’s theft, and violations of the assurance of honor.112 His decision is not recorded, but it can hardly have been a specialty. Czerwenka was promptly promoted to consul happy one. Taking a man to court was not, according at age 32. Throughout his career, in Shanghai, Galați, to the standards of the time, a satisfactory alternative Calcutta, Port Said, Bombay, Bucharest, and Ploesti, to resolution by duel.109 The Pesti Hirlap published on Czerwenka’s conduct was found to be above reproach.113 February 1907 a denunciation of Czerwenka, describing After the monarchy’s collapse, officials in the Ministry the whole incident as an embarrassment to Austria with applied political pressure to the new President of the a consul »the length of whose title was only exceeded Republic to ensure that Czerwenka would be promoted by his empty-headed boasting« playing the starring to Consul General II class so that he could receive a role. In the Hirlap correspondent’s estimation, Bume higher pension. He lived in Vienna until his death in Alison Frank Johnson — The Bureaucracy of Honor Johnson — The Bureaucracy Alison Frank

was an »esteemed older gentleman« and »millionaire 1976.

175 wholesaler« and the only one of the two who could AD INISTORY 3/2018

Maximilian Kutschera114 begun loudly berating a waiter for daring to speak (with an older woman and her daughter, seated at If Szathmáry Király was an arrogant, belligerent a table near the consul) Hungarian in the middle of hothead and Czerwenka was a humorless, punctilious Romania. Gradisteanu stormed out of the restaurant, expert, then Maximilian Kutschera was a quixotic and and Kutschera approached the »ladies« to ask if they unstable but dedicated romantic. Kutschera was born required »protection«, for which they thanked him. on 19 December 1851 in Vienna. After graduating Later in the evening, Kutschera, together with a from the Naval Academy in 1870, he served as a Hungarian shipping agent, strolled along the boulevard Linienschiffsleutnant in the active navy. He became »where all the world promenades at that hour« and the shipping director for Bosnia and Herzegovina passed by Gradisteanu, who was seated on a bench, before asking to be transferred to the consular corps several times. Although Kutschera and his companion in December 1895. He was reliable, had a »highly spoke Hungarian as they passed Gradisteanu, the latter respectable disposition« (hochanständige Gesinnung) did not object, which Kutschera took to mean »that the and »excellent character traits« (vorzüglichen courage of his conviction was only applied vis à vis Charactereigenschaften). He was earnest and zealous, defenseless ladies«. Kutschera’s obligation, as a man of well-versed in matters nautical and technical and fluent honor, was to protect such defenseless ladies.116 And so, in German, Italian, French, and English and could speak, the next time he passed by Gradisteanu, Kutschera said, although not write, Bosnian. in French, »it is cowardly to insult ladies«. Gradisteanu Kutschera’s moral integrity earned frequent praise hurried after him, asking if he had something to say, in his personnel file. He showed, throughout his career, and Kutschera repeated his remark. The two men each a keen awareness of questions of honor. In May 1899, for demanded the other’s name, and a crowd gathered. The example, while stationed as a vice consul in Hong Kong, choleric Gradisteanu began to shout, and Kutschera he warned of a coming day when captains approaching offered his card to an officer standing nearby with the the port of Hong Kong would fire seven cannon shots in remark that Gradisteanu must be a »fool«. Kutschera his honor, since he was a vice consul, rather than the walked on and stopped further down the promenade to nine shots to which he was entitled due to his rank in talk with the family of a friend. There he was approached the Navy – a prospect, he warned, that would »make his by a crowd of people, Gradisteanu in its center, and as social position completely untenable« and would have some in the crowd held him back, Gradisteanu screamed consequences for the empire. »That the monarchy’s indecipherable curses at Kutschera and tried to punch highest-ranking career official in [Hong Kong] ranks, him. Kutschera parried Gradisteanu’s blow, but others at official and even social occasions, below the consuls in the crowd pushed him back and he stumbled. Friends of even the most insignificant states, most of whom and acquaintances rushed to Kutschera’s aid, one arrived later, and some of whom are not very respected, calling out that he was a consul; others led Gradisteanu has an unpleasant effect and undermines the prestige of away. The entire incident lasted only a few seconds. the monarchy«.115 The report ran 11 pages. Kutschera’s friends informed the prefect, who told On 2 September 1906, when Kutschera was 55 years the chief of police who visited Kutschera that very old and had been placed in charge of the consulate in evening to apologize and promise an investigation. The Constanța, he sent an ominous telegram to the Ministry chief of police informed Kutschera that his unknown of Foreign Affairs. »Insulted on street by Gradisteanu, opponent was the president of the National League President of National League of Transylvania, whereby of Transylvania and passionately hated all things spectators took part, this evening. Police Chief promised Hungarian. In Kutschera’s estimation, Gradisteanu was Prefect thorough investigation and satisfaction. Report not only not satisfaktionsfähig , he was not even sane follows«. The following day, he submitted a full report. (unzurechnungsfähig). Kutschera was nevertheless As was his habit, he had been taking his dinner in troubled by the fact that unidentified people from the Alison Frank Johnson — The Bureaucracy of Honor Johnson — The Bureaucracy Alison Frank

the Hotel Carol, where he lived, when a man (who crowd had also physically assaulted him and expected

176 he only later learned was Peter Gradisteanu) had an official response from Romania. AD INISTORY 3/2018

From the standpoint of the Austro-Hungarian far too long to confront Gradisteanu. They had joined ambassador, in whose lap all this eventually landed, it him in searching for excuses to explain his behavior. was a sticky case, complicated by the fact that Kutschera They had challenged Gradisteanu when that seemed was actually the one who had insulted Gradisteanu, most favorable to Kutschera’s reputation and called not the other way around. Kutschera had publicly him satisfaktionsunfähig, incapable of satisfaction, called Gradisteanu a coward, hours after an incident when that seemed more favorable. But however they Gradisteanu may not have either remembered or tried to describe the incident to themselves and to realized that Kutschera witnessed. Gradisteanu was 70 others, however many Hungarian newspaper articles years old and a Romanian nationalist; it would have celebrated Kutschera’s patriotism and bravery, there been easy enough to declare that he was incapable of had been no duel, there had been no apology, there was giving satisfaction. Kutschera, however, was widely no satisfaction. praised in the Hungarian press as a »martyr for his Kutschera was undone. Lajos/Ludwig Thallóczy, sacrifice on behalf of the Hungarian language«. There a Balkan expert, archivist, and administrator in the was no chance that the matter would quietly fade away. Finance Ministry (whose exact relationship to Kutschera Some resolution was required. Knowing full well that remains unexplained), reported to the Section Head in Kutschera was in the wrong and eager to have his the Ministry (Ludwig von Callenberg) that Kutschera honor protected so that he could remain in his post, »finds himself in a profoundly nervous, agitated the ambassador advised him to demand satisfaction of condition«, adding that he must be recalled to Vienna: »I Gradisteanu – and reported that advice (to break the myself am a key witness that Kutschera is truly ill«. The law) to the Ministry. As eager as the ambassador was ambassador, Szápary, added that Kutschera’s condition to protect Kutschera, however, he could not advise the throughout his entire time in Constanza had been Ministry to commend him for his actions in defense of abnormal – taking him back to a time five years earlier the Hungarian ladies. »It is undeniable that Kutschera’s when Kutschera had suffered a »shock to the nerves« in intent to hold Gradisteanu responsible for his abuses Shanghai. Kutschera had been miraculously cured of the towards the waiter was commendable, but the way »disruption to his nervous system« during a sea voyage, in which he took him to task was so ineptly chosen, when his steamer hit a typhoon en route to Japan. that both Kutschera and the Romanian government Ever since the incident with Gradisteanu, however, are in an embarrassing position«. Where so many he had suffered a relapse: »whether the incident with men were determined to help Kutschera defend his Gradisteanu is the cause or the consequence of his honor, a solution was quickly found: Gradisteanu had relapse eludes my judgment«. Kutschera’s private spread the rumor that he had hit Kutschera, whereas letters and his behavior during the ambassador’s visit Kutschera claimed to have parried the blow; Kutschera left no doubt: he suffered from some »psychic ailment«. could use this slanderous claim as justification for Kutschera reported that »feelings of anxiety begin near sending seconds to challenge Gradisteanu. Their his heart, rise to his head, everything goes black and he sworn statement that Gradisteanu refused to provide is not in control of his actions«. Although they did what satisfaction was submitted to the Austro-Hungarian they could, Kutschera’s colleagues and superiors could embassy in Bucharest. This, Kutschera’s friends not do enough to restore his equilibrium. His mistake hoped, was enough to prove that Gradisteanu was not was not severe enough to be dismissed as dishonorable. satisfaktionsfähig after all – and that, as a consequence, Whether Kutschera’s mental instability was the reason the duel that had failed to materialize was not really he had allowed himself to be humiliated by Gradisteanu required. Unfortunately for Kutschera, this was not or his humiliation had caused his mental instability particularly convincing. did not matter. Either way, his career was finished. By Kutschera’s colleagues, friends, and supervisors had the summer of 1907, less than a year after the fateful done everything they could to support him. They had evening on the promenade in Constanta, he had retired Alison Frank Johnson — The Bureaucracy of Honor Johnson — The Bureaucracy Alison Frank

protected him from physical assault. They had taken at the age of 56.

177 his part despite their knowledge that he had waited AD INISTORY 3/2018

Trying to estimate, even roughly, the number of duels inner life. Each of these cases revealed a contradiction that were actually fought in nineteenth-century Central at the center of the bureaucratic management of honor. Europe would be a fool’s errand.117 The insults and The consular official, an imperial bureaucrat, earned the demands for satisfaction outlined here are remarkable respect of imperial subjects because of his rationality in that none of them involved fatalities – nor even and impartiality, his cool, calm, and collected dispatch casualties. Most duels that leave evidence in the written of imperial business without bias or passion. Yet, to record come to our attention because they lead to the resolve an insult and maintain his honor, he was obliged death of one of the principles and therefore cannot be to react with strong emotion, with an irrepressible quietly ignored.118 Presumably, these are only a small demand for justice. In this, he could count on support. proportion of the total. The cases described here all The same institutional structure that compelled consuls come from the records of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, to safeguard their honor also bolstered it. and the primary reason they are recorded is because of concern about the correct behavior of consuls as well as the public reaction to their perceived honorable or incorrect behavior, either in foreign countries or in the domestic press. These are not records from the Justice Ministry; they do not concern the prosecution of men who openly flout the laws banning duels. They are records from the consuls’ personnel files, created in order to justify their actions to their superiors. Ute Frevert’s comment about the bourgeoisie in general applies particularly to the civil service: »That citizens sought to settle their disputes or conflicts of interests by use of force did not seem to fit into the concept of bourgeois society acting in a rational and disciplined manner«.119 These files show how consuls could make the »use of force« professional by codifying the exact conditions in which rage and its resolution become rational. Norbert Elias called the duel »an open violation of the state’s monopoly on violence, the last refuge of an upper class (Oberklasse) that resolved its own personal affairs according to rules that its members had created themselves and that only applied to the privileged class (Schicht)«.120 In the case of these consuls, state representatives adjudicated which kinds of violence qualified for special privilege. The men in these consulates – and, to a certain extent, their superiors back at the Ministry of Foreign Affairs formed what Barbara Rosenwein has called an »emotional community«, that is a community that not only enforced the rules by punishing those who did not conform but also supported its members in trying to find ways to conform when it was not always easy to do so. The bureaucracy of honor suggests that the regulation of Alison Frank Johnson — The Bureaucracy of Honor Johnson — The Bureaucracy Alison Frank

insult, honor, and satisfaction was less a challenge to the

178 state’s monopoly of force than an essential aspect of its 179 Alison Frank Johnson — The Bureaucracy of Honor 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

n Knua sle gmism m neee e Dienstes des Intereße im gemeinsam sollen Konsulat und Freund und nicht als Feind entgegenzutreten, und Gesandtschaft to followthepathofvirtue./Opengatesterrorforme«. reads: »Nofearofdeathshallstopmeactinglikeaman,/continuing Emily SheaandtheKickstandReadingRoom. Library; Harvard Gerhard Gonsa and the Haus-, Hof- und Staatsarchiv in Vienna; and the Bern; in Bundesarchiv Schweizerisches and the Nellen Stefan Vienna; in Menschen vom Wissenschaften die für Institut the Penslar; Derek Johnson, Walter Garot, Robert Deák, Schleifer, the Ministry wrote to the Bezirkshauptmannschaft St. Pölten Schleifer, theMinistrywrotetoBezirkshauptmannschaft St.Pölten without acourtorder.Z.37634/10,22. 5. 1905. in attaché aconsular was Shanghai, but refusedtoprovideinformation about his salary Czerwenka that confirmed Ministry declared herselftobethemother ofhisillegitimatechild.The address andsalaryonbehalfofMissJeanneHammant,who negative sense. create ›Gemeinschaft‹, in part also ›Gesellschaft‹, in the positive and communicated, they structure relationships between people and 24/1 (2013),pp.109–118,atp.112:»Feelingsare,afterall,shared, Geschichtswissenschaft feministische L’Homme: für in: Zeitschrift Frevert«, Europäische Ute mit Gespräch im Hämmerle Christa (2012), pp. in theNineteenthCentury«,in:TheAmericanHistoricalReview117 Empire, and the MediterraneanBritain, the Ottoman Slave Trade Children oftheDesertand Laws oftheSea.Austria,Great of theresultsresearchcanbefoundinAlisonFrank: »The Rubrik 48:Sklavenhandel. Kaiserliche 257 and Yokohama) Konsulate undAgentien,KonsularsitzeY, Z(Yokohama, Zanzibar). (Winnipeg, Y W, Konsularsitze Oxford 1998,pp. see DavidVincent:TheCultureofSecrecy. Weltkrieges, des correspondence to be managed in mid-nineteenth century Britain, während Kabinettskanzlei Budapest 1937,pp.76–78.Onthevastincreaseinvolumeof der Dienste Im archive’s holdings. Consular servicerecordsrepresentonlyasmallportionofthe 2018). (14. 8. http://www.oesta.gv.at/site/6150/default.aspx online: Staatsarchiv, »Haus-,Hof-undStaatsarchiv–Informationinbrief«, maps 15,000 andcharters, and plans, as well as about 3,000 manuscripts«. Österreichisches acts 75,000 boxes, filing and books »comprises 16,000linearmetresofshelveswith130,000account Arbeitsverhältnisse und Biografien, Wienu.a.2017,p.122. Ausbildung, Österreich Ihre Konsuln 1825–1918. von effektiven (-Ungarns) Die Deusch: Engelbert factory«, 4,Karton164. [AR] Fach[F] RegistraturAdministrative [MdA], Äußern des Ministerium [HHStA], Staatsarchiv und Hof- Haus-, [ÖStA], Staatsarchiv Österreichisches 3.1895. 3. Wien, Affairs, Foreign of Ministry to Brazil, Petropolis, Schmit vonTavera:harmonisch zusammenwirken«).Ernst Ritter Josef Zipser, a Viennese attorney, requestedCzerwenka’sworkingJosef Zipser,aVienneseattorney, und Bauer Ingrid Kategorie: geschichtsmächtige als »Gefühle The larger bookprojecthasnotyetbeenpublished,butsome ÖStA HHStA MdA AR F 34, Sonderreihe 90, Handelspolitische Akten Agentien, und Konsulate Kaiserliche 256, – 8 F AR, MdA, HHSTA, Kray: Stefan see paperwork, of processing emperor’s the On Staatsarchiv und Hof- Haus-, the website, its to According Engelbert DeuschcalledeachconsulateaTintenburg or»red-tape »It is my duty to face him as a friend«. (»Es sei meine Pflicht, ihm als version English One 1791. Zauberflöte«, »Die Schikaneder: Eduard István Case, Holly Becker, Peter Bauda, Susanne thanks author The When Maximilian Kutschera requested permission to marry Agnes Agnes marry to permission requested Kutschera Maximilian When 410–444. Above all,emotionsguideactions«.

30–32. Britain: 1832–1998, AD 13 23 22 21 20 19 18 17 16 15 14 deportment, meticulous education«. Without having seen that was »prosperousandenjoysagoodreputation.Impeccable family the that reported police Vienna the 1907, 6. 10. On dowry. Regenhart,whosemotherpromisedtherequiredmarry Marietta István Hungary«, in: Austrian History Yearbook 25/1 (1994), pp. 1–12, at p. 12. pay! Austria- in of Ladies Virtuous years and Honor, 50 Gentlemanly of »Chivalry, Deák: equivalent the 1910, in Kronen 60,000 chosen bride would have to produce: that a career lieutenant’s »Kaution« the to favorably compare terms These 92–94. pp. Konsuln, to related Regulations 75–76. marriage dating back pp. to 1850 are also covered in Deusch: ²1904, Die effektiven Wien Konsularwesens Konsularwesen, 1, österreichisch-ungarischen des Handbuch Tretto: Monte di Malfatti Josef viceconsuls. for 4000 K consuls, for 2000 K of considerations«. One orbothpartieshadtohaveanannualincome the proposedmarriageimpermissibleduetoseriousprofessional position »social of thebride«andensurethattherewas»nothingwouldmake and circumstances« »financial the consider would MdA The a marriage. all before permission that get officials required consular 1899, career 24.487/10, Z. The 1899, 184,Kutschera. 5. 2. 4, vom Erlass MdA’s AdReg HHStA Erhebungen«). unauffällige as inconspicuouspossibleinquiries«(»vertrauliche undmöglichst and »confidential requesting Polizeidirektion Viennese the then and (ed.): HonourandShame.TheValues ofMediterranean Society, Duel in The 1988 [London2016],p.293. Kiernan: Victor a duel«. European History. Honour and the Reign of Aristocracy, Oxford fight »to for euphemism monograph on dueling, used »to relieve their feelings« as a part inourthinking«.Frank Stewart:Honor,Chicago2010,p.9. insb. p.134–140. 134–152,pp. (2011), 86 Review Germanic The in: LiteraryAnalysis«, Nineteenth CenturyGermanDuelingViolenceandItsRelevancefor »Satisfaktion«, not»aduel«.AndrewMills:»Satisfaktionin unter: https://doi.org/10.2478/ADHI-2018-0003 (4. der in Unwahrscheinlichkeiten‹ Habsburgermonarchie«, in:Administory1(2016),pp.29–30,online ›Verwirklichte Krieg. und Staat personal prejudices.See,forexample,PeterBecker:»Recht, of the complete erasure of their partialities, politics, and civil servantsinpractice »failed«toliveuptheexpectation Ihering: DerKampfum’sRecht,Wien1872,pp.95–96. taught lawattheUniversityofVienna(1868–1872).Rudolfvon State since1800,Cambridge2013,p.193(emphasisadded). and theMilitary.AHistory,Princeton2013,p.75. assertion ofmasculineandnationalhonor«.DerekPenslar:Jews early central EuropeanZioniststhatduelingcouldbeusedas»an of personal honor –themost obvious beingthe hopes of some 45. pr 81267 21.10.1907 andZ78506/10. Z. F4_65], [henceforth Czerwenka Cze-Czu, Personalia 65, – F4 AR MdA HHStA ÖStA 1907. 10. 14. on Regenhart marry to report orprovidinganyreasoning,Czerwenkawithdrewhisrequest n 6 8 10, admr zrek rqetd emsin to permission requested Czerwenka Waldemar 1907, 8. 26. On Julian Pitt-Rivers: »HonourandSocialStatus«, in:JeanG.PeristianyJulian Pitt-Rivers: lengthy a in Kiernan, Victor Historian 41. p. Emotions, Frevert: much plays longer no »Honor 64–65. pp. 10, p. Emotions, Frevert: Andrew Mills points out that the insulted party demands Frevert: Emotions,p.44. Other historianshaveinvestigatedmultipleotherwaysinwhich during the four-year period where JheringThe book was written Patrick Joyce: The StateofFreedom.A Social History of the British relevance corporate the for precedents other course, of are, There Ute Frevert:EmotionsinHistory.LostandFound,Budapest2011,p. INISTORY 3/2018 9.

2018). 180 Alison Frank Johnson — The Bureaucracy of Honor 34 33 32 31 30 29 28 27 26 25 24

By »Germanlawyers«,StewartmeanslawyerswhowroteinGerman. partite division that is also favored in some of Pitt-Rivers’ work: partite divisionthatisalsofavoredinsomeofPitt-Rivers’ and EmotionsinHistory,London2014. Strange / Robert Cribb / Christopher Forth (ed.): Honour, Violence Carolyn 2–18; pp. 1987, DC Washing Mediterranean, the of Unity of Dishonor«,in:DavidD. Gilmore(ed.):HonorandShamethe TorontoIdea, an of ShameThe »Introduction. Gilmore: David 1982; Geoffrey 6; Best: Honour among p. Men and 1991, Nations. The Cambridge Transformation Anthropology, in Grace and Honor Rivers: Pitt- Julian / Perstiany G. Jean Honor; Stewart: 503–511; pp. 1968, (ed.): International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences 6, New York Chicago 1966, pp. 19–77; Julian Pitt-Rivers: »Honor«, in: David L Sills zeitgemässen Lösung der Satisfaktionsfrage, Wien 1912; Josef Burian: Bartunek: DieAustragung vonEhrenangelegenheiten. Ein Beitrag zur Nachschlagebuch in Ehrenangelegenheiten, Graz 1898. Also: Josef und Offiziere für Duell-Regeln Teppner: Friedrich 1891; a. Duell-Codex, u. Wien Hergsell: Gustav languages); many in editions (with many 1882 Wien Duells, des Regeln (ed.): Bolgar von Franz Linz1898 [1903]; EinOrientierungsbehelf, Offiziers. des Waffengebrauch Stewart: Honor,p.1. IN1998,p.83. Lafayette, commission. Gunter Rothenberg: The Army ofFrancis Joseph, West the examinations between 1869 and 1885 qualified for a lieutenant’s for sat who volunteers one-year of percent 35 only that calculated Macht, Wien1987,pp.75–76. bewaffnete Die 5, Bd. 1848–1918, Habsburgermonarchie Die (ed.): bewaffnete Macht in Staat und Gesellschaft«, in: Adam Wandruszka one-year volunteers, see Johann Christoph Allmayer-Beck: »Die Frankfurt amMain1996,p.400. Ehre, die um Kampf tödliche der Duell: Das (ed.): Schultz Uwe in: Manne macht:AssessorErnstBorchertsuchtseineSatisfaktion«, Profession aus Corps, 1848–1918,NewYork ²2010,p.135 Officer Habsburg the of History Deák: Beyond Political and Social Istvan A Nationalism. translation, different a slightly offers Deák Histoire, Legislation,DroitContemporain, Paris1879,p.206.Istvan Charles duVerger deSaint-Thomas: NouveauCodeduDuel. Human Feeling,Berkeley,CA1983. whose Arlie Russell Hochschild: TheManaged Heart. attendants flight of study professional securitydependedontheabilitytobeevercheerful. Hochschild’s Russell Arlie is Theory 49(2010),pp.237–265,atp.242. Reddy, Barbara Rosenwein,andPeterStearns«,in:History Happen, NewYork 2010,p.16,20,209. pp. 1–36,atp.2. and Rituals in Modern Europe and America, Columbus, OH 1998, in: PieterSpierenburg (ed.):MenandViolence.Gender,Honor, Spierenburg: »Masculinity, Violence, and Honor. An Introduction«, others, and the actual opinion of others about her or him«. Pieter worth, thisperson’sassessment of hisorherworthin the eyes of »honor hasatleastthreelayers:aperson’sownfeelingofself- ek Byn Ntoaim p 8, 3. ute Rothenberg Gunther 132. 87, p. Nationalism, Beyond Deák: ofthe thecreation On 61. p. Konsuln, effektiven Die Deusch: ( profession« by honor of a »man was officer career A »Çe ne sont ni les balles ni les épées qui tuent: çe sont les témoins«. Plamper: »TheHistory of Emotions«, p. 243.The classic example Jan Plamper:»TheHistoryofEmotions.AnInterviewwithWilliam Revolutions Moral How Code. Honor The Appiah: Anthony Kwame Henderson: »Honor«,pp.9–29. Henderson: »Honor«,p.13.PieterSpierenburg emphasizesatri- Deák cites several published in Austria–Hungary: Ludwig Berger: Der Berger: Ludwig Austria–Hungary: in published several cites Deák ), Ute Frevert, »Der ›Louis‹ - oder was den Mann zum . Commercialization of Ehren-Mann Ehren-Mann

AD 36 36 35 47 46 45 44 43 42 41 40 39 38 37

Deák: Beyond Nationalism, p. 130. The emperor once refused the the refused once emperor The 130. p. Nationalism, Beyond Deák: months of self-imposed exile after killing his opponent in a duel – appeal of a nobleman who wanted to return to Austria after a few Beyond Nationalism,pp.126–138. Deák,honor. their protect to measures violent and extreme take to compelled »tooverreacttoallmannerofinsultsandslights« Plamper: »TheHistoryofEmotions«,p.262. Wien 1862. Offiziere, unverbesserlicher Behandlung die über Vorschrift Wien 1908; Heere, k. u. k. im Verfahren ehrenrätliche das für Graz³1895; Vorschrift Verkehr, im gesellschaftlichen Officier Der Schneider: Wien Wien u.k. k. für das ehrenrätliche Verfahren im k. u. k. der Heere und Ehrenratsfragen, Officiersrechtes geltenden bewaffneten Macht, Wien 1897; des August Kielhauser (ed.): Die Vorschrift Praxis und System 10. Teil, Wien 1915; Alexander Hajdecki: Officiers-Standes-Privilegien. für Reserveoffiziersschulen, Instruktionsbuch Reserveoffiziers. des Dienstverkehr 1860; Prag Bde., 3 Besondren, im Dienstsphäre die Bezugauf mit derObliegenheiten der sowie und Gebühren im Allgemeinen, Offiziere Ansprüche Rechte, Pflichten, der Systematische Darstellung Offizier. Oesterreichische kaiserlich-königliche Der Godsey: »Quarterings and Kingship. The Social Composition of the of Composition Social The Kingship. and »Quarterings Godsey: Effektiven Konsuln,p.21. and thoseheadedby»honorary« consuls,viceetc.Deusch: consulates, and agencies, both those staffed by career civil servants the caseofLieutenantAntonMarquisTacoli. die Standesehre verletzt«. Mader, Duellwesen, p. 126, discussing Voraussetzungen infeigerWeise demZweikampfeausgewichensei, Challenged toFightaDuel«,TheNewYork Times,23.8.1908:SM6. The Embarrassing PositionofAmericanorBritishDiplomatWhoIs defeated. Gay:»Mensur«,p.101. prohibit allmembersfromengaginginduelsthemselveswas Germany beforeWorld War I,Stanford,CA2008,p.106. Thomas Weber: OurFriend,»the Enemy«.EliteEducationinBritainand 47f.; p. Emotions, Frevert: 107; p. at 94–121, pp. (1992), Osnabrück, 1983,pp.119–128. Offiziersethos, altösterreichisches und Duellwesen Mader: Hubert html (1. 8. 2018). On the Catholic Church’s opposition to dueling, see en/encyclicals/documents/hf_l-xiii_enc_12091891_pastoralis-officii. of Dueling,12.9.1891,online:http://w2.vatican.va/content/leo-xiii/ Leo XIII.: Pastoralis Officii. Encyclical of Pope Leo XIII on the Morality Thanks toSusanneBaudafordrawing thiscasetomyattention. 1867. 17. 9. 3569, No. summary, 1367, No. 1867, 15. 9. Österreich, Karl gewordenen nach Rückkehr straffreien der Gestattung Ag. flüchtig um Lichnowsky Fürsten und verfolgten steckbrieflich Letzteren des wegenZweikampfesmitdemGrafen NemešundTödtung des Gesuch Bezeichnete Ah. das über Justizministers (Ungarischen) des sided withPrussiaduringtheAustro-Prussianwarof1866.Vortrag not becausethemanhadbrokenlawbutheopenly Deák’s study of the officer corps offers examples of officers being of officers examples offers corps officer the of study Deák’s On the aristocracy’s controlovertheforeign service, see William On the aristocracy’s Piskur: OesterreichsConsularwesen, pp.14–15. Joseph Piskur:OesterreichsConsularwesen, Wien1862,p.31. »Consulates« hereincludesgeneral consulates,vice Deák: BeyondNationalism,p.131. unberechtigter und Vorwände nichtiger Anführung »durch »Checking theDuel«,SM6. A Veteran Diplomat,»CheckingtheDuelinHighLifeofEurope: At thefoundingsessionofAnti-DuelingLeague,amotionto Peter Gay: »Mensur: The Cherished Scar«, in: The Yale Review 80 10 4 94 Kr Fidih uz e.: iiä-ace-eio 1, Militär-Taschen-Lexikon (ed.): Kurz Friedrich Karl 1914; 1911, insb. Abs.: »Ehrenangelegenheiten«; [Captain] Adalbert [Captain] »Ehrenangelegenheiten«; Abs.: insb. 1911, INISTORY 3/2018 István Deák: »Chivalry«, p. 2. On »emotionology«, see Jan see »emotionology«, On 2. p. »Chivalry«, Deák: István 181 Alison Frank Johnson — The Bureaucracy of Honor 69 68 67 66 65 64 63 62 61 60 59 58 57 56 55 54 53 52 51 50 49 48 schools. Deák:BeyondNationalism,p.89. conduct (Anstandslehre)«waspartofthecurriculumcadet von Szápár. 227 haduniversitydegrees.Deusch:EffektivenKonsuln,p.9. account, 272 graduated from the Oriental (Consular) Academy and West IN1999. Lafayette, War, World First the of Eve the on Office Foreign Austro-Hungarian The Redoubt. Aristocratic Godsey: William 59; p. (1999), 71 History Habsburg Aristocracy intheDualistEra«, in:JournalofModern 1888, ZCXXX/9443[MdA]Z.27706/10Pr11.XI.1888. MdA, AR,Fach4,Karton164. HHSTA, file: personnel his from come Király Szathmáry to related p. 382. Konsuln, effektiven Bucharest,05.2.1887,toMdA. Heidler-Egeregg, Shanghai 27.3.1906toMinistryofForeignAffairs. Europa des19.und20.Jahrhunderts,Bielefeld2011,p.29. im Verwaltung und Kommunikation Amt. im Sprachvollzug (ed.): Becker Peter in: Verwaltung«, und Kommunikation »Sprachvollzug. mental horizons, andactions«ofcivilservants.PeterBecker: attitudes, as the»socialbackground,education,careerpatterns, bureaucracy tobeequallyimportantthefunctioningofauthority encourages historianstoconsiderthetechnologicalapparatus of Handbuch,p.90. Unparteilichkeit«, Malfatti: Sociology, Berkeley,CA1978,p.975. (ed.): MaxWeber: EconomyandSociety.AnOutlineofInterpretive over Administration by Notables«, in: Guenther Roth / Claus Wittich 1825, NewYork 1971. TheCinderellaService.BritishConsulssince2. DesmondC.M.Platt: markers of the symbolic and material inferiority of consuls on page lists he title; very its in status their about argument an holds 1825 since consuls British of history Platt’s M. C. Desmond 2018). (4. 9. 2 (2018), p. 68, online: https://doi.org/10.2478/ADHI-2018-0016 Consulate inSalonicatheNineteenthCentury«,in:Administory Mathieu Jestin:»BuildingaLocalAdministration Abroad.TheFrench in cited 3, p. 1850, Paris étrangers, et français consulaires agents desManuel Moreüil: de Louis-Joseph-Auguste neglected«, most the one whichistheleastknown,consequentlyappreciated, today, amongallthebranches ofpublicadministration inFrance, the still is interests, commercial greatest the affects which institution, On the importance of the physical layout of the office in accentuating See thesecondepitaphtothiscontribution. From Galați. In Galați,inCairo,andYokohama. From Belgrade andfromBuenosAires. In BucharestandSofia. 9. Belgrade, Wesen«, unverträgliches und »rechthaberisches Die Deusch: Szathmár. von Király Dominik as Deusch in Listed Piskur: Consularwesen,p.64. Quoted inVincent:CultureofSecrecy,p. Piskur: Consularwesen,p.38. from 16/res No. 1887, 2. 07. 10; u. 7 / pr. 3098 Z. Király. Szathmáry Consulate General from 2.V.1906, pr. 31937/10 Z. Czerwenka. consequently Becker Peter 194. Strenge p. Freedom, of und State Joyce: Parteien Vincent: CultureofSecrecy,p.31. gegen Benehmen »Anständiges Max Weber: »The Technical Superiority of Bureaucratic Organization consular »The lamented, 1850 from manual consular French A Piskur: Consularwesen,p.37. p. Konsuln, effektiven Die Deusch: Szapáry Laurenz of biography complicated the example, for See, Of the 617 »career« consuls profiled in Deusch’s recent encyclopedic Deusch: DieeffektivenKonsuln,pp.644–645. All referencestoarchivalmaterials 3 »evc rls n proper and rules »Service 53. 35. 11. AD 76 75 74 73 72 71 70 80 79 78 77

Culture ofSecrecy,p.40. pp. 9–34. »ward«, rather than »client«. Compare to Becker: »Sprachvollzug«, or »Schutzbefohlene« using by implied difference the noting worth Király. Szathmáry von Herrn Vice-Consul k. »Protocol«, 4.3. u. k. stehenden Untersuchungs-Angelegenheit gegen den hieramts in Verwendung Würde meiner amtlichen Stellung verletzt habe« (emphasis in original). die und Ansehen Vorfalldas diesen durch ich daß geben, zu Ausdruck Gefühlen aufrichtigen meine diesbezüglich wollen, zu gestatten mir denselben beleidigt habe, ich bedauere aber noch mehr, und bitte Historical Review95(1990),pp. »The Greenberg: P. Kenneth Nose, theLie,andDuelinAntebellumSouth«,in:American see honor, gentleman’s Southern 10. privilegedposition,seeBecker:»Sprachvollzug«, p. the bureaucrat’s Frevert: »Der›Louis‹«,p.401. an equal.Thisimplicitdistinctioncould notbeallowedtostand. as mufti, in Király, Szathmáry in recognize immediately not did he because the major did not care about his own honor but because have hadsomuchtroubleextracting aduelfromthemajornot may Király Szathmáry gain. to nothing had contrast, in lieutenant, The lieutenant. the with »ebenbürtig« thus and honor of man a as opportunity togainsocialstatus–thatis,cementhisown allen an as mit officer an with duel Assessor a because is this der says Frevert Mitteln«). kämpfte war, Zweikampf der Ausdruck the lieutenantwasnot(»umdieseAnerkennung,derenhöchster and duel the for eager was lieutenant, the by first insulted himself increasinglypointedinsults–the civilservant,whofelt servant’s the lieutenant was remarkably reluctant to respond to the civil that finds and 1896, in lieutenant, a and Königsberg) in assessor Ute FrevertanalyzesaduelbetweenPrussiancivilservant(an dis pas mon nom«. votre nom«and»Jenevousdonnepasdesatisfaction,je Consularwesen, pp.60–63. prosecute consulsfortransgressions totheirhomestates. from prosecution,buthoststatesoftenconcededtherightto Heidler Report1/restoGraf vonKálnokey,9.1.1887. selbst Szathmáry widersprochen wird, habe ich von dessen Beeidigung abgesehen«. v. Herrn von Aussage seiner Détails mehreren äußerst dessen niederer Bildungsstufe und Erregtheit, und »Bei bei dem Umstande, daß however: reliable, entirely driver’s omnibus be the to testimony notconsider did d’affaires chargé The off. Hotel. All witnesses agreed that the porter warned the gendarmerie gathered from Andreas Szabo, the omnibus cab driver for the Union reactioncomesfromastatement description ofthePorter’s Király’s Szathmáry »F«, Attachment 1887, statement. Henceforth »Szathmáry 1. Király, January 1887 Statement«. 9. Wien, MdA, to Bucharest, von Heidler-Egeregg, l’avez vu«. Report 1/res, from Ritter Handbuch. Depictions of the consuls’ uniforms are provided in Malfatti: Depictions of the consuls’ Vincent: in cited Etiquette, of Handbook Gentleman’s The Millar, J. Charles Kingsley,citedinVincent:CultureofSecrecy,p.37. Sectionschef von Szögyény: Protocol Nr. 7516, 6. des Betreff »In 16/res, No. 1886, 3. 20. Boleslawski: von Carl und gethan Unrecht Matsek ich daß aufrichtig, bedauere »Ich a to specifically, nose, the of importance the of analysis an For »Monsieur, vousmedevezsatisfaction,jeprie,donnez-moi absolute immunity Consuls did not enjoy the diplomats’ »C«,Protokoll,Bucharest,7.1.1887.ThedetailedAttachment »Pardon, Monsieur, la voiture était occupée pour moi, comme vous INISTORY 3/2018

1886. ztmr Krl, aur 18 Statement. 1887 January Király, Szathmáry 57–74.

1886, Wien. Piskur: It is 182 Alison Frank Johnson — The Bureaucracy of Honor 100 99 98 97 96 95 94 93 92 91 90 89 88 87 86 85 84 83 82 81 to deflate the situation and allow for detached, polite and ›civilized‹ sondern einerihmganzfremdenPersongalt«. Reserveoffizier Herrn von Száthmary den er gar nicht gekannt habe, die vonihmausgegangeneInsulte,nichtdemk.k.VizeConsulund geleistet Genüge Ehre worden sei,dieHandgereichtundumarmt«. der daß hatten, constatirt Sekundanten pp. 642–643. in the officers’ casino«, Deák: Beyond Nationalism, p. Nationalism, Beyond Deák: casino«, officers’ the in »membership included costs basic their life‹«; ›enjoy to pressure were underpaid complained that they were »under psychological 1914, Wien2013,p.27. bis 1848 2: Band Österreich in Beamte und Bürokratie Mandarine: um 1900,Wien1969,p.74.InWaltraud Heindl,Josephinische 1904, p. kitchen onthetopstorey«,CharlesE.Darwent:Shanghai,Shanghai card-rooms, library of 16,364 books, bar, oyster bar, reading-room, club – two large dining-rooms and private ones, two billiard-rooms, with the best at home. There are all the appointments of a first-class Shanghai, theShanghaiClubwas»theoneclubinranking 1904 guidebook to and Shanghai resident Charles E. Darwent’s History 4(2010),pp.1–27.Accordingtophotographer, minister, through textualandvisualsources«,in:JournalofModernChinese Commerce, Industries,andResources,London1908,p.388. Shanghai, and other Treaty Ports of China. Their History, People, Res, Shanghai,5.4.1907. 14. 2.1905,HHStAF4. General-Consulat, Shanghai,toMdÄ, Czernowitz 1894,p.57. 385. p.1892, Wien (1892), 18 Forstwesen gesammte das für Centralblatt Jassy Eisenbahn. Baptismal record, 19. 8. 1881. Karl Böhmerle (ed.): in connection with the construction of the Lemberg-Czernowitz- and Steam Sawmills and was stationed in Czernowitz most likely the localFactoryManagerforJoint-StockCompanyLumber wasCzerwenka, Karl father, His later. months nine baptized was he Moldavia, buthisfamilyhadrelocatedtoCzernowitzbythetime p. 115. Unterhaltungen mit dem Kanzler Friedrich v. Müller, Stuttgart 1870, Goethes Müller: Friedrich (ed.): Burkhardt H. A. Carl in: 1827«, 8. 9. Duell, das über »Goethe violence«. crude against guarantee certain was expectedofmenhonor.Frevert:»Der›Louis‹«,pp.392–393. behavior«. Frevert:»Emotions«,pp.56–57. to relne: eze Gaz e Mrhntd. a wr Wien war Das Märchenstadt. der Glanz Letzter Friedländer: Otto Christian Henriot: »The Shanghai Bund in myth and history. An essay Arnold Wright (ed.): Twentieth CenturyImpressionsofHongkong, 11 No. Bericht ad Beilage 1907. 4. 5. Bericht, Kobr’s habit: Bridge 26.5.1906. fromCzerwenkatoMdÄ, Letter Oesterr.-Ung. K u. K. from 1905, ex XV No Ber. Adm. zu Beilage C. Tumlirz: Jahresbericht des Ober-Gymnasiums in Czernowitz, Waldemar Czerwenka was born on 09. 11. 1880 in Piatra in HHSTA, MdA,AR,Fach4,Karton65. Frevert: Emotions,p.46.Emphasisadded. Suzzara’s report. Frevert: »Der›Louis‹«,p.392. »It is important to maintain the principle of the question of honor, a Suzzara’s »E«. report,Attachment According toUteFrevert,waitingapologizeuntilaftertheduel Spierenburg: »Masculinity«, p. 9. »All precautions taken were meant daß erklärt, bereitwilligst Lazaresco Major hat Anlaße diesem »Bei »Beide GegnerhabensichnachdemDuellenachdemdie On sabersvs.pistols,seeFrevert:»Der›Louis‹«,p. For a brief biography of Suzzara, see Deusch: Die effektiven Konsuln, 10. Contemporary writerswhosaidlieutenants 390. 120, »enjoy AD 104 103 102 101 108 107 106 105

Joseph Sonnenfels defined »Sicherheit der Ehre« as »der Zustand, »der as Ehre« der »Sicherheit defined Sonnenfels Joseph courts. F.E. Hinckley, »Extraterritoriality in China«, in: The Annals of with or without any legal training to speak of, to preside over those consulates, the of staff the on relied and courts consular operated out ofShanghai,Austria–Hungarywasonemanycountriesthat States hadindependentcourtsystemsinChina,bothoperating of theirhomecountry.AlthoughGreatBritainandtheUnited citizens ofthoseforeignpowerstobetriedunderthejurisdiction treaties establishingconcessionsinChina,includingtherightof Deák (26.6.2018),unheardof. been highly irregular – indeed, according to an interview with István to havedirectlydebatedtheuseofswordsorpistolswould seconds and refers only to Czerwenka and Bume. For the two men any mention not does Kobr report; Kobr’s Consul Vice from comes have beencarriedoutbyseconds.Thedescriptionoftheseevents 2345/1906; UrteildesGeneralkonsulates Shanghai. Auf, SiewerdeneineOhrfeigekriegen«. Wien 1911, pp.7–9,49. undKonsequenzen, Ursachen Ihre Offizierskorps. unseres VerschuldungDie Hetz]: Rudolf [recte R. Salvator from quoted life« consulate, earnedjustover500crowns amonth. für dasJahr1907,Wienp.269. und Staats-Handbuch der österreichischen-ungarischen Monarchie Hof- 478; p. Handbuch, Malfatti: Brogyan. und Kvassó v. Kvassay Hungarian Consular Superior Court in Constantinople was Stephan 2018) wxe?Abfrage=Bundesnormen&Gesetzesnummer=10002296 (01.8. Austria, online unter: https://www.ris.bka.gv.at/GeltendeFassung. (1977). Insult(Beleidigung)isprohibitedinthepostwarRepublicof English 5(2), art. [GG] Grundgesetz translation fromTheBasicLawoftheFederal RepublicofGermany Citing 278. p. (1986), 85/2 ReviewLaw Michigan ›Lies‹«, – Other and – ›Auschwitz‹ the against Eric Stein:»HistoryagainstFreeSpeech.TheNewGermanLaw 1296. »Personalhonor«remainedinviolableinpostwarGermany. Societies«, in:Yale LawJournal109/6(2000),pp.1282–1284,atp. Three Respect. and Civility »Enforcing Q.Whitman: James ›insult‹«. tradition of disallowing »insult«, now interpreted to include »racial so muchtothelessonslearnedfromgenocideasalongstanding the which and connectstheregulationofhatespeechinpostwarEuropenot in ways the analyzed regulation ofrespectcontinuesinpostwarFrance andGermany has Whitman James Polizei- 155. p. der 1820, Tübingen (ed.), Moshamm Grundsätze von X. F. Finanz, Sonnenfels: und Handlung von Joseph verknüpft«. Folgen wichtigen mit ist Achtung dieser Verlust Der Bürgers. eines Rechtschaffenheitvon der ist dieAchtung sie genommen wird, wie Ehre, Die hat. befürchten zu nichts Ehre seine für man worinnen »Sicherheit derEhre«. 1821–1914, Rochester,NY2018,pp.114–115. in: Timothy Snyder / Katherine Younger (ed.): The Balkans as Europe. Consuls andtheInternationalSysteminNineteenthCentury«, functioning ofthesecourts,seeHollyCase:»TheQuietRevolution. about internationalrelationsthatundergirded instructionsforthe philosophy political the On 504. 475, pp. Handbuch, Malfatti: 97f.; the AmericanAcademyofPoliticalandSocialScience39/1(1912),p. Austria–Hungary wasoneof18orsoforeignpowersthathad Normally, thechallengeandnegotiationsoverweaponswould »Das ist eine Frechheit in derhöchsten Potenz« and»Passen Sie Joyce: StateofFreedom,p.199. At this time, Czerwenka, as the lowest ranking official in the official ranking lowest the as Czerwenka, time, this At The president ofthe imperial-royal (k.k.)Austrian and Royal of translation this suggesting for Hamilton John to Thanks INISTORY 3/2018 Ad 37098/10; Abschrift Nr. Abschrift 37098/10; Ad 183 Alison Frank Johnson — The Bureaucracy of Honor 120 119 118 117 116 115 114 113 112 111 110 109 file. Czerwenka’s in is German in article the of translation A 35. p. 1907, 73. onthebodyofinjurer.Greenberg:by anattack »TheNose«,p. sue himforslander«becausethoseinjuriescouldonlyberepaired orthe adviceofhismother,»indictnomanforassaultandbattery, pardon amanwhohadbeenarrestedforassaultinghim,following to Buren van asked Jackson Andrew 47. 45, pp. Emotions, and libel«. Frevert: slander for himconvicted have and court to offender after acourtcasehadbeenwon.»Itwasnotenoughtotakethe 1989 [2005],p. Habitusentwicklung im19.und20.Jahrhundert,Frankfurt amMain 48. Modern EuropeandAmerica,Columbus,OH1998,pp.37–63,atp. Spierenburg (ed.):MenandViolence.Gender,Honor,Ritualsin and DuelinginEarlyModernGermany«,in:Pieter general disrespectforthelaw;Kiernan:TheDuel,pp.296,301. that theinconsistencyofmetingoutpunishmentsmayhaveledtoa preußischen Justizbehörden«. der Archiven es den fand in so Überlieferung Nur schriftliche aktenkundig. eine es machte principals] the of [one vermutlich verborgen geblieben.NurderTod Seidenstickers Nachwelt der es wäre gegangen, Ende zu unblutig duel] particular Fin-de-Siècle Germany,Princeton1994,p. in Honor of Cult The does Dueling. McAleer: Kevin fatal. were McAleer Hungary 12. p. »Chivalry«, estimate thatonlyaboutonepercentofduelsfoughtinAustria- Deák: approximately«. even Justizministerium, Z86776/10. deadly. Deák:BeyondNationalism,p.134. pistols forswordsinduels,eventhoughtheformerwerefarmore and as a result, the army condoned the substitution of smooth-bore fraternities, student nationalist with compared sword-fighting, in obr Eis Suin br i Dushn Mctäpe und Machtkämpfe Deutschen. die über Studien Elias: Norbert Violence Male Ruffian. Noble the of Taming »The Frevert: Ute [a es »Wäre record: written a left death a only that notes Frevert »Because oftheirenforcedsecrecy,nooneknowsnumber Deák: »Chivalry«,p. Kutschera, 8. k. HHSTA, MdA,AR,Fach4,Karton184. k. Folder »Dienstbeschreibung«. to Trieste, Oberlandesgerichtspräsidium, from Letter lack ofskill their from often suffered army the in officers Career 2. 10. Hirlap Pesti Shanghaiban«, kalandok‹ ›megrovási »Osztrák Frevert providesexamplesofmenwhoinsistedonduelingeven 5.

79. 1899, Z.33809/10pr13.VI.1899. Frevert: »Der ›Louis‹«, p. 394. Kiernan suggests suggests Kiernan 394. p. ›Louis‹«, »Der Frevert:

8. 224, Fn.43. AD INISTORY 3/2018 AD INISTORY 3/2018

Abstract About the Author

I use the personnel files of three consuls in the Austro- Alison Frank Johnson is Professor of History and of Hungarian foreign service to consider the ways Habsburg Germanic Languages and Literatures at Harvard University. bureaucracy recorded the emotional lives of civil servants. She is currently working on a book on Austria Hungary’s Consuls were expected to interact with Habsburg subjects maritime empire, in which consuls played a leading and other civilians dispassionately and objectively. But role. Previous publications include “The Children of the conflicts that occurred in their ‘free time,’ outside the Desert and the Laws of the Sea: Austria, Great Britain, the consulates, spilled over into their professional time. The Ottoman Empire, and the Mediterranean Slave Trade in resolution of those conflicts involved their colleagues in the the Nineteenth Century,” which appeared in the American consulates and administrators in Vienna. While showing Historical Review in 2012. Other pending works will address emotion in interactions inside the consulate was frowned the abolition of the death penalty in Austria and the life of upon, responding to attacks on personal honor with the the Austrian “Robin Hood,” Johann Georg Grassl. strongest of emotions was expected of an Austro-Hungarian “gentleman.” Consuls had to abide by both the standards of their profession and the standards for “men of honor” (Ehrenmänner) that had been codified with the officer corps in mind. The recognition that both roles were compatible shows the repackaging of certain kinds of “emotion” as professional requirements, rather than excesses. Alison Frank Johnson — The Bureaucracy of Honor Johnson — The Bureaucracy Alison Frank

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