A Dictionary of Diplomacy, Second Edition

A Dictionary of Diplomacy

Second Edition

G. R. Berridge and Alan James A Dictionary of Diplomacy Second edition Also by G. R. Berridge

*DIPLOMACY AT THE UN (co-editor with A. Jennings) *DIPLOMACY: Theory and Practice (second edition) *DIPLOMATIC THEORY FROM MACHIAVELLI TO KISSINGER (with Maurice Keens- Soper and T. G. Otte) *ECONOMIC POWER IN ANGLO-SOUTH AFRICAN DIPLOMACY: Simonstown, Sharpeville and After INTERNATIONAL POLITICS: States, Power and Conflict since 1945 (third edition) THE POLITICS OF THE SOUTH AFRICA RUN: European Shipping and Pretoria *RETURN TO THE UN: United Nations Diplomacy in Regional Conflicts *SOUTH AFRICA, THE COLONIAL POWERS AND ‘AFRICAN DEFENCE’: The Rise and Fall of the White Entente, 1948–60 *TALKING TO THE ENEMY: How States without ‘Diplomatic Relations’ Communicate

Also by Alan James

THE BASES OF INTERNATIONAL ORDER (editor) *BRITAIN AND THE CONGO CRISIS, 1960–63 *KEEPING THE PEACE IN THE CYPRUS CRISIS OF 1963–64 *PEACEKEEPING IN INTERNATIONAL POLITICS THE POLITICS OF PEACEKEEPING SOVEREIGN STATEHOOD: The Basis of International Society STATES IN A CHANGING WORLD (co-editor with Robert H. Jackson)

*from the same publishers A Dictionary of Diplomacy

Second Edition

G. R. Berridge Emeritus Professor of International Politics University of Leicester

Alan James Emeritus Professor of International Relations Keele University

Editorial consultant Sir Brian Barder Formerly British High Commissioner in Australia and Nigeria and British Ambassador to Bénin, Poland and Ethiopia © G. R. Berridge and Alan James 2003 All rights reserved. No reproduction, copy or transmission of this publication may be made without written permission. No paragraph of this publication may be reproduced, copied or transmitted save with written permission or in accordance with the provisions of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, or under the terms of any licence permitting limited copying issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency, 90 Tottenham Court Road, London W1T 4LP. Any person who does any unauthorised act in relation to this publication may be liable to criminal prosecution and civil claims for damages. The authors have asserted their rights to be identified as the authors of this work in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. First edition published by Palgrave Macmillan 2001 Second edition published 2003 by PALGRAVE MACMILLAN Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire RG21 6XS and 175 Fifth Avenue, New York, N. Y. 10010 Companies and representatives throughout the world PALGRAVE MACMILLAN is the global academic imprint of the Palgrave Macmillan division of St. Martin’s Press, LLC and of Palgrave Macmillan Ltd. Macmillan® is a registered trademark in the United States, United Kingdom and other countries. Palgrave is a registered trademark in the European Union and other countries. ISBN 1 4039 15350 hardback ISBN 1 4039 15369 paperback This book is printed on paper suitable for recycling and made from fully managed and sustained forest sources. A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library. A catalogue record for this book is available from the Library of Congress.

10987654321 12 11 10 09 08 07 06 05 04 03 Printed and bound in Great Britain by Antony Rowe Ltd, Chippenham and Eastbourne To GRB’s children: Catherine and William

and AJ’s grandchildren: Elizabeth, David, and Thomas Violet, Jada, Jem, and Jasper Reniece and Taija Joshua, Daniel, and Timothy This page intentionally left blank Contents

Preface to the First Edition ix

Preface to the Second Edition xiii

Notes on Using the Dictionary xv

A Dictionary of Diplomacy 1

A Guide to the Key Articles of the Vienna Convention 283

The Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations (1961) 284

Bibliography 295

vii This page intentionally left blank Preface to the First Edition

Peaceful contacts between independent groups have always, since the start of human time, required the kind of representational activity which has come to be known as diplomacy. In its modern form – that is, throughout the last half-millennium or so – diplomacy has retained a broadly constant character and given rise to a burgeoning diplomatic profession. Like all pro- fessions, it has spawned its own terminology and categories; and inasmuch as its activity concerned relations between proud and jealous sovereigns, later replaced by no less proud and jealous sovereign states, diplomatic lan- guage has been finely honed and carries very precise meanings. It also bears the marks of having found expression in the languages of civilizations beyond those of the West. Furthermore – and again accentuated by the very sensitive nature of this particular representational task – issues of protocol and precedence have been of considerable significance, and have made their distinctive contribution to diplomatic terms. Thus it occasions no surprise at all that diplomacy has, over the centuries, developed a lexicon of specialized words and of other technical usages which it necessarily employs. And as diplomats routinely deal not just with matters of policy but also with the many legal issues which arise between states, these aspects of their work have also made their marks in the diplomatic vocabulary. During the last half-century, however, the day-to-day language of diplo- macy has been enormously augmented as a result of the quantitative revolu- tion which the activity has undergone. The agenda of diplomacy has widened hugely, as almost everything (it seems) has become a legitimate subject of international discussion. The economic connections of states, in particular, have become much more extensive and elaborate. The develop- ment of common bilateral and multilateral standards in a variety of fields has meant that the legal framework within which international relations take place has greatly expanded, and the lengthened jurisdictional reach of states, made possible by technological advance, has also added markedly to the growth of international law. International organizations have multiplied, often being the venue for the extra diplomatic business which the just-men- tioned changes have generated. And each of them, as is to be expected, has contributed its own layer to the terminology in which diplomatic inter- course is customarily carried on. The essence of diplomacy is unchanged: as always, it has to do with promoting and justifying states’ interests. But in content and expression, as in busyness and complexity, it has grown way beyond its condition earlier in the century.

ix x Preface

It is hoped that this Dictionary will be a valuable tool of reference for anyone who has dealings with the diplomatic maze. Historians of diplo- macy, their close cousins the diplomatic historians, and all students of international relations can turn to this book for assistance in understanding the technicalities of diplomatic and related language which crop up in their subject matters. More especially, an attempt has been made to cater for the needs of the increasing number of graduate students of diplomacy. The terms they commonly come across in their reading often require elucida- tion; and references to the ‘great names’ in diplomacy sometimes lack the biographical material which helps to bring such figures to life. Such infor- mation is, we trust, supplied within. Most immediately, however, the authors have in mind the less senior members of the now-very-numerous diplomatic establishments. We have aimed to answer their queries about the ways and preoccupations of what can easily seem a somewhat arcane profession; and to provide explanations for key terms concerning the legal and political contexts within which diplomacy takes place. With this help, they may even become more successful at their tasks. Certainly, we believe, they will thereby obtain a better understanding of what the diplomatic life entails. We should like to pay tribute to Maurice Keens-Soper, who originally sug- gested the idea of a Dictionary of Diplomacy, and to the many people who have provided us with ideas for entries, details for inclusion, and criticism of first drafts. In particular, we must thank Peter Bursey, Jane Crellin, Maurice Dalton, David Dunlop (for the introduction to whom we thank Mark Brady), Saikat Dutta, Robin Gorham, Nevil Hagon, Lt Col. John Kimmins, Jane Loeffler, Anton Loubser, Alexandra McLeod, Simon Malpas, Stanley Martin, Jörg Monar, Marcia Morris, Syed Sharfuddin, and Sue Smith; additionally we would like to thank the staffs of the national archives of Britain, Canada, Ireland, South Africa, and the United States, and also of the Lyndon Baines Johnson Library and the Service Culturel of the French Embassy in London. We both wish to recognize, too, the excellent work done on this manuscript by our copy editor, Anne Rafique. G. R. Berridge also wishes to acknowledge that the Study Leave granted to him by the University of Leicester in the first half of 1999 was of great assistance in the completion of this project. The authors must give special thanks for the efforts on their behalf of their Editorial Consultant, Sir Brian Barder, not least for the speed with which – in trying circumstances – he turned round the first draft of the manuscript of this book. It came as no surprise to us to learn (from another source) that during his distinguished diplomatic career he was himself the cause of the introduction of at least one new diplomatic term: the ‘bardergram’. Although we have never seen one, we have benefited hugely from his many Preface xi e-mails and on this basis deduce the following definition as our token of appreciation to him:

bardergram. An ambassadorial *telegram which is at once robust and graceful. The bardergram, which may be pithy in expression and passion- ate in tone, is not always short and is usually fired in salvos. It ends typi- cally with the following statement: ‘I await your homicidal riposte.’

We must add that we have often used lower case, for example ‘note’ rather than ‘Note’, in spite of his strenuous protests. Finally, we would both like to thank our wives most warmly for contribu- tions they have made to the Dictionary. Sheila Berridge has advised on French and German terms, while Lorna Lloyd has supplied much material discovered during her own archival research, suggested a number of subjects for inclusion, answered questions, and made comments on certain entries. Lorna Lloyd has also kindly let us use her Guide to the Key Articles of the Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations (1961), which precedes the text of the Convention at the end of the book. We are both very lucky. G. R. BERRIDGE and ALAN JAMES This page intentionally left blank Preface to the Second Edition

In this second edition of A Dictionary of Diplomacy we have added a consider- able number of entries, excluded some which no longer seemed significant, reworked others in the light of further reflection, and corrected a few errors. We would like to thank all of those who offered criticisms of the first edition and suggested new entries for inclusion in this one, notably Lorna Lloyd (who also gave much valuable advice) and Kishan Rana. For most helpful advice on particular points, we would like to thank John Duncan, Malcolm Shaw, and the Treaty Section of the FCO. For her sharp but ever tactful copy- editing, we are again in debt to Anne Rafique. Last but not least we must record our warm thanks to our editorial consultant, Sir Brian Barder, for bringing once more to bear on our drafts his great wisdom, long professional experience, good humour, and effortless mastery of Outlook Express. The authors are aware that, despite the best efforts of their various helpers, sins of commission as well as omission will have been made in this book. Since in due time they would like to produce a further edition, they would be grateful to any reader who would care to identify mistakes or propose new entries. If so moved, please write to Professor G. R. Berridge at the Department of Politics, University of Leicester, Leicester LE1 7RH, England or e-mail [email protected] G. R. BERRIDGE and ALAN JAMES FEBRUARY 2003

xiii This page intentionally left blank Notes on Using the Dictionary

In using the Dictionary the following points should be noted: • Each entry consists of a title or catchword, and such material as seems appropriate. An *asterisk preceding a word in an entry signifies that there is a separate entry on the term – or one of its close derivatives – beginning with this word in the Dictionary. However, a term is only asterisked if it seems that reference to it might help the reader to understand the entry in which the asterisk appears. Any other useful cross references are indi- cated by an italicized instruction at the end of the entry concerned. • Where there is more than one usage or ‘sense’ of the term, this is indi- cated by insertion of the numbers ‘(1)’, ‘(2)’ and so on before each sepa- rate definition. When there is an asterisked reference to another entry which has more than one sense, the one to which the cross reference is directed is numerically indicated by the use of such terms as ‘(sense 1)’. • As a rule, the English version of technical diplomatic terms has been employed in preference to the French ones, except where it remains con- ventional to employ French. • The style of entries is ex cathedra and, as a result, we only rarely cite authorities to support our definitions. Nevertheless, our debt to certain works is considerable and the ones on which we have placed greatest reliance are listed in the Bibliography at the end of the Dictionary. • We have followed the convention of using the words ‘diplomacy’, ‘diplo- mat’ and ‘diplomatic’ in references to the years before the late eighteenth century, though we are aware that this is anachronistic since it was only at that time that these words entered the English language. • References to the ‘early modern period’ signify that time between the end of the middle ages (mid-fifteenth century) and the French revolution (1789), and to the ‘late modern period’ that extending from that fateful event to the end of the Second World War in 1945. The period since 1945 is described as the ‘contemporary period’. • In accordance with wide practice, and notwithstanding the fact that in formal (and also geographical) terms Northern Ireland is not part of Britain, the term ‘Britain’ is generally used when referring to the state whose official name is ‘the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland’. • The use of acronyms has been minimized, and only in the cases of certain ones which are exceptionally well known, such as ‘NATO’ and ‘CIA’, are they used as entry titles on their subjects. When acronyms are used in the

xv xvi Notes on Using the Dictionary

body of an entry the names which they represent are generally spelled out on first use. • The Dictionary is not conceived as a handbook of protocol, and has sought to avoid the minutiae of that area. Nonetheless, points relating to proto- col have from time to time necessarily been touched upon. A

abrogation. Often used to describe *head of mission or, more generally, a *unilateral act which brings or a *diplomatic agent. Occasionally, purports to bring an unwelcome however, it may be given as a formal international obligation to an end. title to a representative to whom the Unless the legal arrangement in *receiving state accords *diplomatic question provides for abrogation, privileges and immunities, but who is such an act has no legal effect. It is not eligible for *diplomatic status a synonym for denunciation. because the sending entity does not enjoy *sovereignty (sense 1), or abstention. The decision, in a because its sovereignty is widely multilateral forum, to refrain from denied by other states. During the voting either for or against a 1960s and 1970s this title was given proposed *resolution. See also con- to the representative in South Africa structive abstention. of the non-sovereign Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland and then acceptance and approval. See of the controversially-independent ratification. entity of Rhodesia. accession. Sometimes employed in accredited representative. Yet the same sense as *ratification; but another way of describing a *head also used more specifically to mean of mission or, more generally, a adhesion to a *treaty by a state *diplomatic agent. Occasionally, which is not an original signatory however, it may be given as a to that treaty. formal title to: (1) a representative of an entity which is thought, prob- accord. See agreement. ably by the *receiving state, to lack the entitlement to appoint agents accredited diplomatic representa- with *diplomatic status. In 1939 tive. Another way of describing a South Africa’s representative to

1 2 accreditation

Canada was given this title, acte de présence. An appearance reflecting South Africa’s wish to made by a *head of mission or post avoid the non-sovereign-sounding at a diplomatic function chiefly as a title of *high commissioner, and sign of respect and in order to Canada’s refusal to give diplomatic be observed in attendance. See status to the representative of a also national day; representation *dominion. This title had also been (sense 2). used by South Africa for the head of her *permanent delegation to the acte finale. See final act. *League of Nations. During the Second World War the term was acting head of mission. See acting used to designate the Australian and high commissioner; acting perma- New Zealand members of the British nent representative; chargé d’affaires War Cabinet. See also polpred, repre- ad interim. sentative. (2) A representative of a *sovereign state with which the acting high commissioner. (1) The receiving state is not in *diplomatic diplomat who acts as the head of a relations (sense 1), and to whom *high commission during the *high the latter does not therefore accord commissioner’s temporary absence the normal range of *diplomatic or pending the arrival of a new high privileges and immunities. Such an commissioner. The *receiving state’s individual may head a *representa- foreign ministry must be informed of tive office. the appointment of an acting high commissioner by the high commis- accreditation. (1) Furnishing a sioner or, if that is not possible, by *head of mission with *credentials. the *sending state’s foreign ministry. In most cases these consist of As is implied, the term *chargé *letters of credence, but *high com- d’affaires ad interim is not used in missioners are given either *letters high commissions. (2) Where a high of commission or a *letter of intro- commissioner is non-resident in a duction. (2) More generally, the particular capital, but an office of the appointment of an individual as a high commission is maintained head of mission or as a member of a there, its head (if not of a very junior diplomatic mission. capacity) is likely to be designated acting high commissioner. acquis communautaire. The accu- mulated legislation (including judg- acting permanent representative. ments of the Court of Justice) and The member of a *permanent political practice which has devel- mission who, during the temporary oped within the *European Union. absence of the *permanent repre- Any new member must accept the sentative, acts as such. As is there- acquis in full. fore implied, the term *chargé adjudication 3 d’affaires ad interim is not used in this was another aspect of the permanent missions. Queen’s endeavour to mollify the Tsar. The Act remained in force for Act of Anne. The name by which the the next two-and-a-half centuries. See (British) Diplomatic Privileges Act of also service staff; Sheriffs’ List. 1708 is often known. It was passed in response to the embarrassment of act of formal confirmation. See Queen Anne at the inability of ratification. her courts to punish under the common law those responsible for adhesion. A synonym for *accession. the arrest and detention of M. de Matveev, the Russian ambas- ad hoc diplomacy. A term which is sador in London, to enforce payment sometimes used to refer to diplo- of debts. She immediately procured macy conducted by intermittent or his release and expressed her regret, sporadic means, such as a *roving but he left the country in high ambassador or a *special mission. It dudgeon and without presenting the is therefore to be distinguished *letters of recall which he had been from the conduct of diplomacy carrying when bundled out of his through *resident and *permanent coach. Further measures were called missions. for: amidst much pomp, the British envoy to Russia presented the ad hoc diplomat. This phrase does Queen’s apologies to the Tsar; and as not have a specialized meaning. It is an indication of Britain’s determina- sometimes used: (1) as a way of tion to prevent such a thing happen- describing the role played by the ing again, the Act was passed. Besides holders of political office – the head declaring the proceedings against the of government, for example, or the ambassador null and void, it stated minister for foreign affairs – when that all such civil proceedings which they are engaged in diplomatic activ- might in future be instituted against ity. Such activity might take place at ambassadors, their *families, and a *summit meeting, an *international their domestic servants would also be organization, or at an international null and void – and that those who conference; and (2) to designate the instituted them would be deemed members of a *special mission. ‘violators of the law of nations’ and would suffer such ‘pains, penalties, ad interim. A way of indicating that and corporal punishment’ as might an office or arrangement is held or be imposed. Certainly in its giving made temporarily, as in *chargé domestic servants complete protec- d’affaires ad interim. tion against civil proceedings, the Act went beyond the then *customary adjudication. A process for settling international law on diplomacy, but disputes, possibly *ex aequo et bono 4 administrative and technical staff but almost always on the basis of involved in a negotiation or by the *international law. It may take the *international organization within form of resort to *arbitration or to which the negotiation has taken *judicial settlement. In the former place. The *signature of a treaty is case, adjudication involves the also said to mark its adoption by the establishment by the parties of an state concerned. ad hoc tribunal, and their determi- nation of the law which the arbitral ad referendum. This phrase indi- tribunal is to apply (such matters cates that a decision or an informal being dealt with in a *compromis). In agreement by a diplomat has been the latter case, the dispute is taken made without specific instructions, to an already-existing judicial body, and is therefore conditional on the the statute of which sets out the action being approved. manner in which it is to operate, including the law that it is to apply. adviser. A designation sometimes States may agree in advance that a used for the less senior members of certain class of dispute shall be a member state’s *permanent taken to *compulsory adjudication. mission to an international organ- ization. The United States is a administrative and technical notable follower of this practice in staff. A category identified by the respect of its mission to the United Vienna Convention on *Diplomatic Nations. See also service adviser. Relations (1961) within what used to be called the ‘ambassador’s suite’, advisory opinion. The answer to a these are the members of the staff of question on a point of law put to a diplomatic mission who carry the *International Court of Justice out, for example, interpreting, sec- by organs of the United Nations or retarial, clerical, financial, and the *specialized agencies authorized communications tasks. They are to make such a request. In such pro- distinguished from the *diplomatic ceedings there are neither parties staff on the one hand and the nor a dispute which the Court has *service or domestic staff on the to decide – or at least, not in a other. Controversially, however, the formal sense. Nor is the opinion Vienna Convention gave them (and *binding on the organ which has their immediate families) almost the sought it, although it is unlikely to same range of *privileges and be disregarded. The *Permanent immunities as diplomats, and cer- Court of International Justice was tainly all the important ones. See also empowered to give advisory also family of a diplomatic agent. opinions. adoption. The formal act by which advisory treaty. A *treaty between a a *treaty is agreed by the states colonial power and a tribal ruler agent 5 under which, in return for patron- should be agreed. (2) In the phrase age and other favours (typically ‘hidden agenda’, the term has the money and weapons), the latter related meaning of ‘aims’; hence undertook to accept political advice hidden or secret aims. only from the former. agent. (1) In the early modern affirmative vote. A ‘yes’ vote. period and for some time after- Affirmative votes do not include wards, the lowest of *diplomatic *‘abstentions’. ranks (sense 1). Agents were main- tained at courts where commercial African Union (AU). The AU was advantages might be obtained by founded in 2002 as the successor to their presence but political interests the Organization of African Unity, were marginal. George III, the eigh- which was established in 1963 to teenth century British king forced foster African unity and solidarity. to grant independence to his Modelled loosely on the *European American colonies, thought that Union, the AU’s principal policy- this was the most appropriate level making organ is the Assembly of at which to establish relations with heads of state and government. the new United States. (2) In con- There is in addition an Executive junction with ‘diplomatic’, the term Council composed of ministers of is used to refer to a *diplomat. (3) A foreign affairs or other ministers; representative of a state or territory a Permanent Representative Com- who lacks *diplomatic status. In mittee; a Commission based at some circumstances such an agent headquarters and directed by the may be termed an ‘agent-general’ Chairperson of the AU; and a set of or ‘delegate-general’. See non- Specialized Technical Committees diplomatic agent. (4) A clerk in the established within the secretariat eighteenth and early nineteenth and headed by Commissioners. It is century *Foreign Office employed also hoped that there will be more by a British diplomat as his private *‘civil society’ participation in the banker. Attempts to abolish the AU than in the old OAU. The head- ‘agency system’, as it was known, quarters remains in Addis Ababa. had been made since the latter decades of the eighteenth century. agency system. See agent (sense 4). However, in the face of strong resistance in the Foreign Office, agenda. (1) The list of topics to be where it was regarded as providing discussed in a negotiation. This is useful supplementary income to itself an important subject in *prene- official salaries, it did not finally gotiations, when the order in which come to an end until 1870. (5) An topics are to be taken as well as the abbreviated way of referring to a nature of the topics themselves *secret agent. See also agent in place. 6 agent-general agent-general. The title generally definition of aggression and in 1974 given to the representative in its *General Assembly managed to London of a constituent State of the agree on one by *consensus. But the *federal state of Australia, and of a eight-article definition still left constituent Province of the federal much scope for argument, in any state of Canada. Most Australian particular case, about its proper states but only a minority of interpretation and application. Canadian provinces have such rep- resentation. Such representatives do agréation. See agrément. not enjoy *diplomatic status. But Britain accords them privileges and agreed minutes. See minutes. immunities at the level specified in the Vienna Convention on agreement. Whenever the term is *Consular Relations (1963). See also used with a degree of formality, a agent (sense 3). name often given to certain interna- tional legal *instruments. It is gen- agent in place. A person with erally employed with regard to access to highly sensitive informa- those which are relatively informal tion (for example in a ministry, in expression, limited in scope, and intelligence agency or weapons do not have many *parties. See also research establishment) who deliv- executive agreement. ers this, usually on a regular basis, to an intelligence agency of another agrément. Earlier described as state. Agents in place are not ‘agréation’, the formal agreement by persons ‘planted’ in such positions a *receiving state to accept a named but are nationals of the state in individual as *head of a diplomatic which they live and are usually mission. Obtaining such agreement long-serving and trusted employees. before an individual is despatched It is for these reasons that they are (in practice, before a name is pub- regarded as priceless *‘humint licly announced) is a firm require- assets’ by agencies charged with ment under the Vienna Convention gathering *foreign intelligence on *Diplomatic Relations (1961) – (sense 1). although when addressing such requests to *Commonwealth states, aggression. An attack by one state Britain does not use the term ‘agré- on another that is unwarranted in ment’. A refusal of agrément may be any one or more of three respects: prompted by objections either to politics, law, and morality. At all the personal character or past these levels there is often disagree- record of the proposed new head of ment as to whether an attack is war- mission. This does not require ranted or not. The UN has tried to justification but often comes out. In clarify the matter by seeking a 1997 the Turkish government Air Force One 7 refused agrément to Ehud Toledano, purpose is to reinforce the represen- who had been nominated by the tations made by the diplomat and – Israeli government as its new in case he or she should have for- ambassador to Ankara. Turkish gotten to mention some important officials stated that Toledano, an point, made a mess of a second, or academic specializing in Ottoman given insufficient or too much history, had given a pro-Armenian emphasis to a third – leave no room account of the massacre of for ambiguity about the attitude of 1.5million Armenians by Turkish his or her government. Since it will troops in the First World War in an only be in exceptional circum- Israeli radio interview in 1981. The stances that its text is not also the Vienna Convention on Diplomatic main part of the diplomat’s own Relations also states that a receiving script, the aide-mémoire is well state ‘may’ require the names of named: it is an aid to everyone’s *service attachés to be submitted memory. The more junior the beforehand for its approval as well. official to whom a statement has It appears to be customary for all been made, the more important it is members of *interests sections to that its contents be confirmed by an require agrément. aide-mémoire. aide-mémoire. A written statement air adviser. See air attaché. of a government’s attitude on a par- ticular question which is left by a air attaché. An air force officer tem- diplomatic agent with the *inter- porarily attached to a diplomatic locutor, typically a ministry official, mission. As between member states to whom an oral presentation has of the *Commonwealth, the equiva- just been made. Occasionally lent individual is designated as an known as a pro-memoria or simply as ‘air adviser’. See also service attaché. a ‘memorandum’, it is usually handed over in person by the diplo- Air Force One. The radio call-sign mat at the end of the interview, of any US Air Force aircraft carrying or if necessary delivered shortly the president of the United States. afterwards with a covering *note (If he flies on an Army plane this attached. As a result, the aide- becomes Army One; if on a Navy mémoire has no need for marks of aircraft Navy One.) Dedicated presi- provenance or courtesy and bears dential air transport began in 1944, little resemblance to a note. It has though this call-sign was not used no address or embassy stamp, until the 1950s and first applied contains no salutations, and is popularly to the Boeing 707 intro- unsigned. Instead, the classic aide- duced for President Kennedy at the mémoire is simply headed Aide- beginning of the following decade. Mémoire and dated at the end. Its In current practice, Air Force One is 8 airgram the name and call-sign given to one scientific purposes is in any event or other of the two extensively permissible. The passage through modified Boeing 747-200Bs which, airspace of all types of foreign air- since the beginning of the 1990s, craft – scheduled services, military have been maintained for use by planes and private ones – requires the President. They have conference the consent of the subjacent state. It facilities, aerial refuelling capability, was the First World War (1914–18) sophisticated defences (including which precipitated general accept- shielded wiring to counter the ance of the doctrine of state sover- effects of nuclear blast, as well as eignty over air space. Previously, its anti-radar and missile protection), status had been contentious. and encrypted communications. As a result, Air Force One is an adjunct Aix-la-Chapelle, Congress of to US *summit diplomacy (as well as (1818). See Regulation of Vienna; presidential travel within the resident. United States) of great symbolic as well as practical significance. alliance. A *treaty entered into by two or more states to engage in airgram. A *State Department term cooperative military action in for a formal diplomatic communica- specified circumstances. With the tion sent in the *diplomatic bag by advent of nuclear weapons in the air when a *telegram was considered second half of the twentieth too laborious (if encoding was century, alliances were increasingly needed), or (because of its length) concluded in the hope of deterring too expensive. The airgram fell into the outbreak of war rather than disuse when telegrams became with a ready willingness to fight in a more cost-effective means of one. Accordingly (and also for communication. strategic reasons), these recent alliances have often, from the time air space. The area lying immedi- of their making, involved detailed ately above the land and the sea of contingency planning and complex a state’s territory. Each state enjoys organizational arrangements. The *sovereignty (sense 2) over the air hallmark of an alliance, compared space above its territory and its *ter- to an *entente, is the precision of its ritorial sea at least up to the height commitments. See also NATO; at which the density of the air is Warsaw Pact. sufficient for conventional aircraft to fly. How far state sovereignty Alliance Française. The chief extends beyond that is unclear, but vehicle of French *cultural diplo- state practice suggests that the flight macy. Founded in 1880, the Alliance through the higher air space of Française was an influential model objects launched for peaceful or for other states, not least Britain. alternat 9 alliance of convenience. In French to sit next to the president of an alliance à rebours, an *alliance Ukraine, relations between the two between opposites inspired by a states then being particularly fraught. common peril. In English the See also Commonwealth; name of a phrase ‘marriage of convenience’ is state; precedence (c). sometimes employed. alternat. The procedure whereby as all necessary means. A euphemistic many original copies of a *treaty or (some might say diplomatic!) way other document are drawn up as of referring to armed force. there are signatories. By this means each state is able to have its own all-source analysis. An *intelli- copy and – more importantly – its gence community term for the own *head of state and *plenipoten- analysis of information on foreign tiaries named first in the preamble targets gathered from all sources, of this copy. These plenipotentiaries including reports from all the differ- are also able to sign this copy before ent collection agencies and di- the plenipotentiaries of the other plomatic and consular missions *parties. Thus the signatories alter- abroad. This work is conducted by nate in occupying the place of some central agency such as the honour in the treaty. *CIA in the United States or the One of a number of devices *Joint Intelligence Committee in designed to alleviate the rancour Britain. It is often referred to as aroused by arguments between ‘intelligence assessment’. states over *precedence, the alternat appears first to have come into vogue alphabetical seating. When *seating in Europe in the sixteenth century. arrangements at a *multilateral con- The flaw in this system of treaty sig- ference or *international organiza- nature, of course, was that it assumed tion are arranged alphabetically, each universal acceptance of the principle participating or member state is that each state was entitled to partici- placed on the basis of its own render- pate in a ‘rotation in precedence’. It ing of its name in the language to be assumed, in other words, precisely used at the conference or organiza- that equality between states the per- tion in question. The choice of lan- ceived absence of which had led to guage, however, could turn on arguments over precedence in the political expediency. At a meeting in first place. Not surprisingly, it was November 2002 of the Euro-Atlantic not universally accepted and disputes Partnership Council (which is linked over whether or not one state ‘had with *NATO), members’ names were the alternat’ with another became rendered in French rather than the just another vehicle of *power poli- usual English, so as to ensure that tics. France, for example, did not Britain’s prime minister did not have grant the alternat to Russia until 10 alternate representative

1779. Nevertheless, the idea of equal- takes its name from the place of its ity within classes of states (especially discovery in 1887: El Amarna, a plain the class of *great powers), coupled on the east bank of the Nile about with the force of established prece- 190 miles south of Cairo which was dents, gave currency to the system the site of the capital of Egypt for a and it remains the usual practice in short period in the fourteenth signing bilateral treaties today. century BC. The correspondence is (Where there are language differences unique in the extent of the insights between the parties each state’s own that it provides into the diplomatic copy also displays the version in its system of the Ancient Near East. An own language first, that is, on the authoritative English translation, left-hand page or column.) In light of resting on the steady advance in the great growth in the number of understanding of the letters during states in the twentieth century, the twentieth century, was published however, it is not surprising that the by William L. Moran in 1992. See also alternat has been abandoned for cuneiform diplomacy. multilateral treaties, where it is regarded as much more convenient ambassador. A *diplomatic agent of to sign just one original in the agreed the highest *rank. More particularly *alphabetical order of the names of the title is used: the participating states. (1) In most cases, to designate the *head of a diplomatic mission to a alternate representative. A member foreign state where that head, as of a *permanent mission to an among heads of mission, falls into *international organization who has the first *diplomatic class. By deriva- been nominated and accepted as an tion, the mission in question is alternate to a member state’s repre- then called an *embassy. An sentative on an organ of the organ- embassy has just one ambassador. ization which (as is customary) Usually such agents are formally limits the number of permissible described as the ambassador of [the representatives. *sending state] to [the *receiving state]. When at their posts, Britain Amarna letters. An archive of diplo- refers to her ambassadors as ‘Her matic correspondence exchanged in Majesty’s Ambassador’; but if this the fourteenth century BC between usage could give rise to ambiguity the Egyptian king and neighbouring (because of the presence of other courts, some of which were his ambassadors from states with a *vassals while others were also ‘great female head of state), they are kings’. The archive, which consists of referred to as ‘Her Britannic 382 cuneiform tablets, was written Majesty’s Ambassador’. chiefly in Akkadian, the *diplomatic (2) Almost invariably, to desig- language (sense 3) of the time. It nate a member state’s *permanent annexation 11 representative to the UN and some But in point of status and function other international organizations. there are no differences whatsoever An exception may (but will by no between ambassadors and high means necessarily) occur if that commissioners (although in London individual is not a regular member some small differences of treatment of his or her state’s *diplomatic continue to exist). service; thus, when Lord Caradon, See also envoy; full powers; resi- Minister of State in Britain’s govern- dent; Rosier, Bernard du; roving ment, was her permanent represen- ambassador. tative to the UN (1964–70), he was not called ambassador. A state’s per- ambassador-at-large. See roving manent mission to an international ambassador. organization may include more than one individual with this title – ambassador’s suite. See family of a but only one of them can be the diplomatic agent. state’s permanent representative, who is also the head of mission. Amcits. American citizens who are (3) In some states, as a courtesy members of a US *expatriate com- title given to those who have served munity. This is a *State Department as an ambassador in either of the abbreviation. above two senses. Britain does not follow this practice; the United American Foreign Service Asso- States does. ciation (AFSA). The professional Ambassadors in senses 1 and 2 are association of active and retired always called His or Her *Excellency; members of the US *Foreign Service, and their full title is Ambassador established in 1924. *Extraordinary and *Plenipotentiary. Ambassadors in sense 1 require annexation. The formal act by the *agrément of the receiving state which a state incorporates con- before they can be appointed. quered foreign territory within its Inasmuch as an ambassador is, in own jurisdiction. It is now almost form, the personal representative of universally regarded as a violation the *head of state, he or she will of *international law. Annexation probably be received by the head of must be distinguished from the the sending state before (or soon acquisition of foreign territory with after) taking up the appointment. the willing agreement of the foreign This is certainly the practice in state concerned, and also from what Britain. used sometimes to be called peace- The heads of diplomatic missions ful annexation – that is, the acquisi- exchanged between members of the tion by way of proclamation and *Commonwealth are called *high settlement of territory not under commissioners, not ambassadors. the authority of any other state. 12 annexe annexe. A detailed appendix to a de facto envoy to a state. This was *treaty, which sometimes contains especially true of Protestant ones its most important provisions and is such as Britain and the United of equal validity with the provisions States, where until the early 1980s of the preceding, more general part the political risk of openly accept- of the document. Sir Percy Cradock, ing a papal diplomat was consid- who as British Ambassador in Peking ered too high. Not surprisingly, it and then as Foreign Policy Adviser is not unknown for apostolic dele- to his *head of government played gates to have previous diplomatic such an important role in the nego- experience. The apostolic delegate tiations between Britain and China sent to London in 1954 had before over Hong Kong, said of the Joint this been papal *nuncio in Dublin. Declaration on the colony signed in See also Holy See; pro-nuncio; 1984: the ‘annexes would be vital: Vatican City State. the main agreement would be gener- alized; the meat would be in the fine apostolic nunciature. See nuncia- print’. ture. annual review. The end of year apostolic nuncio. See nuncio. report which the ambassadors in some diplomatic services are apostille. Another term for a *legal- expected to submit on recent and ization certificate. anticipated developments in the country to which they are posted. apostolic pro-nuncio. See pro- In British practice, where the nuncio. annual review is cast in the form of a *despatch, it is also usual for it to appeasement. The policy of trying contain a quantified account of the to satisfy another state by agreeing degree of success achieved during to some of its demands. Since the the year in meeting the mission’s unfortunate experience of the formal ‘objectives’ and give recom- British Prime Minister, Neville mendations for future policy. Chamberlain, at the hands of Hitler in the late 1930s, it has anti-localitis. See localitis. come to mean the dishonourable course of seeking peace at any apostolic delegate. The Pope’s price. Being charged with appease- representative to a branch of the ment is an occupational hazard of Roman Catholic Church outside diplomacy. Italy. Normally, therefore, the apostolic delegate does not enjoy appel. The salutation used in a *diplomatic status but in the past formal personal letter sent by a he has sometimes functioned as a diplomat. armistice 13

Arab League. See League of Arab ity of some disputes, arbitration States. continues to be used by states. See also conciliation. arbitration. The settlement of a dispute through reference to an archives and documents. See diplo- arbitral tribunal established ad hoc, matic archives. the members of which may possibly be selected from the (mislead- archivist. See chancelier. ingly called) *Permanent Court of Arbitration. An arbitral tribunal armed conflict. (1) International may also be established to deal with armed conflict occurring between a class of disputes that have arisen states which was not begun by one or may be expected to arise out of a of them making a formal declara- particular situation. Except to the tion of intent to wage *war. Since extent to which two or more states the outbreak of the Second World have agreed in advance that a War in 1939 such declarations have specified class of disputes shall be gone entirely out of fashion. taken to *compulsory arbitration, However, in the popular sense of this device for *pacific settlement the term wars continue. Moreover, can only be used when the parties the laws of war (now known as agree to it. The agreement by which *international humanitarian law) this is done is called a *compromis. continue to be applicable to such International arbitration is gener- armed conflicts. (2) Non-interna- ally conducted on the basis of tional armed conflict within the ter- *international law, in which case it ritory of a state between its armed is in substance akin to *adjudication forces and other armed and well- or *judicial settlement. But if they organized groups; that is, an inter- wish, states resorting to arbitration nal conflict (or civil war) which may provide that it proceed some- takes on many of the military char- what in the manner of *mediation acteristics of international armed or *ex aequo et bono. conflict. In such conflicts the rele- Arbitration is an arrangement of vant parts of the laws of war are great antiquity. Internationally, it applicable. was most notably used between the late eighteenth century and about armed forces attaché. See service 1930. Since then, established attaché. arrangements for judicial settlement have been widely regarded as the armistice. An agreement for the sus- most appropriate means for the set- pension of hostilities. Historically, tlement of international disputes on the suspension offered by an the basis of law. But for reasons of armistice was intended to be tempo- expedition, cost, and the technical- rary (and could be local as well as 14 army attaché general). But since 1918 the term mission is *recalled, temporarily or has increasingly connoted an inten- permanently, from the *receiving tion to terminate hostilities com- state in protest at some aspect of its pletely. In that event, an armistice behaviour. The phrase derives from may be followed by an agreement the fact that at one time the receipt on an armistice demarcation line of a passport, in effect an exit *visa, and, later, by a *peace treaty. was necessary for a foreigner to Nowadays, a temporary suspension leave his country of residence. of hostilities is more likely to be called a *truce or a *ceasefire than an assemblies. See parliamentary armistice. But the use of all such assemblies. terms became rather imprecise during the second half of the twen- assistant attaché. See attaché. tieth century. assistant under-secretary of state. army attaché. See military attaché; Until recently, a senior position in service attaché. Britain’s *Foreign and Common- wealth Office, coming beneath that Arria formula. An extremely infor- of *deputy under-secretary of state mal procedure of the UN *Security and above that of *head of depart- Council enabling its members to ment. (Such a person is now known engage in discussion with non- as a *’director’.) It is also a senior members, including non-state position in the US State parties. Under this formula meet- Department. ings are held in private, away from the Council chamber, usually under associated state. A status which for the chairmanship of a Council most practical purposes is similar to member other than the current that of a *protected state, but in Council president, and without the which the entity in question lacks attendance of officials or the *sovereignty (sense 1). Thus an asso- keeping of any official records. The ciated state will, more or less, enjoy formula takes its name from Diego internal self-government, but its Arria, the Venezuelan ambassador defence and external affairs will be who presided over the first meeting in the hands of the state with which of this nature during his country’s it is associated. tenure of a seat on the Security The concept of association is Council during the period 1992–93. much more in accord with contem- porary orthodoxy than that of Arthashastra. See Kautilya. protection, but even so most experi- ments with it – notably in the West ask for passports. An expression Indies – have been wound up. sometimes used when a *head of However, the Cook Islands and attaché 15

Niue remain as associated states of alphabetical basis. There is also an New Zealand. annual meeting to arrange economic It should be noted that the three cooperation, the ASEAN Economic Pacific states in ‘free association’ Meeting (AEM). In 1992 it was with the United States – the decided to set up an ASEAN Free Marshall Islands, Micronesia, and Trade Area with a view to establish- Palau – are not associated states in ing a *common market within 15 the sense here discussed. However, years. However, all progress within in respect of their defence (for ASEAN has to overcome the prob- which the United States has lems presented by the geographical accepted responsibility) they have size and diversity of its area, and the assumed one of the key characteris- political and economic divisions that tics of *protected states. exist among its member states.

Association of South East Asian asylum. See diplomatic asylum. Nations (ASEAN). This international organization was established in 1967 attaché. This is a recognized way of to promote economic cooperation designating certain members of a and development and, more gener- *diplomatic mission and of a *per- ally, collaboration in all matters of manent mission. There is no exact common interest. Since Cambodia’s uniformity in its use, but principally admission in 1999, its members it is employed in two ways (with a encompass all ten south-east Asian third usage now seemingly out of states: Brunei, Cambodia, Indonesia, fashion): Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar, the (1) In some *diplomatic services, Philippines, Singapore, Thailand, and junior members – usually those Vietnam. Papua New Guinea has ranking beneath *third secretary – *observer status. Its headquarters and are called attachés (or assistant central secretariat are in Jakarta, attachés) when they serve in diplo- Indonesia. The *secretary-generalship matic missions, or at certain diplo- rotates among the member states matic missions. every three years in the alphabetical (2) In the overwhelming majority order of their names. ASEAN’s of diplomatic and permanent mis- supreme organ is the meeting of sions there are specialist staff enjoy- Heads of Government, which gathers ing *diplomatic status who are not in formal session every three years, members of their state’s diplomatic and informally in the intervening service. They come from government years. Each year there is a policy- departments other than the foreign making Meeting of Foreign Ministers, ministry, such as Defence, Finance, popularly known as AMM, the Trade, and Agriculture, or may ASEAN Ministerial Meeting. It rotates perhaps be temporary members of among the member states on an the foreign ministry who have been 16 audience hired for a specific overseas assign- a diplomatic mission. (Accordingly, ment. (The US State Department used they attract a separate entry.) to class such people as ‘Foreign Armed service personnel attached to Service Reserves’.) Some states give at diplomatic missions sent by one least some of these officials a *Commonwealth state to another *diplomatic rank (sense 1), usually are called advisers, not attachés. indicating their expertise in brackets. (3) The title of honorary attaché Thus Mr X (a member of the used sometimes to be given to Department of Trade who has been certain members of a diplomatic seconded to the mission) may be des- mission. In British practice they ignated First Secretary (Trade). But were usually well-connected and other states give some or all such affluent young men who found officials the title of attaché, indicat- attachment to an embassy – ing that they are attached to its preferably at an intriguing place, mission from a department with a like Istanbul – an ideal means of predominantly domestic focus rather widening their knowledge of the than from the foreign ministry. In world while sampling a possible such circumstances Mr X would be career. What they actually did called a Trade Attaché, or an Attaché depended on their abilities and the (Trade). Other types of attaché attitude of their head of mission; include Administrative, Agricul- some did valuable diplomatic work; tural, Coffee and Cocoa Affairs, others did not. The custom of Commercial, Cultural, Economic, appointing such attachés appears to Education, Financial, Labour, Press, have died out in the middle of the Scientific, Sugar Affairs, Tourism, and twentieth century. Welfare Attachés, and even Medical and Meteorological Attachés. audience. A formal interview granted Depending on the extent to by one official personage to another. which their work is distinguishable A notable instance is the audience from the general representational given to a *head of mission by a and reporting work of the diplo- *head of state, typically for the *pre- matic or permanent mission, some sentation of credentials, and perhaps attachés in sense 2 will report also to mark the termination of a directly to their home departments *tour of duty. In the latter case it has as well as to the foreign ministry. been generally known as the This will always be true of *service *farewell call and is a more private attachés and the subsets of this occasion. genre: Army (or Military), Naval, Initial audiences are now rather and Air attachés (and assistant routine affairs but this was not attachés) – who also in some other always the case. Ambassadors newly respects are in a different position appointed to the court of the Sultan from that of most other members of of the Ottoman Empire could some- award 17 times wait months for their initial cartoon of the audience granted audience, and thus be in official early in the following year by King limbo. They might then be sub- George III to Jusuf Aga Efendi, the jected to varying degrees of humili- first permanent Ottoman ambas- ation at the ceremony itself. One of sador ever sent abroad by the the most legendary audiences in the Sultan. This is called ‘Presentation history of diplomacy, however, was of the Mahometan Credentials – or that granted in September 1793 – The final resource of French by Qianlong, Manchu Emperor Atheists’. See also orator; tribute. of China, to the experienced British envoy, Lord Macartney, who audience de congé. See farewell call. hoped to establish the first resi- dent embassy on Chinese soil. Auswärtiges Amt (AA). Styled Macartney, however, refused to ‘Foreign Office’ in imitation of the *kowtow and in consequence it was British ministry, the German min- to be the middle of the next century istry of foreign affairs created by before a British embassy was opened *Bismarck in 1870. It was housed in in Peking. The scene which the cari- the Wilhelmstrasse in Berlin until caturist James Gillray envisaged as its destruction in 1943. Lord Macartney’s audience was immortalized in his cartoon entitled autonomy. The enjoyment, by a ‘The Reception of the Diplomatique territorial and often ethnically dis- & his Suite, at the Court of Pekin’ (it tinct subdivision of a *sovereign was actually held at the cooler state, of a far-reaching but less-than- summer retreat of the emperor at full measure of self rule. Jehol). Less well known is Gillray’s equally if not more remarkable award. See judgment. B

back channel. A line of diplomatic officials and Israeli academics at communication which bypasses discreet Norwegian locations while the normal or ‘front channel’, formal Middle East talks were usually to maximize secrecy and being held, unproductively, in avoid opposition to a new line Washington. of policy. This does not necessarily entail sidelining all professional backtracking. In *negotiations, diplomats, just most of them. Two reopening a question on which well-documented cases may be men- agreement has already been tioned. The first occurred during the reached. This is usually most serious arms control talks between the if it is an issue of principle. Soviet Union and the United States in the early 1970s. These were for- bailiwick. The territory under the mally conducted in Vienna (the authority of a bailiff or bailie – a front channel) but Henry *Kissinger sovereign’s official. Now largely his- used the back channel of secret torical, though the British *‘Crown meetings with Soviet Ambassador in dependencies’ of Jersey and Washington, Anatoly Dobrynin, to Guernsey (the chief Channel tackle key difficulties in the talks Islands), which do not come under while the arms control negotiators the authority of Britain’s parlia- themselves remained in complete ment, are still formally described as ignorance of what was going on. The bailiwicks. See also dependent second case was provided by the territory. ‘Oslo channel’, which played the key role in producing the Israel–Palestine bailo. The Venetian representative Liberation Organization settlement at Constantinople. The bailo (from of September 1993. This consisted of baiulus, tutor or protector) was part elaborately disguised direct talks *ambassador, part *consul, and part beginning in 1992 between PLO governor of the large Venetian

18 Barbaro, Emolao 19 trading colony in the city; he held revisionist power is a coalition of the most important post in the status quo powers, and that squea- *Venetian diplomatic service. In mishness about the domestic poli- 1453, when Constantinople fell to cies of potential allies is an the sultan of the *Ottoman Empire, expensive luxury. Many hoped that Mehmed II, the bailo actually this traditional approach of the fought alongside his co-religionists European states-system to the on the walls of the city and was problem of international order beheaded (along with his son) for would be replaced, or at least his pains. Nevertheless, within a modified, by the *collective security year the conqueror had permitted a procedures introduced in the twen- new appointment to the bailage of tieth century; however, these Constantinople. proved disappointing. As ‘equilib- rium’ or as the means of achieving balance of power. (1) The distribu- it, the balance of power is the jewel tion of power between states at any in the crown of the approach to given time. (2) An international dis- international politics known as tribution of power favouring the *realism (sense 3). See also Kissinger; supporters of the status quo and Metternich. thereby likely to deter any revision- ist state or *alliance of states from Ballhausplatz. A common way of attacking them. In reality a prepon- referring to the foreign ministry in derance of power in favour of the Vienna of the Austro-Hungarian former, this is described as an ‘equi- Empire, which was situated at librium’ to avoid provoking the Ballhausplatz 2. Today, the Austrian latter. (3) The means by which this foreign ministry occupies the build- equilibrium is achieved, in other ing. See also Kaunitz, Count Wenzel words, the main *international Anton von. institution (sense 2), other than *diplomacy and *international law, ballon d’essai. In negotiation, a by which states preserves them- proposition floated tentatively to selves against threats from their test the reaction of the other side, hegemonial or imperialist (sense 2) from the French envoyer un ballon fellows. (In practice, this may mean d’essai (to send up a pilot balloon). preserving the major ones at the See also flying a kite. expense of the lesser.) The balance of power in this sense consists of a Barbaro, Emolao (1454–1493). A configuration of alliances shaped, Venetian scholar-diplomat who in among other things, by broad 1490 was sent as resident ambas- acceptance of certain practical rules sador to Rome, a key post in the or precepts: for example, that the *Venetian diplomatic service. De most effective bulwark against a Officio Legati, the short book which 20 bargaining he wrote while here, is notable for conflict has moved beyond the stage being the first literary account of the of a mere *insurgency. Thus it is a *resident, as opposed to the *special, formal recognition of a new situa- envoy. It is also remarkable for being tion – one where a new de facto the first book on diplomacy to political authority has appeared, announce, albeit not in this phrase, with which the recognizing state the doctrine of *raison d’état. may need to communicate. How- ever, it does not amount to a *recog- bargaining. (1) The exchange of nition of the insurgent group as a offers and counter-offers, sometimes legitimate government. Having rec- known as ‘haggling’. In this sense, ognized a group as belligerents, the bargaining is a tactic employed recognizing state is obliged to within a *negotiation. (2) A syno- conform to the law of *neutrality in nym for negotiation. See also con- its dealings with both the group and cession; quid pro quo. the government against which it is rebelling. It must also allow both of base, foreign military. That part of the latter to exercise against itself the territory of a *sovereign state the legal rights which belligerents in which is made available for use by interstate wars customarily enjoy. the military forces of a foreign The recognition of belligerency state, and is sufficiently extensive implies an agnosticism about the and distinguishable to be termed a conflict’s outcome. Such an base. The terms and conditions on approach is, at the start of the which it may be so used will have twenty-first century, deeply out of been agreed by the host and the fashion. Instead, there is general foreign state. It should be noted hostility to anything that might that Britain’s two bases on the facilitate the break-up of states. In island of Cyprus are not part of the this context there is little disposition state of Cyprus, as the areas in to consider granting an insurgent question are under British sover- group the status of belligerency. eignty: hence the phrase, British Sovereign Base Areas. See also status belligerent. (1) A state engaged in of forces agreement. *war. (2) An *insurgent group which has been granted the status of belligerency. A status which, under *belligerency. the traditional law of *war, may be accorded by *third parties to an Benelux. An abbreviated way of insurgent group within a *sovereign referring, collectively, to Belgium, state which as a matter of fact exer- the Netherlands, and Luxembourg. cises such governmental authority over part of that state and wields benevolent neutrality. See neu- such power as to suggest that the trality. binding 21 berãt. See letter of protection. from that of the conference and only of concern to the two states Berlaymont. The building in themselves. Brussels which houses the headquar- ters of the *European Commission. binding. The condition of having an obligation, either in terms of bid list. The list of postings abroad morality or of law, to follow or for which an American *Foreign desist from a certain path, or to use Service officer would like to be con- a certain procedure if one wishes to sidered. This must be submitted if achieve a valid legal result. All jural the officer is eligible for, and law is, by its nature, binding on desires, a transfer. The list will those to whom it applies. Much usually be expected to include bids philosophical speculation has taken for positions in *hardship posts and place, over millennia, as to the in more than one geographical means whereby bindingness is con- region. ferred on law. But this is a false question, as all societies have bilateral diplomacy. (1) The worked on the assumption that that conduct of *diplomatic relations which they designate as law is, by (sense 1) between two states virtue of it being law, binding. If, through formally accredited mis- for example, rules or laws are sions, though one or even both of promulgated for a game, those these missions may be physically playing it do not ask if those rules located in a neighbouring state. In are binding on them. It is inherent this sense, bilateral diplomacy is in the concept of laws or rules that identical to ‘traditional diplomacy’, they bind those who come within and has a strong emphasis on their aegis. Hence, *international written communications. The prin- law is no less, and no more, binding ciple of *reciprocity has a powerful on its subjects than any other law is influence on the conduct of bilat- within its area of jurisdiction. It eral diplomacy and, at least in more should be noted that, as with all recent times, has generated consid- non-scientific law, the word binding erable pressure for equivalent levels in this context refers to the exis- of *representation in each state. See tence of an obligation to follow a also diplomatic representation; mul- rule, and not necessarily to its tiple accreditation. (2) Any form of actual observance. Indeed, in logic direct diplomatic contact between an action can only be termed a two states beyond the formal breach of a rule on the assumption confines of a *multilateral confer- that the entity in question is under ence, including contacts in the an obligation to observe it. See also wings of such gatherings when the customary international law; inter- subject of discussion is different national law; pacta sunt servanda. 22 bipartisan foreign policy bipartisan foreign policy. In a rep- bloc. A grouping of states for the resentative democracy with a two- purposes of concerting their policies party system, a foreign policy in one or more areas, whether they supported by both major parties. are bound together by a *treaty or not, and whether they constitute an Bismarck, Prince Otto von *alliance or not. The most notable (1815–98). A Prussian diplomat and bloc of the post-1945 period was the statesman. After a decade serving as ‘Soviet bloc’. See also Cold War. a professional diplomat, Bismarck was appointed chief minister of blockade. The announcement by a Prussia in September 1862 (and *belligerent that part or all of the only weeks later foreign minister as enemy coast is closed to the ingress well), and is remembered chiefly for or egress of the vessels (and aircraft) orchestrating the unification of of all states. It has legal status only Germany in 1871 and then, as if it is made effective. Ships (and air- Imperial Chancellor until 1890, for craft) attempting to run the block- his role in holding the *balance of ade may be seized. A prize court power (sense 2) in Europe. He established by the belligerent then believed that foreign policy should decides whether their seizure was be based on interest rather than lawful. If it is so judged, they and sentiment, that war should never be their cargoes are designated as *con- fought to a point where enemies traband, and confiscated. In con- were permanently alienated, and temporary conditions blockade has that all options should be preserved little relevance. by practising diplomacy (sense 1) with any state with which Germany blue berets. The name by which the was at peace. military members of a UN *peace- keeping operation are often black box hot line. See hot line. described, after the colour of their headgear. They are also called blue black chamber. The room, often in helmets. a central post office, where letters, including diplomatic *despatches Blue Book. The popular name for a sent by ordinary post, were opened British government paper which, and (where necessary) decrypted because of its bulk, was given a cover before being re-sealed and sent on of stronger quality than the inside their way. Most European states had pages; the colour of this cover hap- a black chamber by the eighteenth pened to be blue. Blue Books, typi- century and the introduction of the cally long official reports covering electric *telegraph gave them more matters of domestic as well as foreign work in the nineteenth. In France it policy, were published by the govern- was known as the cabinet noir. ment and formally presented to bout de papier 23

Parliament – and thus by one means mission. The contemporary equiva- or another to the public at large. lent, perhaps, of nineteenth-century They were introduced at the begin- *gunboat diplomacy. See also coer- ning of the nineteenth century, the cive diplomacy. chief architect of the new system being George Canning (1770–1827), bottom line. The least for which a the brilliant and driven Tory foreign party to a *negotiation will settle; as secretary who, in his last period, was far down as one can be pushed. See also leader of the House of Commons also sticking point. and briefly prime minister. The Diplomatic Blue Books, boudoir diplomacy. A manner of which reached foreign govern- conducting business aspired to by ments as well as influential groups certain ambassadors at courts where within Britain, were, of course, one or more women were influential, sometimes employed by foreign or where a queen or empress ruled, secretaries as instruments of *pro- as for example in St Petersburg paganda. Documents such as during the reign of Catherine II of exchanges of telegrams were pre- Russia in the late eighteenth century. sented selectively and often edited Modelling themselves no doubt on to be consistent with current Castiglione’s courtier, their object policy. *Bismarck disapproved of was, by flirtatiousness and skill in the British practice of publishing what Lord Chesterfield described to diplomatic correspondence, observ- his son as ‘the art of pleasing’, to ing (rather carelessly) that if he contrive admission to the room were to follow suit his work would where only intimate friends were be doubled, since for every admitted – the boudoir. Here they confidential *despatch he wrote he had unrivalled opportunities for would need to write another for influence. See also Harris, Sir James. publication. An excellent guide to the nineteenth-century Blue Books, bout de papier. A paper with which contain reports on the nothing on it but text which may British *Diplomatic Service, was be passed to a foreign representa- written by Harold Temperley and tive. Anonymous and completely Lillian M. Penson (published in informal, it typically contains notes 1938, and reprinted in 1966). The to assist an oral presentation or, in a term ‘Blue Book’ fell into disuse negotiation, a proposed formula. In during the twentieth century. the first case it fulfils essentially the same functions as an *aide-mémoire bomber diplomacy. A term which but with even less risk of attribution would seem appropriate to describe where this could be damaging; in the process of bombing an adver- the second it has the object of sary in the hope of inducing sub- trying to break an *impasse where 24 boycott identification of authorship in the arrangements are often referred to outside world could be equally as the Bretton Woods system. perilous. Sometimes the English- language term ‘piece of paper’ is Brezhnev Doctrine. The name used for this device. See also non- given in the West to the paper. justification offered by the Soviet Union for its invasion of boycott. The refusal to have deal- Czechoslovakia in August 1968 ings with, for example, a particular (Brezhnev being the Soviet leader). state, or to buy some or all of its The invasion, in which contingents products. Such acts are intended as from some other members of the a protest against certain of the *Warsaw Pact were attached to state’s policies, and/or as a means of Soviet forces, was a response to the inducing it to change certain of its desire of Czechoslovakia to follow a ways. The concept is now firmly more independent line than the embedded in the practices of the Soviet Union was willing to allow international society; but the term its *satellites. The Doctrine was also receives relatively little interna- frequently referred to in the West as tional use, notwithstanding the one of ‘limited sovereignty’. See also impeccable political correctitude of sphere of influence. its origin – a nineteenth-century protest by Irish people against the Briand–Kellogg Pact. The name by refusal of one Captain Boycott to which the General Treaty of 1928 reduce rents. Instead, the same for the Renunciation of War is gen- concept is expressed through the erally known (after the French and use of the term *sanctions. See also American foreign ministers who embargo. instigated it). It provided for the renunciation of recourse to *war for breach of the peace. As understood the solution of international con- in the United Nations, an outbreak troversies, and as an instrument of of fighting between states or – if national policy. It was seen as deemed to represent a threat to largely closing the ‘gaps’ in the international peace and security – *Covenant of the *League of within one. See also aggression. Nations which, in certain limited circumstances, permitted aggressive Bretton Woods. The resort in New war (as distinct from war in *self- Hampshire, USA, at which a 1944 defence). The Treaty was widely conference agreed to establish an adhered to, but had little immediate International Monetary Fund and effect. However, at the level of ideas an International Bank for it was of considerable significance, Reconstruction and Development in that it indicated the changing (the World Bank). The resultant attitude to the propriety of war as a buffer state 25 positive instrument of national smallest bubble that had yet been policy. built, with capacity for only eight people. However, this did not brinkmanship. The art of getting to prevent its being employed by the brink of war without precipitat- the American team – including ing one. It is associated with the President Reagan – during the American *secretary of state during summit. Kenneth L. Adelman, who much of the 1950s, John Foster was inside it himself, says that they Dulles (1888–1959). The most were ‘crammed in like 1950s serious case of twentieth-century teenagers in a telephone booth’. See brinkmanship was the *Cuban also freedom of communication; lis- Missile Crisis of 1962, in which the tening device. parties came *eyeball-to-eyeball. See also crisis management. buffer state. This phrase generally referred to a small state lying more British Council. Founded in 1934, or less between two much larger and the British Council is Britain’s prin- antagonistic states. It could thus cipal vehicle of *cultural diplomacy. take on the role of a buffer, not It has always been permitted a because of its own strength but degree of autonomy from govern- because each of its larger neighbours ment to maximize its credibility was reluctant to attempt its *annex- abroad, and is described officially as ation for fear of the reaction of the ‘an independent Non-Departmental large rival state on the smaller Public Body’. Nevertheless, no secret state’s other side. However, such a is made of the fact that it receives a situation was by no means a guaran- substantial ‘grant-in-aid’ from the tee of the small state’s territorial *Foreign and Commonwealth Office integrity: one of the larger states and that its priorities and objectives might chance its arm; or they might are set in close consultation with it. both agree to divide the intervening state between them. Thus the broker. See mediation. concept of a buffer state implied the acceptance of the use of armed force bubble. A US Foreign Service term and of territorial annexation as for an unusual room within a room instruments of national policy. As, in a diplomatic mission. It has in the second half of the twentieth transparent plastic walls specially century, those instruments largely coated in an attempt to make went out of fashion (in both politi- *bugging of conversations inside it cal and legal respects), little is now impossible. At the time of the heard of buffer states. In conse- Reagan–Gorbachev *summit in quence, small states are much more Reykjavik in 1986 the US embassy physically secure than they used to in Iceland’s capital contained the be. But they are no less subject to 26 buffer zone non-physical pressures from larger Yemen (1963) and in the states than hitherto. Dominican crisis (1965). Not long after his return from Vietnam at the buffer zone. An area lying between age of 79, with the rank of *ambas- two hostile (and often recently-bel- sador-at-large and the reputation as ligerent) states or groups in which the greatest American negotiator of neither of them maintains armed his generation, he led the US dele- forces. There is thus a dividing zone gation to the Geneva Conference of territory between their forces, on the Middle East (December which reduces the likelihood of 1973) which followed the *Yom accidental conflict and may con- Kippur War. He then headed the US tribute to a calmer disposition on team in the sensitive Panama Canal one or both sides. However, to negotiations, which concluded suc- provide a form of guarantee that cessfully in 1977. Henry *Kissinger, neither will take advantage of the who chose Bunker for both of these buffer zone by suddenly introduc- tasks, described him as ‘one of the ing its forces into it, a neutral body great men of American diplomacy’. – such as the UN – may be asked to He retired finally in 1978. establish a small and lightly armed *peacekeeping force into the zone. Bynkershoek, Cornelius van See also peacekeeping. (1673–1743). A Dutch jurist who was appointed a member of the bugging. See listening device. Supreme Court of Holland in 1703 and its President in 1721. It was also Bunker, Ellsworth (1894–1984). in 1721 that he wrote in some haste An American businessman with no and published De Foro Legatorum experience in diplomacy until 1951, tam in causa civili quam criminali when (already aged 56) he was (The Jurisdiction over Ambassadors appointed US ambassador to in both Civil and Criminal Cases). Argentina. Success in this post led Sparked by recent controversies, one to three other postings as head of a of which was the imprisonment of major mission, culminating in *Wicquefort, the overwhelming South Vietnam (1967–73). Bunker’s majority of the principles of De Foro chief renown arose from his skill as Legatorum – despite certain oddities a practical negotiator. In 1962, at – were soon firmly rooted in *inter- the request of the UN, he success- national law and practice. The book fully mediated a solution to the has been authoritatively described dangerous dispute between the as ‘undoubtedly the greatest of the Netherlands and Indonesia over classical works on diplomatic law’. West New Guinea/West Irian. Subsequently he mediated between Byzantine diplomacy. The *state- Saudia Arabia and Egypt over craft of the Eastern Roman Empire, Byzantine diplomacy 27 especially during the period of its established view that Byzantine weakness and decline in the period diplomacy is of great importance in from the beginning of the thir- the origins of diplomacy. This is teenth to the middle of the fifteenth because, according to Harold century. In foreign policy this gave Nicolson, it was ‘the first to organise emphasis to dividing enemies and a special department of government solidifying friends among its threat- for dealing with external affairs’. ening neighbours; in *diplomacy Byzantine diplomacy also marked (sense 1) to enhancing the *prestige the generalized expansion in the of the Emperor by *protocol and duties of the diplomat from mere extravagant ceremonial at the *orator to trained negotiator and reception of ambassadors in observer as well. Additionally, it was Constantinople, and to acquiring the school of diplomacy by which accurate intelligence. the *Venetians – also important in Despite its meretricious aspect, the subsequent development of fraudulent inspiration and manipu- diplomacy – were substantially lative technique, there is a well- influenced. C

calendar. In diplomatic and summaries in English of *Venetian archival usage, a list of documents diplomatic papers bearing on arranged chronologically together English affairs from the thirteenth with either a brief summary of their to the seventeenth century. contents or complete transcripts – or some combination of the two. A Callières, François de (1645–1717). good calendar was indexed and A man of letters and French diplo- each entry gave the location of the mat in the age of Louis XIV. originals. Calendars were first devel- Although he had worked as a diplo- oped in the embryonic bureaucra- mat from 1670 until 1676, first in cies of the medieval period to the service of the Duke of facilitate access to the contents of Longueville and then the Duke of otherwise scattered original docu- Turin, he did not join that of the ments such as *treaties, *despatches, king until 1693. Callières had a rela- and letters. A well-known example tively short but successful career in of this kind of calendar is the the French diplomatic service. Gascon Calendar of 1322. Sub- Specializing in negotiations with sequently they were produced in the Dutch, he played a key role at some countries to make the con- the Congress of Ryswick in 1697. In tents of the originals known to his- the following year he was recalled torians who were unable to inspect to France and became a senior them at first hand. The multi- member of the king’s circle of volume Calendar of State Papers, foreign policy advisers. Though not Venetian, is a notable example of a published until March 1716, it was calendar designed for this purpose. probably at about this time that he This was officially published in wrote the book for which he is Britain between the middle of the remembered by students of diplo- nineteenth and the middle of the macy: De la manière de négocier twentieth century and contains avec les souverains (The Art of

28 Canning, George 29

Negotiating with Sovereign Princes). Cambon, Paul (1843–1924). A More elegant and much shorter French diplomat. Elder brother of than *Wicquefort’s great manual, Jules *Cambon, Paul is known Callières’ book is generally regarded above all for his role in cementing as the definitive theoretical exposi- the Anglo-French *entente of 1904 tion of the French system of diplo- and remaining in London as ambas- macy – an elaboration of the sador throughout the First World practice of *Richelieu. Among other War. Paul Cambon is described by things, he emphasizes the impor- Harold *Nicolson as ‘one of the tance of honesty in diplomacy and most successful diplomatists in the need to make it a profession. See modern history’. The fact that he also Torcy. could not speak English is striking evidence of the extent to which calls (on appointment to new French remained the language of post). See courtesy calls. diplomacy until well into the twen- tieth century. Cambon, Jules (1845–1935). A French colonial governor and diplo- Camp David. A US presidential mat. Younger brother of Paul *retreat 70 miles and half-an-hour *Cambon, Jules was governor- by helicopter from the White House general of Algeria (1891–97), and in the Catoctin Mountains of then ambassador at three important Maryland. For security reasons it is embassies. He was then *secretary- marked on no American map. It was general of the *Quai d’Orsay, a dele- established by President Roosevelt gate to the Paris Peace Conference in 1942 for the sake of his health (it in 1919, and chairman of the is almost ten degrees Fahrenheit extremely important standing cooler than Washington) as well as Ambassadors’ Conference created in his safety. Initially called ‘Shangri- January 1920 to arrange for the exe- La’, in 1953 it was renamed ‘Camp cution of certain aspects of the David’ by President Eisenhower peace treaties. Harold *Nicolson after his grandson. Since the visit of described him as ‘witty, wise, con- the British prime minister, Winston ciliatory, high-minded, disillu- Churchill, in May 1943, most presi- sioned. Perhaps the most intelligent dents have used Camp David for of all French pre-war diplomatists’. *summit meetings. In 1926 he published a short book on diplomacy called Le diplomate, cancellaria. See chancery. which was highly praised by practi- tioners of the *old diplomacy. It appeared in an English translation cancellier. See chancelier. in 1931 under the title, The Diplomatist. Canning, George. See Blue Books. 30 Canning, Stratford

Canning, Stratford (1786–1880). A The years following Stratford’s British diplomat, known after 1852 return from his second tour in as Viscount Stratford de Redcliffe. Turkey saw a long period of parlia- Stratford was one of the greatest mentary politics leavened with British diplomats of the nineteenth special diplomatic missions to century and a perfect illustration of Turkey (again) and Portugal. In the influence which, in the pre- 1833 Palmerston wanted to send telegraphic age, could be wielded by him as ambassador to Russia but an ambassador who was at once *agrément was refused by the Tsar. exceptionally able and well con- However, his full-time diplomatic nected in governing circles at home. career was resumed in 1841 when Enjoying the patronage of the he was sent on his third and final Foreign Secretary George Canning, mission to Istanbul, which lasted who was his cousin, he went to until 1858. It was especially during Istanbul as *first secretary in 1808 this period that Stratford’s influence and within two years (at the age of was at its height, both in fostering only twenty-four) was given tempo- reform within the Ottoman Empire rary charge of this important and stiffening the resolve of its gov- embassy with the rank of *minister ernment to resist Russian pressure. plenipotentiary. Peace between Though historians now believe that Turkey and Russia was vital to the Turks would have adopted the British interests in the war with posture which contributed to the Napoleon and this was achieved outbreak of the Crimean War in with the assistance of Stratford’s 1853 without Stratford’s encourage- *mediation in the Treaty of ment, there is little doubt that Bucharest of 28 May 1812. This he deserved the title which they established his diplomatic reputa- gave to him: ‘the Great Elchi’. tion and laid the foundation of the Technically this meant simply immense influence that he was to ambassador rather than minister acquire in Istanbul when he (elchi) but when applied to Stratford returned there later in his career. He had the connotation of ‘ambassador was minister to Switzerland from par excellence’. 1814 until 1818 and attended the *Congress of Vienna to represent capital. The city which is a state’s the British position on Swiss affairs. seat of government. It is, however, He served as minister to the USA possible for the seat of government from 1820 until 1824 and after- to be in a city other than the capital wards went on a special mission to (as in the Netherlands); or the gov- Russia. In 1825 he was sent once ernment may be divided between more to Turkey, now with the rank two or even three cities (as in South of ambassador, and remained there Africa) – in which case the capital until the end of 1827. may assume a peripatetic nature. capitulations 31

*Diplomatic missions are almost administering the affairs of useful always based in the capital city, and but perplexing strangers. They only in that city. (In the South granted to the European states African case, missions move for rights to trade and travel freely, pay some months each year from low customs duties, no domestic Pretoria, the administrative capital, taxes, and to have civil and criminal to Cape Town, the legislative cases arising among and between capital, so that they may have ready their own subjects resident in the access to members of the govern- Ottoman Empire tried in their own ment during the period when the consular courts. South African parliament is sitting. From the point of view of diplo- In respect of the Netherlands, the matic privileges and procedure the *receiving state insists that diplo- capitulations were important for matic missions be at the seat of gov- three main reasons. In the first ernment rather than in the capital.) place, they tended to give a degree Very occasionally, however, it may of protection to foreign envoys in not be possible for a *sending state Istanbul – provided their govern- to establish its mission in the ments remained at peace with the capital, as when it does not recog- ‘Grand Turk’ – before the *custom- nize the legitimacy of the receiving ary international law of diplomacy state’s occupancy of that city. This began to be accepted in the occurs in the case of Israel, with the Ottoman Empire in the course of result that almost all diplomatic the eighteenth century. In the missions are based not in the second, since they were not capital, Jerusalem, but in Tel Aviv. regarded by the Turks as *treaties between equals but personal acts of capitulations. Privileges extended grace by the reigning sultan, until by the sultan of the Ottoman 1740 the capitulations had to be Empire to foreign states for the renegotiated when one sultan was benefit of their locally resident sub- succeeded by another. In the third jects. There were earlier examples, place, since they were regarded as but the capitulations negotiated assuming friendship, any act of hos- with France in the middle of the tility by the beneficiary rendered sixteenth century were the model them void; this feature of the capit- for those subsequently granted to ulations was not surrendered by the the other European powers. The Turks until 1774. With the contin- capitulations were prompted chiefly ued weakening of the empire, by by a mutual interest in the expan- the end of the nineteenth century sion of commerce between Europe the capitulations gave such a degree and the Levant and the anxiety of of communal autonomy to foreign- the sultan and his household to be ers that Sir Charles Elliot was able to absolved of responsibility for observe that all of them had ‘almost 32 career ambassador the same immunities as diploma- have achieved the rank of career tists in other countries’. Not surpris- ambassador. ingly, they became a major target of Turkish nationalism and were career consular officer. A full-time finally abolished by the Treaty of consular officer, as opposed to an Lausanne in 1923. *honorary consular officer. A some- Capitulations regimes were also what ambiguous term, it does not established in Egypt, Muscat imply that the person bearing the (Oman), Persia, the Trucial States of title is also a member of a separate the (Persian) Gulf, China, and *consular service and thus likely to Japan. That in Muscat continued spend his or her entire career until 1958, while those of the seven engaged in the performance of Trucial States were ended only in *consular functions. This was the 1971. See also letter of protection; lot of full-time consular officers unequal treaty. until about the middle of the twen- tieth century but since then states career ambassador. A personal rank have incorporated their consular which the president, with the advice services within their *diplomatic and consent of the Senate, can services. As a result, from time to confer on a career member of the time many *career diplomats now *senior US *Foreign Service in recog- serve at a *consular post or in the nition of especially distinguished *consular section of an embassy. See service over a sustained period. This also consular rank. power was given to the president under the Foreign Service Act (1980). career diplomat. A permanent This repealed the 1946 Foreign member of a *diplomatic service. A Service Act, together with the career diplomat is thus different amendment to it made in the Act from an *ad hoc diplomat, a *tem- of Congress of 5 August 1955 that porary diplomat, or a *political first introduced the class of ‘career appointee. ambassador’. Under the earlier scheme, an officer had to have career minister. A personal rank in served for at least 15 years in a the US *Foreign Service which is position of responsibility in a gov- second only to that of *career ernment agency, including at least ambassador. Career ministers have three of these as a *career minister; often been ambassadors before pro- rendered exceptionally distinguished motion to this rank. service to the government; and met other requirements prescribed by the career officer. A US *Foreign Service secretary of state. Since the first officer occupying the broad interme- appointments to this coveted class in diate stage between a junior officer 1956, only 37 foreign service officers and a *senior foreign service officer. ceasefire line 33 care-of-pilot. See diplomatic bag. intelligence officers (both senses) from Canada, America, New Zealand, casual courier. An officer of the Australia and Britain, which began in British *Diplomatic Service who is 1967 and continued at roughly temporarily co-opted to carry diplo- 18-month intervals throughout the matic mail on a particular journey; *Cold War. Since the end of this this mail can on occasions be conflict, such cooperation has taken classified ‘secret’ or above. In addi- a different form, being (according tion to a private passport, the to a former head of *MI5) ‘less courier carries a special ‘Casual discreet, broader, more inclusive and Courier’s Passport’. This confers above all more immediate’. See also immunity on the *diplomatic bag Echelon. being carried. See also diplomatic courier; Queen’s Messenger. ceasefire. An agreement to this effect, which may relate to a specific casus belli. An event or act which area where fighting has erupted or precipitates or is used to justify to the whole armed front. It is resort to *war. usually implicit in such agreements that the cessation of firing is accom- casus foederis. An event or act panied by no forward movement of which is deemed to justify calling positions or armament. This may be on an ally to fulfil the undertakings made explicit by the description of of a *treaty of *alliance. the agreement as, for example, a ‘ceasefire-in-place’ or a ‘standstill caucus. An informal group that ceasefire’ . A further way of trying to meets in private to forge a common stabilize a ceasefire is through an approach to matters brought for additional agreement to *delimit decision in a larger, formal group. and *demarcate the lines beyond Not surprisingly this is a most which each side may not move. important feature of *multilateral Such a line, like a single line diplomatic gatherings, whether per- indicating the limits of the ground manent or ad hoc. On the UN held by each at the time of the *Security Council, for example, the ceasefire, constitutes a ‘ceasefire line most important caucuses are those (CFL)’. It is sometimes known as of the permanent five (*P5), the a *green line. A ceasefire may, Western permanent members (P3), perhaps via a *truce, lead to an the *non-aligned, and the *European *armistice and hence, possibly, to a Union. Even the ‘non-non-aligned’ *peace treaty. sometimes meet in caucus. ceasefire-in-place. See ceasefire. CAZAB. The acronym for the conferences of senior *counter- ceasefire line. See ceasefire. 34 Central Intelligence Agency

Central Intelligence Agency. See chancellery. (1) A ministry of CIA. *foreign affairs of a *major power. This was the meaning of this word chancelier. Earlier known as a cancel- when it was used before the First lier, an administrator or clerk in a World War in the phrase ‘the diplomatic mission trusted with the Chancelleries of Europe’. (2) The keeping and handling of confidential political section of a *diplomatic documents. Conceived as the institu- mission. This was the sense in tional memory, such persons have which it was sometimes used in generally been expected to have an the US Foreign Service until the easy familiarity with local languages 1960s, though the British usually and customs and be a permanent insisted that this was wrong, not fixture in their embassy. Sometimes least because it caused confusion but by no means frequently they are with the first meaning of ‘chan- members of the *diplomatic staff. cellery’. The proper term here, they Most diplomatic services now felt, was *chancery. This was a fair employ such people, whether they point. In their defence, however, go by this name (as in the French the Americans, who tended to use Diplomatic Service) or not, but their ‘chancellery’ and ‘chancery’ inter- introduction was fiercely resisted by changeably, could have called in the British Diplomatic Service in the the Oxford English Dictionary, which second half of the nineteenth points out that ‘chancery’ is simply century on the grounds that the a ‘worn down version’ of ‘chan- lower social class origins of such cellery’. people made them in fact untrust- worthy. (However, one had for long chancery. (1) The political section been employed in the British of a *diplomatic mission. (2) The embassy in Istanbul.) The result was premises where chancery staff work, that junior entrants to the diplo- and thus a synonym for *embassy matic profession had to spend too or *high commission. See also much time on routine clerical work, chancellery. including copying of *despatches, and at best suffered a poor appren- channel of communication. The ticeship for their craft and at worst means whereby a state communi- got bored and left. Under mounting cates with another. In this matter pressure of routine *chancery work, there are established usages, the a version of the chancelier was finally breach of which is likely to be introduced into the British Dipl- inefficient and also lead to ruffled omatic Service in the first decade of feathers. the twentieth century, though styled Where one state’s foreign min- an ‘archivist’. See also diplomatic istry wishes to communicate with archives; registry. its counterpart in another state, the channel of communication 35 message (whether oral or written) is of message is also through the recip- ordinarily passed to the state’s ient state’s diplomatic mission in diplomatic mission in the capital the capital of the message-sending concerned for onward personal state. If there is no such mission transmission by a *diplomatic agent (but assuming that the two states to the relevant official in the other are in *diplomatic relations (sense state’s ministry. In this way the 1)), the message-sending state will message can be delivered at the select a place where both states appropriate level and with exactly have diplomatic representation and the emphasis and tone that is calcu- send the message to its mission lated to be most likely to achieve there for passage to the recipient the desired result. state’s mission with the request that An alternative but usually much it be transmitted to that state’s less satisfactory channel is to give foreign ministry. the message to the recipient state’s A further possibility where diplomatic mission which is resi- neither state has a diplomatic dent in the capital of the state mission in the other’s capital but sending the message. The disadvan- where at least one of them has a tage of this channel is the lack of *consular post, is for that post to be personal delivery to the official used. However, in a high diplomatic responsible for the issue on which matter, it might be thought inap- the message-sending state seeks a propriate to involve a *consular satisfactory response. However, officer. And for the message-sending when one state wishes to protest state to use its consular post in the strongly to another, the preferred *receiving state for diplomatic pur- channel is to use the resident poses, the consent of the receiving mission of the state to which the state would need to be secured. protest is addressed. The *head of What all this reflects is that in the mission can be summoned to meet normal way the foreign ministry is a senior figure – a *minister (sense far and away the leading agency 3) or a very high official – who can responsible for the conduct of a register the state’s displeasure in no state’s *international relations uncertain terms, and with greater (sense 1); and that its diplomatic weight than would be available to agents are the medium through the protesting state’s head of which it makes external representa- mission in the foreign state’s tions. Thus *diplomats act as the capital. voice box of the state vis-à-vis other In the event of the message- states. sending state having no diplomatic Accordingly, when a government representation in the capital of the department other than the foreign recipient state, the appropriate ministry wishes to communicate channel for the more normal type with a foreign state, the proper 36 chargé d’affaires (c.d.a.) channel of communication is for it *embassy or a *legation during the to use its own foreign ministry. temporary absence of its *head, or Unless special circumstances obtain pending the appointment of a new (as, for example, in the case of the head. *Sending states generally like states of the *European Union), a c.d.a. to be a member of their such a department is not entitled to *diplomatic service rather than a communicate directly with its high-ranking specialist who is foreign counterpart, nor with its serving as a *temporary diplomat. diplomats resident in the capital of To achieve that end such an the state concerned, nor with the officer’s *diplomatic rank may be diplomats of that state resident in upgraded to place him or her as its own capital. However, an excep- number two in the mission’s inter- tion to this rule may be permitted nal order of *precedence. The by a foreign ministry in respect of *receiving state’s foreign ministry technical or routine matters, where must be informed of the appoint- there may well be obvious advan- ment of a c.d.a (a.i.) by the ambas- tage in the relevant government sador or *minister (sense 1) or, if department – for example, that that is not possible, by the sending responsible for transport or for civil state’s foreign ministry. aviation – contacting its counterpart In recent times the concept of ad directly. Such ‘exceptions’ are now interim has been greatly stretched, by no means as exceptional as they perhaps as a device to avoid having used to be. to call a diplomatic mission some- However, a foreign ministry will thing other than an embassy. Thus always be sensitive about the possi- from 1977 to 1980, due to their dete- bility of such dealings going beyond riorating relations over the Falkland the permitted ambit, and keen to Islands/Las Malvinas, Argentina and emphasize its prime responsibility for Britain reduced their diplomatic communications which have the missions in each other’s capitals to least bearing on principle or policy, ones headed by a chargé d’affaires – or which entail representations to but each officer was designated as foreign authorities. See also diplo- acting ad interim. Likewise, the macy (sense 1); direct dial diplomacy. Argentinian head of mission in South Africa from 1974 to 1984 was chargé d’affaires (c.d.a.). A generic a chargé d’affaires ad interim. And term for the following three entries. throughout the 1990s tension in the See also acting high commissioner, relations between Britain and Iran secretary of embassy/legation. led to a situation in which the mis- sions they exchanged were each chargé d’affaires ad interim (a.i.). headed by a chargé d’affaires (a.i.). The member of a *diplomatic See also acting high commissioner; mission who takes charge of an secretary of embassy/legation. CHOGM 37 chargé d’affaires en pied. An alter- out the English-speaking world. native name for *chargé d’affaires Although it is common to speak of en titre. ‘Chatham House Rules’, in fact there is only one Rule. chargé d’affaires en titre. The diplo- mat who acts as *head of a mission chief clerk. The title given to the which is neither an *embassy nor a senior official (a *deputy under- *legation, and which is thus in the secretary of state) in Britain’s lowest of the three classes into which *Foreign and Commonwealth Office heads of mission are divided. Unlike who is responsible for the adminis- other *letters of credence, those of a tration of the *Diplomatic Service. chargé d’affaires en titre are sent by the foreign minister of the *sending chief military observer. The title state to his or her counterpart in the often given to the head of a *peace- *receiving state. During the latter part keeping operation which consists of of the twentieth century such mis- *military observers. However, the sions became very rare, if not extinct. head of the military observer group See also chargé d’affaires ad interim. on the Arab–Israeli borders – founded in 1948 and still in being – Charter of the United Nations. has always been called chief of The 1945 *treaty which established staff. the *United Nations and set out what is, in effect, its constitution. chiffreur. A cipher or communica- tions officer on the *diplomatic staff Chatham House. The home of the of a French mission. Royal Institute of International Affairs in St James’s Square, China Watchers. The staff of the London. United States *consulate-general in Hong Kong who specialized in gath- Chatham House Rule. This rule ering information and reporting states that: ‘When a meeting, or on the People’s Republic of China. part thereof, is held under the This work was of special value to Chatham House Rule, participants Washington before it was allowed are free to use the information to open a *representative office in received, but neither the identity Beijing in 1973. nor the affiliation of the speaker(s), nor that of any other participant, Chinese secretary. See oriental may be revealed.’ The Rule origi- secretary. nated at *Chatham House in 1927 and was amended in 1992. CHOGM. Commonwealth Heads Designed to promote free discus- of Government Meeting. See sion, it is now used widely through- Commonwealth; summitry. 38 C3I

C3I. An acronym from the military abroad. Since exposure of many of its and intelligence worlds meaning activities (especially its covert opera- ‘command, control, communica- tions) in the first half of the 1970s, tion, and intelligence/information’. the CIA has been subjected to consid- erably more congressional oversight. C4I. An update on C3I to include See also Director of Central ‘computers’. Intelligence; humint.

CIA. Created by the National cipher. (1) A symbol, whether letter Security Act of 1947, the Central or number, which represents a single Intelligence Agency was soon the letter or number, as opposed to a dominant element in the American *code where plurals are employed. A *intelligence community, as it message written in cipher is said to remains today. It both collects have been ‘encrypted’. The distinc- and analyses *foreign intelligence tion between a cipher and code is a obtained from all sources; it has also purely technical one and though it is acquired a reputation for semi- still common to see references to military *covert action in foreign ‘codes and ciphers’, the terms are countries as well as for black *propa- often used today as synonyms. ganda. Perhaps its real hallmark, Consistently with this, messages are however, apart from its size, is the said to be ‘deciphered’ when a gov- centralization of *intelligence which ernment agency translates into plain its name suggests and its indepen- text one of its own encrypted mes- dence of any one department which sages, whether a cipher or a code had is the corollary of this. (Intelligence been employed. Broken ciphers are gathering developed historically as a said to have been ‘decrypted’. (2) The fringe activity of ministries of foreign key to a system of symbols used in affairs and the different branches of this manner. the armed services.) As noted by Michael Herman, a senior figure in circular note. One which goes to a British intelligence, ‘it was the first number of recipients, e.g. all diplo- specialist, non-departmental *all- matic missions in a particular capital. source analysis organization which evolved in peacetime to study foreign citizen diplomacy. See track two targets in full and serve any part of diplomacy. government’. If the CIA has remained to any degree dependent civilian police. Police personnel on any department, however, it is employed in a *peacekeeping probably the *State Department, operation. since it relies on it to such a great extent to provide cover for its agents civil society. See non-governmental in US embassies and consulates organization. codification 39 claim. A formal demand made by the Second World War the house one state on another for the was seized and occupied by Seyss- rectification of or compensation for Inquart, the Nazi Commissioner for a legal wrong that allegedly has the Netherlands. The Clingendael been done to it by the second state. Institute, established in 1983 and enjoying 40 per cent budget support class. See diplomatic classes. from the Dutch ministries of foreign affairs and defence, is, among other things, one of Europe’s leading clausula rebus sic stantibus. The diplomatic academies. doctrine that there is an implied term or clause in a *treaty – the code. (1) A word, symbol or group clausula rebus sic stantibus – to the of symbols representing a whole effect that the treaty is *binding word or even a group of words. only for as long as there is no fun- (2) The key to a system of words damental change in the circum- or symbols used in this manner. stances which were assumed by the As with *ciphers, messages put parties at the time of its conclusion. into code are said to have been The doctrine finds expression – but ‘encrypted’ and broken codes not in its Latin form – in the 1969 ‘decrypted’. See also cryptanalysis; Vienna Convention on the *Law of cryptography. Treaties. The mere invocation of the doctrine does not serve to invalidate codecision procedure. A procedure a treaty. Only if no objection is of the EU giving the *European raised by any other party within Parliament the power to adopt three months of having received *instruments jointly with the notice of its invocation is the state *Council of Ministers. Introduced in question entitled to regard itself by the Treaty of *Maastricht, it as free from the obligations of the has strengthened the parliament’s treaty. In the event of an objection, legislative powers in a number of procedures for *pacific settlement important fields. See also qualified must be instituted. majority voting. clientitis. See localitis. Codel. An abbreviation for one of the most feared categories of visitor Clingendael. The Netherlands to an American embassy: a congres- Institute of International Relations, sional delegation. See also visiting so called because it is housed in a fireman. building of the same name in Clingendael Park in The Hague. codification. The systematic presen- Providing eloquent evidence of the tation of rules of *international law desirability of the location, during in a *multilateral treaty. In principle, 40 coercive diplomacy codification is distinct from the an end at the *summit meeting in *progressive development of the law. Paris in November 1990. It was dis- But in practice it is hard to codify tinguished by the absence of direct law without at the same time intro- military engagement or ‘hot war’ ducing at least some changes to and, after the *Cuban Missile Crisis resolve uncertainties and inconsis- in 1962, agreement on certain tencies. The General Assembly is ground rules. Its real flavour was charged by the UN *Charter with provided by *propaganda, subver- both tasks, the detailed preparatory sion, surrogate wars, and the use of work on which is delegated to the foreign aid in the attempt to win *International Law Commission. The adherents in the *non-aligned Vienna Conventions on *Diplomatic world. The term was invented in Relations and on *Consular Relations 1947 by the US financier and presi- are successful instances of inter- dential adviser Bernard Baruch, and national codification. popularized in the press. The most evocative symbol of the Cold War coercive diplomacy. A euphemism was the Berlin Wall (which was for the threat or use of force against erected by East Germany in 1961 an opponent to foster a more coop- and remained in place until late erative cast of mind. In the shape of 1989), dividing East from West *bomber diplomacy, this was a Berlin. tactic adopted by *NATO against *Diplomatic relations (sense 1) the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia between the Soviet Union and the during the Kosovo crisis in 1999. In United States were never severed many international relationships during the Cold War and large force needs to be either a spoken or *embassies were maintained by each unspoken accompaniment to diplo- in the capital of the other. However, macy. *Machiavelli found this to his as well as being used for traditional cost when he was a representa- diplomatic purposes, these missions tive of the virtually unarmed were more than usually important Florentine government at the court as covers for *intelligence-gathering of Louis XII in 1500. ‘They call activities. Furthermore, American you Mr Nothing’, the exasperated and Soviet embassies in many envoy was obliged to inform his states, not least in the *Third World, employers. were used to direct military assis- tance programmes and, sometimes, Cold War. The conflict which devel- *covert operations. American diplo- oped shortly after the Second World mats sometimes described this as War between the Soviet Union and the ‘militarization of diplomacy’. the United States, together with their respective allies. It is generally collective note. A single *note regarded as having been brought to addressed to one state by two or colony 41 more others. Designed to give state or states bent on territorial maximum force to a joint represen- gain. Perhaps in part due to the tation, it may nevertheless both be general theoretical rejection of that difficult to agree and be seen as an activity, this type of threat appears attempt at bullying. As a result, it in practice to have substantially has always been a rare form of diminished, which may explain diplomatic communication. See also why the concept of collective secu- identic notes. rity is now not often expressed in those words. However, much is collective security. The principle heard about *peace enforcement – that all members of the collectivity which, broadly speaking, is its con- of states are jointly responsible for temporary semantic equivalent. the physical security of each of See also aggression; Gulf War them. The principle emerged in the (sense 2); self-defence. twentieth century because of dissat- isfaction with the individualism of colonialism. The acquisition and the nineteenth century, and with its holding of *colonies, and the belief associated principle of the *balance in the propriety of so doing. of power (sense 3). Thus collective security found (imperfect) expres- colony. A territory possessed or sion after the First World War in the administered by a *sovereign state *Covenant of the League of Nations, which is both physically separate and further (again imperfect) from it and not integrated into the expression in 1945 in the UN governmental arrangements of the *Charter. Its implementation in the metropolitan state. A colony’s con- practice of both international orga- stitution will thus be subordinate to nizations has also been far from that of the metropolitan state. But perfect, as states are understandably beyond that, a colony’s constitu- reluctant to endanger their individ- tional position can vary enor- ual *national interests by acting on mously, from almost complete the basis of such a broad and control by the colonial power to vir- demanding principle as that of col- tually unhindered internal self- lective security. Nonetheless, the government. Except for some very deference now paid to the principle small or special instances, colonies indicates the far-reaching change in have largely disappeared, reflecting ideas about proper international the anti-colonial ethos of the age. behaviour that took place during There has also been a corresponding the twentieth century. change in terminology. In British The principle of collective secu- practice, ‘colony’ was first changed rity reflected the assumption that to ‘dependent territory’, but in 1998 the chief threat to a state’s physical that was judged by the new Labour integrity was an armed attack by a Government to be demeaning, and 42 comitology the term was altered to ‘overseas of its *commercial section. See also territory’. Correspondingly, whereas trade commissioner; Commercial the territories in question had been Diplomatic Service. known as ‘British Dependent Territories’, they were now to be commercial diplomacy. The work called ‘United Kingdom Overseas of *diplomatic missions in support Territories’. See also Committee of of the home country’s business and 24; Declaration on the Granting of finance sectors. Distinct from Independence to Colonial Countries although obviously closely related and Peoples; dependent territory; to *economic diplomacy, it is now non-self-governing territory. common for commercial diplomacy to include the promotion of inward comitology. In the EU, the proce- and outward investment, as well as dures governing the dialogue which trade. Important features of this must take place between the work are the supply to the sending *European Commission and various state’s trade ministry and business- committees consisting of represen- men (especially those from small tatives of member states before it businesses) of information about adopts any measures to implement export and investment opportuni- legislation at Community level. ties, maintaining contact with the businessmen and chambers of com- comity. Rules of international merce of the receiving state, and conduct which are based not in organizing and supporting *trade *international law but on considera- missions from home. In American tions of courtesy. diplomatic missions this work is currently undertaken largely by command. A term employed by the officers of the foreign commercial British *Foreign and Commonwealth service of the Department of Office for a broad area of geographi- Commerce, assisted by the cal, functional or administrative mission’s *economic officer and responsibility falling under a *direc- possibly others. tor (formerly assistant under-secre- tary of state) and usually comprising Commercial Diplomatic Service. a number of *departments. The British service created at the end of the First World War and commercial attaché. See attaché. jointly administered by the *Foreign Office and the newly created commercial counsellor. Sometimes Department of Overseas Trade. It ‘counsellor (commercial)’, a diplo- developed from the growing corps matic officer of *counsellor rank of commercial *attachés and soon responsible for the commercial saw the appointment to diplomatic work of a mission, usually as head missions of its own staff with its Committee of 24 43 own ranks: *commercial counsellors commission. A document supplied and commercial secretaries. In 1943 by the *sending state to the head of it was absorbed by the new, unified a *consular post and to the *receiv- *Foreign Service, though until 1965 ing state which certifies the officer’s trade commissioners were still name, consular rank (also called posted abroad by the Board of Trade class), the *consular district he or as part of the Trade Commissioner she is to head, and the seat of the Service. See also Diplomatic Service, post. However, the officer can only British. act in that capacity after the receiv- ing state has issued the necessary commercial office. This post is vir- authorization in the form of an tually the same as a *trade office. It *exequatur. See also letters of is not to be confused with a *com- commission. mercial section. commission of appointment. The commercial officer. A rather loose document given by the *sending term which generally signifies a state to a new *head of mission *diplomatic agent who is a member appointing him or her to the posi- of the *commercial section of a tion in question. Historically, it diplomatic mission. In the US sometimes detailed his duties or *Foreign Service such an individual, gave him *instructions. It is to be if not a member of the Department distinguished from *letters of cre- of Commerce, is known as an *eco- dence or *letters of commission, nomic officer. See also trade officer. both of which accredit the appointee to the *receiving state’s commercial secretary. A *commer- *head of state. British *high cial section officer below *counsellor commissioners, for historical rank. See also trade commissioner; reasons, do not receive commissions Commercial Diplomatic Service. of appointment. commercial section. The section commission rogatoire. See rogatory within a British *diplomatic mission letter. responsible for all its commercial and financial work, though larger Committee of 24. The usual way of ones now tend to have a separate referring to the UN Committee with one for *economic diplomacy (sense a much longer name which, from 1). Sometimes also known as the the early 1960s, was the spearhead ‘commercial department’ or ‘com- of the UN *General Assembly’s mercial secretariat’, a commercial anti-colonial campaign. See also section is to be distinguished from a Declaration on the Granting of *commercial office. See also eco- Independence to Colonial Countries nomic section. and Peoples. 44 common but differentiated responsibility, principle of common but differentiated the European Coal and Steel responsibility, principle of. The Community. See also customs assertion that while all states bear union; European Union. responsibility for damage to the environment, the extent to which common system. The system of they should seek to remedy such salaries, allowances, and benefits damage depends on their differing applied by the UN, its *specialized circumstances. It appears in some agencies, and some other *interna- environmental instruments, but is tional organizations. See also inter- not (yet) a principle of *customary national civil service. international law – and were it to become so its imprecision might Commonwealth. An association of lessen its utility. See also precaution- 54 *sovereign states which has ary principle. grown out of the constitutional development and subsequent disin- Common Foreign and Security tegration of the British Empire. It Policy (CFSP). The term employed in has no formal constitution, save the *European Union which signifies: the acceptance by all members of (a) Union policy on foreign political Queen Elizabeth II (and before her and security issues where cooperation King George VI) as the symbol of or joint action is agreed by the their association and as the Head of *Council of Ministers, and (b) the the Commonwealth. (It should be machinery for generating and imple- noted, however, that since the menting it. CFSP grew out of the London Declaration of 1949 this is largely extra-Community, intergov- a personal appointment and so ernmental scheme for member state does not necessarily pass to the concertation in this area which succeeding British monarch.) Of was known as ‘European Political the members, 16 have the monarch Co-operation (EPC)’ and prevailed as their *head of state, five have over the period from the early 1970s their own monarchical arrange- until CFSP was introduced by the ments, and the remaining 33 are *Maastricht Treaty in 1993. republics. Until the admission of Mozambique furnished an ex- Common Market. A popular term ception (in 1995), it had been for the European Economic assumed, and is still assumed, that Community (EEC) (established by the (normal) prerequisite for mem- the Treaty of Rome of 1957), and bership was for the state in ques- also for the European Communities tion (or part of it) to have been, in created in 1967 by the merger of the one way or another, under British administrative network of the jurisdiction. Members are expected EEC with those of the European to behave in accord with certain Atomic Energy Community and broad principles, which endorse communiqué 45

(for example) democracy, human Commonwealth Relations Office rights, and the rule of law. (CRO). The British department of The Commonwealth proceeds state which existed between 1947 on the basis of consultation, and 1966 (when it briefly became and engages in such cooperative the Commonwealth Office) to action and extends such intra- conduct Britain’s relations with Commonwealth assistance as can be the members of the *Common- agreed by all members. Common- wealth. Before 1947 these relations wealth Heads of Government were the responsibility of the Meetings (CHOGMs) are held every *Dominions Office. The civil ser- two years, and meetings of other vants who served in these Offices *ministers (sense 3) take place period- were members of Britain’s home ically. The Commonwealth’s central civil service, and not of her *foreign coordinating body is the Common- service. See also Foreign and wealth Secretariat, based in London, Commonwealth Office. which was established in 1965 (Britain having previously under- communiqué. An agreed state- taken such tasks). Additionally, there ment issued at the end of a are numerous unofficial Common- *summit meeting or other high- wealth bodies and agencies. level visit or *multilateral confer- At CHOGMs and other official ence. Occasionally described as Commonwealth meetings, the rep- *declarations, to which they cer- resentative of the *host state (sense tainly bear a family resemblance, 2) is in the chair, with the other communiqués are designed to give members being seated around the the public some sense of what table on a clockwise alphabetical has been discussed under each basis, the member highest in the head on the agenda and also alphabet taking the place immedi- suggest the substance of any *con- ately to the chairperson’s left. Thus, sensus achieved on future policy. at such meetings, the present mem- However, they usually have to be bership of the Commonwealth drafted very quickly and, while it results in the representative of is fair to describe them as state- Antigua and Barbuda always being ments which prudence dictates to the chairperson’s left, with the should be honoured, they rarely Zimbabwean representative being have the status of *treaties; to next but one on the chairperson’s emphasize this they are sometimes right – the Commonwealth described as ‘press communiqués’. Secretary-General being between Nevertheless, they can be of huge the two of them. importance, as in the case of the See also dominions; high commis- Shanghai Communiqué, which sioner; Queen’s Realms; trade com- was issued at the end of US missioner. President Richard Nixon’s historic 46 Commynes, Philippe de visit to the People’s Republic of compellance. See coercive China in February 1972. diplomacy.

Commynes, Philippe de (c. compound. The protected area 1447–1511). A French diplomat and sometimes constructed to enclose historian. Commynes wrote the both the *residence and the best-known political and diplomatic *embassy of a *sending state. At memoirs of the late fifteenth least where the United States is century and is chiefly remembered concerned, this may have so many today by students of diplomacy for additional buildings (including staff his hostility to *summitry: ‘Two apartments, recreational facilities, a great princes who wish to establish shopping concourse and school) as good personal relations’, remarked to resemble a walled town in micro- Commynes, ‘should never meet cosm. Diplomatic compounds are a each other face to face but ought to common feature of diplomatic life communicate through good and in parts of the world where security wise ambassadors’. Though he had is a serious problem. They have other good reasons for arriving at increased in number as fear at the this conclusion, his attitude may extent and savagery of attacks on also have been influenced by the diplomatic premises since the fact that when Louis XI and Edward 1970s has weakened the earlier IV met on a bridge over the Somme feeling that the segregation from at Picquigny to discuss the peaceful the host community which com- retreat of the English invasion force pounds entail was inconsistent of 1475, the king instructed with their *diplomatic functions. Commynes to wear identical clothes See also emergency room; Inman to his own as a precaution against standards. assassination. The Mémoires of Commynes, though written only to compromis. An agreement by which provide material for a life of Louis a dispute is submitted to *arbitra- XI that was to be undertaken by the tion or *judicial settlement. In the archbishop of Vienne, are them- former case, the compromis will have selves highly regarded. The first part to determine the identity of the covers the period 1464–83 and was arbitrators, the subject of the published in 1524; the second nar- dispute, the procedures that are to rated the Italian expeditions of be followed, and the rules on the Charles VIII and appeared in 1528. basis of which the decision is to be A realist, though a firm believer in given. If the parties are resorting to the power of the divine in human the so-called *Permanent Court of affairs, there are certain clear paral- Arbitration, the arbitrators will be lels between Commynes’s thought selected from the members of the and that of *Machiavelli. Court. When two states agree that a Conciliar Movement 47 dispute be submitted to judicial set- through declarations by states tlement, the document by which under what is known as the this is done is nowadays more *Optional Clause procedure. usually known as a ‘special agree- ment’ than as a compromis. Concert of Europe. The term used to describe the main historical compromise. An agreement reach- model of *great power management ed by *negotiation in which each of a *states-system, that of nine- party surrenders a portion of its pre- teenth century Europe. It initially ferred outcome. See also endgame; operated through *congresses. fall-back position. However, with the exception of the peace congresses of 1856 (Paris) and compulsory adjudication. The sit- 1878 (Berlin), after 1822 the uation which exists when two or Concert found expression through more states have agreed in advance conferences of ambassadors. that disputes between them (possi- bly only those of a certain type or arising after a certain date) may be concession. (1) A point surren- taken to *adjudication at the dered by one party to another in a instance of any one of them. It is *negotiation. (2) In the late nine- thus a departure from the normal teenth to early twentieth century international principle that the set- term ‘foreign concession’, an area tlement of a dispute by adjudication of land in China leased to a foreign requires the specific consent of all power by the government under the parties. See also compromis; com- one or other of the *unequal pulsory arbitration; compulsory treaties. The most famous was jurisdiction. the International Settlement at Shanghai. The unequal treaties See compulsory arbitration. A scheme were finally abolished in 1943. also for *compulsory adjudication which capitulations. provides that the disputes in ques- tion shall be taken to *arbitration. Conciliar Movement. A series of Accordingly, the parties have also to ecumenical Councils held during agree on a *compromis. the first half of the fifteenth century in an endeavour to reform the compulsory jurisdiction. The juris- papacy-led international system of diction enjoyed by an international Christendom. The failure of the judicial body in respect of cases Movement led directly to the break- falling within agreements for *com- down of the medieval system and to pulsory adjudication. Compulsory the emergence of a secular interna- jurisdiction is bestowed on the tional system made up of *sovereign *International Court of Justice states. 48 conciliation conciliation. (1) The attempt to Catholic Church in a particular resolve a dispute by having it exam- state made between the Pope and ined in depth by an independent the head of the state in question. commission of inquiry or ‘concilia- The nomination of bishops is a sen- tion commission’; this then offers sitive matter that is typically the its recommendation for a settle- subject of such agreements. There ment, which, in contrast to a deci- has in the past been controversy sion arrived at by *arbitration, is over whether or not concordats non-binding. Following elaboration could actually be classed as *treaties of the procedures involved in con- since the Pope signs them in his ciliation by the General Act on the capacity as head of the Roman Pacific Settlement of International Catholic Church rather than head Disputes in 1928, a normal concilia- of the *Vatican state. In any event, tion commission would have five *Satow’s Guide notes that already by members, one from each side and the 1970s the concordat was gradu- the rest (by agreement) from third ally being dropped in favour of the states. The commission would meet agreement or *modus vivendi. in private and report within six months. Inspired by a somewhat concurrent accreditation. See mul- sanguine doctrine concerning the tiple accreditation. force of an ‘objective’ analysis of the causes of international conflict, conditionality. The principle that, the technique of conciliation had a in a negotiation, concession of a relatively short heyday in the inter- point by one party is conditional on war period. Nevertheless, there are receiving one from the other in circumstances where it has proved return. It is therefore, often in a well to be of value, and some treaties understood but somewhat impre- still provide for it, as in the case of cisely expressed form, of the essence the Convention on the Law of the of very many diplomatic exchanges. Sea (1982). (2) In the *European But in a form that is precisely Union, the use since 1975 of expressed, it has become closely negotiation in a joint ‘conciliation associated with the International committee’ to resolve legislative dis- Monetary Fund and with offers of agreements between the *European development aid. It refers to the Parliament and the *Council of IMF’s requirement, before lending a Ministers. See also good offices; state any money to meet a balance mediation. of payments problem, that a con- vincing explanation be supplied as conclusions. See minutes. to how the state intends to solve the problem, and so be in a position concordat. An *agreement concern- to repay the loan within the stipu- ing the affairs of the Roman lated period. The IMF may make its confessional 49 own recommendations towards this before 1848), and Canada is often end. Offers of development aid may referred to as a confederation, but similarly be made conditional on in fact both are *federal states. the recipient state agreeing to adopt Within its spheres of competence, economic, financial and develop- the *European Union displays many ment policies which, in the opinion confederal characteristics; but its of the donor state or institution, lack of comprehensiveness means will ensure that the aid will not be that it is not a confederation. The wasted but will make the maximum Turkish Republic of Northern contribution to development. Cyprus favours a confederal consti- tution as the solution for the condominium. The joint exercise Cyprus problem. of jurisdiction over a territory by two or more states. The territory is conference. Usually involving large thus in the nature of a joint *delegations and having ambitious *colony. This arrangement presents goals (even if beforehand such con- difficult political and administrative ferences pretend the opposite), the issues. Hence it occurs only rarely, similarities between international with no current instances. The last conferences end here. They may be one was the Anglo-French condo- *bilateral or *multilateral, ad hoc minium over the Pacific island terri- or permanent, held on *neutral tory of New Hebrides, which in ground or not, conducted at the 1980 became the *sovereign state of *summit or below, and concerned Vanuatu. with any subject imaginable. See also congress. confederation. A union of sover- eign states in which the member conference diplomacy. A synonym states retain their *sovereignty for *multilateral diplomacy. (sense 1), and hence their interna- tional status; but in which the Conference on Security and establishment of comprehensive Cooperation in Europe (CSCE). See quasi-governmental organs distin- Organisation for Security and guishes the union from a typical Cooperation in Europe (OSCE). *international organization. How- ever, the participant states are confessional. In the terminology of unlikely to permit any direct the European Union, a secret bilat- contact between the organs of the eral meeting conducted at an EU union and their citizens. A famous *summit by the leaders of individ- historical instance of a confedera- ual member states with the leader of tion is the United States between the state holding the presidency. At 1776 and 1787. Switzerland calls these private meetings, each leader itself a confederation (and was one is supposed to reveal his hopes and 50 confidence-building measure fears and *bottom-line negotiating would otherwise be used, the position. The term came into vogue attempt to achieve the agreement of at the Nice summit in December all participants without the need for 2000. a vote, thereby avoiding the risk of alienating weak majorities if the confidence-building measure. A voting is *weighted and powerful joint activity engaged in by parties minorities if it is not. A consensus to a serious dispute with a view to exists when all parties are in agree- lowering its temperature, demon- ment, which on the face of it is strating the advantages of coopera- another way of saying that they are tion, and generally preparing the unanimous. However, a consensus ground for a diplomatic approach may include some members whose to the more difficult issues dividing support has been given only grudg- them. Measures of this kind are very ingly and have simply registered no varied but include the regular formal objection, whereas *unanim- exchange of military missions and ity implies broader enthusiasm; the monitoring of regional arms hence the view that in fact they are agreements. Often promoted by a not the same. It might be more *mediator, ‘CBMs’ are sometimes accurate to say that a weak consen- seen as an aspect of *preventive sus is not the same as unanimity diplomacy. See also step-by-step but that a strong one is. diplomacy. Notice began to be taken of a growing trend away from *majority conflict resolution. See mediation. voting and towards consensus deci- sion-making following its successful congress. An international *confer- employment at the Third UN ence of unusual importance and Conference on the Law of the Sea in thus often attended by foreign min- the period 1973–82. However, this isters and sometimes monarchs, was not so much a new develop- though this usage passed away with ment as a return to an older one, the nineteenth century. Thus the that is to say, *negotiation, and it Crimean War was ended by the may be thought, therefore, that this Congress of Paris in 1856 but the is a further instance of the regret- First World War was terminated by table rule that it is inadvisable to the Paris Peace Conference in 1919. use one word when three will do. See also Concert of Europe; Vienna, Having said this, multilateral con- Congress of (1815); Westphalia, ferences have certainly seen the Congress of (1644–48). advent of novel procedural devices designed to foster consensus, consensus decision-making. In dis- notably in the area of chairmen’s cussion of a subject in a *multilat- powers. Furthermore, under the eral forum where majority voting charter of some international bodies consul 51 voting is still required, even if it abstaining state is obliged not to now does little more than ratify a impede any action flowing from it consensus already negotiated. As a and – except in the case of ‘opera- result, objection to use of the term tions having military or defence ‘consensus decision-making’ instead implications’ – bear its share of any of ‘negotiation’ in multilateral consequent costs. Nevertheless, it is diplomacy should perhaps not be not required to take any part in this too strenuous. See also Council of action. Ministers (European); silence proce- dure; straw vote. constructive ambiguity. The delib- erate use of imprecise language in consent. A basic principle of *inter- the drafting of an *agreement on national law, in that it must be a sensitive issue. The aim is to given by a *state before that state secure its approval in the hope can be bound by a *treaty; and in (perhaps purported and often in that any change in an existing legal vain) that its actual approval will arrangement requires the consent of encourage further and more sub- all the parties. See also ratification; stantive steps towards an agree- signature. ment. Perhaps the best known instance of this phenomenon is the constituent assembly. A body con- *Security Council’s Resolution 242 vened for the purpose of agreeing a of November 1967. Referring to the constitution for a new state. *Six-Day Arab–Israeli War of the previous June, this required the constructive abstention. An ‘[w]ithdrawal of Israeli armed forces *abstention in a vote, where *una- from territories occupied in the nimity is required for a decision, recent conflict’ – not from the terri- which does not have the effect of tories occupied in the recent blocking it; in this situation, an conflict. It thereby left unclear the ordinary abstention would be tanta- question of whether Israel was mount to a *veto. In the UN obliged to engage in a complete or *Security Council, and contrary to only partial withdrawal. This the UN *Charter, abstentions on proved unconstructive. Other terms non-procedural matters have always for constructive ambiguity are been treated as ‘constructive’, ‘fudging’, and ‘glossing’ or ‘paper- although they have never been so ing over’ disagreements. described. The term itself was intro- duced into the EU’s *Common consul. In general usage, any *con- Foreign and Security Policy by the sular officer; in more specific terms, *Treaty of Amsterdam (1997). In the one of the four *consular ranks. event that a constructive abstention The office of consul is of great permits a decision in CFSP, the antiquity, and precedes *resident 52 consulage diplomatic missions. It was insti- consular posts but by *offices of the tuted by states to protect their com- deputy high commissioner. mercial interests in a foreign However, consular functions country and those of their nationals remain of considerable importance, who were trading or travelling not least in geographically large there. Professionally speaking, and economically powerful states. consuls were in their prime from The exponential growth in leisure about 1850 to 1950. This period saw travel has also created a need for a huge expansion in international consuls in highly popular holiday commerce, and a good deal of it areas. Thus consular functions con- occurred in territories that were part tinue to be valuably exercised of the large overseas and overland across much of the international empires which then held sway. As scene, albeit no longer by members *diplomatic missions are sent only of a *consular service, and not to *capital cities, states wishing to always by individuals with a con- provide on-the-spot advice and sular rank. See also consular rela- assistance to their traders had to tions; factory; honorary consular establish *consular posts. officer; proxenos. The ending of colonialism was accompanied by a great increase in consulage. Historically, a tax on the size of *diplomatic services and goods passing through their hands the number of diplomatic missions. paid to a diplomat or consul by the And it happened that in capital merchants of his own state resident cities it quickly became customary at his posting. Understood to be for consular matters to be dealt with paid for the benefits of protection not by separate consular posts but received, it was supposed to be by newly established *consular sec- employed for the upkeep of his tions within diplomatic missions, or mission. by members of the mission’s staff who were authorized to perform consular agency. See consular post. consular functions – with the indi- viduals concerned enjoying *diplo- consular agent. See consular post; matic rather than *consular status. honorary consular officer. Thus consular posts tend nowadays to be found only in large commer- consular archives. See diplomatic cial cities or seaports which are not archives. the capital of the state concerned. In some *Commonwealth states, consular bag. The consular equiva- notably India and Pakistan, *con- lent of the *diplomatic bag. sular functions exercised by other However, unlike the latter, it may Commonwealth states outside the be returned to its place of origin if a capital city are performed not by request by the authorities of the consular list 53

*receiving state that the bag be consular functions. The chief func- opened in their presence is refused. tions of *consular officers are to protect and advance their state’s consular commission. Sometimes, commercial interests; to check that to make local enquiries on a matter their state’s ships and aircraft are of international concern in a non- observing its laws and regulations; sovereign territory, states have and (the area for which consuls are established a consular commission probably best known) to perform a consisting of the heads of their large variety of duties relating to the *consular posts in a particular city. well-being of their nationals – such as issuing passports, solemnizing marriages, visiting nationals in consular corps. The body of *con- prison, and even making small sular officers resident in a particular loans. Consular officers serving city. When *trade commissioners outside the *receiving state’s were distinguished from consular *capital city may also report to their officers, and resident in a city with a state on local conditions – an activ- consular corps, they were some- ity of the sort normally associated times, as a matter of courtesy, with *diplomatic missions. And if treated as members of the corps. the *sending state does not have a diplomatic mission in the capital, consular district. The area assigned and is not represented there by a by the *receiving state to a *con- third state, consular officers may, sular post, or the *consular section with the consent of the receiving of a *diplomatic mission, for the state, perform characteristically- exercise of *consular functions. The diplomatic acts, principally the need for the designation of such transmission of communications districts arises when, by agreement between the two states. between the *sending and the receiving states, the former estab- consular list. The list maintained, lishes more than one consular body and perhaps periodically published within the latter’s territory. by, a *receiving state which gives the names of those who, being consular flag. The flag used by a officers of *consular posts in a par- state on its consular premises and as ticular city or cities, enjoy *consular the personal flag of the consular status within the receiving state. In mission’s head. It need not be iden- respect of any one city or *consular tical with the national flag, nor with district, the local authority or the its *diplomatic flag. Britain’s con- consular corps itself may publish a sular flag is the national flag with, consular list – although it would in the centre, the St Edward’s not be authoritative so far as the Crown on a white disc. enjoyment of consular status is 54 consular officer concerned. See also honorary con- Convention on *Consular Relations sular officer. (1963), which has been widely accepted. In general, this provides consular officer. Any member of a *career consular officers with immu- *consular post who is entrusted with nity from the jurisdiction of the the exercise of *consular functions. *receiving state in respect of their Such an officer may be declared official acts but (unlike *diplomatic *persona non grata. Consular officers agents) not in respect of their are to be distinguished from non- private acts. Consular premises and consular members of the post’s staff, documents are inviolable, as are such as those engaged on administra- consular communications. It is tive, technical, and service tasks. See always open to states to extend also honorary consular officer. these arrangements by way of a bilateral *treaty, and a number of consular post. A post which, either such treaties have been concluded. throughout the *receiving state or *Honorary consular officers enjoy a within a designated *consular dis- severely restricted version of the trict, exercises *consular functions immunities granted to career only. Thus, when consular func- officers. Members of the *consular tions are exercised by a *diplomatic section of a *diplomatic mission mission, that does not make the receive the full range of *diplomatic latter a consular post. The intended immunities and privileges, as do head of a consular post is supplied members of the office of a *deputy with a *commission by the *sending high commissioner. state which must be submitted in advance to the receiving state; if consular rank. *Consular officers that state has no objection to the are customarily given one of four appointment, it supplies the officer ranks. In order of seniority they are: with an *exequatur, thereby autho- consul-general, consul, vice-consul, rizing this officer to assume the and consular agent. The head of a responsibilities of head of post. In *consular post must be given one of accordance with the head of post’s these ranks. Members of a *diplo- rank, a consular post will be called matic mission engaged on consular one of the following: consulate- tasks may be similarly designated. general, consulate, vice-consulate, But they are also commonly given and (although this category now such titles as minister (consular appears to be rarely used) consular affairs), counsellor and consul- agency. See also consular rank; con- general, second secretary (consular), sular relations; consular section; or third secretary and vice-consul. honorary consular officer. consular relations. A state must consular privileges and immuni- be in consular relations with ties. These are set out in the Vienna another state before it can establish consular service 55

*consular posts in that state’s terri- the Convention, a number of states tory. Such relations are established have concluded bilateral treaties on by mutual consent. They may, the subject. however, be broken unilaterally, requiring the closing of all consular consular section. That part of an posts in both the states concerned. *embassy which executes *consular Consular relations are distinct functions. Alternatively, where a from *diplomatic relations (sense 1). consular section is not formally des- Thus two states may be in consular ignated, members of the embassy’s relations but not in diplomatic *diplomatic staff may be authorized relations, and vice versa – although to perform such functions. In either normally the establishment of case, as the persons performing diplomatic relations implies an these functions are *diplomatic agreement to the establishment also agents, they enjoy *diplomatic and of consular relations. Two states not *consular privileges and immu- whose political relations have nities. See also consul; consular post; been poor, and (probably for that consular rank. reason) are not in diplomatic or consular relations, sometimes make consular service. A state service a preliminary move towards the consisting solely of *consular establishment or re-establishment officers, and hence distinct from a of diplomatic relations by first *diplomatic or *foreign service. In establishing or resuming consular the past, the larger states even had relations. This procedure is in the consular services specializing in a nature of a testing of the political particular region of the world. water. Nowadays, however, it is However, the rigid distinction rarely adopted. between the consular and the diplo- matic career tended to reflect social Consular Relations, Vienna class divisions in recruitment which Convention on. The outcome of a sat ill with the political climate of conference held in Vienna in 1963 the twentieth century, as did the with the object of *codifying and corresponding distinction, also now clarifying the existing *customary abolished, between separate *com- international law on consular mercial diplomatic and diplomatic matters, notably the facilities, privi- or foreign services. It also impaired leges and immunities relating to the mobility of personnel and *consular posts and officers. The hindered cooperation between the Convention *entered into force in two branches. And it rested on dis- 1967, and the vast majority of states tinctions in tasks which began to have become parties to it. However, grow thin as *diplomats (sense 1), with a view to greater precision, and traditionally preoccupied with high sometimes also to extending the politics, were charged increasingly privileges and immunities set out in with consular, commercial, and 56 consular status economic duties as well. Accord- of the *receiving state; or, some- ingly, consular services were times, a way of enabling the head of steadily incorporated into diplo- mission to make a quick but matic services, and diplomats have dignified exit in circumstances become routinely liable to engage where it is anticipated that he or from time to time in consular as in she will shortly be declared *persona commercial work. See also career non grata. consular officer; Commercial Diplo- matic Service; consul; consular consultations of the whole. See section; Levant Consular Service. informal consultations (sense 1). consular status. The status held by consultative status. (1) A status a member of the staff of a *consular which may be granted by an *inter- post who is classed as a *consular national organization to a private officer. Those enjoying it are organization (and sometimes to a thereby entitled to *consular privi- state) with a view to establishing a leges and immunities. measure of coordination and coop- eration between them. The privi- consulate. See consular post. leges of the status may be non-uniform, as in the best-known consulate-general. See consular instance of the arrangement: that post. between the UN *Economic and Social Council and approximately consul-general. See consular post; 2000 *non-governmental organiza- honorary consular officer. tions, where the latter are divided into several categories on the basis Consulta. The colloquial term for of their degree of interest in the the Italian ministry of foreign affairs Council’s work. Entities enjoying following its transfer in 1871 from consultative status usually have Florence to Rome, where it began privileges exceeding the ones pos- business in the Palazzo della sessed by those with only *observer Consulta on 1 July. The ministry status, including the right to suggest remained here until the end of agenda items and make oral presen- 1922, when it was moved to the tations at meetings. (2) More rarely, Palazzo Chigi. See also Farnesina. the status of a state with full rights to participate in meetings of a treaty consultations. Discussions at home regime, as notably in meetings with a *head of mission following under the Antarctic Treaty. an unexpected recall. In fact, a summons to return home for ‘con- contact group. An ad hoc group of sultations’ is often a means of senior diplomats and/or foreign expressing displeasure at some act ministers from three or more states Convention 57 created to coordinate their *media- ent. The matter is now chiefly of tion of a conflict, typically by pro- historical interest. See also blockade. viding ‘contact’ between the adversaries in *proximity talks. The contribution principle. The princi- first to put the new terminology in ple applied in *international organi- the lexicon was the Western zations that influence in Contact Group on Namibia, which decision-making and the allocation was created in 1977 and consisted of posts in their *secretariats should of representatives of Britain, reflect the size of members’ bud- Canada, France, the USA, and West getary contributions. See also geo- Germany, which happened to be graphical post; weighted voting. the Western states on the UN *Security Council at the time – ‘The contributor state. A state which Five’. The Western Contact Group contributes personnel to a *peace- operated in a variety of theatres and keeping operation. with a variety of personnel, includ- ing Geneva, the capitals of The Five, convention. A synonym for *treaty, the many black African capitals used most often for multilateral whose governments participated in treaties of general interest. the negotiations, and South Africa itself, where the ambassadors of the Convention five states were its members. on Consular Relations (1963) However, its original and chief on Diplomatic Relations (1961) focus was UN Headquarters in New on the Law of Treaties (1969) York, where the *permanent repre- on the Prevention and Punish- sentatives of The Five, or more ment of Crimes against Inter- usually their deputies, constituted nationally Protected Persons, the original ‘Contact Group’. More including Diplomatic Agents recent examples include the (1973) Contadora Group and the on Privileges and Immunities of Bosnia/Kosovo Contact Group, Specialized Agencies (1947) established in 1983 and 1994 on the Privileges and Immunities respectively. of the United Nations (1946) on the Representation of States contraband. Goods considered by a in their Relations with *belligerent (sense 1) to be of assis- International Organizations of tance to the enemy in the conduct a Universal Character (1975) of *war. Under the *laws of war on Special Missions (1969) such goods being carried to a bel- on the Status of Refugees (1951): ligerent from a *neutral state or by see that part of the title of the its shipping may be seized and Convention which refers to its subject confiscated by an opposing belliger- matter. NB: the dates are those of 58 copie d’usage

*signature or of *adoption by the directors, this is an important UN *General Assembly, not the element in the Union’s *Common dates of *entry into force. Foreign and Security Policy. copie d’usage. See working copy (of corps diplomatiques. See diplomatic credentials). corps. copie figurée. See working copy (of correspondence. (1) Letters. (2) The credentials). exchange of letters. (3) In the phrase to ‘maintain a good corre- coranto. See gazettes. spondence’ which was current until the end of the eighteenth century, a COREPER. The COmité des synonym for *diplomatic relations REprésentants PERmanents of the (sense 2). *European Union i.e. the Brussels- based ambassadors of the member correspondent. Another term for a states. The Committee of Per- member of a *warden network. manent Representatives has two divisions: COREPER I, which deals Council of Europe. Founded in with domestic affairs and is com- 1949 as an association of European posed of the Deputy Permanent democracies, its membership Representatives; and COREPER II, expanded after the end of the *Cold which handles external affairs and War and presently stands at 44. It is made up of the Permanent has a *Parliamentary Assembly Representatives themselves. The made up of parliamentarians elected Permanent Representatives are or appointed by their national par- almost always senior diplomats, liaments, and a Committee of though their own staffs are increas- [Foreign]Ministers. The Assembly ingly composed of officials from does not have legislative powers, domestic – as opposed to foreign – but may make recommendations to ministries. COREPER, which among the Committee of Ministers. The other things prepares meetings of Committee can take decisions con- the *Council of Ministers, is one of cerning the internal work of the the most influential institutions Council, and make recommenda- within the EU framework. tions to the member states on matters that come under their COREUR. The system whereby authority. Among the main areas of telegrams and other forms of com- Council activity are *human rights, munication are regularly circulated social questions, culture, education, around the foreign ministries of the the environment, and legal cooper- member states of the *European ation, and it has successfully spon- Union. Supervised by their *political sored more than 150 *treaties in counter-intelligence 59 these and other fields. Under the Council on Foreign Relations. The European Convention on Human major American think tank on Rights (1950) an impressive amount foreign policy which developed of work has been done to safeguard from the group of scholars fundamental rights and freedoms. summoned to advise President Its headquarters and Secretariat are Woodrow *Wilson at the end of the in Strasbourg, France. First World War. It was formally established in 1921 and obtains its Council of Ministers (European). funds from corporations, founda- The chief decision-making body of tions, and individual endowments. the *European Union where the It publishes the journal Foreign *national interests of member states Affairs. are represented, though it works to guidelines agreed by the *European counsellor. In *diplomatic ranks, Council. Its presidency changes that which lies beneath *minister every six months, though continuity (sense 2) (or, where it is used, was assisted until recently by the beneath minister-counsellor) and *troika arrangement. It meets in above *first secretary. The spelling is subject-based councils of which the ‘counselor’ in the US Foreign most important is that composed of Service. the foreign ministers of the member states, which normally meets monthly. (Officially referred to as the counter-espionage. The attempt to ‘General Affairs Council’, this is discover and neutralize specific more generally known as the foreign *espionage (*humint) ‘Foreign Affairs Council’.) Though in attacks, typically by visual surveil- theory decisions may be taken by a lance and *sigint interception of simple majority vote, they are taken communications between *agents formally either by *unanimity or (sense 5) and their controllers. *qualified majority voting, and in reality most of them are taken by the counter-intelligence. (1) The *consensus method. Since the entry attempt to destroy or weaken the into force of the Treaty of effectiveness of foreign *espionage *Maastricht, the Council of Ministers at its source, especially by penetra- has been officially styled the tion of its services. This is the older ‘Council of the European Union’. See meaning of the term and the one also codecision procedure; high rep- still favoured by *humint profes- resentative (example 1); Luxembourg sionals. (2) All methods, whether compromise. active or passive, designed to protect a state’s secrets from any Council of the European Union. form of *intelligence gathering by See Council of Ministers (European). foreign agencies. 60 countermeasure countermeasure. A *reprisal which even though the sovereign has actu- does not involve the use of armed ally lived at Buckingham Palace since force. 1837. St James’s Palace was built by Henry VIII in the 1530s and became country team. The key committee the seat of the royal court in 1702 in an American embassy. It is com- after fire destroyed the Palace of posed of the heads of any executive Whitehall. It is now the central branch agencies operating in the London residence of the Prince of country and is chaired by the Wales and provides offices for, ambassador. Designed to help US among others, the *Marshal of the ambassadors reassert their authority Diplomatic Corps. following the colonization of their embassies during the *Cold War by courtesy call. A visit made as a a plethora of different Washington- matter of courtesy by a newly based agencies, the twin principles arrived *head of mission to the of the country team idea are con- *foreign minister of the *receiving sensus and coordination. The term state and, very possibly, to the head first came into use in 1951 follow- of government (where he or she is ing a report by General Lucius D. not also head of state). Such calls Clay. Nevertheless, the country may also be made to other impor- team is only a ‘management tool’ tant personages in the capital city and American ambassadors have (e.g. the mayor), and sometimes in never been required to employ *federal states to such personages in it. The well known economist, the provincial capitals. Courtesy J. K. Galbraith, who was sent by calls are also customarily made on President Kennedy to be his ambas- other heads of mission. In capitals sador to India in 1961, regarded it with a very large *diplomatic corps as indispensable only when he did it may as a practical matter not be not want to do anything. possible to visit all of them, though the expectation that all should courier. See diplomatic courier receive a call remains high and those overlooked may well harbour Court of St James’s. The manner in an enduring resentment against the which the United Kingdom of Great new head of mission. Britain and Northern Ireland is referred to in the *letters of credence court mourning. (1) The official supplied to heads of *diplomatic period of mourning that follows the missions being posted from or to that death of a monarch or other senior state: e.g. they are ‘accredited to the member of a royal family. (2) The Court of St James’s’. This is because dress code to be followed, among St James’s Palace in Westminster others by diplomats, during this remains the senior royal residence, period. cryptology 61 courtoisie. The correct subscription probably have a variety of sources to a formal letter sent by a diplomat but nevertheless be publicly focus- – e.g. ‘I have the honour to be, Sir, ed on a specific issue, as in the Your obedient servant’. See also *Cuban Missile Crisis. See also crisis appel. management.

Covenant of the League of crisis management. The conduct of Nations. The 1919 instrument a *crisis by diplomacy, normally to (which was part of the Versailles dampen it down. The term was pop- Peace Treaty) which provided for ularized by US Defense Secretary the establishment of the *League Robert McNamara, formerly a busi- and set out what, in effect, was its nessman, following the *Cuban constitution. See also Briand–Kellogg Missile Crisis of 1962. Pact. crossed bag. See diplomatic bag. covert action. Secret or at any rate deniable *intervention in the Crowe Report (1999). See Inman domestic politics or civil wars of standards. other states, usually to defend a friendly government or overthrow a Crown dependency. The status hostile one. An American term for enjoyed by the Channel Islands and what used to be known as ‘political the Isle of Man. As such, they are warfare’, typically it involves sup- directly under the authority of the plying money or weapons to British monarch, and hence not favoured groups, and is usually but within the jurisdiction of the British not necessarily a task given to parliament. Britain, however, is *intelligence agencies. responsible for their *international relations (sense 1) and defence. See credence. See letters of credence. also bailiwick. credentials. A document which cryptanalysis. *Cipher- and *code- authenticates a person’s status and breaking, or the craft of rendering competence. See also letter of intro- into plain language an encrypted duction; letters of commission; message. See also sigint. letters of credence; permanent mission; presentation of credentials; cryptography. Secret writing, working copy. encrypting or writing in *cipher or *code, together with the protection crisis. An international conflict of these systems. which is so acute that it is believed by most governments concerned to cryptology. *Cryptanalysis plus carry a serious risk of *war. It will *cryptography. 62 Cuban Missile Crisis

Cuban Missile Crisis. The *crisis kingdoms of the Near East from that arose in October 1962 follow- about 2500 to 500 BC, so called ing the United States’ demand that because it was based on the the Soviet Union remove the exchange of messages written, on nuclear-headed missiles which it tablets, in cuneiform characters. was in the process of installing in The system employed a common Cuba, a spot which Washington language, and had its own law, looked upon as well inside its ‘back- custom, and protocol. In its essen- yard’. The crisis was the most tials, modern diplomacy can be serious which occurred during the seen as expressing the same needs *Cold War, East and West finding and practices as the ancient themselves *eyeball-to-eyeball. It cuneiform system. See also Amarna only began to subside when Soviet letters. vessels heading for the island finally turned back in the face of the customary international law. cordon that the US Navy had General practices (also known as thrown around it. international customary law or general international customary cultural diplomacy. The promotion law) which have grown up among abroad of a state’s cultural achieve- states and which have become ments, in the case of France and accepted as law – and hence as Britain, among others, notably their *binding on all states. Thus, mere languages. Cultural *attachés are usage is insufficient to translate a posted to embassies; and dedicated custom into law; the belief must organizations closely associated with also have developed that that usage the *diplomatic service, like the has legal status. This last aspect of *British Council, are sometimes the matter is often referred to as employed. Such organizations have opinio iuris sive necessitatis (or, for their own offices and libraries in short, opinio iuris). Custom is one of major foreign cities. Defined broadly the two main sources of *interna- to include the advertisement of tional law (the other being achievements in science and tech- *treaties), and in historical and nology as well as in the arts, human- jurisprudential terms it is the more ities and social sciences, cultural fundamental of the two. In quanti- diplomacy attaches special impor- tative terms, however, treaties have tance to promoting links between in recent times come to overshadow parallel institutions at home and custom as a source of international abroad, for example between domes- law. See also special customary inter- tic and foreign universities. national law. cuneiform diplomacy. The diplo- customs union. An association of matic system in use between the states created for the purpose of cut-price diplomacy 63 promoting free trade among them- cut-price diplomacy. A term some- selves behind a wall to the outside times used to refer to *multiple world represented by a common accreditation (sense 1) and the external tariff. See also Common maintenance of contact at the UN Market; European Union; free trade rather than through the establish- area. ment of a *resident mission. D

damage. An injury suffered from an The dean, or doyen(ne), is generally illegal act. the longest-serving member of the highest class of *diplomat accred- damages. The pecuniary sum pay- ited to the country in question. able by one state to another to com- Exceptions to this rule are to be pensate the latter following its found in states where *precedence is successful *claim that a wrongful act by tradition granted to the papal has been done to it by the former. *nuncio, and in certain other cases The award of damages is not neces- and circumstances. One such situa- sarily linked with a pecuniary loss tion may occur when the most on the part of the wronged state. It senior diplomat is head of a *non- should be noted that damages are resident mission – it being desirable, not a form of punishment, *interna- although not necessary, that the tional law being, overwhelmingly, dean be resident in the capital in in the nature of civil law rather question. than *international criminal law. In the late 1940s and early 1950s, Consequently, damages are awarded when the status of *high commis- as compensation for a wrong, not as sioners in relation to the diplomatic punishment for a crime. corps was indeterminate, there was some uncertainty as to whether deadlock. See impasse. such a diplomat was eligible to be dean. Difficulties sometimes also dean. The representative of the arise when the dean represents a *diplomatic corps on ceremonial state or government that is not rec- occasions and its channel of com- ognized by some of the other states munication on matters of common that have *diplomatic missions interest (especially *diplomatic priv- accredited to the receiving state. ileges and immunities) with the (Notably, this problem arose in government of the *receiving state. respect of the representatives of

64 decorations 65

China.) In this case, although a state regarding, for example, the state may debar its ambassador from interpretation of a particular provi- having any dealings whatsoever sion of a just-agreed *treaty. Such a with the person who is dean, the statement does not purport to usual solution is for the heads of exclude or modify the legal import these missions to deal with the indi- of the provision in question. vidual concerned when he or she is acting in this capacity but to ignore declaration of war. See war. all the individual’s ambassadorial activity. However, acceptance of the Declaration on the Granting office of dean implies a willingness of Independence to Colonial to have dealings with all heads of Countries and Peoples. A *declara- mission accredited to the capital tion (sense 1) of the UN *General concerned. There is also a dean of Assembly made in December 1960 the *consular corps. (resolution 1514 [XV]). It states that See also vice-dean. *colonialism is a denial of funda- mental *human rights, and that debellatio. Putting a forceful end inadequacy of political, economic, to a *sovereign state by the *annex- social, or educational preparedness ation of its territory. Such *aggres- for *independence (sense 1) is not a sion is no longer lawful. justification for delaying it. No state voted against the resolution, and décanat. The office of the *dean of only nine abstained. The Declaration the *diplomatic corps. is regarded as a landmark in the UN’s campaign against colonialism. See declaration. (1) A document which also Committee of 24. is not meant to have the *binding character of a *treaty but to have decorations. Any kind of personal considerable political significance, adornment, for example a medal or e.g. the 1948 *Universal Declaration chain. They may be presented by a of Human Rights. Declarations of foreign government to a diplomat. this kind, in addition to more Unlike a ‘present’ or ‘gift’, it is valu- general *communiqués, are now able only for the honour that it commonly issued on specific sub- signifies, usually membership of jects following *summit meetings. some prestigious order. Decorations, (2) A now uncommon synonym for like presents, have long been treaty, e.g. the Paris Declaration of employed by governments in an 1856. (3) A formal statement by the attempt to influence diplomats *representative of a state which is accredited to them. It is for this meant to bind the state or is reason that many diplomatic deemed so to have done. (4) A state- services now prohibit acceptance of ment clarifying the position of a both decorations and presents, or 66 deductive method permit their acceptance only under sarial. Others who seek sanctuary in very restricted conditions or where foreign states are simply known as refusal would cause serious offence refugees or asylum-seekers. and damage relations. defence adviser. See service attaché. deductive method. (1) The process of a priori reasoning whereby, for defence attaché. (1) The senior example, principles of what is service attaché at a *diplomatic asserted to be *international law are mission. (2) Another term for a deduced from certain broader prin- *service, or armed forces attaché. ciples. It is also called naturalism (with reference to the idea of defence diplomacy. The use of mil- natural law). (2) The approach to itary personnel, including *service negotiation which, in contrast to attachés, in support of conflict pre- *step-by-step diplomacy, favours vention and resolution. Among a seeking immediate agreement on great variety of activities, it includes general principles. If and when providing assistance in the develop- this is achieved, in the so-called ment of democratically accountable *formula stage, the details are, armed forces. This bland umbrella loosely speaking, deduced from term appears to have been intro- them. duced by the British government’s Strategic Defence Review, 1998, and de facto recognition. A form of is now officially employed by a few *recognition of a government or of other states as well. It is not to be *recognition of a state which is pro- confused with *coercive diplomacy. visional, either because of uncer- tainty regarding the immediate defence intelligence. (1) Informa- future of the recognized entity or tion on the military power of foreign because of political reluctance on states and the international arms the part of the recognizing state to trade. (2) The agencies involved in accord the entity an unqualified the collection of this kind of infor- status. If, later, unqualified status is mation. See also Defense Intelligence granted, it will usually be referred to Agency. as *de jure recognition. See also Estrada Doctrine. defence section. See defence staff. defector. A prominent person, or defence staff. The body of *service one previously employed in a sensi- attachés at a major embassy. The US tive official position, who succeeds Foreign Service describes it as the in fleeing, for whatever reason, to a ‘defense attaché’s office’, the British state whose relationship with the Diplomatic Service as the ‘defence country of origin is hostile or adver- section’. department 67

Defense Intelligence Agency mally styled ‘head’, or ‘leader’, of (DIA). The all-service *intelligence the delegation, and if it has been organization which was superim- sent to negotiate a *treaty this posed on the three existing intelli- person must be a *plenipotentiary. gence agencies of the United States’ armed services in 1961. delimitation. The drawing of a boundary on a map. The term is definitive signature. See ratifica- also often used to encompass tion; signature. *demarcation. de jure recognition. *Recognition demarcation. The marking of a of a government or *recognition of boundary on the ground. a state which is unqualified. It is often so termed after a period démarche. A formal message, during which the recognized entity written or oral, to a *receiving state has been accorded *de facto recogni- generally involving a protest, com- tion by the recognizing state. See plaint or *ultimatum, delivered by also Estrada Doctrine. one or more diplomats (sense 1). delegate. An accredited member of démenti. A denial. a state’s *delegation to an interna- tional *conference or other form of demilitarize. To agree that there gathering. Support staff, such as shall be no military presence or translators and secretaries, are not function in a specified area (except, delegates. possibly, a *peacekeeping group); or, in the case of an area within one delegate-general. The head of a state’s jurisdiction or control, to *general delegation. prohibit such activity. The area in question may then be referred to as delegation. A party sent to repre- a demilitarized zone (DMZ). If it is sent a state or some other body at adjoined by two or more states it an international *conference or may be known as a *buffer zone. other form of gathering. Such a group may be very large, especially demilitarized zone (DMZ). See if the conference is important and demilitarize. has a wide *agenda, and if the sending state is rich. Within the denunciation. See abrogation. *UN system, however, rules of pro- cedure limit the size of delegations, department. In the British *Foreign though the attitude to their advisers and Commonwealth Office, the is usually more liberal. The most administrative unit intermediate senior diplomat or politician is nor- between a *desk and a *command. 68 Department of State

The department is the basic organi- in an American *diplomatic mission zational component of the ministry. and responsible for its day-to-day running. Occupying a position Department of State. See State closely analogous to the *deputy Department. head of mission in a British mission, the DCM is *chargé dependent state. This phrase may d’affaires ad interim in the *ambas- be used synonymously with *pro- sador’s absence. tected state. But in contemporary usage it is more likely to have a deputy head of mission. The term political than a legal connotation, for the number two in almost all of meaning a *state which is habitually Britain’s embassies, who is now subservient to another in respect of responsible for the managerial and an important area or areas of policy. coordinating work across all sec- See also Brezhnev Doctrine; puppet tions of the embassy formerly state; satellite state; sphere of carried out by the *head of influence; vassal state. chancery. In British *high commis- sions the equivalent term is *deputy dependent territory. A politically- high commissioner, though the correct term for such *colonies as number two here as well as in remain, which has recently been embassies is referred to as the replaced by one of even greater rec- ‘DHM’. titude: ‘overseas territory’. See also bailiwick. deputy high commission. The name which used sometimes to be deposit. See depositary. given to the *office of a deputy high commissioner. It appears to have depositary. A state or an interna- gone out of fashion. tional organization designated by a *treaty to receive and disseminate deputy high commissioner. (1) The any formal written communications title sometimes given to the number relating to it (such as *ratifications, two in a *high commission. In *reservations, and *declarations British high commissions, this title is (sense 4)), and to perform such used in even the smallest posts; but other administrative functions as in the case of the high commissions are specified by the treaty. A deposi- of at least two other *Common- tary is more likely to be appointed wealth states – Canada and South in respect of a multilateral than a Africa – it is used only where the bilateral treaty. diplomat concerned is relatively senior. It is possible, although deputy chief of mission. The unusual, for more than one member officer who is second in command of the staff of a high commission to diplomacy 69 be given this title. (2) The head of they used to be. See also telegram, the *office of a deputy high commis- unofficial letter. (2) To send, as in to sioner. ‘despatch a special envoy’. deputy under-secretary of state. détente. An easing of strained The second-most-senior official (as *diplomatic relations (sense 2). distinct from ministerial) position in According to the Oxford English Britain’s *Foreign and Common- Dictionary, first used in this sense wealth Office, coming below the shortly before the First World War; *permanent under-secretary of state it is also contained in the short glos- and above the *assistant under- sary appended to the first edition of secretaries of state (now known as Harold Nicolson’s Diplomacy, pub- *directors). lished in 1939. The term achieved great currency when it was desk. A small, if not the smallest, employed to describe the relaxation section of a ministry of *foreign of *Cold War tensions between the affairs. See also desk officer. Soviet Union and the United States in the early 1970s. desk officer. A traditional *State Department term for the person in developed vetting. See positive the Department charged with over- vetting. sight of relations with a particular foreign country. See also desk. difficult post allowance (DPA). See hardship post. despatch. (1) In traditional British diplomatic usage, a formal and Dikko, Umaru. A member of an therefore stylized letter from a earlier Nigerian government who, *head of mission abroad to the in 1984, was kidnapped in London *Foreign Secretary, and vice versa; on Nigeria’s authority. He was and also from one head of mission drugged and placed in a crate, to another. (The Oxford English which was intercepted as it was Dictionary prefers ‘dispatch’, as does being loaded on to a Nigerian the US Foreign Service.) Among the Airways plane. On the ground that words of advice given on the it did not satisfy the criteria for a writing of despatches in the earlier *diplomatic bag, British officials editions of *Satow’s Guide are these: opened the crate, thus securing ‘Never place an adjective before a Dikko’s release. noun, if it can be spared; it only weakens the effect of a plain state- diplomacy. (1) The conduct of rela- ment. Above all, do not attempt tions between *sovereign states to be witty.’ Today, however, des- through the medium of officials patches are not quite as formal as based at home or abroad, the latter 70 diplomat being either members of their state’s *‘track two diplomacy’. (4) Foreign *diplomatic service or *temporary policy. The use of the word ‘diplo- diplomats. Thus diplomacy includes macy’ as a synonym for foreign the stationing of representatives at policy, which is especially common *international organizations. But in the United States, can obscure the backbone of diplomacy has, for the important distinction between five centuries, been the despatch of policy and the (non-violent) means *diplomatic missions to foreign by which it is executed. states, and it is still very much the norm. As states are notional diplomat. (1) A person profession- persons, they cannot communicate ally engaged in the craft of *diplo- in the manner of individuals, but macy (sense 1) as a member of a must do so through representative *diplomatic service, whether any human persons. In principle, this aptitude for the craft is displayed or can be done by such individuals not. A diplomat may therefore be speaking to each other at a distance either a *diplomatic agent or an through electronic devices. But *official at a *foreign ministry. This there are large practical objections is a worn-down version of the older to the use of these as the sole or word *diplomatist, which Britain’s even the prime method of interstate Diplomatic Service finally aban- communication. Diplomacy is doned when it realized that the therefore the principal means by Americans had done so. (2) The which states communicate with term is also used in general speech each other, enabling them to have of a person who is demonstrably regular and complex relations. It is possessed of those abilities tradi- the communications system of the tionally associated with diplomacy, *international society. The label such as tact and moderation. ‘diplomacy’ was first given to this system by Edmund Burke in 1796. diplomatic agent. The head of a See also channels of communica- *diplomatic mission or a member of tion. (2) The use of tact in dealing its staff having *diplomatic status. with people. Diplomacy in this sense is a skill which is hugely diplomatic archives. (1) The important in the conduct of diplo- records (in the pre-computer age, macy. But there is a large distinc- ‘papers’) of a *diplomatic mission, tion between an apt way of whatever form they may take and executing a task and its underlying including any containers or other function. (3) Any attempt to devices employed for their storage. promote international *negotiations The somewhat odd phrase ‘archives (particularly in circumstances of and documents’ was used in the acute crisis), whether concerning Vienna Convention on *Diplomatic inter- or intra-state conflicts; hence Relations to cover draft papers as diplomatic bag 71 well, these being regarded as not cal implications), but do not wish to technically ‘archives’. Diplomatic impede their freedom to grant archives, and for that matter con- diplomatic asylum in exceptional sular archives, are inviolable at any circumstances. It should be noted time and wherever they may be. See that the issue of diplomatic asylum also chancelier; registry. (2) The refers to a right which may be official papers of a ministry of enjoyed by states; there is no ques- foreign affairs, the earlier ones of tion of a fugitive having the right to which might have been deposited demand asylum. See also special in a national archive and be avail- international customary law. able for public inspection. diplomatic bag. A package which, diplomatic asylum. The granting to permit and protect *free commu- of refuge in diplomatic (and by nication between a state and its extension in consular) premises to diplomats, may not be opened or fugitives from the authority of the detained en route, whether it con- *receiving state when they are tains classified material or not. (A deemed by the *sending state to diplomatic bag containing classified have given political rather than material and thus requiring special criminal offence. But whether a protection is known as a ‘crossed sending state is entitled to grant bag’ because its label is marked with such asylum is controversial, not a large black ‘X’.) It is meant only least because receiving states jib at for official diplomatic correspon- allowing sending states to suggest dence and articles intended exclus- that an alleged criminal is in fact a ively for the use of a diplomatic or victim of political persecution. permanent mission. It must be Hence no general agreement has clearly indicated as such, and been reached on the subject. secured with a *seal bearing the However, it is always open to a official stamp of the *sending state limited number of states to agree or mission. It may be in the charge among themselves on a right of of a *diplomatic courier or *diplo- diplomatic asylum, or to develop matic agent, but may also be sent *customary law to that effect as by other means, such as by the among themselves, very possibly on hand of an aircraft’s captain (‘care- a regional basis. It is frequently said of-pilot’). It has no agreed maxi- that such regional rules exist in mum size or weight, so a diplomatic Latin America. Notwithstanding the ‘bag’ may, and often does, consist of lack of general agreement, diplo- a crate or container. Because of the matic asylum is very occasionally suspected (and sometimes docu- given. It may be suggested that mented) abuse of this facility to states are uneasy about agreeing to carry currency, drugs, weapons and such a right (because of its recipro- even bombs, some states have 72 diplomatic classes asserted the right to place limits on sioners); the second of envoys, the size of the bag, X-ray it, or *ministers (sense 1) and *internun- return it to the sender. However, cios; and the third of *chargés the protests of other states and the d’affaires. The class to which a head principle of *reciprocity go far to of mission is assigned must be guarantee the inviolability and sure agreed by the *sending and *receiv- transmission of diplomatic bags. ing states. Heads of mission in the In an effort to clarify disputed first two classes are accredited to aspects of the relevant law, and to heads of state, while those in the encourage a more uniform obser- third are accredited only to minis- vance of it, the UN General ters of foreign affairs. The class of Assembly, some 25 years ago, asked *minister resident, which had been the *International Law Commission added at the Congress of Aix-la- to examine the issue. In 1989 it pro- Chapelle in 1818 as the third out of duced a final text on the status of four classes, was dropped in 1961. the diplomatic courier and the Today, heads of mission of the diplomatic bag not accompanied by second rank are also a rarity. See also diplomatic courier, and recom- precedence; Regulation of Vienna mended that the Assembly convene (1815). a conference to study the matter. However, informal consultations diplomatic communication. See revealed wide divergences of view channels of communication. (not least between Britain and the United States) on some of the draft diplomatic corps. (1) The body of articles, particularly the one relating *diplomats of all states, including to the inviolability of the diplo- *attachés, who are resident at one matic bag. In consequence, progress *post. The term is a corruption of towards a treaty on the issue the French phrase corps diplomatique, remains held up. But at the level of which translates correctly as ‘diplo- practice the situation is in almost all matic body’. The designation ‘body’ respects managed satisfactorily. See is appropriate since, however insub- also casual courier; Dikko, Umaru; stantial this may now be, the diplo- Queen’s Messenger. mats posted in the same capital still have a corporate existence founded diplomatic classes. The classes into on a common interest in defending which *heads of mission are divided their *privileges and immunities. according to the Vienna Conven- The diplomatic corps is led by the tion on *Diplomatic Relations *dean, has its own meetings, and is (1961). The first class consists of seen en masse at ceremonial occa- *ambassadors or *nuncios, and sions. (2) The *diplomatic service of other heads of mission of equiva- a state. Use of the term ‘diplomatic lent rank (notably *high commis- corps’ as a synonym for diplomatic diplomatic functions 73 service has long been very common, especially sensitive documents and not least among diplomats. How- other items – and couriers still occa- ever, it blurs an important distinc- sionally disappear. A dedicated tion and is explicitly rejected by the courier service was not permanently most authoritative manuals. established by the United States until shortly before the Second diplomatic courier. A person World War. See also casual courier; employed, either on a regular or ad express; freedom of communica- hoc basis, for the expressly limited tion; herald; Queen’s Messenger; purpose of carrying a *diplomatic staffeto. bag. Hence a diplomatic courier is today not a *diplomatic agent such diplomatic designations. See diplo- as a *special envoy, though in the matic rank. ancient world the roles were usually fused in one individual. A diplo- diplomatic flag. The flag used by a matic courier also carries identifying state on its *diplomatic premises documents, usually a courier’s pass- and as the *personal standard flown port (though in earlier times dis- on the means of transport used by creet badges were also found its *heads of mission. It need not be useful). This is important because a identical with the national flag. diplomatic courier is entitled to per- Britain’s diplomatic flag is the sonal inviolability and immunity United Kingdom flag with the Royal from arrest and detention; but he or Arms in the centre surrounded by a she is not entitled to the more green garland. British *high com- extensive privileges of a diplomatic missioners, however, fly the United agent. The immunities of an ad hoc Kingdom flag. A *permanent courier cease when the diplomatic mission is allowed the same flag- bag has been delivered to the con- flying privileges as a diplomatic signee. Whether regular or ad hoc, mission; and *special missions are the diplomatic courier must also generally treated in much the same carry a document indicating which way. bags are ‘diplomatic’ and which are not, since personal luggage may be diplomatic functions. Far and searched at any frontier. This docu- away the most important function ment, known as a ‘way bill’ or lettre of the head and staff of a *diplo- de part, must also list every diplo- matic mission is to act as a perma- matic bag. Though the work of the nent *channel of communication diplomatic courier is not, as a result between the *sending state and the of the revolution in transport and *receiving state, as it is only *telecommunications, by any means through such official human agen- as important or as dangerous as in cies that notional entities such as former times, it is still valued for *states can speak to each other. 74 diplomatic history

Sometimes such communication between states, i.e. that in which will take the very specific form of diplomats are the executants. A *negotiation; but usually it will be a diplomatic historian is therefore matter of conveying and receiving one who focuses on this subject. See statements of opinion and formal also history of diplomacy. messages. Any such function is often referred to as that of *repre- diplomatic identity card. Many sentation. states issue accredited diplomats Additionally, a diplomatic mission with such a card, in part with a has the task of reporting to its state view to minimizing difficulties on conditions and developments in between diplomats and law enforce- the receiving state (though, in ment officers. See also silver car pass. theory, information may only be obtained by ‘lawful means’); and diplomatic illness. An illness promoting and protecting the inter- feigned by a diplomat to avoid an ests of the sending state and its official engagement that is likely to nationals in the receiving state. prove politically embarrassing. The Vienna Convention on *Diplomatic Relations states that diplomatic immunities. See diplo- one function of a diplomatic matic privileges and immunities. mission is to promote ‘friendly rela- tions’ between the sending and the receiving state. At one level this is diplomatic inviolability. See diplo- so, in the sense that a sending state matic privileges and immunities. always hopes that its representations will be accepted and appreciated. diplomatic language. (1) Special But the statement obscures the fact language employed in an effort to that in political terms a diplomatic minimize the provocation likely to mission is above all else in the busi- be caused by delivery of a sharp or ness of advancing and defending its unavoidably threatening message. It state’s interests – which may some- is typically mild, euphemistic, and times necessitate an unfriendly or circumlocutory. (2) The technical even a hostile stance towards the words and phrases of the craft of receiving state. In sum, this aspect of *diplomacy (sense 1). (3) The lan- the Vienna Convention is more an guage most commonly employed expression of political correctitude for general communication in a than of reality. *diplomatic system. For example, in See also espionage; permanent the Ancient Near East this was mission; special mission. Akkadian; in the European system it was first Latin and then French; and diplomatic history. Generally used in today’s world system it is to connote the history of relations English. diplomatic list 75 diplomatic law. The rules of *inter- The order in which names are national law governing the conduct listed within each mission’s list is of *diplomacy (sense 1). Many of indicative of the order of *prece- the rules regarding *diplomatic dence, within that mission, of its agents and *missions are embodied named *diplomatic agents. That in the Vienna Convention on order is entirely a matter for the *Diplomatic Relations, 1961. See *sending state, as is the designation also Bynkershoek; Gentili; Grotius; of the agents. (The receiving state, Hotman; Oppenheim’s International however, determines the general Law; Satow’s Guide to Diplomatic format of the overall list.) When, as Practice; Wicquefort. is often the case, the agents at a particular mission are members diplomatic licence plates. The dis- not just of the sending state’s tinctive licence or number plates *foreign ministry but also of which are often attached to the various other government depart- official vehicles of *diplomatic mis- ments, determining the mission’s sions and personal vehicles of order of precedence can be a matter *diplomatic staff. The plates on of controversy, between both the *consular vehicles are usually differ- individuals and the departments ent, and in some countries different concerned. again for those belonging to Should internal dissension within *administrative and technical staff. a state result in more than one Distinctive licence plates permit diplomatic mission being sent to a easy identification of a vehicle second state, each claiming to repre- whose occupants probably enjoy sent the first state, the receiving *immunity from local process. state must decide which it regards However, since they also make it as legitimate. Its decision will be more likely that their vehicles will reflected in its diplomatic list. If, attract the attention of terrorists, however, it wishes to avoid or delay the use of such plates has been dis- coming out in favour of one rather continued in some states. than the other but does not wish to acknowledge that fact, it may diplomatic list. The list main- decline to publish a new diplomatic tained and (usually) published peri- list until the matter has been odically by a *receiving state which resolved. This unusual state of gives the names of those who, affairs occurred in the Soviet Union being members of *resident or in the early 1970s, when two *non-resident diplomatic missions, embassies from Cambodia appeared enjoy *diplomatic status within in Moscow. However, it appears that state. The names are grouped that the secretive Soviets had for by mission, missions being listed some time not published a diplo- on an alphabetical basis. matic list. The inconvenience to 76 diplomatic mission diplomats which this entailed was, staff enjoy *diplomatic status. from January 1965 at least into the Unless specific agreement has been early 1970s, made good by the reached to the contrary, the receiv- inclusion of an unofficial list in a ing state may require that the size directory called Information Moscow of a mission be kept within limits which was regularly compiled for which it deems reasonable and members of the foreign community normal. This is particularly likely to by the British wife of a Soviet happen where a mission is believed journalist. to have been involved in *espionage An international organization to or *terrorism. Of course, such a which *permanent missions have requirement is likely to lead to reci- been sent by member states may procal action by the sending state. publish its own list of the members *Permanent missions to an *inter- of such missions. However, although national organization and *special those individuals will be in receipt of missions are also diplomatic mis- certain privileges and immunities sions, in the sense that they are they are not, formally speaking, engaged on diplomatic tasks and are regarded as enjoying ‘diplomatic’ largely staffed by *diplomats. But status (although, at the level of prac- official *diplomatic language (sense tice, this is unlikely to be evident). 2) tends not to refer to them as Thus the organization’s list may not diplomatic missions. There is reason use that term. The UN, for example, for that, as the legal regimes which calls its list, ‘Permanent Missions to apply to them differ from that the United Nations’. See also Sheriffs’ which applies to missions accred- List. ited to foreign states, and their roles are also somewhat different. diplomatic mission. The diplo- Accordingly, in this Dictionary, the matic entity which permanently term diplomatic mission is applied represents a *sending state in a only to a mission accredited to a *receiving state. However, some or foreign state. Permanent and special all of a mission’s members may be missions are referred to as such. See resident outside the receiving state. also chancery; resident mission; It is normal for missions to be estab- non-resident mission; multiple lished in the city from which the accreditation. state is governed, and some receiv- ing states insist on it. Thus the diplomatic overkill. Diplomatic Netherlands requires that diplo- representations which are so power- matic missions be in The Hague, ful that although they may achieve which is the seat of government, their immediate goal, they may in a rather than in Amsterdam, the longer term be counterproductive. capital. Of the members of a diplo- The term has been used of President matic mission, only the *diplomatic Johnson’s letter of 5 June 1964 to diplomatic privileges and immunities 77

Prime Minister Ismet Inonu of consent of the head of mission. The Turkey, demanding that Turkey call receiving state also has an obliga- off her plan to invade Cyprus. tion to protect diplomatic premises. George Ball, Under-Secretary at the For its part, the *sending state is *State Department, called it ‘the obliged not to use the premises in a most brutal diplomatic note I have manner which is incompatible with ever seen’. the functions of a diplomatic mission. Whether premises used for diplomatic passport. A travel docu- such purposes as an information ment issued by a state to the centre, a tourist office, or an members of its *diplomatic service embassy school may be classified as and their families, and also to gov- ‘diplomatic’ is a matter to be agreed ernment *ministers (sense 3) and between the sending and the receiv- their families and, where relevant, ing state. In 1985 Britain decided to royal personages. In some states that that she would no longer allow *diplomats may be allowed to keep tourist offices and places used for their diplomatic passports after educational activity to be classified their retirement; and favoured polit- as diplomatic premises. See also ical figures may also be granted a exterritoriality; Hotman. ‘diplomatic passport’. The holder of such a document may, as a matter diplomatic privileges and immu- of practice rather than of right, nities. The special legal position expect speedy and simplified treat- accorded to *diplomatic agents by ment by customs and police *receiving states is generally referred officials at state borders. However, to by this phrase, with the words in such a passport does not entitle the the order given. The details are spelt holder to *diplomatic privileges and out in the Vienna Convention on immunities, as the former president *Diplomatic Relations, but almost of Chile, General Pinochet, discov- invariably require legislation by a ered following his arrest in London receiving state for them to be opera- in October 1998. Britain did not tive domestically. The justification issue the members of its diplomatic for treating *diplomats in this service with diplomatic passports special way is that such measures until 1995. See also laisser passer. are necessary for *diplomatic func- tions to be executed effectively. This diplomatic premises. The buildings is not always understood by a state’s or parts of buildings used as a public opinion, which can lead to *diplomatic mission, including the adverse comment on the matter. *residence of the *head of mission. But the very potent consideration, Such premises are inviolable, and which ensures that it is exception- may not therefore be entered by the ally rare for states not to endorse *receiving state except with the and honour this aspect of *diplo- 78 diplomatic privileges and immunities matic law, is the principle of *diplomatic status within the receiv- *reciprocity. That is, if state A’s ing state, or who are in transit diplomats are treated in a less-than- through third states on their way to proper manner by state B, it is or from such a posting. Thus they highly likely that state B’s diplo- do not apply to diplomats who just mats in state A will suffer the same happen to be in a foreign state. fate. So important is the role played It should be noted that diplomats’ by diplomats, and so keen the wish jurisdictional immunities do not of *sending states to guarantee their place them outside the receiving personal safety, that it is extremely state’s legal system, but only unusual for a state not to take beyond the normal consequences of great care to guard against that alleged breaches of the law. Thus if eventuality. a diplomat claims immunity in The special legal position has respect of an allegedly criminal act, three aspects. First, there are certain it is well understood that he or she inviolabilities enjoyed by a *diplo- may be declared *persona non grata matic mission and its *diplomatic by the receiving state. Furthermore, staff. These apply to official if a diplomat appears to be in premises and private residences, the breach of an obligation which exists mission’s archives and documenta- under the civil, and not the crimi- tion, and its correspondence, none nal, law, but claims diplomatic of which may be entered or tam- immunity, the receiving state may pered with by the receiving state. press the sending state to ensure The persons of diplomatic agents that the obligation is fulfilled. In and of their *family members resid- any particular case, either criminal ing with them are also inviolable, in or civil, a sending state may *waive the sense that they may not be a diplomatic agent’s immunity. arrested or detained. Secondly, such One immunity that often gives individuals enjoy immunity from rise to heated complaints by the criminal jurisdiction of the members of the public is that which receiving state and, in most allows diplomats to go unpunished respects, from its civil and adminis- for breaches of car-parking regula- trative jurisdiction. Thirdly, they tions. So much was this so in enjoy certain privileges, such as Britain that, in the mid-1980s, she exemption from dues, taxes, and made it known that she was going many customs duties, from the lia- to keep a record of such matters bility to undertake public service, and, ultimately, would ask for the and (generally) from having to removal of persistent offenders. This submit their baggage to inspection produced a dramatic reduction in at frontier controls. such offences. This special legal position applies See also consular privileges and only to diplomats who enjoy immunities; diplomatic bag; diplo- diplomatic rank 79 matic law; diplomatic premises; guise in the Far East in the nine- first-arrival privileges. teenth. The most remarkable case was provided by the legation diplomatic protection. (1) The quarter in Peking. This survived a measures taken by a *diplomatic prolonged siege during the Boxer agent to assist his or her state’s sub- uprising in 1900, and under Article jects against the acts of or events in VII of the Final Protocol imposed by a foreign state – protection by diplo- the allied powers on China shortly mats. See also letter of protection. afterwards was granted ‘exclusive (2) Special police or army provision control’ of its own affairs, including for the security of diplomatic agents its own defence. Annex 14 con- and *diplomatic premises – protec- tained a map showing the precise tion of diplomats. In the United boundaries of this second ‘forbid- States this is one of the duties of the den city’, which for once signified Secret Service Uniformed Division, that exterritoriality meant what it while Britain has a specially-trained said. The 1924 edition of the body of police, known as the Tienstin Press Guide to Peking and its Diplomatic Protection Group, for Environs states in matter-of-fact this task. tones that ‘In its present aspect Legation Quarter has the appear- diplomatic quarter. The area ance of a small fortress of rectangu- within certain *capital cities where lar shape’. Control of the legation foreign states are required, encour- quarter was handed back to China aged, or simply choose to maintain in 1945. their *diplomatic missions. For example, from the end of the six- diplomatic rank. (1) One custom- teenth century until the 1920s the arily used within a *diplomatic or foreign embassies in Istanbul were *permanent mission to indicate the concentrated in Pera on the heights holder’s hierarchical place. In order above Galata on the northern side of seniority such ranks are: *ambas- of the Golden Horn. In the early sador, *minister (sense 2), *minister- modern period certain of these counsellor (used only by some quarters – notably in Rome and states), *counsellor, *first secretary, Madrid – claimed franchise du *second secretary, and *third secre- quartier, that is that the inviolability tary; the rank of *attaché may be of the missions within them used at various levels of seniority. It extended to the quarter as a whole. should be noted that different Though this extravagant assertion ranks, based on a domestic grading of *exterritoriality had been effec- system, are likely to be given to tively extinguished in Europe by the members of a *diplomatic service end of the seventeenth century, it when they serve at home in their reappeared in somewhat different foreign ministry. Moreover, there is 80 diplomatic relations not necessarily a complete equiva- be straightforward, and may even lence between the two ranking be impossible: when two states are systems. Thus the head of a small not in diplomatic relations either is *embassy may well hold a domestic fully entitled to refuse any contact rank less senior than that held by with the other. Thus, being in the head of a large one. It must also diplomatic relations is the usual be noted that sometimes, for locally (and easy) means of maintaining compelling reasons, a diplomatic permanent contact between two agent may be given a rank which is states. Contrary to a popular view, senior to that which he or she diplomatic relations does not neces- would normally enjoy. This is sarily entail the despatch by either known as ‘local rank’. Ranks should state of a *resident mission or even not be confused with positions, e.g. a *non-resident mission to the head of *chancery or *deputy chief other. Such a development often of mission. (2) Historically, a follows the establishment of diplo- synonym for diplomatic *prece- matic relations, but there is no dence, as in the statement that necessity for it to do so. Another ‘heads of mission take rank accord- misunderstanding is represented in ing to the date of the official the exchange of resident missions notification of their arrival’. sometimes being spoken of as creat- (3) Sometimes the term ‘diplomatic ing ‘full’ diplomatic relations. In rank’ has also been used as a fact, there are no degrees of diplo- synonym for *diplomatic status. matic relations; any pair of states is either in this condition or not. diplomatic relations. (1) The situa- Diplomatic relations are estab- tion enjoyed by two *states that can lished by agreement. That agree- communicate with each other ment is often explicit, but it may unhampered by any formal obsta- also be implicit. A precondition for cles. This is the prerequisite for it is the *recognition of each state normal *diplomacy (sense 1), and by the other. Especially in the case states finding themselves in this sit- of a new state, recognition and the uation are said to have or be in establishment of diplomatic rela- diplomatic relations with each tions may take place simultane- other. Thus each may address the ously. More generally, it is now other, express views to the other, unusual for two states that recog- and reach agreements with the nize each other not to be in diplo- other, such business usually being matic relations. done through *diplomatic agents. As to the ‘level’ of diplomatic Moreover, those agents may interact relations, this term is often freely with each other. In the employed when two states agree to absence of diplomatic relations exchange *diplomatic missions, the none of these activities is likely to rank of the *heads of mission being Diplomatic Relations, Vienna Convention on 81 said to be the level at which diplo- ily mean that they do not commu- matic relations exist. Thus two nicate with each other, despite the states may announce that they have fact that that would seem to be the established relations at ambassador- logical consequence of a breach. A ial level. Strictly speaking, however, form of relations may be continued the idea of levels is better applied to through *protecting powers, the *diplomatic representation than to establishment of *interests sections diplomatic relations, as its use in in the missions of third states, occa- the latter context mistakenly sug- sional messages being passed via gests that diplomatic relations is a third parties, or through *signalling. variable rather than an absolute Ad hoc meetings may also be concept. arranged, or encounters may take Whereas the establishment of place in third states or at *interna- diplomatic relations is a bilateral tional organizations, the extent and affair, their downgrading or breach openness of such contacts being occurs through a decision to that dependent on the political relation- effect by just one party to the rela- ship of the two states, and perhaps tionship. ‘Downgrading’ is a non- also on the personal relationship of technical term which refers to the the diplomats concerned. But in all temporary withdrawal of the *head these circumstances the diplomatic of mission or (although now it process is likely to be much more rarely happens) to the replacement complex and tortuous, and perhaps of a head of mission by one of lesser less efficient, than it is when states *diplomatic rank (sense 1). Such are in diplomatic relations. developments, however, are distinct The re-establishment of diplo- from the breach of diplomatic rela- matic relations requires a new agree- tions. This is a formal, unilateral ment – any proposal for which decision which has the consequence must, by custom, come from the that neither state can maintain a state which instigated the breach. diplomatic mission in or accredited (2) The condition of the political to the other. By contrast, the mere relationship between two states, as withdrawal of a diplomatic mission, in the observation: ‘there was a either temporarily or permanently, sharp deterioration in their diplo- is not tantamount to a breach of matic relations’. diplomatic relations. It used to be the case that an outbreak of *war Diplomatic Relations, Vienna also involved the breaking of diplo- Convention on. The outcome of a matic relations. But this is no longer conference held in Vienna in 1961 seen as an automatic accompani- at which 81 states were represented. ment of *armed conflict (sense 1). Its object was to *codify and clarify If two states have broken diplo- the existing *customary interna- matic relations it does not necessar- tional law regarding *diplomatic 82 diplomatic representation agents and *diplomatic missions other words, there is no *right of exchanged between states, particu- legation, representation in each larly their *privileges and immuni- direction being the product of agree- ties. The Convention *entered into ment.) One state may also enjoy force in 1964; virtually every sover- diplomatic representation in another eign state has become a party to it; without the second state being and it is also generally regarded as obliged to seek any representation in expressive of customary interna- the first – what is sometimes called tional law on its subject matter. unilateral diplomacy. This situation It must be noted, however, that is usually a product of a marked sense the Convention’s formal acceptance of material or moral superiority (or by a state does not necessarily mean, both) on the part of the *receiving and in practice very rarely means, state. Probably its most famous that its provisions automatically take instance was the system conducted effect within that state’s municipal by the Ottoman Empire, which was law. For a municipal legal system to admitting permanent foreign em- give effect to the exceptional expec- bassies within months of the fall of tations of diplomats arising from the Constantinople in 1453 but did not privileges and immunities which the condescend to send them abroad Convention says they should have, itself until 1793. domestic legislation is almost invari- As there is there no requirement ably required. Only after such legisla- that representation should be recip- tion has embodied these rules in a rocal, so also there is none that it state’s municipal law will its courts should be symmetrical. Thus, one take formal notice of the rules. See state may be represented in another also international law and municipal by a mission whose head is of the law. first *diplomatic class – that is, an Contrary to the implication of the *embassy (sense 1) headed by an title which was given the Con- *ambassador (sense 1) – while the vention, it has virtually nothing to second state may be represented in say on *diplomatic relations (sense the first by a mission whose head is 1). For full text, see pp. 283ff. in the second diplomatic class – that is, a *legation, headed by a *minister diplomatic representation. The rep- (sense 1). However, asymmetrical resentation of one state in another by representation was never customary. a *diplomatic mission. Contrary to Furthermore, in the third quarter of what is sometimes thought, the the twentieth century representation establishment of *diplomatic rela- by missions whose heads were in the tions (sense 1) between two states second or third diplomatic class does not require this kind of repre- went speedily out of fashion, so that sentation, even by a *non-resident, since then virtually all representa- let alone a *resident mission. (In tion has taken place at ambassadorial diplomatic service list 83 level. It also seems that non-recipro- sonnel in the ministry of *foreign cal representation has become a affairs as well as those employed at somewhat unusual situation, and foreign postings. In the United that some states might see it as States it is styled the *‘Foreign justifiable only in the presence of Service’, and its members as special circumstances. And certainly, ‘Foreign Service Officers’ or ‘FSOs’. unless there are strong and accept- It is now normal for strict national- able reasons for it, the refusal of a ity criteria to be employed in request for diplomatic representation recruitment to the diplomatic might be seen as not in political service, though there was a time keeping with the condition of being when practice was quite different. in diplomatic relations. The outcome See also Diplomatic Service, British; of these developments is that, in Venetian diplomacy. striking contrast to the position a century ago, non-resident represen- Diplomatic Service, British. (1) The tation is by no means uncommon, body which now embraces those and resident embassies vary hugely officials of the *Foreign and Com- in size and importance. monwealth Office in London who have a liability to be posted over- diplomatic representative. Any seas, as well as its staff in properly accredited *diplomat, all British diplomatic and consular including a *delegate to an interna- missions abroad, in both *Common- tional *conference. See also diplo- wealth and non-Commonwealth matic representation; representative; states. It was created at the begin- representative character. ning of 1965 by the merger of the former *Foreign Service with the Commonwealth and Trade Com- diplomatics. The metatheory of missioner Services. (2) Until 1943, a diplomacy, that is, the theory in the term reserved exclusively for the light of which *diplomacy (sense 1) diplomatic staff of Britain’s *diplo- proceeds. It therefore includes such matic missions abroad. The staffs of basic postulates as, for example, the Foreign Office and the Dip- that states are (deemed to be) lomatic Service were amalgamated persons, that they are bound by after the First World War but the international law, and that diplo- separate identities of the two bodies mats speak for their states. were retained until the Second World War. See also Foreign Office diplomatic sanctions. See sanctions. List. diplomatic service. The bureau- diplomatic service list. The list cracy of the professional *diplomats of the members of a state’s *diplo- of the state, usually embracing per- matic service. The British Diplomatic 84 diplomatic staff

Service List (successor to the Foreign such individuals are not obviously Office List) is an annual publication serving in a representational capac- detailing the staff of her *diplomatic ity; and those of its government and *permanent missions and of departments charged with the her *consular posts, and of the administration of the law and the departments of the *Foreign and raising of revenue may also be Commonwealth Office. A diplo- unhappy at the thought of the reci- matic service list should not be procal requests which may follow confused with a *diplomatic list, from the receiving state. For its part, though they are sometimes printed the receiving state may raise at least in the same booklet. an eyebrow at proposed expansions of the *diplomatic corps in its diplomatic staff. The staff of a *capital which bear a doubtfully *diplomatic, *permanent or *special diplomatic character. mission who enjoy *diplomatic As between states, such issues gen- status, as opposed to *administrative erally seem to be settled without and technical staff and *service staff. much difficulty, albeit at the cost of the inclusion in diplomatic lists of diplomatic status. The status held some unusual-sounding ‘diplomatic’ by a member of the staff of a *diplo- titles – as indicated in the entry matic mission who is classed as a dealing with attachés. Latterly, too, *diplomatic agent. Those enjoying the matter appears to be handled it, also called the *diplomatic staff, with increasing liberality (provided are thereby entitled to *diplomatic that the individuals concerned can privileges and immunities, and are reasonably be said to be performing included in the *receiving state’s duties of a diplomatic nature). There *diplomatic list. It is for the are two associated reasons for this. *sending state to propose that an One is the ever-potent principle of individual be so classified, and for *reciprocity, which ensures equality the receiving state to agree. No of treatment as between any pair of problem arises with regard to states. The other is the worry that members of the sending state’s developed during the second half of *diplomatic service; difficulties can, the twentieth century about the however, occur regarding members safety, in many capitals, of the of other government departments members of diplomatic missions. who temporarily serve abroad. Inasmuch as the granting of diplo- Usually there is pressure from such matic status provides such individu- departments for their members to als with some additional safeguards, be given diplomatic status, espe- states became rather more willing to cially as they are often quite senior. be generous in this respect. It is But the sending state’s foreign min- unlikely that that development will istry may be uneasy about that if now be reversed. diplomatist 85

In the normal way, a receiving sword, designed for *diplomats state is unlikely to agree to grant (sense 1) to wear on certain ceremo- diplomatic status to an *agent of a nial occasions in some states, foreign state who is posted at a city mainly those where they are accred- within the receiving state which is ited to a royal court. Today it is not its capital. (*Consular officers, rarely worn in *republics or in states of course, enjoy *consular status, which have become independent and are therefore not covered by since the Second World War, or by this statement.) One exception to the diplomats of such states regard- this approach, however, occurs with less of where they are serving. regard to the staff of the office of a However, in early 2002 it was *deputy high commissioner (sense reported that Russia was preparing 2). Diplomatic agents making up a to dress its diplomats in ‘tsarist *special mission or a *permanent splendour’. mission to an international organi- zation also enjoy a privileged status, diplomat-in-residence. A *State but strictly it should not be called Department title for senior *Foreign ‘diplomatic’ and its detailed nature Service Officers assigned for one or is likely to differ from that accorded two years to colleges and universi- to the diplomatic staff of resident ties within the United States. DIRs and non-resident missions. do some teaching but their main purpose is to encourage and facili- diplomatic system. (1) The com- tate the recruitment of outstanding munications network linking *sov- candidates to the Foreign Service. In ereign states which is expressive of the academic year 2002–2003 there the conduct of *diplomacy (sense were 14 of them. 1). (2) The style of diplomacy (sense 1) in a given period. See also diplomatist. A member of the diplo- cuneiform diplomacy; history of matic profession. This was the term diplomacy; states-system. preferred to ‘diplomat’ by the British Diplomatic Service at least until the diplomatic theory. General inquiry 1960s, and is by no means entirely into diplomacy (sense 1) which extinct. It is still often employed, for blends conceptual, ethical, legal, example, by The Times of London, and historical analysis. the New Cambridge Modern History and the Oxford Dictionary of National diplomatic titles. See diplomatic Biography, in association with the rank. British Academy. The term has the merit of underlining the important diplomatic uniform. Special formal distinction between professionals dress, mostly of vaguely military and others engaged in *diplomacy appearance, often including a dress (sense 1) – *ad hoc and *temporary 86 direct dial diplomacy diplomats. Nevertheless, the weight dispatch. See despatch. of usage is overwhelmingly in favour of ‘diplomat’ rather than ‘diploma- dissenting opinion. The individual tist’, and as a result this is the prac- opinion of a member of the tice followed in this Dictionary. *International Court of Justice who disagrees with the operative part of direct dial diplomacy. Comm- a *judgment or *advisory opinion of unications with some overseas body the Court. See also separate opinion. conducted by a ministry, for example defence or transport, Ditchley. An eighteenth century which bypasses the ministry of country house (the full name of *foreign affairs of the state from which is Ditchley Park) near which the communications origi- Oxford, UK, at which the Ditchley nate. Direct dial diplomacy is espe- Foundation holds small high-level cially prevalent between member conferences on matters of interna- states of the *European Union. It is tional concern. Typically, those the great growth in this form of invited are a mix of *ministers *channel of inter-state communica- (sense 3), *officials, *diplomats tion that has often led foreign min- (sense 1), and academics drawn istries to assert the importance of largely but by no means exclusively their coordinating function. from Britain and the United States. director. A senior officer in Britain’s domestic jurisdiction. This term *Foreign and Commonwealth Office refers to those matters arising who is responsible for the formula- within a *state on which it has no tion of policy and deployment of international legal obligations, and resources within a particular area of over which the state is therefore *command. Formerly known as entitled to exercise an exclusive assistant under-secretaries of state, jurisdiction. By the same token, directors come immediately below foreign states should not try to deputy under-secretaries. influence the handling of such matters. Of course, much contro- directorate-general. Another term versy may arise over whether any for ‘department’, as in the particular issue in fact falls within a *European Commission. state’s domestic jurisdiction. See also human rights; intervention. director-general. See secretary- general domestic law. See municipal law.

Director of Central Intelligence. dominions. The former British self- The DCI is both the Director of the governing territories which emerged *CIA and intelligence adviser to the (gradually and often hesitantly) President. on to the international scene as dragoman 87

*sovereign states in the 1920s and double majority voting. A voting 1930s: Australia, Canada, Ireland, system in which a decision requires Newfoundland, New Zealand, and both a majority of the total number South Africa. Latterly during this of participants and a majority of period Ireland contested its do- some other kind. It is designed to minion status. India, although a ensure that decisions are achieved member of the *League of Nations, in a manner consistent with impor- was not a dominion until its inde- tant political principles, or simply pendence in 1947 and so did not to carry the support of those participate in these constitutional without whose blessing (and developments. Newfoundland was money) effective implementation not a member of the League, and would be unlikely. The nature and lost its dominion status in 1934 as a size of the second majority will be result of financial difficulties (being determined by the goal that it is in a kind of constitutional limbo intended to achieve. until it joined Canada in 1949). By the end of the Second World War double veto. See Security Council. the connotation of dominus, or over- lordship, was clearly out of date in downgrading of diplomatic rela- regard to the dominions; and quite tions. See diplomatic relations apart from its linguistic aspect, the (sense 1). use of the term was often an irritant in the states which were so doyen(ne). See dean. described (New Zealand excepted). Thus in 1949 they and Britain doyenne. Either a female *dean of agreed that the term ‘dominion’ the *diplomatic corps, or the wife of would no longer receive official a doyen. sanction or usage. Moreover, India’s imminent assumption of republican dragoman. A person employed by status made the continued use of the diplomatic missions and con- the term particularly inappropriate. sulates in the Ottoman Empire as an interpreter, information gatherer and – above all – intermediary with Dominions Office. The British the various central departments (the department of state which from *Porte) and provincial agencies of 1925 until 1947 was responsible for the sultan’s government. Often the conduct of her relations with spelled ‘druggerman’ in the earlier the *dominions. years after these missions began to appear in the sixteenth century, donner la main. To give a visitor the word is a corruption of the the seat of honour, i.e. that which Ottoman tercüman, meaning trans- lies on the host’s right hand. See lator or interpreter. Since so few also seating arrangements. ambassadors or their secretaries 88 drogmanat spoke Ottoman Turkish and so few British, were called ‘student drago- of the sultan’s officials initially mans’) were among the factors spoke Italian (the Venetian-driven which spelled the end of the native language of commerce in the dragomans. The title lapsed alto- Levant) or even French, the gether after the Lausanne Treaty of embassies found their dragomans, 1923 finally ended *capitulations in who were generally Italian, Greek or the metropolitan remains of the Armenian ‘Levantines’, indispens- Ottoman Empire (i.e. Turkey), in able. However, the temptations to the administration and defence of sell information to the highest which the dragomans had been so bidder and their vulnerability to closely associated. See also drog- pressure from the Porte (until the manat; oriental secretary. nineteenth century they were nearly all subjects or, rather, slaves drogmanat. More elegant than the of the sultan) were so great that English ‘dragomanate’ (a syllable they were generally regarded as too far), the *dragomans’ section of untrustworthy and insufficiently an embassy in Istanbul, prior to the forceful in presenting an ambas- ending of the dragoman system sador’s view. Various attempts were after the First World War. made to replace the native drago- mans with young men sent out droit de chapelle. The right of a from home to learn the language, *diplomatic mission to maintain a among them the jeunes de langues chapel and conduct religious ser- launched into the East by Louis XIV vices on its premises. Developed as in 1669 and the handful of *oriental an essential protection for diplo- secretaries and attachés whom mats against the background of the Britain began to despatch in the religious intolerance of the six- second decade of the nineteenth teenth century, this right is now an century. However, few of these aspect of the general inviolability of experiments were very successful, *diplomatic premises. See also diplo- and the embassies usually had as matic privileges and immunities. many native dragomans as they could afford. They were typically drum. A medieval/early modern styled ‘First (or Chief) Dragoman’, term for a small party sent with a ‘Second Dragoman’, and so on. drummer to speak to the opposing However, the great growth in the forces on or near the field of battle. facility of Turkish officials with the French language in the course of dual accreditation. See multiple the nineteenth century and the accreditation. introduction in Britain’s case of the *Levant Consular Service in 1877 Dumbarton Oaks. A mansion in (the first members of which, though Washington, DC, at which, during duty officer 89 the latter part of 1944, the *major weekends and holiday periods. Duty powers of the day laid the founda- officers have the important and tions for the *United Nations. This ticklish task of deciding whether or series of meetings was known as the not to postpone consideration of an Dumbarton Oaks Conference. incoming message of importance or immediately alert (sometimes durbar. In British colonial practice, a meaning wake from sleep) a more *levee at the court of a native ruler or senior officer or minister (sense 3). at the residence of certain governors. At US missions all officers, irrespec- tive of their specialities, are required duty officer. The officer or officers to take it in turns to serve in this left in a *mission (sense 1) or min- role, usually for one week at a time. istry of *foreign affairs, or available The duty officers in the British on call, outside of normal office *Foreign & Commonwealth Office hours, i.e. during the night or over are known as the resident clerks. E

Eastern bloc. The term which, three-year term, and is eligible for during the *Cold War, was often immediate re-election. The Council used in the *West to refer to the acts on the basis of majority voting, Soviet Union and its East European each member having one vote. It *satellites. Also called the Soviet generally meets once a year, alter- bloc. The term was frowned on by nately in New York and Geneva, purists as implying greater homo- and sits for five weeks. It has an geneity in domestic policies than extensive subordinate machinery of was the case. functional and regional commis- sions, standing and expert commit- Echelon. The codename for the tees, and is responsible for certain arrangement for pooling *sigint UN bodies such as the Children’s between the *intelligence agencies Fund (UNICEF), the *United of the United States, Britain, Nations High Commissioner for Australia, Canada, and New Refugees, the World Food Pro- Zealand. It has been in existence gramme, and the International since 1948. See also CAZAB. Research and Training Institute for the Advancement of Women. See Economic and Social Council also consultative status. (ECOSOC). Designated by the UN *Charter as one of the UN’s princi- economic attaché. See attaché. pal organs, ECOSOC is in effect sub- ordinate to the UN *General Economic Community of West Assembly, to which it makes recom- African States (ECOWAS). An associ- mendations on matters within its ation of most but not all of the remit. Originally made up of 18 UN states of West Africa. It has sixteen members, elected by the Assembly, members: Benin, Burkina Faso, Cape it now consists of three times that Verde, Côte d’Ivoire, Gambia, Ghana, number. Each member serves for a Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Liberia, Mali,

90 electronic voting 91

Mauritania, Niger, Nigeria, Senegal, broad responsibilities at posts that are Sierra Leone, and Togo. It was too small to justify the appointment founded in 1975, chiefly to promote of a *commercial officer as well. economic cooperation and develop- ment, and holds yearly *summit economic sanctions. See sanctions. meetings which rotate between the capitals of its members. Its *secre- economic section. (1) A US Foreign tariat (headed by an executive secre- Service term for the section of a US tary) is in Nigeria. In 1993 the diplomatic mission dealing with founding treaty was revised to allow trade, export promotion, finance, ECOWAS to engage in efforts to environmental matters (together prevent and control regional conflict with science and technology), (in which, so far, it has not been very investment, agriculture, energy, successful). Other far-reaching activ- civil aviation, telecommunications, ity has also been provided for, but and international organizations. (2) has not yet materialized. A British Diplomatic Service term for the section in larger missions economic diplomacy. (1) Diplo- dealing with *economic diplomacy. macy concerned with economic See also commercial section. policy questions, including the work of delegations to conferences economic statecraft. See economic sponsored by bodies such as the diplomacy. *World Trade Organization. While distinct from the *commercial election assistance. The provision diplomacy of diplomatic missions, of technical or material support for it also includes that part of their the conducting of an election. work concerned with monitoring Among other things, it may include and reporting on economic policies legal guidance, voter and civic edu- and developments in the receiving cation, and the training of local state and advising on how best to observers. See also election monitor- influence them. (2) Diplomacy ing; observer mission. which employs economic re- sources, either as rewards or sanc- election monitoring. The indepen- tions, in pursuit of a particular dent and professional appraisal of *foreign policy objective. This is an election process, with the related sometimes known as ‘economic aims of deterring fraud and reinforc- statecraft’. ing the legitimacy of the result. See also election assistance; observer economic officer. A US Foreign mission. Service term for the head of the *eco- nomic section of a US diplomatic electronic voting. The use of an mission. Economic officers have electronic device to record a vote, 92 eleventh hour now often used in large meet- eleventh century, were not only ges- ings at *international organizations tures of homage and religious and *conferences. See also roll-call affiliation but also marks of some voting. degree of political subservience to the pope. They reached the high- eleventh hour. A term sometimes point of their importance probably used in *negotiations to indicate the at the end of the fifteenth century approach of a *deadline. See also and had all but died out by the end stopping the clock. of the eighteenth. The enthusiasm of the Habsburgs for these missions embargo. (1) A decision to block diminished as the power of their the sailing of vessels from a port, house increased. which was a traditional form of international *reprisal short of *war. Embassy Row. The stretch of (2) A prohibition on the release of Massachusetts Avenue in Washing- something, for example arms ship- ton, DC, that extends out from ments or the text of a speech prior Dupont Circle towards the National to its delivery. (3) In the phrase Cathedral. Along this are located ‘trade embargo’, a ban on all trade – many of the *embassies (sense 1) of imports as well as exports. states with *resident diplomatic missions to the United States. embassy. (1) The building occu- pied by the offices of a *diplomatic emblem. See flag. mission headed by an *ambas- sador, which is the modern emergency room. The room (some- meaning. (2) Among other earlier times rooms) in a diplomatic meanings, the envoy and the mission located in a chronically members of his *family (sense 2). unstable or hostile state, which is (3) A synonym for a *diplomatic dedicated to coping with an emer- mission, especially one headed by gency. In this event, its chief task is an *ambassador (sense 1). See also to provide reassurance and assis- chancery; legation; rapid reaction tance to the *expatriate community embassy; virtual embassy. and is manned 24 hours a day. Ideally, an emergency room should embassy of obedience. A lavish have, among other things, a bank of and ostentatious *special mission direct telephone lines (‘hot lines’), sent to Rome by a secular prince, television and internet connections. including the emperor of the Holy See also compound; Inman stan- Roman Empire, on the occasion of dards; warden network. the election of a new pope. Legationes obedientiae, which had éminence grise. The power behind become customary by at least the the throne. The archetypal grey entente 93 eminence was Father Joseph, the British ambassador in Istanbul asked Capuchin monk who provided spir- that an order should be sent en clair itual reassurance as well as expert to HMS Harrier, instructing the diplomatic assistance to Cardinal warship to remain at Hodeidah for *Richelieu, the early seventeenth- the present. This was clearly envis- century French statesman, who was aged as an unprovocative means of eight years his junior. threatening the sultan with force. eminent persons group. An endgame. The final or climactic unofficial or quasi-official advisory phase of a *negotiation. An Ame- group consisting of influential rican term loosely adapted from figures from varied backgrounds. chess, the metaphor is not a bad Such a group may be employed to one since a chess game which is not advise a state or *international or- concluded by a checkmate in the ganization on a particular problem ‘middle game’ will extend into a and disband when its task is contest where both players have few completed. Employed in this sense, pieces left. In this ‘endgame’ there the term gained currency following are certain resemblances to the final the appointment of the *Common- stage of a negotiation: each side has wealth Group of Eminent Persons few options left, and the result may on Southern Africa, which reported well be a draw. in June 1986. Eminent persons groups may also be employed on a en poste. The situation of a *head of more enduring basis to advise on mission who, whether formally or the conduct of a particular bilateral informally, has presented his or her relationship, in which case a co- *letters of credence to the receiving chair is provided by each side. state and so can proceed with India’s oldest group of this kind is official duties. See also post; working the India–Japan Study Group, copy. created in the early 1960s. See also joint commission. entente. In contrast to an *alliance, a relationship between states in en clair. In plain language, that is, which military commitments are not in *code or *cypher. Though implicit rather than explicit. These usually just the normal way of may derive either from a formal sending non-sensitive messages, agreement for consultation in communications are sometimes the event of a crisis, or from some sent uncyphered in the expectation kind of practical military collabora- that they will be intercepted. For tion, for example in arms sales, example, during tense Anglo- military assistance agreements, Ottoman negotiations over the dis- military research and development, puted Aden frontier in 1902, the manoeuvres or arrangements for the 94 entry into force use of bases. Ententes, in other Immunities of the United Nations is words, suggest strongly that the such an instrument. parties are sympathetic to each other When a multilateral treaty enters to the point that they will stand into force, it does so only between shoulder to shoulder in war but those states that have ratified it. contain no international legal oblig- However, a growing number of ations. The modern concept derives treaties permit any of the signato- from the Anglo-French entente cor- ries to give provisional effect to the diale of 1904. The relationship treaty’s obligations prior to that between the United States and Israel state’s ratification of the treaty, resembles a classic entente, as does whether or not the treaty has NATO’s *Partnership for Peace. See entered into force. This can result in also Cambon, Paul. a treaty being brought provisionally into force – and some treaties even entry into force. A term used in a offer mechanisms for bringing them *treaty stating the circumstances in into force provisionally if there is an which and the time at which the undue delay in obtaining the treaty will become operative. number of ratifications necessary to In the case of a bilateral treaty bring them formally into force. which requires *ratification, the date in question will necessarily be envoy. A synonym for *diplomat linked with the treaty’s ratification (sense 1). See also envoy extraordi- by both parties: it might be three nary and minister plenipotentiary. calendar months after the exchange of instruments of ratification. In the envoy extraordinary and minister case of a multilateral treaty requir- plenipotentiary. The full title of ing ratification, it might be a certain the *head of mission to a foreign time after ratification by a stated state where that head, as among number or a majority of the signa- heads of mission, falls into the tories, and that group may have to second *class. The head is, however, include certain specified signatories. called *minister (sense 1); and his In the case of a general multilateral mission is called a *legation. While treaty which is likely to receive accredited to the head of state, a many *signatures, it might be 30 minister is not invested with ‘the days after the deposit of the fiftieth *representative character’. This rank instrument of ratification or *acces- had been noted by *Vattel and sion. Some multilateral instruments, was subsequently codified in the however, provide for entry into *Regulation of Vienna (1815). force as regards any particular state However, this class of head of as and when that state accedes to mission is now a historical curiosity, the instrument. The General Con- no state wishing to place its head of vention on the *Privileges and mission in anything other than the European Commission 95

first class. See also envoy; foreign common by the seventeenth minister (sense 2). century, reference was being made only to his role in the acquisition of equality of states. The principle information by lawful means. See that all *sovereign states, by virtue also diplomatic functions; humint; of the fact that they all enjoy *sov- intelligence; Kautilya. ereignty (sense 1), are equal in status (notwithstanding the wide dispari- estafette. See staffeto. ties of power and influence which exist between them). The principle Estrada Doctrine. The doctrine that often finds expression in diplomacy, the *recognition of governments is for example in the rules regarding superfluous and, indeed, is insulting interstate *precedence. See also great in circumstances where it involves power; major power; middle power; passing judgment on the legitimacy micro-state; superpower. of a government which has come to power by unconstitutional means. espionage. Obtaining *foreign in- Announced in 1930 by Don Genaro telligence by the employment of Estrada, the Foreign Minister of spies or *secret agents, as opposed Mexico, this doctrine has grown in to obtaining it by the ‘technical popularity over recent years. means’ which have become so However, its adoption does not important since the Second World relieve states of the political neces- War. Diplomats themselves have sity of deciding whether they are always been associated with this willing to enter into or continue kind of work, either because they *diplomatic relations (sense 1) with spied themselves, hired others to do a new regime; nor of the need to it for them, or gave shelter in decide, where two rival regimes *diplomatic premises – under appear, whether it should have innocent-sounding titles – to spies dealings with both, one rather than in the secret service of their own the other, or neither. See also de state. (The last is the most common facto recognition. today.) Indeed, the acquisition of local information, by both legal and European Commission. The college illegal means, was in general the of commissioners of the *European most important of all of the func- Union (who have risen in number tions of the first *resident missions, with each enlargement), plus the which is why they were regarded civil servants who work for them. with great suspicion and why Each commissioner is responsible for *diplomatic privileges and immuni- one or more of the departments ties developed only slowly. When (known as directorates-general) into the diplomat was described as an which the Commission is divided. ‘honourable spy’, however, as was Though unelected, a new college of 96 European Community commissioners now has to secure deadlocks which have developed at the approval of the *European lower levels, especially in the Parliament. Guardian of the notion *Council of Ministers. Decisions, of a broader European interest, which only occasionally are arrived among its important tasks are ensur- at by voting, are presented as ‘con- ing that the Union’s treaties are clusions of the Presidency’ and, observed, initiating legislation, and where detailed agreements on executing decisions of the *Council points of substance are concerned, of Ministers. The Commission is declarations. required to work under ‘the political guidance of its President’, and all European Economic Community. major decisions are taken by See European Community. *consensus. Its headquarters is located in the Berlaymont building European Parliament. The directly in Brussels. See also comitology; elected assembly of the *European representation. Union. It has 626 members, known as ‘Members of the European European Community. The name Parliament’ or MEPs. The meetings of officially given to the European the Parliament are held in Strasbourg Economic Community (previously but (most inconveniently) those of and popularly *Common Market) in its standing committees take place in the *Maastricht Treaty. Technically Brussels. Originally a very weak insti- it remains a separate entity from the tution and largely consultative, the *European Union (sense 2). powers of the European Parliament have grown steadily and are now European Council. The serial extensive. Apart from general super- *summit meeting (usually held vision of the other institutions three times a year) of the (including the power to dismiss the *European Union. Though its roots *European Commission), it has go back to European summits at important budgetary and legislative the beginning of the 1960s, the powers. For these reasons and Council began to meet informally because it is directly elected, it is not in its current format in 1975 and it a typical international *parliamen- was regularized by the *Single tary assembly. European Act in 1986. The presi- dent of the *European Commission European Political Cooperation. also attends, as do foreign minis- See Common Foreign and Security ters and – when appropriate – eco- Policy. nomic and finance ministers. The chief functions of the Council are European Union (EU). (1) The goal to provide general political guide- of supporters of European ‘integra- lines for the Union and resolve tion’: a European state. (2) Since the exclusion zone 97 entry into force of the Treaty of with a generous hand), and in *Maastricht in November 1993, the Britain and some *Commonwealth institutions involved in discharging states, but South Africa resisted this the responsibilities of the *Council instance of title creep (worrying, of Ministers for foreign and security among other things, about the policy (CFSP) and judicial and impact it might have on its domes- police affairs. On this technical tic order of *precedence). In the definition of ‘European Union’ the United States ministers were called term excludes the *European Com- ‘the honourable’, not ‘excellency’. munity. (3) Popularly, the ‘Eu- High commissioners were accorded ropean Union’ plus the ‘European the style ‘excellency’ only after Community’. 1948, when it was decided that henceforth they would rank ex aequo et bono. On the basis of alongside ambassadors. With the justice and equity, as distinct from general upgrading of *legations to law. Thus, if an international tri- *embassies at the middle of the bunal is asked to adopt this princi- century, the pressure for ministers ple it is then entitled (but not to enjoy stylistic equality with obliged) to disregard existing law in ambassadors died a natural death. making its award. As already implied, high-ranking persons outside the world of *diplo- excellency. A style used in address- macy (sense 1), such as *heads of ing or referring to an *ambassador state and government or govern- or *high commissioner (though ment ministers, are also often today ‘ambassador/high commis- accorded the style ‘excellency’. sioner’, sometimes prefixed by an indication of gender, is more exchange of views. As opposed to a common). When used referentially, *negotiation, a diplomatic exchange it is prefixed by ‘his’ or ‘her’. limited to clarifying the attitudes of Originally intended only for the the parties towards a particular ambassadors of crowned heads of subject or range of subjects. In state, in the nineteenth century its French, a tour d’horizon. use as regards ambassadors became general. In the twentieth century exclusion zone. An area declared *ministers (sense 1) began to press by a party to a dispute to be one for the style to be used with regard which its adversary’s armed forces to them. It is for a receiving state to enter at their peril. Such declara- determine official usage within its tions may well have little legal jurisdiction, and practice varied. It weight; but if (as is likely) the was accorded to ministers in Latin excluded party is the weaker of the American states (where the style two, they may have considerable ‘excellency’ was already distributed effect. Such declarations were made 98 exclusive economic zone (EEZ) in the Falklands War (1982), and in The separation of the executive the 1990s in respect of parts of Iraq. and the legislature in the United States may result in the president being unable to ensure that the exclusive economic zone (EEZ). Senate will consent to an agree- An area beyond but adjacent to a ment which the executive is state’s *territorial sea, not extending anxious to make, or to consent beyond 200 nautical miles from the quickly to one which the executive baselines from which its territorial deems to be urgent. If, therefore, sea is measured. (A nautical mile is the political content of such an 1.1515 miles, or 1.852 kilometres.) agreement is not unduly high, it The coastal state does not have the may be designated as an executive kind of general jurisdiction – i.e. agreement rather than as a treaty. *sovereignty (sense 2) – over the In *international law, however, any EEZ which it has over its territory; such agreement enjoys the same but it does have *sovereign rights status as any other formal under- over all the zone’s economic taking made on behalf of the resources: those in the waters above United States, as the actual term the sea-bed, on the sea-bed, and in which is used to designate an inter- its subsoil. national agreement is irrelevant. Thus an executive agreement is executive agreement. The term *binding on the United States in used by the United States for an the same way as a ‘treaty’ which international *agreement which, has been approved by the Senate. because of its technical nature, Nowadays it is not uncommon lesser importance, and perhaps also for states to make formal agree- because of a domestic political ments which do not require difficulty, is to *enter into force ratification for them to become upon or soon after *signature – binding on the signatories. The that is, without *ratification. It is content of such agreements may designated as an executive agree- well be technical issues which do ment rather than as a *treaty not need domestic legislation for because the United States’ constitu- their implementation. Legal *instru- tion gives the Senate a key role in ments of this kind, like all legally the ratification process – requiring binding agreements, may or may that ‘treaties’ must be made with not be designated as ‘treaties’. the Senate’s ‘advice and consent’. However, an agreement may be exequatur. The document supplied insufficiently significant to take up by the *receiving state to the head the Senate’s time. And sometimes of a *consular post authorizing the there is an additional reason for officer to exercise consular func- the use of a term other than treaty. tions within the post’s district. express 99 exhaustion of local remedies. chief advantage of an express lay in The principle that someone who its ability – for a price – to depart as has suffered a loss or an injury for soon as letters were ready for which a foreign state is allegedly despatch. For urgent messages this responsible must generally seek was essential since ordinary interna- redress through the courts of tional posts were regulated by the state concerned before the schedules with days or even weeks aggrieved individual’s state is en- intervening between departures. titled to take the matter up directly The slowly increasing frequency of with the foreign state. the ordinary posts together with dramatic technical developments expatriate community. Citizens of (better roads and mail coaches, rail- one state who are temporarily or ways, steamships and finally the permanently resident in another, *telegraph) made expresses out- though they are not always as or- moded by the first half of the ganized as the term implies. The nineteenth century. Until then, welfare of such communities is a however, they were of the greatest particular concern of *diplomatic value to the diplomatic services of missions and consular posts, espe- Europe when it was, for example, cially during crises and emergencies. necessary to issue fresh *instruc- See also emergency room; national tions to envoys and for the latter day; warden network. to return urgent *despatches. *Machiavelli had much admired express. A *messenger riding on their employment by the Duke horseback who carried mails at the Valentino at the beginning of the fastest speed possible. In England at sixteenth century. Nevertheless, the end of the seventeenth century their use was restricted not only the ‘ordinary’ post travelled at an because they were very expensive average speed of about four miles an but also because, like *special hour, while an express messenger envoys, they were inclined to would travel at between five and attract attention and excite rumour. seven miles an hour depending on Some of the members of the British his burden and the quality of the government’s own express service, fresh horses available at the staging the *Queen’s/King’s Messengers, posts on his route. (An express became quite well known and their would sometimes consist of one arrivals were announced in the rider carrying the message for the press. At the end of the nineteenth whole journey, sometimes of relays century there was even a cartoon of of riders; in either event, he would the senior messenger, Captain often be accompanied by a guide Conway F. C. Seymour, published and, if necessary, by one or more by ‘Spy’ in the popular periodical armed guards.) Nevertheless, the Vanity Fair. 100 external affairs, ministry or department of external affairs, ministry or necessary to the due success of the department of. A less common embassy’. Lawyers have attached name for a ministry of *foreign little importance to exterritoriality affairs. ‘External’ is preferred to since at least the nineteenth ‘foreign’ by some states to avoid century and it is nowhere men- the implication that fellow mem- tioned in the Vienna Convention bers of some close and intimate on *Diplomatic Relations (1961). association such as the *Com- Nevertheless, it remains, as has monwealth or EU are ‘foreign’. been said, a ‘striking image’ and Occasional attempts by British thus a useful political buttress governments to restore to the to diplomatic immunity. See also *Foreign and Commonwealth functional approach. Office its historic title of ‘Foreign Office’ have so far always run extradition. The process whereby aground on, in part, the objection one state surrenders to another (on of Commonwealth states to the the latter’s request) a person suggestion that they are ‘foreign’. accused or convicted of a criminal offence against the law of the exterritoriality. Sometimes spelled requesting state. Extradition usually ‘extraterritoriality’, the fiction that takes place on the basis of a bilateral in law the *diplomatic agent *treaty but may also proceed under abroad remains at home, and cer- multilateral conventions relating to tainly outside of the territory of the serious crime. state to which he or she is accred- ited. The term itself probably origi- extraordinaries. A term going back nated with an observation of to the early modern period for what *Grotius in his De Jure Belli ac Pacis would now be called a diplomat’s (1625). Now a quality most com- ‘expenses’. monly associated with *diplomatic premises and still sometimes extraordinary. Originally an believed or at least pretended, not additional title given to an least by professional diplomats, to *ambassador on a *special mission, be an important explanation of it became the custom also to *diplomatic privileges and immuni- attach it to the title of resident ties, exterritoriality is in fact no ambassadors and *envoys. Now it more than a very loose description is part of the full title of most of them. As *Vattel wrote in Le *heads of mission of the first and Droit des Gens in 1758, ‘this is only second *class. However, British a figurative way of expressing his *high commissioners do not [the ambassador’s] independence of have the word included in the jurisdiction of the country and their title. Instead they are spoken his possession of all the rights of as an ‘accredited Representative eyeball-to-eyeball 101 and Plenipotentiary’. (Not all extraterritoriality. A synonym for *Commonwealth states distinguish *exterritoriality. in this way, or in others, between the titles of their ambassadors and eyeball-to-eyeball. Mutual *brink- high commissioners.) manship. F facilitator. A modern term for a concede, and the least it will accept *third party who provides *good in return, as the basis for conclud- offices (sense 1) in an attempt to ing an agreement. For obvious facilitate or assist the settlement of an reasons, formally drafted fall-back international or intrastate conflict. positions – unless drawn up for pur- poses of deception – are best kept fact finding. See inquiry. secret. Those who are doubtful that secrecy can ever be maintained and factor. In early modern Europe: believe that professional diplomats (1) a trader (see also factory); or are in any case always too ready to (2) an agent acting on an em- *compromise, believe that fall-back ployer’s behalf. positions should never be produced at all. factory. In early modern Europe, the body of *factors (sense 1) estab- family of a diplomatic agent. lished at any one place, usually a (1) The spouse or partner of a port, a trading settlement. Hence for *diplomat, together with their example ‘the English factory at dependent children and any other Smyrna’. The affairs of a factory relative (usually in the ‘immediate’ were a major responsibility of the family) admitted to this category by *consul of the state of which the negotiation with the *receiving factors were citizens. state at the time of the relative’s arrival. This definition of what used fait accompli. A decision reached or to be known as the ‘domestic action accomplished, usually in the family’ is based on current practice context of anticipated opposition. rather than the 1961 Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Re- fall-back position. In *negotia- lations, as it was not then possible tions, the most a party is willing to to reach detailed agreement on

102 ferman 103 what proved a controversial to be less formal than the initial one subject. But it was accepted that employed by a head of mission to those recognized as members of the present *letters of credence to the agent’s family should enjoy the head of state. Farewell calls on the same privileges and immunities as *receiving state’s foreign minister the agent. (2) Until well into the are more likely to be made than on nineteenth century, however, the the head of state. Also known as a head of mission’s ‘family’ meant farewell audience. his entire embassy (sense 2), and thus included what was known as farewell despatch. See valedictory his ‘official family’, usually a *secre- despatch. tary of embassy/legation, *attachés, servants, and so on. See also admin- Farnesina. The Italian Ministry of istrative and technical staff; service Foreign Affairs, so-called because it staff. has occupied the Palazzo della Farnesina in Rome since 1959. farewell call. One made by a departing *head of mission on the federal state. A *sovereign state the *head of the state to which the constitution of which assigns a diplomat concerned has been significant measure of self-rule to accredited, or to any other dignitary the state’s main constituent territor- with whom he or she has had deal- ial parts. That measure may include ings. In most, but not all, countries the right to engage in limited inter- *protocol does not require a call on national activity, so that the agents the head of state, but some circum- of the constituent parts may some- stances may result in one being times play a superficially diplomatic made: close ties between the two role, in connection with which they states concerned, a personal rela- may be accorded certain privileges tionship between the departing and immunities by the *receiving head of mission and the head of state. However, as the constituent state, or just the expressed wish of units are not sovereign (sense 1) the head of mission. In the last case, their international activity is not as well as when a farewell call is a diplomacy (sense 1), and hence protocol requirement, the diplomat their agents are not classified as may find that the diary of the head *diplomats and *diplomatic law of state is somewhat congested. This does not apply to them. See also is a real likelihood if he or she is agent-general. also *head of government, and a delay possibly extending to months ferman. Sometimes ‘firman’, this before a convenient time for a was an official decree handed down farewell call can be found may well by the Ottoman sultan – an imperial be the result. Any such call is likely edict. 104 fetial priest fetial priest. A member of the first person note. See note (sense 2). Roman college, the fetiales, which was responsible for the ceremonial first poster. A diplomat preparing associated with diplomatic moves of for, or already at, his or her first high significance, such as forming overseas posting. an *alliance, issuing an *ultimatum, surrendering a prisoner, or conclud- first secretary. In *diplomatic ing a *peace. In his De Legationibus ranks, that which lies beneath Libri Tres (1585), Alberico *Gentili, *counsellor and above *second drawing chiefly on Livy, devotes secretary. See also secretary of two chapters in his first book to the embassy/legation. fecial [sic] priests, noting, inter alia, that ‘redress was sought through flag. See diplomatic flag. fecial priests on those occasions when other kinds of embassies had flag of convenience. The registra- failed to get any satisfaction’. See tion of a ship in a state with which also heralds. it has no other connection, but whose shipping regulations or inter- final act. A summary of the pro- national legal obligations are ceedings of an international *con- significantly less onerous than those ference, which typically lists any of other states, so making it advan- *agreements reached and resolu- tageous for the ship owners to regis- tions adopted. A final act of this – ter their ship in that state. In other the usual – sort is not itself a *treaty, words, the flag the ship flies is no but a treaty is very occasionally more than one of convenience. called a final act. The UN Convention on the Law of the Sea (1982) provides that there fin de non-recevoir. Rejection of an must be a genuine link between a official representation (usually a ship and its flag state. But such a complaint or a demand) without link is often less than clear. looking into its merits: an evasive reply or a brushing off. flag of truce. One under which, during the course of hostilities, a first-arrival privileges. The exemp- messenger from one side approaches tion from customs duties and taxes the other, the flag being designed to which the *receiving state is obliged ensure the messenger’s safe passage. to grant in respect of such personal See also herald. and household goods as are brought into the state by a *diplomatic flag state. The state whose flag is agent accredited to that state and by flown by a ship. A ship must regis- members of his or her *family on ter to sail under the flag of one the occasion of their first arrival. state only, and then has the nation- foreign aid 105 ality of that state. See also flag of foreign affairs community. The convenience. departments and executive agencies located in Washington which are flash telegram. A *telegram of the involved in the formulation and highest priority. execution of American foreign policy. The term eloquently signi- flat-pack embassy. See rapid reac- fies the diminished influence of the tion embassy. *State Department but finds official favour because it suggests a coopera- flying a kite. In *negotiation, tive spirit which, in practice, is putting out a feeler or leaking a often lacking. In recent years this radical proposal with a view to lack has often been particularly examining the reaction of the other obvious in the relationship between side. If this is not too hostile, the the State Department and the kite-flyer may well assume that its *National Security Council. *interlocutor may be able to afford acceptance of something like this Foreign Affairs Council. The term proposal (kite), and in this event currently applied to the EU *Council the kite (proposal) is wound in, of Ministers when a meeting under straightened out and presented this head is composed of foreign across the table. The French equiva- ministers as opposed, say, to trans- lent is envoyer un ballon d’essai. port ministers.

flying seal. See under flying seal. foreign affairs, ministry of. The government department usually Foggy Bottom. The flat ground by charged with taking the lead in the the Potomac River in Washington, conduct of a state’s foreign policy, DC, where the current *State and hence with its *diplomacy Department building was erected (sense 1); and ideally, too, with after the Second World War and coordinating all of the state’s inter- hence the name sometimes used by national activity. It is now com- members of the US *Foreign Service monly referred to as the ‘MFA’. See for the Department itself. also channel of communication; direct dial diplomacy; external force commander. See commander. affairs, ministry or department of; Richelieu. force majeure. An irresistible force. The defence of force majeure is some- foreign aid. Economic resources times used by states to justify a (including interest-free/low-interest failure to execute an obligation or loans) transferred from one state to the commission of an apparently another, either at significantly less unlawful act. than market price, or without an- 106 Foreign and Commonwealth Office (FCO) ticipation of payment, or as a gift. intelligence agencies of foreign *International organizations may powers. also extend such aid. foreign minister. (1) The govern- Foreign and Commonwealth mental *minister (sense 3) in charge Office (FCO). Britain’s ministry of of a state’s ministry of *foreign *foreign affairs. Its political head affairs, though actual titles vary from is called the Secretary of State country to country. (2) Historically, for Foreign and Commonwealth any *diplomat or *public minister. Affairs; its head official, the Thus at the coronation of King Permanent Under-Secretary of State George V and Queen Mary in June and Head of the *Diplomatic 1911 the programme and foreign Service. The FCO’s name derives guest list produced by the Foreign from the merger in 1968 of two Office listed, for example, *ambas- former departments, the *Foreign sadors, *envoys extraordinary and Office and the Commonwealth ministers plenipotentiary under the Office (which had earlier been the heading ‘Foreign Ministers at this *Commonwealth Relations Office). Court in order of their precedence in However, the FCO is now routinely each class’. referred to in the media by the earlier and shorter name – ‘Foreign Foreign Office. The British depart- Office’. See also Whitehall. ment of state responsible from its establishment in 1782 until 1968 Foreign Buildings Operations for the execution (except in relation (FBO), Office of. See Larkin, to members of the *Common- Frederick A. wealth) of the country’s foreign policy. Thereafter this responsibility foreign intelligence. (1) All infor- across the whole foreign spectrum mation on foreign targets obtained lay with the *Foreign and by intelligence agencies, including Commonwealth Office. Prior to *defence intelligence. (2) All infor- 1919–20 the members of the mation on foreign targets obtained Foreign Office served only in by intelligence agencies excluding London, Britain’s diplomatic posts defence intelligence. (3) The intelli- abroad being staffed by members of gence agencies of foreign states. It the separate *Diplomatic Service. See will thus be clear that this is a also external affairs, ministry of. highly treacherous term. Apart from the difference in the first two mean- Foreign Office certificate. The tradi- ings, the phrase ‘foreign intelligence tional British term for a communica- agencies’ can mean either (a) agen- tion from the Foreign Office (now cies specializing in gathering *intel- the *Foreign and Commonwealth ligence on foreign targets, or (b) the Office) to a court of law setting out Foreign Service, US 107 the former’s understanding as to Service and the Commercial some factual matter, such as whether Diplomatic Service. It ceased to exist a state has been *recognized by at the end of 1964, when it was Britain, whether Britain is at *war itself amalgamated with other ser- with another state, and whether a vices to form part of the new British person enjoys *diplomatic status. *Diplomatic Service. British courts accept such statements as conclusive. Also known as a secre- Foreign Service Institute (FSI). tary of state’s certificate. Founded in 1946, the FSI is the primary training institute for the US Foreign Office List. The short name *foreign affairs community. by which Britain’s Diplomatic Service List used to be known up to foreign service list. See diplomatic and including 1965, though the full service list. title was more revealing: The Foreign Office List and Diplomatic and foreign service national. A US Consular Year Book. It was first pub- Foreign Service term for a member lished in 1852. See also diplomatic of a *diplomatic mission’s *locally list; diplomatic service list. engaged staff. foreign policy. (1) The political and foreign service reserves. See attaché security policies adopted by a state (sense 2). in relation to the outside world. (2) All of the policies (including eco- Foreign Service, US. The diplomatic nomic policies) adopted by a state in (including consular) service of the relation to the outside world. United States. As in the case of Britain, the United States originally Foreign Secretary. A synonym, in had separate diplomatic and consular Britain, for *foreign minister (sense services but these were merged into a 1). In some other states it is the title unified service – the US Foreign of the head official of the ministry Service – when the Rogers Act of *foreign affairs. became law on 24 May 1924. Under this Act, which was also of great foreign service. See diplomatic significance for putting the service service; Diplomatic Service, British; for the first time on a secure profes- Foreign Service, British; Foreign sional basis, permanent officers Service, US. under the rank of minister were des- ignated Foreign Service Officers Foreign Service, British. The body (FSOs). A further amalgamation, created in 1943 by the amalgama- analogous to that which had taken tion of the Foreign Office and place in Britain after the First World Diplomatic Service, the Consular War, occurred when, following the 108 foreign trade service

Wriston Report of 1954, the Foreign and has resisted external pressure to Service absorbed the personnel of the develop organizational features and hitherto separate *State Department. concerted policies. Membership of See also career ambassador; career such a forum provides opportunities minister; career officer; diplomat-in- for influence and *intelligence- residence; Foggy Bottom; Larkin; gathering while imposing few oblig- senior foreign service. ations on members and signalling little more than interest in its foreign trade service. The govern- subject matter. As a result, the mental agency which, quite sepa- opportunity for participation is rately from the *diplomatic and rarely missed. In many ways a forum *consular services, often used to be is a *functionalist conception. charged with the promotion of a state’s foreign trade. Nowadays, forum shopping. Raising the same even if such a distinct agency is issue in a variety of different multi- maintained domestically, its work lateral bodies (typically UN agencies abroad is likely to be closely inte- or *regional organizations) to see grated with that of the diplomatic which of them is likely to serve best service, and those of its members the interests of the state concerned. serving abroad are likely to enjoy *diplomatic or *consular status. Fourteen Points. See Wilson, See also Commercial Diplomatic Woodrow. Service. frais de représentation. The formula. In *negotiations, the allowances of a *head of mission, broad principles of a settlement, including entertainment allowances. which ideally should be compre- hensive, balanced, and flexible. framework for agreement. See ‘Guidelines’, ‘framework for agree- formula. ment’, and ‘set of ideas’ are other terms for a formula. See also frame- framework treaty. A multilateral work treaty. *treaty usually setting out obliga- tions only in general terms, the forum. (1) Any international gather- assumption being that the parties ing. (2) An informal international will fill out the details either in sub- gathering which has a fairly sharp sequent treaties (usually called pro- focus for discussion and is often tocols), or national legislation. See held at high level. For example, the also formula. Regional Forum of the *Association of South-East Asian Nations meets franchise de l’hotel. A *diplomatic annually at foreign minister level to mission’s right to use its premises exchange views on regional security for their prescribed purpose. See also French Community 109 diplomatic privileges and immuni- hibit or regulate entry into certain ties; diplomatic premises. areas. Sometimes receiving states have interpreted this entitlement franchise du quartier. See diplo- very broadly, but the principle of matic quarter. *reciprocity tends to place limits on such developments. francophonie. The collectivity of French-speaking states and commu- free port. An area of a state into nities. Support for the idea of la which goods may be imported for francophonie revived strongly at the processing or manufacture without beginning of the 1960s, and now payment of customs duty, provided finds expression in a variety of insti- that they are later directly exported tutions, most visibly the annual from the free port. Franco-African *summit. See also French Community. free trade. Trade between states which is unhindered by such free city. See internationalization. devices as tariffs and import quotas, and probably also by export subsi- freedom of communication. dies. See also free trade area. *Receiving states are obliged to permit and protect free communica- free trade area. An association of tion by *diplomatic missions for all states created to promote *free trade official purposes – although there is among its members while, in con- evidence that this obligation has trast to a *customs union, leaving sometimes been broken through the each of them at liberty to conduct use of *listening devices. However, different trade policies towards the permission of the receiving state other states. is required for the installation and use of a ‘wireless [i.e. radio] trans- French Community. A device insti- mitter’ – unless, as in the case of tuted by President de Gaulle in 1958 Britain, the receiving state’s general in the hope of staving off the full policy is not to require such permis- impact of the decolonization move- sion. See also bubble; diplomatic ment on France’s overseas territories. bag; diplomatic courier; Queen’s However, within two years all the Messenger. French colonies in sub-Saharan Africa had demanded and received freedom of movement. The entitle- sovereignty (sense 1), and the ment of all members of a *diplo- Communauté Française was adjusted matic mission to move freely in the to resemble the *Commonwealth. A territory of the *receiving state. number of the former French posses- However, for reasons of national sions in Africa have seceded from it, security that state is entitled to pro- but most of them, whether Com- 110 French Political Academy munity members or not, continue to friends. (1) The term employed in have close financial, economic, and the British *Diplomatic Service to technical ties with France, and some- refer to the *Secret Intelligence times military ones, too. See also fran- Service (SIS) in general and, in par- cophonie. ticular, to those on the staff of a British *diplomatic mission who, French Political Academy. See although purportedly professional Torcy. diplomats, and also often acting as such in practice, are in fact French system of diplomacy. See members of SIS. (2) An informal old diplomacy. grouping of states which bands together in support of another friendly relations. States often state or international organization, speak of being in friendly relations typically one engaged in a *media- and of having friends. By these tion. Hence, in the UN context, the terms they generally refer to ‘group of friends’ or ‘Friends of contacts which are at the least the Secretary-General’ on such-and- marked by easy and unfettered such an issue. See also contact diplomatic links and at the most group. by productive liaisons in a variety of spheres. Thus the terms tend to FSB. The Russian Federal Security have the connotation of ‘normal’ Service, the main successor body to relations. However, while the the *KGB in counter-intelligence. Vienna Convention on *Diplo- See also SVR. matic Relations lists the promotion of ‘friendly relations’ as one of the fudging. See constructive ambiguity. functions of a diplomatic mission, it should be noted that relations full and frank discussion. A diplo- between states are based on utility, matic exchange which fails to elicit not liking. International ‘friend- agreement on anything at all, with ship’ is therefore quite different the possible exception of the need from the phenomenon which, as to ‘resume’ the discussion at ‘some among humans, is usually indi- future date’. This is a good example cated by the use of that term. of the kind of standard *diplomatic Accordingly, rather than ‘friends’ language (sense 1) employed in and ‘friendly’ such terms as ‘asso- press releases and *communiqués. ciates’ and ‘associative’ would be more appropriate at the interna- full diplomatic relations. See diplo- tional level. But there is little matic relations (sense 1). chance of them supplanting the current usage. See also diplomatic full powers. The capacity to sign a functions. *treaty. Usually it consists of a funeral diplomacy 111 specific written authorization functional department. In a min- granted by a state to one of its istry of *foreign affairs, a depart- *diplomatic agents. Such full powers ment dealing with a general issue, must be available for inspection by such as the environment, arms the other party or parties to the control, or drugs, as distinct from a treaty, and may be exchanged for *geographical department. theirs. However, a *head of state, *head of government, and *foreign functionalism. The belief that inter- minister (sense 1) enjoy full powers national conflict can be eliminated by virtue of their offices. Someone by the development of institutional- with full powers is known as a ized international cooperation in the plenipotentiary. The inclusion of economic and social spheres. The that term in the full title of an idea is that such cooperation will *ambassador indicates that such an ‘spill over’ into areas of greater ‘polit- official does not need full powers to ical’ significance, though there is not agree the text of a treaty between the much evidence in its support. It is a *sending and the *receiving state. theory which was advanced and See also general full powers. strongly advocated by David Mitrany (1888–1975). functional approach. (1) The view that *diplomatic privileges and See immunities are accorded and justified functions of diplomacy. diplo- because they permit the effective matic functions. execution of *diplomatic functions. (2) An activity exemplifying the funeral diplomacy. See working principle of *functionalism. funeral. G

Gaimusho¯. The Japanese Ministry Haerlemse Dingsdaegse Courant of Foreign Affairs. The ministry was (known in England as the Haarlem established in 1868, although it was Gazette), and – late on the scene – the not called the Gaimusho¯ until 1885. London Gazette, which did not appear until the mid-1660s. As their monop- gazette. A printed news sheet pro- olies of the news gradually weakened, duced by governments and sold to especially in the nineteenth century, the public, the gazette first appeared official gazettes changed their form, in the early seventeenth century and lost their political importance and was so called because in Venice it was became not much more than vehi- sold for a gazeta, a coin of small cles for governmental statements value. Also sometimes referred to as a (including official appointments) and ‘coranto’ or ‘couranto’ (from the legal notices – very often, material French courante – running), it con- which would be given publicity tained government proclamations nowhere else, but for which some and the official version of domestic kind of formal announcement and and foreign events. The foreign news record is highly desirable. was obtained largely from manu- script *newsletters and other gazettes, GCHQ. See Government Communi- as well as from diplomatic and con- cations Headquarters; sigint. sular *despatches. Their content made them of interest to envoys general act. (1) A synonym for a themselves, though as obvious *treaty, usually a multilateral one of organs of *propaganda they were not widespread interest. (2) Detailed generally held by them in high regulations deriving from general regard. Notable examples were the principles contained in a treaty. Gazette de France (the mouthpiece of Cardinal *Richelieu), the Relations General Assembly. The chief delib- Véritables of Brussels, the Oprechte erative organ of the *United

112 Geneva Conventions 113

Nations. It consists of all UN See also Committee of 24; members, each of them having one Declaration on the Granting of vote. The Assembly’s resolutions are Independence to Colonial Countries passed by either a two-thirds or a and Peoples; multilateral diplomacy; simple majority of those present open diplomacy; self-determination. and voting. On external matters its resolutions are only recommenda- general delegation. A group of tory, but on matters internal to the *non-diplomatic agents. UN – such as budgetary questions and the election of non-permanent general full powers. *Full powers of members of the UN *Security a general kind which may be Council – the Assembly’s resolu- granted by a state to its *permanent tions are *binding on the members representatives to those *interna- and the organization. tional organizations (such as the The General Assembly meets each *United Nations, the *European year in regular session between mid- Union, and the *Council of Europe) September and late December; whose work gives rise to a relatively sometimes this session is continued large number of *treaties. Possession in the next calendar year. Special of such powers permits the *signa- sessions of the Assembly are con- ture of these treaties without the voked at the request of the Security specific documentary authorization Council or of a majority of UN which would otherwise be required. members. The fact that since about 1960 general international customary most of the world’s states have been law. See customary international UN members, and hence represented law. in the Assembly, has resulted in a tendency to refer to some of its most general principles of law. The popular themes as expressive of Statute of the *International Court of world public opinion. More cogently, Justice states that in settling disputes what they represent is the numerical in accordance with *international balance of the opinion of member law it shall apply not just *treaties states, which some observers have and *customary international law called diplomatic opinion. However, but also the general principles of law there can be little doubt that the recognized by civilized nations. It work of the Assembly had a powerful may be that this 1945 statement was influence on moulding some of the the last official expression (in public) key ideas of the latter part of of the belief that some nations are the twentieth century, such as the less than civilized. need to remedy economic inequality and, especially, the impropriety of Geneva Conventions. See Red Cross *colonialism and racism. Conventions. 114 genocide genocide. A term invented in 1944 accepted and he was simply expelled by a Polish Jewish lawyer, Raphael from the country. Thereafter Lemkin, which the *Genocide Gentili’s work focused on the law of Convention defined as ‘acts com- war. He is generally believed to have mitted with intent to destroy, in been a considerable influence on the whole or in part, a national, ethni- thought of *Grotius. cal, racial or religious group’. geographical department. In a Genocide Convention. Adopted by ministry of *foreign affairs, a depart- the UN *General Assembly in 1948, ment dealing with a particular state this establishes rules for the punish- or region, as distinct from a *func- ment of persons committing the tional department. In some MFAs, *international crime of *genocide. for example that of India, such a The Convention entered into force department is known as a ‘territorial in 1951. division’.

Gentili, Alberico (1552–1608). An geographical post. A post in the Italian lawyer of Protestant convic- *secretariat of an *international tion who in 1580 sought refuge organization which is allotted to a from the Inquisition in the England specific member state so that at of Elizabeth I. He found employ- least in non-specialist areas the ment at Oxford University and from organization’s staff might provide 1587 until 1600 was Regius Professor evidence of ‘equitable geographical of Civil Law. His chief interest for distribution’. See also contribution students of diplomacy is his remark- principle. able work De Legationibus Libri Tres, which has been justly described by giovanni di lingua. Student *drago- Peter Haggenmacher as ‘undoubt- mans attached to embassies and edly the first successful attempt to consulates in the Ottoman Empire. encompass diplomatic law as a coherent whole’. Published in 1585, GlavUpDK. The ‘Main Administra- it was inspired by his involvement tion for Service to the Diplomatic in the case of the Spanish ambas- Corps under the Ministry of Foreign sador, Don Bernadino de Mendoza, Affairs of the Russian Federation’, who had been accused in the previ- i.e. a foreign ministry agency ous year of complicity in the devoted to providing the members Throckmorton plot against the of the Moscow *diplomatic corps queen. Contrary to the view of with day-to-day living, travel, and Elizabeth’s privy council, who recreational requirements. It also wished to punish Don Bernadino, publishes a monthly journal called Gentili, together with *Hotman, Diplomat. Assisting with the provi- held that the ambassador’s status sion of *service staff to embassies, at gave him immunity. This was least during the *Cold War the good offices 115

UpDK was in effect a branch of the thus little more than a semantically *KGB, designed to assist its surveil- fashionable expression of the lance and control of foreign diplo- obvious. matic activity. Goethe-Institut. The Goethe-Institut global governance. A misleading Inter Nationes e. V., founded in term for the collective activities of 1951, is the vehicle of German *international organizations with a *cultural diplomacy. more or less universal membership. Such activities by no means equate Gondomar, Count Diego to the usual meaning of the word (1567–1626). The outstanding governance. Spanish ambassador to the court of James I of England from 1613 until globalization. The vague but 1622, who became an intimate omnipresent term for the changes – friend of the king. Though especially in the areas of finance, Gondomar’s influence over him was trade, investment and communica- exaggerated at the time and has tions – which over recent decades been since, it remained consider- have limited the effective economic able. His most spectacular success freedom of *sovereign states. The came in 1618, when he persuaded extreme claim is that linked but James to execute Sir Walter Raleigh nevertheless previously separate for infringing the King of Spain’s national economies have been monopoly in America. replaced by a ‘global economy’ and that national cultures are being good offices. (1) Diplomatic inter- slowly replaced by a ‘global culture’. vention by a *neutral *third party In this process the activities of the (or ‘facilitator’) in an international *multinational corporation are or intrastate conflict which is given pride of place, and the col- usually limited to providing assis- lapse of Communism and the de- tance in bringing the rival parties regulatory policies of some of into direct negotiations but may the leading free-market economies extend to suggesting a *formula for are held to have given it added a settlement. Good offices (bons impetus. Nevertheless, it is difficult offices) do not, however, extend to to envisage globalization overcom- active participation in discussions ing *nationalism (sense 1) as there once they are beyond the proce- is as yet little evidence that the dural stage; if this develops, as latter is withering as quickly as the sometimes happens, the provision former is alleged to be growing. of good offices has changed into *mediation. In his Guide to globalism. The idea that world- Diplomatic Practice, where he wide problems should be ap- devoted separate chapters to ‘good proached on a world-wide basis. It is offices’ and ‘mediation’, *Satow 116 goodwill visit was rightly impatient with those Government Communications who could not grasp this distinc- Headquarters (GCHQ). The title of tion, and added the acute observa- Britain’s national *sigint collection tion that, unlike mediation, good agency. A largely civilian organiza- offices could be exerted at the tion, it grew from the Government request of only one party to a Code and Cypher School estab- dispute, ‘since the essential charac- lished after the First World War. ter of such a step is the presenta- tion to the other party of reasons government-in-exile. A body for a particular course of action which claims to be the legitimate which he is invited to take into government of a state, but which is consideration and adopt’. This is unable to establish itself in the state the earlier notion of good offices. in question. It may be *recognized See also venue. (2) A synonym for as such by other states – at the cost, mediation. Support for this usage of course, of that decision being pre-dated Satow and is now, seen as a hostile act by the govern- largely thanks to the UN, wide- ment actually in control of the spread. Gone is the separate state. chapter on good offices in the latest edition of *Satow’s Guide and governor-general. The official who the extremely active role of the UN represents and acts on behalf and in *Secretary-General in the Cyprus the place of the *head of state in conflict is officially described as his those (now relatively few) members ‘mission of good offices’. of the *Commonwealth who accept the British monarch as their formal goodwill visit. A visit by the repre- head. Originally, the governor- sentative of one state to another, general was the representative, and which is formally limited, or at any always a national, of Britain in a rate primarily devoted, to improv- British *dominion (and in some ing the atmosphere in relations dependent territories – usually those between them or to confirming an with a *federal structure), and was already *friendly relationship. the senior person in the self-govern- Generally conducted at a senior ing territory’s administrative struc- level, it may also produce useful ture. But as the Commonwealth personal contacts. Goodwill visits underwent constitutional develop- are not formally concerned with ment, and the dominions became *negotiations. In reality, they are *sovereign states, the office of sometimes used to mask sensitive governor-general changed, so that in negotiations or, when the term is all essential respects its holder used after the event, to conceal the became, in relation to the Com- fact that they have failed: ‘it was monwealth member in question, only a goodwill visit’. the on-the-spot substitute for the Grotius, Hugo 117 member’s head of state. Thus a gover- division within a state between nor-general was never a *diplomat; hostile communities. It derives from and in the twentieth century the a line drawn on a map in Cyprus in holder of this office ceased to be the 1963 with a chinagraph pencil of representative or agent of the British this colour. However, its use is not government. He or she is appointed confined to post-1963 lines. by the monarch on the advice of the government of the state concerned. Greenwich Mean Time (GMT). In the federal state of Australia the The local time at the 0 degree monarch is represented at the federal meridian passing through Green- level by a governor-general, and in wich, London. It is standard time each of Australia’s constituent States throughout the United Kingdom, by a governor; and in each of the and the basis for establishing stan- Provinces of the federal state of dard time in each of the 24 time Canada by a lieutenant-governor, zones into which the world is while also being represented at the divided – although since 1986 the federal level by a governor-general. term has been replaced internation- See also high commissioner. ally by *UTC. In diplomatic (and military) communications which grand vizier. The head, under the cross time zones, GMT is sometimes sultan, of the former Ottoman gov- used to give the time of despatch ernment; in other words, his senior rather than the local time. This is slave. See also Sublime Porte. indicated by placing the letter Z after the time. Alternatively, the great power. Until the end of the letter A signifies a local time of Second World War, the term for a GMT + one hour; the letter B, GMT power of the first rank in terms of + two hours; and so on. reputation for military strength. The great powers always dominated greeter. A colloquial term for the the peace conferences following *protocol official who welcomes vis- major wars and assumed special iting dignitaries. See also Marshal of rights and obligations in any formal the Diplomatic Corps. machinery created to preserve inter- national peace and security. See also Grotius, Hugo (1583–1645). A major power; middle power; perma- Dutchman born Huig de Groot, nent members; Security Council; Grotius was a great scholar and superpower. lawyer. However, he was also a politi- cian and diplomat and between 1607 Great Seal. See seal. and 1618 served in both of these capacities under the patronage of green line. A phrase sometimes Oldenbarnevelt, the powerful Ad- used for a *ceasefire line, or a line of vocate of Holland. When Olden- 118 Group of Eight (G8) barnevelt fell in 1618 Grotius fell of ‘leading industrialized democra- with him and was condemned to life cies’ which meets annually at the imprisonment. Nevertheless, he *summit and in a separate cycle of escaped in 1621 and fled into exile in meetings during the year at finance France, where he was given a pension minister level. (The pre-meeting and encouraged to make his home. *caucuses before the gatherings In 1634, following negotiations with of the International Monetary Fund the Swedish Chancellor, Axel and the World Bank each Oxenstierna, he agreed to become September are particularly impor- Sweden’s ambassador in Paris. This tant.) It sprang from an Economic position – ‘the top post in the Summit convened by President Swedish diplomatic service’ – was Valéry Giscard d’Estaing of France occupied by Grotius until 1644, the at Rambouillet in November 1975 year before his death. and until recently was an essen- Grotius was a prolific writer, but tially Western grouping which con- among his works pride of place is sisted of Britain, Canada, France, generally given to his magisterial De Germany, Italy, Japan and the Jure Belli ac Pacis Libri Tres (Three United States (plus the president of Books On the Law of War and Peace). the *European Commission); it was This first appeared in 1625 and was known accordingly as the G7. the fruit of his first years of exile in However, the end of the *Cold War France. It was subsequently repub- was followed by the gradual inte- lished many times. Though students gration of Russia into the group of jurisprudence argue over the scope and the meeting held in Britain at and general significance of De Jure Birmingham in May 1998 was the Belli ac Pacis, there is now wide agree- first ‘G8 Summit’. Originally ment that it was of great importance focused only on economic ques- in the general development of *inter- tions, the G8 agenda broadened in national law, the theory of the just the 1980s to include political war, and the notion of an *interna- issues, and an agreed *commu- tional society. Though *diplomatic niqué, drafted beforehand by the law itself is not much more than a *sherpas, also became a feature of long footnote in De Jure Belli ac Pacis the annual summits. (Chapter 18 of Book 2, which Grotius entitled ‘The Right of Legation’), it group of friends. See friends. has been well said that in this account ‘the outlines of the modern Group of Seven (G7). See Group of law are for the first time clearly Eight (G8). discernible’. See also Hotman. Group of 77. A UN grouping (now Group of Eight (G8). The G8 coun- many more than 77, but the origi- tries are a self-styled informal club nal number is still used) of the less Guicciardini, Francesco 119 developed countries of the *Third than worthless. Generally in *inter- World. See also parliamentary national relations (sense 2), guaran- diplomacy. tees are more an indication of a contemporary political disposition guarantee. This does not have a than a reliable indication of future technical meaning in international behaviour. See also neutralization. law and diplomacy. But it generally indicates a legal undertaking by a guardship. See stationnaire. relatively strong state or states to protect – by force unless otherwise Guicciardini, Francesco (1483– specified – the independence and 1540). A Florentine patrician, territorial integrity of another and Guicciardini trained and then prac- usually weaker state, or some other tised successfully as a lawyer, though important aspect of its condition. he subsequently acquired much By a 1960 Treaty of Guarantee experience of the world of diplo- between Cyprus, Britain, Greece, macy. He was ambassador in Spain and Turkey, the last three guaran- from 1512 until 1514 and, in his teed the independence, territorial later capacity as a papal lord-lieu- integrity, and security of the first, tenant, he received envoys and and the same three states also guar- despatched his own, including his anteed Cyprus’s renunciation of friend *Machiavelli. Guicciardini is union with Greece (enosis) and of remembered today chiefly for his partition (taksim) between Turkey great works of history, especially his and Greece. The guarantee also History of Italy, in which he covered the basic articles of displayed a taste for methods well the Cypriot constitution, which ahead of his time. Nevertheless, he attempted to balance the interests also committed to paper some of the Greek Cypriot majority and interesting general reflections on the Turkish Cypriot minority. diplomacy. A few of these are to be Given the keen interest of Greece found in his sympathetic but and Turkey in the internal affairs of cautionary observations on Machia- Cyprus, they were highly unsuit- velli’s Discourses. Most however are able as guarantors; and Britain located in a volume entitled the was unlikely to take armed action Ricordi, which consists of a list of against either of them. Indeed, more or less elaborated maxims and there was no obligation on the observations on a miscellaneous guarantors to take armed action range of topics which he began to under the guarantee, only a right to write during his sojourn in Spain do so, either jointly or severally. As and periodically revised until 1530, a guarantee, therefore, the arrange- when the final version, known as ment was extremely dubious; and ‘Series C’, was produced. This con- in practice it has proved little better tains 221 ricordi in all, about 50 of 120 guidance telegram which are of relevance to the gunboat diplomacy. The use of student of diplomacy. The Ricordi are naval power in support of diplo- important because they reveal the macy (sense 1). A form of what thinking about certain key elements would now be called *coercive of diplomacy of one of the greatest diplomacy, this became common in minds of the Italian Renaissance at the second half of the nineteenth precisely the time that *diplomacy century, not least along the China (sense 1) was being established. They coast. Though by no means the are also a valuable antidote to the only kind of vessel employed even elegant caricature of the ‘Italian at that time for this purpose, gun- method’ of negotiation offered by boats were ideally suited to it. They Harold *Nicolson. were small and lightly armed but had a shallow draught and great guidance telegram. A *telegram manoeuvrability deriving from their issued by a foreign ministry to many steam and screw-driven propulsion. or all of its diplomatic missions These design features made it giving guidance on the state’s policy possible for them to enter rivers, towards a major issue of the day and estuaries and shallow coastal waters the reasoning behind that policy. either to ‘show the flag’ or go into action. See also bomber diplomacy; Gulf War. (1) Although it was not stationnaire. commonly so called at the time, the war between Iran and Iraq which gun salute. The aspect of national lasted from 1980 until 1988 is now ceremonial which involves the often referred to as the First Gulf firing of guns in honour of distin- War. (2) The Second Gulf War (or guished visitors or to mark impor- simply the Gulf War, as many still tant occasions. Such a salute may be call it) was the 1991 expulsion of given on the occasion of an official Iraq from Kuwait by a UN-autho- visit by a *diplomatic agent to a rized group, led by the United warship from home when it is States. It was arguably a rare case of berthed in a port of the state to authentic *collective security. which he or she is accredited. H

Hague Conferences. Held at the climate, lack of amenities, inaccessi- instigation of the Tsar of Russia in bility or – especially today – physi- 1899 and 1907 to try to reach agree- cal danger, is deemed to be ments on disarmament, the mitiga- exceptionally ‘difficult’. For working tion of the horrors of war, and the at such posts diplomats are some- *pacific settlement of disputes. No times given compensations of progress was made on the first of different kinds, including special these aims; on the second, a financial allowances varying accord- number of *conventions were ing to the difficulty of the post. agreed; and in pursuit of the third, Until a few years ago the provision the *Permanent Court of Arbitration of extra pensionable periods was the was established. normal form of compensation employed in the British Diplomatic handed his/her passports. A Service. It was then replaced by a phrase sometimes used to refer to ‘Difficult Post Allowance (DPA)’. In the fact that a *head of mission has the US Foreign Service the compara- been requested by the *receiving ble allowances are called ‘post state to leave the country immedi- differentials’. Tours of duty in hard- ately. It has long been anachronis- ship posts may also be much shorter tic, dating from the time when than usual. See also bid list. governments issued passports to permit foreigners to both enter and Harris, Sir James (1746–1820). Sir leave their territories. To be ‘handed James Harris was one of the most a passport’ was in effect to be notable British diplomats of the late handed an exit *visa. See also ask for eighteenth century. St Petersburg, passports. where he resided from 1777 until 1783, is the posting for which he is hardship post. A diplomatic post- chiefly remembered. This is because ing which either for its unhealthy the handsome ambassador made

121 122 H.E such an impression on Catherine promoting cooperation between the Great that the setting of his sections, and other such matters. diplomacy moved to her ‘boudoir’ – The general managerial role is now the *representational function taken the responsibility of the *deputy to its logical conclusion. Harris had head of mission. The head of a general reputation for exceptional chancery was normally a *counsel- audacity in obtaining information lor in a large or medium-sized and was one of the first Englishmen embassy and a *first or *second sec- to be regarded as a professional retary in a smaller one. The negoti- specialist in diplomacy. In 1800 he ating team employed on an was created Earl of Malmesbury. See important and protracted negotia- also boudoir diplomacy. tion was also managed by a head of chancery. H.E. Short for ‘His Excellency’, the way in which the members of a head of department. In many min- British diplomatic mission com- istries of *foreign affairs, the monly used to refer to their ambas- middle-ranking official who is in sador. Since the late 1970s (and the charge of a particular geographical diktat of the then Foreign and or functional area. Commonwealth Secretary, Dr David Owen) it has gone out of use, ‘HMA’ head of government. A title used (Her Majesty’s Ambassador) gener- to describe the head of the execu- ally being substituted for it. As tive branch of the central govern- British *high commissioners have ment of a *state where this never been formally described as position is separate, as in the ‘Her Majesty’s’, the abbreviation United Kingdom, from that of a HMHC has never been used. See also largely ceremonial *head of state. excellency. In Britain the prime minister is the head of government (by virtue of head of chancery. A recently commanding the support of a abolished post in the British majority of members of the House *Diplomatic Service, the head of of Commons), while the monarch *chancery was not only head of the is the head of state. In certain political section of a British mission countries, for example the United but ex officio general manager of the States, the head of government is whole mission. He or she was also the head of state, i.e. the presi- responsible for coordinating all the dent. It should however be noted work of all of the sections, identify- that where, as also in the United ing and eliminating policy devia- States, there is a genuine separa- tions by individuals or sections, tion of powers, this person can ensuring that all sections had the have no position in and is subject necessary resources to do their jobs, to significant constraints by the Headquarters of the United Nations 123 legislative and judicial branches. dures, is designated as its head. This Heads of government now play an individual may possess supreme important part in *summitry, as do executive power, as in the case of heads of state who are also heads the President of the United States, of government. Persons who are or retain largely ceremonial func- merely ceremonial heads of state tions, as in the case of the Queen of do not, though their symbolic the United Kingdom of Great potency is of value on other diplo- Britain and Northern Ireland. See matic occasions. The phrase ‘heads also governor-general; head of gov- of state and government’ to ernment; summitry. describe those who take the lead at multilateral summits neatly covers headquarters agreement. One reg- these possibilities. ulating the relationship between an *international organization and head of mission. The person its *host state (sense 2). One exam- charged by the *sending state with ple is the Agreement between the the duty of acting in that capacity UN and the USA regarding the in a *resident or *non-resident *Headquarters of the United Na- mission. (In British parlance, the tions. head of a *consulate or other subor- dinate post is described as a ‘head of Headquarters of the United post’.) Heads of mission fall into Nations, Agreement between the one or other of three diplomatic United Nations and the United *classes, and within each class take States of America regarding the *precedence in the chronological Status of the United Nations in order in which they took up their New York, Convention on (1947). functions. Other than in respect of This agreement (also known as the precedence and etiquette, there is Headquarters Agreement, the Host- no difference between heads of Country Agreement, and the Host- mission by reason of their class – State Agreement) deals with the yet classes two and three have been position of the UN’s headquarters virtually abandoned. See also ambas- in New York. A headquarters district sador (sense 1); chargé d’affaires en was defined, placed under the titre; envoy extraordinary and min- control and authority of the UN, ister plenipotentiary; high commis- and declared to be inviolable. The sioner; minister resident; nuncio. UN was given the power to make such regulations for the district as head of post. See head of mission. the UN’s functions required, any US laws and regulations which were head of state. The person who, on inconsistent with them were the basis of a *state’s constitution or declared to be inapplicable within of other effective internal proce- the district, but otherwise US law 124 heads of agreement was to apply. Provision was made Iran in 1951, though – following a for the UN to establish communica- disagreement with the Truman tion facilities, and the representa- administration over policy towards tives of its members and its officials Israel – he had been diverted to were to enjoy freedom of transit India for the three years preceding through the United States to this. and from the headquarters. The By 1955 a grandee of the profes- members of *permanent missions to sion, in that year Henderson was the UN were to have the privileges appointed deputy under-secretary of and immunities in the United States state for administration. This gave which that state accorded to accred- him responsibility for two issues ited diplomats. In sum, the UN which were of cardinal importance headquarters was to be treated in to the morale and efficiency of much the same manner as an American diplomacy: the merger of embassy. the *Foreign Service with the per- sonnel of the State Department heads of agreement. A form of which had been recommended in *interim agreement, but one which the Wriston Report of the previous is not necessarily *binding. year; and the Department’s foreign building programme, which had Helsinki Conference. See Organiz- been launched so successfully by ation for Security and Cooperation *Larkin after the war but was now in Europe. facing mounting congressional resistance. In 1956 Henderson was Henderson, Loy Wesley (1892– given the coveted rank of *career 1986). A diplomat who achieved ambassador; he retired in 1961. such stature in the American profes- sion that he came to be known as herald. In the ancient world, a ‘Mr Foreign Service’. Henderson was member of a profession responsible, a founder member of the *State among other things, for declaring Department’s influential ‘Soviet *war, seeking permission for the Service’, serving in Riga and removal of the dead from a Moscow as well as in Washington. battlefield, and securing agreement However, he was profoundly out of to the safe passage of envoys. sympathy with Roosevelt’s wartime Regarded in ancient Greece as the policy of friendship towards Stalin offspring of Hermes, the messenger and in July 1943 threw up his of the gods, and bearing a staff as expertise in Soviet questions to the symbol of their office, heralds become head of mission in Iraq. were believed to enjoy divine pro- This led to a concentration on the tection at a time when ordinary Middle East which culminated in envoys could not regard this as his appointment as ambassador to axiomatic and had to rely more on high commissioner 125 codes of hospitality. It was this not deemed possible for a head of special immunity which made it state to accredit a representative to possible for heralds to take on the herself or himself, nor for the most dangerous of all diplomatic Queen to accredit someone to her tasks. Heralds were last seen in *governor-general or for a governor- medieval Europe, where they acted general to accredit someone to his under and on behalf of the code of or her Queen. It may be supposed chivalry of the feudal nobility. that a similar procedure would have However, these heralds lacked the taken place in the case of (now status of those of the ancient world extinct) *personal unions. Unlike and possessed no more immunity ambassadors (who are of the than *nuncii and *plenipotentiaries, sending state to the receiving state), the two principal kinds of envoy of such high commissioners may be this period. See also diplomatic described as high commissioner for courier; diplomatic privileges and (the sending state) in (the receiving immunities; fetial priests. state). Where either the sending state or the receiving state is not of hidden agenda. See agenda. the Queen’s Realms – that is, it is a *republic or a *monarchy with a high commissioner. The title given head of state other than the British to the *head of mission of the first Queen – the high commissioner class sent by one member of the carries a letter of commission from *Commonwealth to another. Apart the sending state’s head of state to from terminology, and some small the head of state of the receiving additional privileges and ceremo- state. In another terminological nial differentiation in London, a twist, such high commissioners are high commissioner is in exactly the often described as high commis- same position and has exactly the sioner for (the sending state) to (the same role as an *ambassador (sense receiving state). 1). However, the *credentials carried All British high commissioners by high commissioners are not the (whether in the Queen’s Realms or more usual letters of credence. otherwise) are called just that – Where both the *sending and never Her Majesty’s high commis- *receiving states are of the *Queen’s sioner. The reason for this is that Realms – that is, where both of British high commissioners do not them have the same *head of state – hold commissions or warrants of the high commissioner carries a appointment from the Queen, letter of introduction from the which alone would entitle them to sending state’s head of government be described as ‘Her Majesty’s’. It is (the prime minister) to the receiving thought that this usage stems from state’s head of government (the the origins of the office, when all prime minister). This is because it is high commissioners, whether repre- 126 high commissioner senting the *dominions in London use of the colonial-sounding title of or vice versa, were subjects of the high commissioner, and at the fact Crown. Hence they were not repre- that such representatives were not sentatives of one *sovereign state to members of the *diplomatic corps another, and thus did not require or entitled to the usual *diplomatic to be commissioned to represent privileges and immunities. Sugges- their sovereign at a foreign court. tions emerged that the title be Additionally, all British high com- replaced by that of ambassador. missioners fly the United Kingdom However, some of these (by now flag, never the British *diplomatic Commonwealth) states were unen- flag. thusiastic about a change, and the Given that the point is very fre- impetus behind it was largely quently misunderstood, it perhaps removed, in the late 1940s, by high bears emphasizing that as between commissioners being integrated two states of the Queen’s Realms into the diplomatic corps of the rel- their high commissioners represent evant states and made heads of not their (common) head of state mission of the first class. Since then but their heads of government. there has been no serious opposi- Thus, when the Queen visits one of tion to the title; and now its distinc- her other Realms, she is neither tive character is often viewed very accommodated nor escorted by the positively. See also presentation of British high commissioner, but by credentials. her *governor-general. It is perhaps worth adding that The title of high commissioner although it is only in intra-Common- derives from the late nineteenth wealth relations that the title of ‘high century, when the oldest British commissioner’ is a genuinely diplo- dominion (Canada) first sought rep- matic one, historically it has also resentation in London. As the terri- served as a convenient title to give to tory was not a *sovereign state it senior officials with at least quasi- could not appoint a *diplomatic diplomatic responsibilities, not least representative, and hence a differ- when working in unusual circum- ent terminology was adopted – stances. These include (i) some gover- which was later used for the repre- nors of dependent territories not sentatives of other dominions. formally part of an empire, as in the When, later still (in the 1920s) former British ‘high commission Britain began to appoint political territories’ in southern Africa, and representatives to the dominions, certain League of Nations *mandates; the same title was used. Soon after- (ii) representatives of victorious states wards, the dominions slowly sent to a defeated territory to con- became accepted as sovereign states, duct relations with its authorities and and in some dominion quarters oversee its civil administration, as for there was unease at the continued example in Turkey after the First history of diplomacy 127

World War and Germany after the in formulating, preparing, and Second; (iii) representatives to unrec- implementing policy decisions, and ognized governments which never- engages in diplomacy with third theless the sending state wished to parties. Responsibility for running support, as for example with the the General Secretariat now rests short-lived anti-Bolshevik govern- with the secretary-general’s deputy. ment of Admiral Kolchak in Siberia See also policy planning depart- during the Russian civil war; and ment. (2) The virtually *proconsular (iv) some international civil servants High Representative for Bosnia, with overall responsibility for certain whose task is nation-building. This humanitarian matters, such as the position was created by the Dayton *United Nations High Commissioner Peace Accords (1995). for Human Rights and *United Nations High Commissioner for high seas. Traditionally, that part of Refugees. the sea which lies beyond states’ *territorial sea; but now only that High Commissioner on National part of the sea which lies beyond Minorities. See minorities treaties. the *exclusive economic zones (EEZs) of coastal states. high contracting parties. The way in which *heads of state are referred history of diplomacy. The histori- to in a *treaty which is expressed as cal study of the methods of diplo- being an agreement between them, macy (sense 1), or the study of other than when they are referred diplomatic methods in different to by name. periods and in different civilizations in the same period. Thus quite dis- high representative. A title that tinct in focus from *diplomatic began to become popular at the end history, the history of diplomacy of the twentieth century, though embraces the study of *diplomatic it was given to individuals with systems. These include those in the markedly different tasks, for ancient world (notably Greece, the example: (1) The senior assistant on Near East and Asia), medieval *Common Foreign and Security Europe, renaissance Italy (the birth Policy to the member state cur- of the resident embassy), Europe rently holding the presidency of the together with the Ottoman Empire *European Union. Created by the (during which long period accord- Treaty of Amsterdam (1997), the ing to Harold *Nicolson the Italian position of ‘High Representative for method was greatly improved, CFSP’ is held by the head of the chiefly by the French), and in the General Secretariat of the *Council world as a whole following the First of Ministers – its secretary-general. World War (when *open diplomacy The High Representative also helps made its first major appearance). See 128 Holy See also Amarna letters; Byzantine orary consular officer. (2) The rank diplomacy; Kautilya; Ottoman of honorary consular officer inter- diplomacy; Venetian diplomacy. mediate between honorary consul- general and honorary vice-consul. Holy See. (1) A synonym for the Vatican City State which is com- honorary consular officer. An monly found in *diplomatic lists. officer performing *consular func- (2) The government of the Roman tions in an honorary capacity. Such Catholic Church, based in the an officer is normally a citizen of or *Vatican City State. (The City State permanently resident in the *receiv- itself is administered by a separate ing state, and is not a member of body appointed by the pope.) The the *sending state’s *diplomatic highest of the Holy See’s Sacred service. However, some substantial Congregations is the Secretariat of connection with that state is usual. State and within this it is the An honorary consular officer may, Second Section which deals with and generally does, head a *consular Vatican relations with foreign post, and that post may be at any states. consular level. Thus these officers are encountered as honorary Homans’s theorem. This, accord- consuls-general, honorary consuls, ing to the sociologist George honorary vice-consuls, or as hon- Homans, asserts that in a negotia- orary consular agents, but most tion ‘The more the items at stake commonly as one of the middle two can be divided into goods valued of these four ranks. more by one party than they cost Where a state has an honorary to the other and goods valued more consular officer in a capital city in by the other party than they cost to which it has no other residential the first, the greater the chances of representation (because no diplo- successful outcomes’. In other matic mission has been accredited words it is not likely to be difficult to the state in question or because for a negotiation to be successfully all the members of its mission are concluded between a meat-loving *non-resident), the receiving state weight-watcher embarrassed by a may, as a convenience, include any gift of chocolates and a sweet- such officers in an annex to its toothed vegetarian with a joint of *diplomatic list. This is Britain’s beef won in a raffle. See also practice. It reflects the fact that linkage. consular facilities in capital cities now appear almost invariably to be honorary attaché. See attaché. provided through the *consular sections of embassies rather than honorary consul. (1) A generic term through separate consulates. which refers to any rank of *hon- Accordingly, consular lists in host state 129 respect of capital cities – in which hostage. (1) In some ancient diplo- such honorary consular officers matic systems, a valuable person would normally be included – seem (for example, the heir to a throne) to be a rarity, or even extinct. In the temporarily surrendered, to guaran- case of those few *Commonwealth tee, or at least make it more likely, states which do not exchange that a treaty would be honoured. ‘consuls’, an honorary officer per- This was an important institution in forming consular functions is relations between different courts, usually called an *honorary repre- and *Kautilya wrote a whole chapter sentative (sense 2). A state may on the subject in the Arthashastra. decline to receive honorary consular In the Ottoman Empire, ambas- officers. In the past, honorary con- sadors permanently resident in sular officers have sometimes been Istanbul were themselves regarded known as ‘trading consuls’. See also as hostages for the good behaviour consular privileges and immunities; of their princes until at least the proxenos. end of the eighteenth century. In the event of hostilities breaking out honorary consular representative. between the Turks and the sending A title occasionally given to those state, the ambassador concerned who serve as *honorary consular was removed to the prison of the officers. Seven Towers. (2) More recently, in the context of diplomacy, the term honorary representative. (1) A posi- has come to signify a person seized tion analogous to that of *honorary by a *terrorist group in an attempt consular officer sometimes estab- to get something to trade in lished by a state in one where it is exchange for the gratification of its not *recognized. (2) A term used by political demands. Diplomats are those *Commonwealth states which often involved in the consequent do not exchange ‘consuls’ for an negotiations, and sometimes they honorary officer who performs con- have been victims of hostage taking. sular functions. See also non-diplo- matic relations; representative office. host-country agreement. See head- quarters agreement. honour. A term which states have often associated with *vital interests host state. (1) A synonym for – ‘honour and vital interests’ – to *receiving state. (2) More appropri- indicate that they regarded the ately, a state which has agreed to an matter in question as having the *international organization having gravest importance. offices on its territory, or to a *peacekeeping body or an *observer honourable spy, diplomat as. See mission operating there, or to an espionage. *ad hoc conference being held 130 host-state agreement there. In the last event, it is custom- circuit routed Washington– ary for its foreign minister or princi- Tangier–Moscow. At each end were pal delegate to be the president of teleprinter terminals through the conference. With responsibili- which encoded messages in the ties which include the chairing of sender’s language were received. It *plenary sessions and perhaps the had apparently proved its worth drafting of any final report, this during at least one crisis but had gives the host state a position of weaknesses, one of which became some influence. apparent when the landline link in Finland was put out of action by a host-state agreement. See head- farmer’s plough. As a result the hot quarters agreement. line was upgraded with satellite circuits under an *executive agree- hôtel de l’ambassadeur. A term ment (negotiated during the SALT I which, for much of the modern talks) which came into force upon period, was used to refer both to the signature on 30 September 1971. It *residence of an *ambassador and soon proved useful again, espe- the *chancery of his *embassy cially during the Arab–Israeli war (sense 2). in October 1973. Interestingly enough, however, the hot line hot line. (1) The popular term for continued to have no ‘voice capa- the emergency communications bility’ on the grounds that oral link between the White House and exchanges, with their requirement the *Kremlin during the *Cold for simultaneous translation, War. This was first proposed by the would have been less accurate than *State Department’s Gerard C. the written message. Harold Smith in 1960 and installed under *Nicolson, who maintained that a memorandum of understanding diplomacy was essentially a written of 20 June 1963 following the art, would have approved of this. alarm caused by the *Cuban Missile The hot line was further reinforced Crisis of the previous October. in the late 1980s by the creation of Known formally as the ‘Direct ‘risk reduction centres’, which Communications Link’, this was a directly linked the American and precautionary measure which was Soviet defence establishments. (2) designed to help cope with the Over recent years this term has also consequences of accidental or come to be employed figuratively unauthorized use of nuclear to signify any close relationship, weapons. It consisted of a wire- especially between *heads of state telegraph circuit which was routed or government, which is supported Washington–London–Copenhagen by rapid direct communication –Stockholm–Helsinki–Moscow, links capable, in an emergency or and a back-up radio-telegraph when extreme confidentiality is human rights 131 required, of bypassing advisers and nent of *diplomatic law. Though officials. When recorded, these other jurists were soon to accept communications links are some- this view, it was still unacknowl- times known as ‘black box hot edged by *Grotius two decades later. lines’. This is because they can be examined for an explanation, as hot pursuit. This phrase refers to with the black box flight recorder the right of a coastal state to pursue on an aircraft, in the event that and arrest a foreign ship which is the relationship ‘crashes’. (3) Tele- believed to have violated the laws phones manned 24 hours a day in and regulations of that state. The the *emergency room of a diplo- pursued ship must have received an matic mission during an emer- order to stop when it was within gency. the area covered by the coastal state’s laws and regulations; the Hotman, Jean (1552–1636). A pursuit must be uninterrupted; and French diplomat and devout it must cease once the pursued ship Calvinist, Jean was the eldest son of enters the *territorial sea of its *flag the famous Huguenot revolutionary state or of a third state. Pursuit may and scholar, François Hotman. An take place by air. anglophile, his father sent him to study law at Oxford. This led humanitarian intervention. See directly to a distinguished five-year intervention. career as secretary to the Earl of Leicester in the first half of the human rights. The modern term for 1580s. Learned and influential, and what political theorists used to called with a familiarity with embassy life ‘natural rights’, that is, rights alleged acquired a few years earlier when he to belong ‘naturally’ to all human was a tutor in the household of the beings irrespective of what positive English ambassador in Paris, law has to say on the matter. On this Hotman (like *Gentili) had been view, human rights should be repli- consulted in the Mendoza case in cated in legal rights, though often 1584. By students of diplomacy he they are not. Nevertheless, stimu- is now remembered chiefly as the lated by the reaction to the Holo- author of L’Ambassadeur, published caust during the Second World War, in 1603 and expanded and cor- *international law has come to rected in the following year under embody a substantial body of the title De la charge et dignité de human rights *treaty law (plus l’ambassadeur. This work was impor- machinery for implementation) via tant for being the first to argue that both the *United Nations system the inviolability of *diplomatic and regional bodies such as the premises, as opposed to the person *European Union, the *Organization of the envoy, was a central compo- of American States and the Orga- 132 humint nization of African Unity (now or which are concerned but subscribe replaced by the *African Union). It is either to a different list of human also held by international human rights or to the sophistry that ‘collec- rights lawyers that in addition to tive human rights’ (as determined by treaty instruments such as the the government) take precedence European Convention for the over ‘individual human rights’. See Protection of Human Rights and also domestic jurisdiction; inter Fundamental Freedoms (1950), the vention; United Nations High Covenants on Civil and Political Commissioner for Human Rights. Rights and on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (both adopted by the humint. This inelegant abbrevia- UN General Assembly in 1966, and tion stands for ‘human intelligence’ both *entering into force ten years and is originally a *CIA term, now later), certain human rights are now in common use, meaning the col- enshrined in *customary interna- lection of *intelligence directly from tional law in consequence of state human beings, as opposed, say, to practice. Notable among these are radio signals. Such persons may the prohibitions on *genocide, include refugees, prisoners of war or slavery and torture and the principle – best of all – *agents in place. Not of non-discrimination. Long a con- surprisingly, intelligence agencies troversial question within Western which use this kind of source tend political theory and jurisprudence, to rely heavily on human beings human rights is now a controversial (agents) to make contact with them question in interstate relations. It and this is a second connotation of presents a particularly testing the term. The CIA’s Directorate problem for diplomats from states of Operations is the principal concerned about human rights who American humint organization. See are resident in those which are not, also KGB; Secret Intelligence Service. I idealism. Used in the study of immunity. See consular privileges *international relations (sense 3) to and immunities; diplomatic privi- refer to views or policies which are leges and immunities; permanent deemed to reflect ideals rather than mission. practicality. It is a charge which has often been leveled against scholars impasse. A point in a negotiation, and politicians of the 1918 to 1939 or on one item on the agenda of a period. See also realism (sense 1). negotiation, when the parties acknowledge that they cannot identic notes. *Notes addressed sep- agree. This need not lead to a break- arately to a government by the down and abandonment of the *diplomatic agents of two or more talks but only to their suspension. If states which contain essentially the the item concerned is not vital, it same message though they may be may merely lead them to move on expressed somewhat differently. to another subject. They are presented as nearly as possible simultaneously. Designed imperialism. (1) A synonym for like the *collective note to give *colonialism. (2) Aggressive behav- maximum impact to a joint repre- iour, especially that which is sentation, the strategy of the notes intended to establish long-term identiques is to achieve this with less dominance. risk of an appearance of ganging up. incident. An event which causes a imagery. *Intelligence obtained sharp deterioration in diplomatic from photographic and other relations (sense 2) and may or may images, including radar echoes. In not lead to a *crisis. The ‘Yangtze peacetime at least, satellites are now Incident’, when the British vessel the main source of intelligence from HMS Amethyst was fired on by imagery. Communist batteries as it was

133 134 independence attempting to reach the British or the Council’s provisional *rules Embassy at Nanking in 1949, is a of procedure. This class of private case of an incident which did not meetings is usually referred to as lead to a crisis. ‘informal consultations of the whole’ or ‘informals’, and they take independence. (1) Used in a legal place in the Consultation Room, sense to refer to a *state’s lack of which is adjacent to the Council constitutional subordination to Chamber where the public meetings another state, i.e. to its *sovereignty of the Security Council are held. (sense 1). In this sense, indepen- Built in 1978, the Consultation dence has an absolute character. Room is now the scene of most of (2) Used in a political sense to refer the serious work done by this key to a state’s degree of effective organ of the United Nations. No freedom in its dealings with other official records are kept of informal states. In this sense, independence consultations. (2) Any informal has a relative character – but mea- meeting in connection with the suring the extent of a state’s inde- work of the Security Council, inclu- pendence is enormously difficult. ding those of *caucus groups, groups of *friends, *contact groups, independent state. A synonym for and *Arria formula meetings. *sovereign state. States commonly refer to themselves and other states initialling. Usually this represents as ‘sovereign and independent’. an interim authentication by the state concerned of the draft text of a inductive method. (1) The estab- *treaty, the formal or ‘full’ *signature lishment of general rules on the to follow later. However, initialling basis of particular instances. It is may, in special circumstances, also called positivism. Many lawyers amount to signature. Even when it see *international law as established does not, it may well give sufficient by this method, although some confidence in the treaty to the are uneasy about its wholesale parties concerned for them to take and uncritical use. Contrast, limited steps in fulfilment of its pro- *deductive method. (2) In negotia- visions. For example, the initialling tions, a synonym for *step-by-step of the Hong Kong Airport Agreement diplomacy. by Britain and the People’s Republic of China on 30 June 1991 led to the informal consultations. In the UN immediate commencement of work context: (1) Private meetings of the on two urgent contracts. See also *Security Council not governed plenipotentiary. (as are those concerned for example with the appointment of a Inman standards. The security- *Secretary-General) by the Charter driven design and building stan- Inman standards 135 dards for new US diplomatic and vehicle arrest barriers, electronic consular properties introduced in locks, cameras, and monitors. All of the late 1980s. This development this was far removed from the look came in the train of a steady esca- of American embassies of the late lation in violent ground assaults 1940s and 1950s, buildings which after the mid-1960s, which culmi- typically featured glass walls, visual nated in the suicide bomb attack openness, and easy access, and were on the American embassy *com- the fruit of a programme directed by pound in Beirut on 18 April 1983. Fritz *Larkin. Nevertheless, with the (A van containing over 400lb of Beirut attack still a vivid memory, explosives was driven into the side congressional appropriations of $948 of the embassy, killing approxi- million were made available to build mately 60 people and injuring 120, new embassies to these standards and completely destroying the and 61 new projects were under way central consular section of the by 1986. Most of these were com- building. The 17 US nationals pleted by the early 1990s, but it had killed included marine guards, become apparent that the financial senior embassy staff, and CIA burden of continuing to impose employees; in the last category was Inman architecture was becoming Robert Ames, director of the CIA’s insupportable and that a heavy office of analysis for the Near East diplomatic price would also be paid and South Asia.) The new stan- if all of America’s ‘downtown’ dards were named after Admiral embassies in cities such as Rome and Bobby R. Inman, former head of Paris were replaced by inaccessible the *National Security Agency and suburban fortresses. However, the Chairman of the Advisory Panel *State Department’s subsequent on Overseas Security which attempt to compromise between the reported in June 1985 (though the needs of security and diplomacy was detailed work was done in a sepa- called into question following the rate study by the National bombings of the American embassies Research Council). in Nairobi and Dar es Salaam in Inman standards called for mis- 1998. Two Accountability Review sions to be located at remote sites Boards directed by Admiral William (optimally 15 acres in size), a set- J. Crowe reviewed these major back of 100 feet from any surround- incidents (the first of which saw ing streets, blast-proof construction, great loss of life) and presented an absence of hand-holds of any recommendations in January 1999. kind within 15 feet of the ground, Since that time, the State Depart- windows limited to 15 per cent of ment has been reassessing how to the total wall area, safe havens for all upgrade security at its projects embassy personnel including foreign worldwide. See also emergency room; nationals, perimeter walls, electronic warden network. 136 innocent passage innocent passage. This refers to the as one of fact-finding or of investi- ancient right of the ships of all gation. See also conciliation; good states to traverse *territorial sea pro- offices; mediation. vided that their passage is reason- ably continuous and expeditious instant. Of this month, as in and is not prejudicial to the peace, ‘Thank you for your *despatch of good order, and security of the the 19th instant.’ Often abbreviated coastal state. Ships so engaged must to ‘inst.’ Now only historical. also observe any relevant laws and regulations of the coastal state. instructions. (1) Any orders issued, Submarines on innocent passage at whatever level and in whatever must proceed on the surface and form, by a diplomat’s head office at show the flag of their *flag state. home. It is common for a diplomat The right of innocent passage is the in talking to an *interlocutor of the only general limitation on the *sov- *receiving state to stress that he or ereignty (sense 2) of the coastal she is acting or speaking either ‘on state over its territorial sea. Foreign instructions’ or ‘personally’, i.e. not aircraft are not entitled to innocent ‘on instructions’. In the last event, passage through the air space of ter- the diplomat may have to return ritorial sea. The term innocent later and say either that what he or passage has also been used to refer she did or said had been confirmed to the passing through third states from home or else that a different of *diplomatic agents on their way view had been taken and that he or to and from a *post. Nowadays this she can now act or speak ‘on is known – somewhat misleadingly instructions’. (2) A stylized letter to – as the *right of transit. one of his diplomats from a *head of state (or secretary with responsi- inquiry. A method of promoting bility for foreign affairs), the core *pacific settlement by appointing a component of which was a list of commission to inquire into the facts the aims to be pursued at his post. of a dispute and report on them Sometimes described as containing (but not to make recommendations ‘general instructions’, this was for its solution). The commission handed to him, along with his may be appointed by the parties or, *letters of credence, prior to his with their agreement, by an *inter- departure. Essentially a feature of national organization. It is then for the pre-telegraphic era, instructions the parties to decide what effect, if in this form, even when very any, is to be given to the report, or detailed, invariably permitted the for the appointing organization to diplomat a fair degree of discretion decide on what recommendations in pursuing the directives which should be made to the parties. Such they contained since ‘fresh instruc- a commission may also be described tions’ could take weeks and, at intelligence 137 distant posts, even months to nonetheless in effective occupation obtain. A British diplomat’s instruc- of and constitutes the de facto tions also reminded him to main- authority in a large part of the terri- tain good relations with the other tory of the *state in question. For a members of the *diplomatic corps, recognizing third party, the grant of maintain a correspondence with insurgency may be a prerequisite for British diplomats at other posts, and the protection of its interests in the send regular reports home. On the territory which the insurgents assumption that it might be expedi- control, as it is a means of establish- ent on occasion to reveal his ing formal communication with instructions at the court to which them. In the second half of the he was accredited, a diplomat was twentieth century the recognition sometimes issued with a second, of insurgency went out of fashion, secret set of instructions designed reflecting the lessened formality of for his more precise guidance. the times and their greater hostility Instructions were generally more to anything which might under- detailed when the diplomat being mine the territorial integrity of despatched was charged with an existing states. important negotiation at his post, which is why they continued to be intelligence. (1) Information, given to *delegates to *congresses whether foreign or defence, political and *conferences for long after they or economic, secret or openly avail- had generally become obsolete, at able. (2) The government organiza- least in their traditional form, for tion or organizations (‘intelligence *resident ambassadors. It is still cer- agencies’ or ‘secret intelligence tainly not unknown for ambas- agencies’) which collect, analyse sadors and high commissioners to and disseminate this information, be given written guidance before which is chiefly about actually or departing on a mission, though this potentially hostile foreign coun- may now be styled a ‘directive’ or tries. What gives the final assess- ‘letter of appointment’. See also ments of these agencies special sponsion. authority and their activities a special flavour is that (a) they seek instrument. A formal legal docu- the most sensitive and highly ment, such as a *treaty. classified information and (b) they seek it by means which are them- insurgency. A status sometimes selves either secret or, as with orbit- accorded by *third parties under the ing satellites, employed without the traditional law of *war to an insur- consent of their targets. This gent group which, while not in a meaning began to emerge in the sufficiently strong position to justify late nineteenth century. See also recognition of its *belligerency, is agent in place; CIA; Echelon; 138 intelligence assessment foreign intelligence; intelligence of the *protecting power. There community; intelligencer; KGB; were harbingers of this develop- Secret Intelligence Service. ment in Istanbul at least as early as the beginning of the nineteenth intelligence assessment. See all- century. When an embassy in the source analysis. city was forced to close, sometimes one of its *dragomans would be intelligence community. The transferred to the embassy or con- entire range of *intelligence agen- sulate-general of the protecting cies responsible to one government. power, where he would continue In Britain and the United States, his previous work. However, the where the term gained currency first proper interests sections were during the *Cold War, it also not established until May 1965 (in implies the existence of high-level Cairo and Bonn), following the mechanisms for the coordination of decision of Egypt to break *diplo- the work of these agencies and *all- matic relations (sense 1) with West source assessment. The American Germany in retaliation for the deci- intelligence community is com- sion of the latter to open them with posed of over twenty organizations, Israel. Designed to maintain com- with the Office of the Director munication in the absence of diplo- of Central Intelligence at the matic relations, the interests section top, immediately below the permits the *sending state to retain *National Security Council. See also its own diplomats in the *receiving CIA; Echelon; Joint Intelligence state by the ruse of attaching them Committee. in law, together with their mission premises, to the embassy of a pro- intelligencer. A term employed in tecting power. (Previously, the pro- the early modern period for any tecting power’s own embassy staff supplier of *intelligence to a diplo- had to do the work of protection.) matic mission or directly to a gov- The idea quickly caught on, and ernment. An intelligencer was interests sections have since been typically one of its own *consuls, or widely used as half-way houses to an official attached to a foreign the restoration of diplomatic rela- court who was paid a retainer by an tions as well as to cope with their envoy. See also Wicquefort. recent breach. Thus South Africa and the Soviet Union, which had interests section. A small group of severed diplomatic relations in *diplomats of one state working 1955, each opened an interests under the flag of a second on the section in the other’s capital (under territory of a third, the interests the protection of Austria) in section is an elaboration of the February 1991. In the receiving much older diplomatic institution state’s *diplomatic list, an interests International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) 139 section appears as part of the diplo- also framework treaty; heads of matic mission of the protecting agreement; step-by-step diplomacy. power. Though some American interests interlocutor. A party to a dialogue. sections are very large, it is a mistake to regard them as embassies intermediary. See mediation. in all but name. Interests sections are usually very small (two or three international. That which pertains diplomats); it appears necessary for to the sphere of interstate activity all of their members to receive *agré- rather than to the domestic sphere. ment; and *service attachés are barred. international actor. The ambit of this term is dependent on the intergovernmental conference content given to the word ‘interna- (IGC). In the *European Union, a tional’. If, as in the field within major negotiation between the which *diplomacy (sense 1) occurs, member states with a view to it is defined with reference to the amending its institutional and legal interaction of *sovereign states, structure. international actors are primarily the states themselves, and second- intergovernmental organization. arily the *international organiza- Another, but less common, way of tions which they have established. referring to an *international orga- Intermittent actorhood is also nization. It has the (limited) virtue exhibited by *non-governmental of being in semantic harmony organizations and groups as and with the term *non-governmental when they have dealings with states organization. or an impact on their behaviour. interim agreement. The modern International Atomic Energy term for what used to be called a Agency (IAEA). Established in 1957 modus vivendi, this is a temporary or as an autonomous agency under the provisional *agreement which is aegis of the UN (and hence not a designed ostensibly to be replaced *specialized agency – although very later on by one which is possibly like one), the IAE’s purpose is to more detailed, probably more com- accelerate and enlarge the peaceful prehensive, and certainly more per- uses of atomic energy, and to ensure manent. Interim agreements tend to that such assistance as it gives in be popular because they can be pre- this area is not used for military sented both as the only way to purposes. Towards this end it has advance to a final settlement and an elaborate ‘safeguards’ system the only way to forestall one. See operating in conjunction with its 140 international civil servant extensive programme of technical mental organization established by assistance in the nuclear field. Henry Dunant (1828–1910) in 1863. Its headquarters is in Geneva, international civil servant. A Switzerland, but it has a permanent member of the *secretariat of an presence in over 50 countries. Its *international organization, who is ‘exclusively humanitarian mission thus obliged to be professionally is to protect the lives and dignity of loyal to the organization rather than victims of war and internal violence serve the interests of a member and to provide them with assis- state. The likelihood of this obliga- tance’. The ICRC has no authority tion being observed is thought to be over the national Red Cross or Red enhanced if secretariat members are Crescent societies but as the original directly employed by the organiza- such organization it is often seen as tion rather than temporarily sec- having a tutelary role in regard to onded from national civil services. them. Such a practice was begun by the *League of Nations, being strongly international community. The advocated by its first *Secretary- collectivity of *states. The term is General, Sir Eric Drummond, who often thought to suggest a greater persuaded the League’s Council to degree of warmth and harmony endorse it. Since then this concept than the alternative term, *interna- of a genuinely international civil tional society, and for that reason is service has been generally accepted judged by many scholars to be less by international organizations – but appropriate. However, it is much that is not to say that member states favoured by states’ political leaders, and secretariat members always live and hence is frequently used by up to it. See also International Civil diplomats. Service Commission. International Court of Justice International Civil Service (ICJ). Although formally an organ Commission (ICSC). This body, of the *United Nations, the ICJ is established by the UN *General an independent judicial body. It Assembly in 1974, regulates and sits (full-time) at The Hague (in the coordinates the conditions of Netherlands) and is composed of service of the UN *common system. 15 judges, no two of whom may be The Commission is composed of 15 nationals of the same state. They members appointed by the General are elected for nine-year terms by Assembly in their personal capacity. the UN *General Assembly and See also international civil service. *Security Council, voting sepa- rately. The Court has jurisdiction International Committee of the to decide contentious cases and to Red Cross (ICRC). A *non-govern- give *advisory opinions. In respect International Criminal Court 141 of the former, only states may be international crime. See interna- parties before the Court, which has tional criminal law; International the duty of judging on the basis of Criminal Court. *international law (unless the parties request a decision *ex aequo International Criminal Court. In et bono). Accordingly, the ICJ is in 1998 an international conference in the nature of a civil, and not a Rome adopted a statute for such a criminal, court: it does not, on Court. The statute came into effect behalf of the whole *international on 1 July 2002, 60 days after its society, punish wrongdoing, but 60th *ratification, and the Court resolves argument as to the recti- was formally opened on 11 March tude of a *claim made by one state 2003. Its seat is at The Hague. on another. A party which does Britain, along with all other not have a judge of its nationality *European Union member states, on the ICJ is entitled to choose a has ratified the statute, and thus person to sit in that capacity. The become a *party to it. As of May Court decides by majority vote, 2003, however, the United States, and its judgment is final. Judges although a signatory to the statute, may issue *separate or *dissenting has not yet ratified it, and has opinions. Cases are referred to the shown a marked reluctance to do ICJ on the basis of agreement so. The same is true of Israel. between the parties. Thus no state The Court has jurisdiction over is obliged to go to the Court individuals charged with the most against its will. But states may serious crimes of international agree in advance to accept the concern: *genocide, crimes against *compulsory jurisdiction of the humanity, and *war crimes, and also ICJ either by *treaty or by way of the crime of *aggression once an the *Optional Clause procedure. acceptable definition for the Court’s Although a decision of the Court jurisdiction over it is adopted. The only has *binding force as between alleged crime, however, must have the parties and in respect of taken place on the territory of a party that particular dispute, the judg- to the Court, and the relevant ments of the ICJ and its advisory national legal system must have opinions make an important indicated an inability or unwilling- contribution to the clarification ness to prosecute the individual and development of general inter- concerned. A prosecution may then national law. The ICJ is the only be initiated by the UN *Security general organ of *judicial settle- Council, by a state party to the ment available to the international Court, or by the Court’s Prosecutor. society. It has one predecessor, the The Court does not have retrospec- *Permanent Court of International tive jurisdiction. See also interna- Justice. tional criminal law. 142 international criminal law international criminal law. That international friendship. See part of *international law which friendly relations. establishes crimes of international concern, for the breach of which international humanitarian law. individuals may be held directly The term by which, during the last responsible. Generally speaking, quarter of the twentieth century, the international law applies between ‘laws of war’ became known. This law *states. To that extent, only states places limits on the force which may can make *claims against each other; be used against combatants and civil- this is what is meant by references to ians during *war or *armed conflict, a state as enjoying *international and enunciates rules regarding the personality, and as a subject of inter- treatment of prisoners-of-war. Larger national law. Correspondingly, indi- states generally provide their senior viduals are objects of that law, and military staff with *military manuals so cannot assert rights against a state which set out and interpret the chief at the international level, nor be aspects of international humanitar- sued or prosecuted by a state for the ian law. Laws of war date from the breach of an international obliga- Middle Ages. They used to have a tion. However, some *war crimes are *customary basis, but since the a well-recognized exception to this middle of the nineteenth century rule. And since the Second World have increasingly been embodied in War, crimes against humanity, *treaties, latterly in what are known *aggression, and *genocide have as the Geneva or *Red Cross been added to the content of what Conventions. See also armed conflict; has now become known as interna- belligerency; blockade; contraband; tional criminal law. But the prosecu- genocide; human rights; insurgency; tion of individuals charged with the International Committee of the Red breach of this law has, for a variety Cross; ius ad bellum; ius in bello; war. of reasons, always presented difficulties, or laid itself open to the international institution. (1) A charge of ‘victor’s justice’. For this synonym for *international organi- reason, the *Security Council estab- zation. (2) A more or less standard- lished ad hoc International Criminal ized pattern of behaviour evolved to Tribunals for the Former Yugoslavia achieve certain generally accepted in 1993 and for Rwanda in 1994. international goals. *Diplomacy And in 1998 an international confer- (sense 1), *international law, and ence voted for the establishment of a the *balance of power (sense 3) are permanent *International Criminal good examples of international Court. institutions in this sense. international customary law. See internationalization. The idea that customary international law. an area should not form part of a international law 143

*sovereign state but be given an Internationalist claims are nowa- international status by, for example, days fashionable, but where the being permanently placed under the *national interest clearly points in aegis of an organ of the *United the opposite direction internation- Nations. Such schemes have been alism will not prevail. However, proposed for the city and environs certain *middle powers, such as of Trieste and for Jerusalem (both in Canada and the Scandinavian 1947). However, although to unin- states, can reasonably assert that volved outsiders it can seem a fair more than most their foreign way of dealing with an area subject policies have a distinctive inter- to hotly competing claims, it has nationalist tinge. much less appeal to the stronger claimant and its supporters, and to international law. The body of those in the minority in the relevant rules and principles of action which UN organ. Largely for these sorts of are *binding on *sovereign states in reason, neither of the above schemes their relations with each other. The bore fruit. A version of this idea last half-century or so has also seen operated during the interwar period the extension of international law in respect of the former German city to include the rules relating to the of Danzig (now Gdansk), which was activity of *international organiza- established as a Free City under the tions and to individuals and *non- *guarantee of the *League of governmental organizations to the Nations. However, it was not a extent to which their activity comes happy experience, and the city was within the ambit of international reoccupied by Germany in 1939. law (as, for example, in connection During the interwar period the with *international criminal law). territory of the Saar was internation- However, international law remains alized for 15 years (its governing primarily an expression of the rights commission being appointed by and and duties of states inter se. And responsible to the League of overwhelmingly it is in the nature Nations). One other case of tempo- of civil rather than criminal law. rary internationalization concerned International law derives from two the Colombian district of Leticia, main sources: international custom which was administered by the (of the sort which creates *custom- League for a year. The Serbian ary international law) and *treaties. province of Kosovo is currently Jurisprudentially, the former is the under a form of internationalization. more fundamental; but quantita- tively the latter is now dominant. internationalism. The policy of As between its signatories (unless it maximizing cooperation with other is in breach of *ius cogens), a treaty states and support for the decisions supersedes any relevant customary of *international organizations. law. A third source of international 144 international law and municipal law law is *general principles of law. ing, however, it may be said that And it should be noted that the *customary international law is Statute of the *International Court valid within states, provided it does of Justice makes reference to judicial not conflict with municipal law; but precedents and the work of highly that *treaties often require legisla- qualified writers as ‘subsidiary tion for them to be brought into means for the determination’ of force within the state, and almost international law. Like all systems invariably so if their operation of law, the essential purpose of would modify existing law or affect international law is to provide an the private rights of the state’s citi- accepted framework for behaviour, zens. Inasmuch, therefore, as *diplo- enabling states to know what they matic law gives *diplomats special may do, what they must not do, privileges, it is extremely rare for it and how they may lawfully seek to to become operative municipally achieve certain goals. Provided, without enabling legislation. See therefore (as is in fact the case), also Act of Anne. international law is generally The problem of the relationship observed, it supplies the element of between the two systems of law can predictability which is absolutely be particularly acute in *federal essential for the maintenance of states, inasmuch as the state’s *international order. Without it, treaty-making power is almost relations between states would nec- always the sole preserve of the essarily be minimal or chaotic. In central government, but the right to this sense, international law is a make any required enabling legisla- crucial constituent of the *interna- tion may well lie with the territorial tional society. units composing the federation. Germany and the United States are international law and municipal just two such states which often law. The fact that a *state is bound encounter this difficulty. It may by a provision of *international law result either in the state declining to by no means necessarily results in become a *party to a treaty, that law thereby being valid within notwithstanding the wish of the the state, and hence binding on federal government to do so; or in it domestic governmental organs and becoming internationally bound enforceable by the municipal (possibly through the development courts. The relationship between of customary international law or a the two legal systems is governed, *European Union directive) but municipally, by the state’s constitu- unable fully to implement the tion. Given the variety of the rele- obligation. It should be noted, vant constitutional provisions however, that if a state’s municipal which exist, generalization about law prevents it from executing an them is hazardous. Broadly speak- international obligation, that is no international organization 145 defence, internationally, to a *claim international minimum stan- by the injured state or international dards. Legal standards below which organization – although in some a state is not entitled to treat citi- quarters it may of course be seen as zens of other states, even if its own a mitigating factor. citizens are subject to such treat- ment. In principle, it is accepted International Law Commission. that a state is entitled to seek redress The UN organ charged with the task if its citizens have been so treated, of promoting the *progressive devel- and if they have *exhausted local opment of *international law and remedies in their effort to obtain its *codification. Established in local satisfaction. But in practice it 1947, it has twice been enlarged is a difficult and sensitive area – as is and now has 34 members; these sit indicated by the fact that the in their individual capacity and not standards in question used to be as representatives of their states. spoken of as reflecting the ‘standard It meets each year for a session of of civilization’. 12 weeks, and works on the prepara- tion of draft articles on topics of international order. (1) A non- general international concern. technical term which refers to the These drafts are submitted to absence of chaos in the relations of the *General Assembly, which states. This state of affairs is may (among other courses) decide obtained through there being agree- to convene an international ment on the criterion for being an conference to consider a draft with *international actor – which takes a view to the conclusion of a the form of *sovereignty (sense 1); a *treaty. The Vienna Conventions on means for these notional entities to *Diplomatic Relations and on communicate with each other – *Consular Relations emerged in this which is supplied by *diplomacy way. (sense 1); and a normative frame- work for their relations – which is international legislation. A term supplied by *international law. sometimes used to refer to multilat- (2) Occasionally used as a synonym eral *treaties which have been for *international society or *inter- widely accepted. However, inas- national system. much as the term legislation usually entails the enactment of generally- international organization. An applicable law by majority vote, its association of *states deriving its use at the international level can organizational character from its be misleading, for a majority of permanence, its quasi-governmental states cannot impose an obligation organs, and (generally speaking) its on those states who do not consent employment of *international civil to it. servants. Thus an international orga- 146 international organization nization is likely to have an execu- lished in the latter part of the nine- tive committee composed of a rela- teenth century when it was realized tively small number of its member that the efficient conduct of postal states, a general deliberative body in and telegraphic communication which all the members participate, across the world required some- and a *secretariat headed by a thing more than a myriad of bilat- *secretary-general. It may be more- eral arrangements. In the twentieth or-less universal in membership, century attempts were made to have a *regional focus, or even be ensure the maintenance of world composed of just two or three states. peace through general international No less various is the subject matter organizations in the shape, first, of of an international organization: it the *League of Nations and then of can be wide-ranging or have a the UN. narrow specialist character, or any- In political terms, international thing in between. There are proba- organizations are in a weak posi- bly about three hundred such tion, in that they depend on their bodies, the *United Nations, the member states for finance and, in *European Union, the *Organization respect of any external activity that of American States, the *African they conduct, for personnel. Thus Union, and *NATO being among the any particular proposed activity is best known. dependent on a sufficient number An international organization is of member states thinking that it is established by *treaty, which defines in their individual *national inter- and limits the organization’s legal ests. Nonetheless, in certain limited competence. This points to a funda- respects some organizations may be mental difference between a state more than the sum of their and an international organization: members. For example, a resolution the latter possesses only such powers of the UN *General Assembly may as are granted to it by its constituent be generally seen as representing document, and cannot legally act something more than the views of beyond those powers, whereas a the states who voted for it; or the *sovereign state possesses the total- UN Secretary-General may be seen ity of rights and duties recognized not just as a paid official but also as by *international law and, subject to the independent spokesman for the the provisions of that law, can ideals which the UN espouses. engage in almost any activity that it International organizations used chooses. often to be called international International organizations institutions but, except perhaps reflect the need that has been felt among lawyers, the term ‘organiza- for certain matters to be perma- tion’ is now widely preferred. It nently handled on a *multilateral should be noted that scholars basis. Thus they began to be estab- frequently use ‘International Or- international society 147 ganization’ to refer to the study of international regime. The rules such bodies. and procedures relating to a specific international activity, geographical international person. (1) Used area, or economic resource. non-technically, a notional entity which is spoken of as acting inter- international relations. (1) A nationally as if it were a person. In *state’s dealings and contacts with this sense, *states are notional other states, and with *international persons. (2) An entity which enjoys organizations. (2) The general sphere *international personality. of bilateral and multilateral interstate activity. (3) When the first letters are in capitals, the study of international international personality. The relations (sense 2). status held by an entity which possesses rights and duties under international society. A term used *international law. *Sovereign states to refer to the collectivity of *sover- are the principal holders of interna- eign states. Historically, it was often tional personality. But *interna- used in writing about *international tional organizations have also been relations (sense 2), and at this level granted international personality by finds much contemporary favour in their members; and to a limited Britain. ‘International society’ cer- extent individuals, too, have been tainly has some advantages over the accorded this status in connection alternative terms, *international with their responsibilities under community, *international system, *international criminal law. and *states-system. For example, it hints at the associative character of international politics. A less- international relations, yet does not common way of referring to *inter- invest them with the intimacy national relations (all senses). implied by the word community. Then, too, the general idea of International Red Cross and Red society focuses attention on the fact Crescent Movement. The umbrella that it is individuals who take deci- term for the *International sions on behalf of states, and do so Committee of the Red Cross, the on the basis of volition, whereas the International Federation of Red idea of system carries more than a Cross and Red Crescent Societies, whiff of automaticity. And, unlike and the National Red Cross and Red system, the term society directly Crescent Societies. A conference of suggests the ideas of admission and these bodies, together with repre- exclusivity, thus pointing to the fact sentatives of states party to the *Red that there is a very specific criterion Cross Conventions, normally meets – *sovereignty (sense 1) – which every four years. must be met before a territorial 148 international system entity is eligible for participation in Ages and the seventeenth century, international relations. See also however, the title was in more international institution (sense 2); general use by temporal powers, the international order; Westphalia, Austrians clinging to it for their Congress of (1644–48). *resident at Istanbul – the ‘Imperial Internuncio’ – until the middle of international system. The network the nineteenth. The motive, it of relationships which exists at the appears, was to avoid disputes over *international level, including there- *precedence with the *Porte’s long fore the role in those relationships of most favoured friend, the French *international organizations, *non- ambassador. The Polish representa- governmental organizations, and tive in Istanbul also bore the title other *non-state actors. Inasmuch as ‘internuncio’. sovereign states play the leading role in these relationships, the term Inter-Parliamentary Union. See international system is often used, parliamentary diplomacy (sense 2). particularly in American writing, to refer to the collectivity of *states. interpretative declaration. See However, the content and reverbera- reservation. tions of the term *international society better convey certain basic interstate. A synonym for *interna- features of the collectivity of states tional (but within *federal states than does the term international it may also have a domestic system. connotation).

International Telecommunication intervention. Sometimes described Union (ITU). The ITU was created as ‘interference’, action directed at a in 1865 in response to the inven- state from outside with the immedi- tion of the electric *telegraph and ate intention either of influencing the need to facilitate the connec- some aspect of its domestic policy tion of the different national or of changing its regime. Another telegraphic systems subsequently desired outcome – especially in the established. It is now a UN *special- latter case – may be to modify its ized agency with headquarters in foreign policy as well. The author of Geneva, Switzerland. See also tele- the intervention may be another communication. state, an *alliance, or an *interna- tional organization. The act of inter- internuncio. (1) A papal *head of vention and the means involved mission of the second class, who always attract contention, on both thus has the same rank as an *envoy political and legal grounds. But for extraordinary and minister plenipo- some years there has been increas- tentiary. (2) Between the Middle ing support for the view that inter- ius ad bellum 149 vention is permitted in certain cir- Churchill, the once and future cumstances, provided the UN British prime minister, in a speech *Security Council has authorized in the United States (at Fulton, such action. (The recent view that Missouri) on 5 March 1946. this authorization is unnecessary appears to be very much a minority isolationism. The policy of non- position.) The first case is that in participation in contentious inter- which intervention is deemed to be national matters. It is particularly the only means of ending massive associated with the United States, and sustained abuse of *human which acted on its basis throughout rights. (The claim that intervention the nineteenth century and for is justified to avert an anticipated much of the first half of the twenti- humanitarian disaster is much more eth. The policy contributed to that controversial.) The second case is state’s refusal ever to join the that where intervention (usually to League of Nations, and was only achieve regime-change) is deemed abandoned after the United States to be essential to *self-defence, that was brought into the Second World is, where it is believed to be neces- War by Japan’s attack on Pearl sary to pre-empt imminent and dev- Harbor (Hawaii) in December 1941. astating *aggression. Both of these See also neutrality; non-alignment; doctrines are, of course, open to splendid isolation. gross abuse. There is also, thirdly, some support for the claim that Itamaraty. The Brazilian Foreign intervention is justified where it is a Office, so called because its head- counter-intervention in a civil war quarters are located in the Itamaraty designed to restore the balance Palace in Brasilia. Until 1970 they between the internal parties upset were housed in the original by an initial outside intervention. Itamaraty Palace in Rio de Janeiro, Intervention is distinguishable from which is still used for certain pur- *annexation. See also sovereignty; poses (including archival storage) by sphere of influence. the ministry. investigation. See inquiry. ius ad bellum. The legal right to go to *war. During the twentieth introduction. See letter of intro- century this traditional right was duction. much circumscribed, especially after the signing of the UN Charter in Iron Curtain. A term which was 1945. Thus in general terms, offen- popularly used to describe the *Cold sive war is now permissible in law War division in Europe between the only in response to a breach of *ius *West and the *Eastern bloc. It had cogens, and many commentators been famously used by Winston would add that it is at least highly 150 ius cogens desirable that such a breach be all states to enjoy certain common certified as such by the *Security resources (such as those which lie Council. Of course, a state attacked on the bed of the high seas). It is unlawfully retains the right to unclear, however, what practical defend itself, and other states the benefits follow from the designation right to assist it. See also aggression; of such widely accepted norms as collective security; peace enforce- ones of ius cogens; and some think ment; self-defence. that the concept might even be disadvantageous, in that it could ius cogens. That part of *interna- facilitate the breach of onerous tional law which is peremptory in obligations, or be used to justify character. Accordingly, it is not per- interference in matters of *domestic missible for two or more states, as jurisdiction. But it remains that, for- among themselves, to modify such mally speaking, the concept of ius law. The idea that some part of cogens has entered the language of international law is of this nature international law and diplomacy. was referred to with great frequency Possibly it reflects the rhetorical during the second half of the twen- popularity of the idea of an *inter- tieth century, and can thus be said national community despite, or to have become orthodox. However, even because of, the fact that to the identification of the relevant many observers *international rela- legal norms is a matter of some tions (sense 2) fall some way short difficulty. It has been suggested that of that condition. they include rules of a fundamental kind regarding the maintenance of ius in bello. The laws which govern *peace, humanitarian issues, the ter- the conduct of *war and *armed ritorial integrity and political *inde- conflict. See also international pendence of states, and the right of humanitarian law. J

Japanese secretary. See oriental unremarked, feature of diplomacy, secretary. such bodies (like *peacekeeping operations of a traditional kind) joint commission. (1) A body con- are evidence that the world has sisting of representatives of two taken to heart the wisdom con- states designed to keep under review tained in the following ricordo of some issue that is a more or less per- *Guicciardini: ‘it is not enough to manent feature of their relation- begin things, give them their direc- ship. Often quite large in tion, and get them moving; you membership and provided with a must also follow them up and co-chair by each side, the joint com- stay with them until the end.’ The mission usually meets on a regular joint commission created under basis although the interval between the Angola/Namibia accords of meetings may be a year or even December 1988 played a critical role more. (2) A body established to in keeping them on course after the oversee the implementation of an renewal of fighting in northern agreement, especially one produced Namibia early in the following year. by a diplomatic breakthrough on a See also eminent persons group; narrow front between still-hostile international organization. parties. Joint commissions of this sort are composed preponderantly Joint Intelligence Committee of specialist representatives of the (JIC). This committee sits at the parties concerned and may include apex of the British *intelligence a neutral element as well. If the dis- community. It serves as both its puted issue concerned armed per- manager and the means by which sonnel, the ameliorative body *intelligence from all sources is might be called a joint military pooled and weighed to provide the commission or committee. Now most objective and complete assess- an important, though surprisingly ment of the most important targets.

151 152 judgment

In the last role it is assisted by the when the parties agree to it. The assessments staff of the Cabinet agreement by which this is done is Office; it reports directly to the called a *compromis or, alterna- Cabinet Secretary. The core mem- tively, a special agreement. Judicial bership of the JIC consists of the settlement is generally conducted heads of the intelligence agencies, on the basis of *international law. together with senior officials from But if they wish, states resorting to the *Foreign and Commonwealth it may provide that the tribunal Office, the Ministry of Defence and proceed *ex aequo et bono. See also the Treasury. It is usually chaired by International Court of Justice. an FCO official. justiciable dispute. One which is judgment. The *binding decision (or considered by the parties to be ‘award’) of an *international judicial capable of settlement by *adjudica- organization or of an arbitral tribunal tion – that is, by *arbitration or on a dispute which has been submit- *judicial settlement. In principle, ted to it. See also advisory opinion. any dispute can be settled on this basis. But if the core of the dispute judicial settlement. The settlement is not about the application or of a dispute by a permanent *inter- interpretation of existing *interna- national judicial body as distinct tional law but reflects dissatisfaction from resort to *arbitration. Except with it, resort to adjudication will to the extent to which two or more not provide a real settlement. Nor states have agreed in advance that a will it do so unless each of the specified class of disputes shall be parties is willing to apply an adverse subject to a particular court’s *com- *judgment. Justiciable disputes are pulsory jurisdiction, this device for sometimes known as legal disputes. *pacific settlement can only be used See also non-justiciable dispute. K

Kaunitz, Count Wenzel Anton versy on this question) of a long von (1711–94). After a career as a Sanskrit text on the science of gov- highly successful Austrian diplomat, ernment which came to modern Kaunitz served as chancellor and eyes only in 1904. Known as the foreign minister under three Arthashastra, this is without doubt Habsburg rulers from 1753 until his one of the earliest extant works of retirement in 1792. He is regarded its kind and has long sections as one of the ablest statesmen of the dealing with foreign policy and war. eighteenth century. He was also Kautilya’s teaching on *statecraft responsible for modernizing the assumes that kings will always want *Ballhausplatz and inspiring to expand their territory and should the foundation of the Akademie thus regard any with whom der Orientalischen Sprachen in 1753, they share a common border as a from which developed Austria’s ‘natural enemy’. Since his interest is training school for consuls and the small state (including the ‘weak diplomats. See also Vienna, Diplo- king’), he places great emphasis on matic Academy of. the use of the *envoy, the duties of whom include ‘sending information Kautilya. Also known as Chanakya to his king, ensuring maintenance and Vishnugupta, Kautilya is gener- of the terms of a treaty, upholding ally believed to have lived some- his king’s honour, acquiring allies, where between approximately 300 instigating dissension among the BC and AD 300 and to have been friends of the enemy, conveying the friend, adviser and first minister secret agents and troops, suborning of Chandragupta Maurya, whom he the kinsmen of the enemy to his helped install as King of Magadha own king’s side, acquiring clandes- in northern India. Kautilya is tinely gems and other valuable remembered today chiefly for his material for his own king, ascertain- reputed authorship (there is contro- ing secret information and showing

153 154 Kellogg Pact valour in liberating hostages’. modern translation with the text Envoys were also of great value in helpfully rearranged and interpreted playing for time. Kautilya taught was produced by the former Indian that an envoy should never be ambassador L. N. Rangarajan in killed even if an outcast, though he 1992. condoned the imprisonment of one who had brought an unwelcome Kellogg Pact. See Briand–Kellogg message. Though the list of duties Pact. prescribed for the envoy by Kautilya do not suggest that the average KGB. The former Soviet agency for mission would be brief, it is also the collection and analysis of both clear that he was not speaking of an *security and *foreign intelligence; envoy who was properly perma- also responsible for *counter- nently resident at a foreign court. espionage, *counter-intelligence and Any lengthy stay was because he *covert action. The acronym is from had been refused permission to the Russian: Komitet Gosudarstvennoye leave, in which case he should use Bezopasnosti (Committee for State every resource at his disposal to Security). Military intelligence was subvert the local king. Though chiefly the responsibility of the Kautilya felt that the giving of Glavnoye Razvedyvatelnoye Upravleniye *hostages was the least satisfactory (GRU). The KGB’s tasks are now exe- way of guaranteeing a treaty, the cuted by the *FSB and the *SVR. See fact that he devoted a whole also GlavUpDK. chapter to the subject suggests, as has been pointed out, that this was a common practice in his time. (The King’s Messenger. See Queen’s first person to offer as a hostage is a Messenger; diplomatic courier. treacherous minister, the last oneself; in between, daughters Kissinger, Henry (1923–). Born of rather than sons, brave sons rather German-Jewish parents who fled to than wise ones, and so on.) As for America in 1938, Henry (formerly the ethics of his statecraft, these are ‘Heinz’) Kissinger was a professor of so repellent that it must be said that international relations at Harvard the common description of Kautilya University until he was invited to be as the ‘Indian *Machiavelli’ is a *National Security Advisor by Richard serious libel on the Florentine Nixon after his victory in the US Secretary. The Arthashastra is a work presidential election in November of great pedantry and replete with 1968. In August 1973 he also became banalities and circular statements. *secretary of state, a position he held Though of little if any enduring the- until the Republicans surrendered the oretical significance, it is neverthe- White House at the beginning of less of great historical interest. A 1977. Kreisky, Bruno 155

A student and admirer of commissioner (other than one to *Metternich, Kissinger brought to the *Queen’s Realms). Nowadays, the formulation of US foreign policy hands are no longer kissed – but the a strong belief in the idea of the terminology is retained. *balance of power (sense 3) at the point in America’s fortunes when it Korean War. The 1950–53 war in seemed that she was becoming just which the United States and a another *major power. During his number of her allies fought, under early years as National Security the auspices of the *United Nations, Advisor, Kissinger was also famous to repel the invasion of the western- for activities, often highly secret, as oriented South Korea by the a *special envoy, particularly in the Communist regime in North Korea. negotiations which led to the ending of the *Vietnam War (for kowtow. The manner in which a which, together with Le Duc Tho, *tributary ruler physically abased he won the *Nobel Peace Prize in himself before the Emperor of 1973) and the opening to the China. The kowtow involved three People’s Republic of China. It was separate kneelings, each followed by this side of his activities which led, three successive prostrations of the as he became a major international body in which the nose came into celebrity, to the popularization of intimate contact with the ground: the term *linkage, and – at least in in all, three kneelings and nine this extreme form – the invention prostrations. This was not popular of *shuttle diplomacy. with the European envoys who For students of Kissinger’s views visited the court of the Celestial on diplomacy and his theory of Empire. See also audience. international relations, probably the most important of his many Kreisky, Bruno (1911–90). Austrian writings are his doctoral thesis, socialist politician, diplomat, and subsequently published under the statesman. On returning to Austria title A World Restored: Metternich, from war exile in Sweden, Kreisky Castlereagh and the Problems of Peace was sent back to serve at the 1812–22 (1957); the first of his three Austrian *legation in Stockholm, volumes of memoirs, The White where he remained from 1947 until House Years (1979); and Diplomacy 1950. In 1951 he joined the Foreign (1994) – in that order. Affairs Department of the Chan- See also salami tactics; step-by-step cellery in Vienna, and remained diplomacy; triangular diplomacy. there until elected to the National Assembly at the beginning of 1956. kissing hands. The British cere- In 1959 he became chair of the mony at which the head of state Sozialdemokratische Partei Österreichs appoints an *ambassador or *high (SPÖ). In the same year he was 156 Kremlin appointed foreign minister and regarded *mediator and without secured the upgrading of the doubt one of the most gifted states- Foreign Affairs Department to a men of the second half of the cabinet ministry in its own right. twentieth century. He remained foreign minister until 1966. In 1967 he was elected leader Kremlin. The ancient citadel in of the SPÖ and in 1970 chancellor Moscow within which, among other of Austria. He held both positions buildings, the offices of the Russian until his retirement in 1983. government are located. It has thus Pursuing a policy of ‘active *neutral- become shorthand for the Russian, ity’ abroad, Kreisky was a highly formerly Soviet, government. L laisser passer. (1) A letter of recom- consular properties abroad from the mendation to the customs author- vast reservoir of foreign credits ities asking that the luggage and accumulated by the United States effects of a *diplomat or *diplomatic during the Second World War. courier be allowed to pass through Following congressional approval in without inspection; it is issued by 1946, the result was an unprece- the embassy of the country which it dented surge in US diplomatic is proposed to enter. (2) A travel building and considerable architec- document issued by *international tural licence in its design. By the organizations to its officials, which time he retired Larkin, who had some states treat as the equivalent travelled the world making deals, of a passport. (3) In some states, a could boast that the Foreign Service document issued to persons residing had acquired 737 buildings abroad, within its border who are not citi- purchased 92 additional sites, and zens. See also diplomatic passport. had 36 new buildings already under construction. See also Inman Larkin, Frederick A. (1887–1975). standards. Originally a construction industry engineer, from 1936 until his retire- Lateran Treaties. The three agree- ment in 1952 Larkin directed the ments which settled the disputes purchase and sale of America’s prompted by the absorption of diplomatic real estate as head of the Papal States by the new state of what latterly came to be known as Italy in the second half of the nine- the US *State Department’s Office of teenth century. They were signed Foreign Buildings Operations (FBO). in the palace of St John Lateran on It was Larkin who first proposed 11 February 1929 by the Italian and then vigorously supported the dictator, Benito Mussolini, and the plan to finance America’s post-war Pope’s secretary of state, Cardinal building of new diplomatic and Gasparri. In addition to a *Concordat

157 158 law-making treaty and a Financial Convention, a imply exclusive influence. It is Political Treaty provided for the full usually the *line ministries (e.g. tran- and independent *sovereignty (sense sport, agriculture) that are described 1) of the papacy within the territory as the lead ministries in their particu- it still retained: *Vatican City. lar sectors within the EU, though obviously there is nothing to prevent law-making treaty. One to which a ministry of *foreign affairs from many states are parties, and so has being the lead ministry in a particu- become widely applicable. However, lar negotiation. it is an unfortunate term in that it implies, incorrectly, that a bilateral league. (1) An old term for an treaty or one with few parties does *alliance, as in the anti-Venetian not, for those parties, constitute League of Cambrai which saw the law. forces of Pope Julius II, Louis of France, Ferdinand of Spain and the Law of Treaties, Vienna Convent- Emperor Maximilian rout the ion on. This Convention, which republic at Aguadello in 1509. (2) was signed in May 1969, brought An old term for a *confederation, as together and tidied up most of the in the cases of Switzerland and the rules of *customary international Swabian League (created in 1488 law regarding *treaties, and ex- and boasting regular meetings, tri- tended a good number of them. It bunals and a common force of was the product of much prepara- infantry and horse). This is the tory work by the *International Law meaning employed by *Machiavelli Commission. It *entered into force in the section of his Discourses in 1980, but has so far been *ratified where he considers the various or acceded to by slightly fewer than methods which a republic might half the world’s sovereign states. employ in order to expand. (3) An However, in large measure it is gen- *international organization, either erally seen as expressive of custom- universal in aspiration, as in the ary law on the subject, and to that *League of Nations, or regional in extent is *binding on all states. scope, as in the *League of Arab States. laws of war. See international humanitarian law. League of Arab States. Founded in 1945 by the seven then-sovereign lead ministry. The ministry with Arab states, it now has 22 members, formal responsibility for a negotia- including the as yet non-sovereign tion. In a negotiation where one Palestine. It seeks to promote closer ministry is allowed to ‘take the lead’, ties between the members and to others are naturally involved; formal coordinate their cultural, economic, responsibility does not, therefore, and security policies. Proposals League of Nations 159 towards this end are the responsibil- blown version of collective security. ity of the League Council, on which And the events leading to the each member is represented and Second World War showed that holds one vote. The Council may states did not feel able fully to meet in the capital of any member honour even the Covenant’s limited state. The League also has a number expression of the idea. Thus so far of specialized ministerial commit- as its primary purpose is concerned, tees which may make suggestions to the League is often said to have the Council. However, especially on failed. But it did not fail in this all issues with a higher profile, the the time, nor in respect of all its League has rarely made much effec- other purposes. And at the level of tive (as distinct from rhetorical) ideas the League undoubtedly progress, due to the considerable reflected something in the nature of animosity which often exists within a revolution which, in the second the Arab world. The League’s head- half of the twentieth century, was quarters and hence its *secretariat to be confirmed and extended – are in Cairo, Egypt. During the notably by the *United Nations. 1980s, however, they were in Tunis, The League came into being in as Egypt was then suspended from 1920 with 42 members. Sub- the League on account of her sequently, 20 other states were having agreed a peace treaty with admitted; 17 departed (as was their Israel. right); and one (the Soviet Union) was deemed to have been expelled. League of Nations. Provided for by All members were represented the peace treaty of 1919 – the Treaty (with one vote each) in the League of Versailles – which brought the Assembly, which immediately Great War to an end, the League of insisted on meeting annually, and Nations was the first general *inter- gave rise to what later became national organization to be charged known as *multilateral (or parlia- with the maintenance of *peace. In mentary) diplomacy. The major vic- this area it represented the break- torious powers were permanent through into the *international members of the League Council society of the idea of *collective (except that the United States could security, suggesting that state prac- not take its seat, as it failed to tice on the fundamental issues of *ratify the Treaty of Versailles), and peace and *war would in future they were later added to; there were proceed on a radically different also some non-permanent (and, basis from what had hitherto been later, semi-permanent) Council orthodox. However, the League’s members. The League was based in *Covenant also reflected the Geneva, Switzerland, where a truly *realism (sense 1) of its makers in international *secretariat was estab- that it did not try to embody a full- lished for the first time. A splendid 160 Least Developed Country (LDC) building was eventually constructed officer within the UN is called the there as the League’s headquarters legal counsel. Since 1989 the legal and meeting place, which was ready advisers of many states have held for occupation in the late 1930s just informal meetings in the margins when the League was fast going of meetings of the Sixth Com- downhill. (It is now the UN’s mittee (Legal) of the UN *General Geneva Office.) The League was Assembly in New York. (2) Any formally wound up in 1946. member of a legal adviser’s office. The League was responsible for the supervision of the *mandate legal dispute. See justiciable system; was given certain protective dispute. tasks in respect of *minorities; acted as the governing authority of legalization. Confirmation that a two territories which were subject public official’s signature, seal to temporary *internationalization; (sense 1), or stamp is genuine. A engaged in much work of a ‘techni- document emanating from within cal’ kind; sponsored a number of one state – a university degree ‘auxiliary’ organizations (some of certificate, for example, or a state- which were the forerunners of the ment made before a legal official, UN’s *specialized agencies); and or a birth certificate – may not be had a close relationship with the accepted in another state without *Permanent Court of International an assurance by the first state of its Justice. See also Briand–Kellogg authenticity. Such an assurance Pact. may be provided (for a fee) by the attachment of a legalization Least Developed Country (LDC). certificate (also called an apostille) One of the 50 or so countries to the document by the legaliza- deemed by the UN Conference on tion office of a ministry of *foreign Trade and Development to be affairs. among the ‘least developed’ coun- tries in the world. Originally legalization office. See legalization. described as the Least [Developed] of the Less Developed Countries legate. (1) From the ancient world (LLDCs). Two-thirds of them are in until the early modern period, Africa. See also Third World. any person sent by any other on diplomatic business. In his De ledger ambassador. See lieger. Legationibus Libri Tres (1585), *Gentili tells us that ‘In Roman law legal adviser. (1) The head of the the technical term for ambassadors office within a ministry of *foreign is legati from legare “to send with a affairs responsible for advice on commission”’. (2) A papal emissary. *international law. The equivalent Entrenched in canon law, the term letter of introduction 161

‘legate’ was still being used by the at anything short of the highest *Holy See in the twentieth century, level. Thus whereas embassies were long after it had fallen into disuse once notable for their pomp – in elsewhere. A papal legate a latere respect of both their premises and (literally, ‘from the side of the their display – it is now by no Pope’) is usually a cardinal means uncommon for such mis- entrusted with a *special mission. sions to be exceedingly small and The legate missus is now described generally lacking in ostentation. as a *nuncio, while the legate natus has no diplomatic status. See also legation quarter. See diplomatic legation; right of legation. quarter. legate a latere. See legate. Less Developed Country (LDC). See Least Developed Country. legation. A *resident or *non- resident *diplomatic mission Lesser Developed Country (LDC). headed by a *minister (sense 1) – A term now used in the United that is, by a *head of mission of the States for *Least Developed second *diplomatic class. Or- Country. dinarily, the minister’s full title is *envoy extraordinary and minister letter of introduction. (1) Where plenipotentiary. Legations used to both the *sending and *receiving be the usual type of diplomatic states are of the *Queen’s Realms – mission, *embassies being ex- that is, where The Queen who is changed only between *major ordinarily resident in Britain is the powers. However, since the Second *head of state of both of them – it is World War they have gone dramati- not thought possible for a new cally out of fashion. The process *head of mission to carry a *letter of seems to have begun during the commission addressed by The war, when, with the agreement of Queen (as head of state of the the *receiving state, virtually all sending state) to herself (as head of legations in Washington were raised state of the receiving state). Instead, to embassies in an effort by the head of mission is supplied with *sending states to emphasize the a letter of introduction written by importance they attached to their the sending state’s *head of govern- relationship with the United States. ment (the prime minister) to his or Later, the speedy ending of colo- her counterpart in the receiving nialism greatly accelerated the state. This letter is not deemed to be process, as the ex-colonial territories a formal document and therefore, which were now *sovereign states in being described, is referred to regarded it as damaging to their with the first letters of the words pride and dignity to be represented ‘letter’ and ‘introduction’ in lower 162 letter of protection case (unlike the usual letters relating to a subject of the sultan by an to accreditation, which attract embassy in Istanbul, is a notable capital letters). Such a head of example. Originally deriving from mission, being from one *Com- the *exequaturs issued by the monwealth state to another, will be Ottoman authorities through the called a *high commissioner. This embassies in the city and intended form of accreditation was adopted for the protection of consuls and in the early 1950s, when the adop- *dragomans, these documents came tion of letters of commission for the to be the object of serious abuse in exchange of heads of mission the eighteenth century. Among between certain Commonwealth others who had not the remotest states focused attention on the fact connection with diplomatic or con- that as between other such states sular work, non-Muslim merchants, there was no standard form of such as Armenians and Greeks, were accreditation for heads of mission. especially attracted by the berãt It emerged that some heads were because it exempted them from supplied with a letter from their Ottoman taxes, the discriminatory prime minister to the receiving practices of the sultan’s courts, and state’s prime minister; others with a the non-Muslim dress code, which letter from their *foreign minister to advertised their minority status in a the receiving state’s foreign minis- crowd and thus sometimes put their ter; and yet others with no form of safety at risk. For their part, the accreditation at all. The general ambassadors saw the berãts as an adoption of a letter of introduction important source of income, selling by the relevant states thus tidied up them for substantial sums and this aspect of diplomatic procedure. expecting presents from their berãtli See also letters of recall. (2) The term (holders of berãts) when newly used by Britain for the *credentials arrived in the city. In the eigh- given to her *permanent representa- teenth century Istanbul and cities tives to *international organiza- such as Aleppo were awash with tions. holders of berãts, the market prices of which were an accurate barome- letter of protection. (1) A docu- ter of the degree of respect in which ment testifying that the bearer the *Sublime Porte held the issuing enjoys the diplomatic and consular embassy. At the beginning of the protection of the issuing authority, nineteenth century Russian berãts normally a foreign state. Letters of were the most expensive. The this kind have played a significant Ottoman government hated the role in modern history and, not sur- system, as did some ambassadors, prisingly, have proved controver- and it was finally abolished in the sial. The berãt of the Ottoman early nineteenth century. Another Empire, which was commonly sold notable letter of protection was the letters of credence 163 schutzbrief, over 50,000 of which that the head of mission sent were famously issued to Jews by by one Commonwealth state to Carl Lutz, Swiss Consul in Budapest another was (and is) called a *high during the last years of the Second commissioner; and the thought that World War. They provided a guar- the more usual term for such docu- antee that the bearer was under the ments, *letters of credence, was protection of Switzerland until he inappropriate for the special rela- or she was able to leave Hungary. tionship which was then deemed to Diplomats of many other nationali- exist between Commonwealth ties resident in Nazi-occupied members, even when one of those Europe also issued, without author- members had broken with tradition ity from home, thousands of *visas by becoming a republic. Now, to Jews threatened with the death republics are in a large majority in camps, at considerable risk to their the Commonwealth; and it may be careers and in some cases their lives. doubted whether the relationship See also protecting power; safe- between Commonwealth states is, conduct. (2) A letter that confirmed in political terms, particularly that all of the lands and possessions special. Nonetheless, the terminol- of an envoy were under the special ogy adopted in 1950 is maintained protection of his monarch while he (although in informal contexts the was absent on diplomatic business. document may be referred to as Issued to envoys prior to their ‘credentials’). The use of the plural, departure, these were no doubt ‘letters’, in this context is in imita- designed to reduce resistance to this tion of its general use in the term, kind of employment. Such letters ‘letters of credence’. But sometimes were a particular feature of the the singular form, ‘letter of commis- medieval period. sion’, is encountered. letters of commission. Except letters of credence. The *creden- where a *letter of introduction is tials with which a newly appointed appropriate, a new *head of mission *ambassador (as distinct from a sent by one *Commonwealth state *high commissioner) is furnished. to another carries letters of commis- They take the form of a letter sion from the *sending state’s *head (although the plural is generally of state to the *receiving state’s used) in which (to use typical head of state. The term came into wording) the *sending state’s *head use as from 1950 to accommodate of state asks his or her counterpart the presence, for the first time, of a in the *receiving state to ‘give entire republic – India – as a member of credence to all that [the ambas- the Commonwealth. The exact sador] shall have occasion to com- phraseology which was adopted (at municate to you in my name’. They India’s suggestion) reflected the fact are a specific (and often rather 164 letters of recall colourful) instance of the general head of mission as fully *en poste as rule that any *agent (senses 1 and from the date on which (as was cus- 2) needs to carry documents of tomary) he notified the receiving authentication. It should be noted, state’s foreign ministry of his arrival however, that in the case of the and furnished the ministry with a despatch of an ambassador by one *working copy of his letters of cre- of the *Queen’s Realms, the letters dence. This has now been accepted may – if the sending state so wishes as legitimate, and appears to be quite – be signed by its *governor-general widely followed. However, each in the name and on behalf of the receiving state must adopt a uniform head of state (the Queen). And in practice in the matter. some other monarchical states the It is not known whether the letters may be countersigned by the Democratic Republic of the Congo prime minister or foreign minister. (the ex-Belgian Congo) had, by In the days when *ministers (sense 1965, adopted the practice of allow- 1) were appointed as *heads of ing an ambassador to act as such mission, they too carried letters of before presenting his letters of cre- credence of the type given to ambas- dence. (Its attitude to such matters sadors, announcing the minister as was said to have been ‘flexible’.) But the representative of the sending in that year the country’s President state’s head of state. But a *chargé asked the newly arrived Canadian d’affaires en titre (another virtually Ambassador to visit him urgently in extinct breed of head of mission) advance of the credentials cere- was accredited not to the head of mony. He had a small favour to ask: state but to the receiving state’s the transmission by diplomatic bag foreign minister. Accordingly, his of $400 (US) to his son, who was credentials were furnished by the studying in Ottawa and had run sending state’s foreign minister for short of cash. The Ambassador presentation to his counterpart in readily agreed. A few hours later the receiving state. news arrived at the Embassy that a Traditionally, a head of mission new, and earlier, date had been could not assume his full functions fixed for the presentation of the until he had presented his creden- Ambassador’s letters of credence. tials. This could and still can some- See also letters of commission; times result in a fairly lengthy period letter of introduction; presenta- in limbo for the head of mission des- tion of credentials; representative ignate, while he awaited the conve- character. nience of the receiving state’s head of state. Taking advantage of an letters of recall. The formal letter ambiguity in the *Regulation of (although the plural is generally Vienna (1815), some states therefore used) sent by the *sending state’s adopted the practice of treating the *head of state to that of the *receiv- Levant Consular Service 165 ing state announcing that a *head other regal flourishes. Normally of mission is being *recalled (sense countersigned by the *foreign min- 2). Usually that letter is presented to ister (sense 1), the lettre de *chancel- the head of state by the incoming lerie could serve a variety of head of mission, together with his purposes, including provision of the or her *letters of credence. It should *credentials of a *diplomatic agent, be noted, however, that the depar- recall of the agent, and so on. Never ture of a *high commissioner from common, it was a form used more one of the *Queen’s Realms to when there was a discrepancy in another (who, on appointment, is rank between sender and receiver, furnished not with letters of cre- and typically when the monarch dence but with a *letter of introduc- was communicating with the presi- tion) is not marked by the issue of dent of a republic. See also lettre de the equivalent of letters of recall. See cabinet. also recredential. lettre de part. See diplomatic letter of request. See rogatory letter. courier. letter rogatory. See rogatory letter. lettre de récréance. See recredential. lettre de cabinet. Compared to the Levant Consular Service. One of *lettre de chancellerie, a relatively several specialized sections of the familiar and informal style of com- British network of *consuls in the munication and thus the most nineteenth and early twentieth cen- common form of communication turies, the Levant Service covered between *monarchs regarding the Ottoman Empire and its fringes, themselves as equals (‘Monsieur mon or what today is called the Balkans, frère’, or ‘cousin’, or ‘ma soeur’, etc.). Turkey and the Middle East. It grew It is also written on smaller paper out of the consular posts inherited and by no means always counter- from the Levant Company in 1825, signed by a government minister. It though it was not formally consti- could serve many purposes, includ- tuted as a reformed separate service ing provision of the *credentials of employing natural-born British sub- a *diplomatic agent, recall of the jects until 1877. With heavy (espe- agent, the expression of condo- cially judicial) responsibilities under lences on a death, and so on. the *capitulations and mounting political tasks as Anglo-Russian lettre de chancellerie. The most cer- rivalry increased, the Levant Service emonious form in which a commu- was exceptionally large, elaborate nication from a monarch could be and expensive; its consuls also had presented, resplendent with the a higher status than those in the titles of the sending sovereign and general service and by the First 166 levee

World War had replaced the China linkage. So called by Henry Service, the other main specialized *Kissinger, the simultaneous negoti- service, as the most prestigious ation of two or more unrelated element in the whole consular issues, with agreement on one being establishment. Because of the made conditional on agreement on ending of the capitulations, among the other. This approach is deeply other reasons, the independent offensive to those who believe that Levant Consular Service was amal- all issues should be treated ‘on their gamated with the General Consular merits’. A classic case was provided Service in 1934. by the negotiations in the 1980s which linked the South African levee. (1) Originally a seventeenth presence in Namibia to the Cuban century term meaning a morning presence in Angola. South Africa assembly or reception of visitors eventually withdrew from Namibia (including diplomatic envoys) held not because it acknowledged a legal by a prince on rising from his bed obligation to do so but because – (from the French ‘se lever’, to rise or among other reasons – it was get up). (2) Levee, or levée, subse- offered the Cuban withdrawal from quently came to mean a reception Angola in exchange. See also of visitors by a prince or president, Homans’s theorem; package deal. or the representative of either, at any time of day. listening device. One used by a *receiving state, contrary to interna- tional law, to overhear conversation liaison office. See representative within a diplomatic mission or to office. intercept its messages. Also known as a ‘bug’, such devices have some- lieger. Late medieval/early modern times (especially during the *Cold usage for an *ordinary, resident War) been implanted in *diplomatic envoy, as in the term ‘lieger ambas- premises during the course of sador’. Sometimes spelled ‘ledger’ or their construction. See also bubble; ‘ligier’ (for example by *Hotman), it freedom of communication. derives from ‘ledger’ meaning a book that lies permanently in some listening post. A diplomatic or con- place. sular mission which gives particular emphasis to, and is of unusual limited sovereignty. See Brezhnev importance for, gathering informa- Doctrine. tion. The missions of some states at the UN in New York are sometimes line ministry. Alternatively ‘line described in this way, though it is department’, any ministry other more usual to come across the term than the foreign ministry. in connection with missions located Locarno, spirit of 167 adjacently to territories into which localitis’, the opposite of localitis. access is difficult if not impossible. This is the adoption by diplomats of Such was the case with the US lega- an attitude of undiscriminating hos- tion in Riga, Latvia, in regard to tility to the interests and policies of American information-gathering on the host state, caused by unfriendly the Soviet Union in the 1920s and treatment or harsh or primitive con- early 1930s, and also with the US ditions of life in the state con- consulate-general in Hong Kong in cerned. See also hardship post. regard to mainland China prior to the Sino-American rapprochement locally engaged staff. Normally, in the early 1970s. See also China members of the staff of a *diplo- Watchers; Henderson. matic mission or *consular post who are nationals of or perma- lobbying. Applying pressure on nently resident in the *receiving those with legislative or executive state. However, this category may authority to obtain a decision also include those employed by a favourable to one’s cause. Deriving mission who are spouses of from the habit of those petitioners members of the *diplomatic staff or, who sought to catch British legisla- for example, spouses of business- tors outside the chamber of the men or women from the sending House of Commons, that is to say state who are doing a limited tour in the lobby, lobbying is usually a of duty in the country concerned. major preoccupation of *diplomatic Although, with the consent of the missions. receiving state, its citizens may be employed as *diplomatic agents, local diplomatic rank. See diplo- this is rare. Hence, the vast majority matic rank. of locally engaged staff are to be found among the ranks of the localitis. The adoption by diplo- *administrative and technical and mats of the point of view of the the *service staff, and among the government of the *receiving state, ranks of any private servants. See traditionally assumed to be the also dragoman; honorary consular result of having been posted there officer; proxenos; Wicquefort. for too long. Sometimes known as ‘going native’, this is the chief Locarno, spirit of. An atmosphere reason why diplomats now tend, at of reconciliation and *détente. It some cost in the waste of acquired derives from the Pact of Locarno, expertise, to be rotated between dif- which comprised a whole series ferent regions and not spend longer of interlocking treaties *initialled than three or four years at the same in the Swiss town of Locarno in *post. Another reason for short 1925 (and *signed in London terms of duty in some posts is ‘anti- shortly afterwards). The Pact 168 Lomé Convention brought Germany out of the purdah and 71 developing countries in to which she had been consigned Africa, the Caribbean and the following the First World War, and Pacific. was hailed as ‘the real dividing line between the years of war and the London Gazette. See gazette. years of peace’. In 1953 Winston Churchill, as his last prime ministe- Luxembourg compromise (1966). rial years were coming to an end, The understanding arrived at by the unsuccessfully sought high-level six member states of the *European East–West talks in the hope that the Economic Community that each spirit of Locarno might thereby be could *veto any key decision of the regenerated. *Council of Ministers. This ended the crisis of the previous year pro- Lomé Convention (1975). So voked by the French government’s called because signed in Lomé, the decision to boycott all meetings of capital of Togo, this is a com- the Council in protest at the prehensive trade and aid agreement prospect of a shift to majority between the *European Union states voting in January 1966. M

Maastricht, Treaty of (1992). The ought to be. It thus scandalized the Treaty on European Union (TEU), as Church, and his name became a it is formally styled, was finally byword for cunning, deceit and settled at a *European Council ruthlessness. His most important meeting in Maastricht in the work, however, is to be found in the Netherlands in December 1991. It Discourses on the First Ten Books of was then *signed on 7 February Titus Livy, where he uses the Roman 1992 and *entered into force in historian as a foil to advance his November 1993. It marked the own political theory. Machiavelli’s largest advance in European integra- diplomatic *despatches to the tion since the foundation of the Florentine signoria from other *Common Market, providing for Italian city states and from France both Economic and Monetary and Germany, together with the Union (EMU) and the creation of *instructions with which he was the *European Union via addition supplied, are to be found in two of of two new ‘*pillars’ of policy coop- the four volumes of his works trans- eration to the existing economic lated into English in the late nine- one (Pillar One): *Common Foreign teenth century under the title The and Security Policy (Pillar Two), and Historical, Political, and Diplomatic Justice and Home Affairs (Pillar Writings of Niccolo Machiavelli, vols Three). III and IV (‘The Missions’). More interested in military than diplo- Machiavelli, Niccolò (1469–1527). matic technique, Machiavelli’s only A Florentine diplomat, civil servant, explicit reflection on the last (and playwright, and political and mili- that entirely conventional) is to be tary theorist. Machiavelli is now found in his letter of 1522 which best known for his short book The was subsequently entitled ‘Advice Prince, which analysed the political to Raffaello Girolami when he went world as it was rather than as it as Ambassador to the Emperor’.

169 170 major power

Nevertheless, Machiavelli is impor- words of the *Covenant of the tant for students of diplomacy League of Nations, ‘not yet able to because not only was he the first stand by themselves under the of the *realists (sense 1) but, as strenuous conditions of the modern Meinecke points out, ‘the first world’. Their well-being was stated person to discover the real nature of to be ‘a sacred trust of civilization’, *raison d’état’. See also Guicciardini. and was to be placed in the hands of certain ‘advanced’ (and victori- major power. A convenient term ous) states who would govern on now sometimes used to describe the the basis of a mandate formally half-dozen or so most powerful granted by the Council of the states in the contemporary world. It League, but in the drafting of which does not carry the historical the prospective mandatory had a baggage of the term *great power, large hand. while its vagueness permits it to The mandatories were obliged to embrace the one remaining *super- report annually to the League, power – the United States – and its which established the Permanent nearest rivals, together with power- Mandates Commission to examine ful states who do not have perma- the reports on its behalf and advise nent seats on the UN *Security it on the execution of the man- Council as well as those that do. In dates. The Commission was com- effect, if ‘superpower’ is regarded as posed of independent experts, with a synonym for ‘great power’, the nationals of non-mandatories in the category of ‘major power’ covers majority. It was not, however, a both the great powers and the very intrusive form of international upper *middle powers. See also per- supervision, and one well-placed manent members. observer (Salvador de Madariaga, a former member of the League’s Malmesbury, First Earl of. See Secretariat) said of the system that Harris, Sir James. ‘the old hag of colonialism puts on a fig leaf and calls herself mandate’. mandates. Territories placed under By the time the League was the *mandates system. wound up in 1946 a few mandates had become *sovereign states. Those mandates system. At the end of the that remained were transferred to First World War the defeated states the UN *trusteeship system, other were stripped of their *colonies and than South West Africa, as South imperial territories. But, in a depar- Africa (the mandatory power) ture from previous practice, the vic- would not agree to this. torious powers did not feel able straightforwardly to *annex those of manual of military law. See mili- them whose peoples were, in the tary manual. memorandum of understanding (MOU) 171 marshal of the diplomatic corps. commit a category error. A so-called The British official who oversees ‘mediator’ who adopts a partisan ceremonial occasions which involve attitude succeeds merely in render- both the state and members of the ing the negotiation an exercise in London *diplomatic corps. Thus, for ordinary *multilateral diplomacy.) example, the marshal organizes and Not to be confused with *concilia- is in attendance at the *presentation tion or *good offices, this strict of letters of credence. Traditionally concept of mediation is the older – a retired armed services officer, he is and still a very common – usage. a member of that part of the Royal (2) On a more recent and looser Household which is called the Lord usage, any diplomatic activity by an Chamberlain’s office. However, it intermediary, of whatever quality or should be noted that the day-to-day degree, which is designed to functions of the marshal are promote a negotiated settlement to performed by the *Protocol a conflict. See also venue. Department of the *Foreign and Commonwealth Office under the medium power. See middle power. supervision of a director (formerly assistant under-secretary), who also megaphone diplomacy. A term has the title ‘vice-marshal of the applied to the style of public diplomatic corps’. exchanges in the early 1980s between the Soviet Union on the mediation. (1) The active search for one hand and the United States and a negotiated settlement to an inter- the United Kingdom on the other. national or intrastate conflict by an The low-point of all this was proba- impartial *third party. The search is bly President Reagan’s speech before ‘active’ in the sense that the work of the British House of Commons in the intermediary may go so far as to June 1982 which referred to the involve drawing up the *agenda, Soviet Union as an ‘Evil Empire’. See calling and chairing negotiating ses- also propaganda; public diplomacy. sions, proposing solutions, and employing threats and promises mémoire. See aide-mémoire. towards the rivals. It is now a matter of controversy whether the memorandum. See aide-mémoire. mediator need be impartial prior to the start of negotiations but there is memorandum of understanding still general agreement on its neces- (MOU). A document which sets out sity once they have commenced. an understanding reached between (To suggest that partisanship for two states as to their international one side in a conflict is a necessary commitments regarding some or at least advantageous attribute of matter, but which does so in a way a mediator – as some do – is to which indicates that the under- 172 memorial standing is not legally *binding. In MI5. The popular name for the other words, it is not a *treaty – Security Service, Britain’s *counter- although, confusingly, some treaties intelligence and counter-terrorism are called memoranda of under- agency. standing. Like a treaty, an MOU may be given a name other than MI6. See Secret Intelligence Service that. An MOU can take the form (SIS). either of a single document or of an exchange of *notes (sense 2). micro-mission. A term sometimes used to describe a very small memorial. An older term for a mission or office established by the *note or memorandum. sending state in the receiving state, consisting of perhaps just one or two *diplomatic service personnel Mendoza, Don Bernadino de. See and a few *locally engaged staff. It Gentili. may be a *resident diplomatic mission with an ambassadorial messenger. See diplomatic courier; head, a *satellite office, or a *con- herald; Queen’s Messenger. sular post.

Metternich, Prince Klemens von micro-state. Often understood to (1773–1859). A diplomat and mean a state with under one statesman of the Austrian Empire. million inhabitants. A term with a Metternich’s ambassadorships incl- roughly similar meaning is ‘mini- uded Paris, where he obtained a state’. close view of Napoleon. In 1809 he was appointed foreign minister and middle power. Sometimes known in 1821 chancellor, and held both as a ‘medium power’, a state which posts until driven into exile in is regarded as being in the second 1848. Deeply conservative in his rank after the *great powers/*super- views, Metternich presided over the powers but has sufficient weight Congress of *Vienna in 1815 and within its own region to be consid- was without doubt one of the great ered a ‘regional great power’. A architects of the restoration of the good example is South Africa in international order which had been southern Africa. The status of mangled so effectively in the French middle power was implicitly recog- revolutionary wars. This impressed nized by the creation of semi- Henry *Kissinger, who made him permanent seats on the Council of the central figure in his Harvard the *League of Nations in 1926, doctorate. See also Talleyrand. though the subsequent efforts of Canada and Australia (sometimes MFA. See foreign affairs, ministry of. described as ‘the original middle minder 173 powers’) to have priority given to military observer group. A group of this class of states in elections to military officers charged with moni- non-permanent seats on the UN toring a *ceasefire or an *armistice. *Security Council did not prove They are usually from the army and successful. The interesting theory of middling rank, and seconded on has been advanced that middle an individual basis. Used by the UN powers are predisposed to excep- in relation to a number of disputes, tional international virtue since the almost invariable practice is they have insufficient power to for the officers to be unarmed. See foster ‘imperialist’ policies but also chief military observer; observer enough to make them good sol- mission; peacekeeping; special rep- diers on behalf of the UN. resentative. military adviser. See military Military Staff Committee. The attaché. body provided for by the UN *Charter to assist the *Security Council in matters relating to *col- military attaché. Usually an army lective security. In practice the com- officer temporarily attached to a mittee has not yet been called upon *diplomatic mission, although an so to act. individual listed as ‘Naval and Military Attaché’, for example, could millet. In the Ottoman Empire, a be a naval officer assigned the task group granted extensive self-govern- of representing the army as well; ment under a religious leader in known in the US Foreign Service as return for its support of the sultan. an ‘army attaché’ and in at least one Orthodox Christians, Armenians, other diplomatic service as an ‘army Jews and the other major non- adviser’. As between member states Muslim minorities benefited under of the *Commonwealth, the equiva- the millet system. It was of diplo- lent individual is designated as a matic significance because the ‘military adviser’. See also service sultan’s government tended to attaché. think of the European trading com- munities and their diplomatic military manual. The volume con- heads, starting with the Venetians taining a state’s instructions to its and their *baillo, as ‘millets’. See senior military personnel on the also capitulations. conduct of *war or *armed conflict in accordance with *international minder. A colloquial expression for humanitarian law. a person employed in certain coun- tries to subject a diplomat’s move- military observer. A member of a ments outside embassy premises to *military observer group. ‘visual surveillance’. 174 mini-state mini-state. See micro-state. ministry of foreign affairs (MFA). See foreign affairs, ministry of. minister. (1) The abbreviated title of the head of a *legation. The minorities treaties. The term given full title is *envoy extraordinary to a number of special *treaties, and minister plenipotentiary. (2) In special chapters inserted in treaties, *diplomatic ranks, that which lies and *declarations (sense 3) made below *ambassador (sense 1) and shortly after the ending of the First above *counsellor (or, where it is World War, in which certain used, above *minister-counsellor). (chiefly central and east European) (3) A member of a government. A states undertook obligations in minister in this sense is therefore a respect of their nationals belonging politician and not an *official. See to racial, religious, and linguistic also public minister. minorities, and which conferred on the *League of Nations the right to minister-counsellor. In the *diplo- engage in some protective measures matic ranks (sense 1) of some states, in respect of the implementation of a position which lies beneath that those obligations. The League set up of *minister (sense 2) and above a system of committees to examine that of *counsellor. petitions alleging breaches of the treaties, and gave publicity to those minister-in-attendance. A *minis- complaints which were deemed to ter (sense 3) accompanying a *head be justified. The obligations had of state on a *state visit. been more or less exacted from the states concerned, and with the minister plenipotentiary. A lesser passage of time were increasingly *diplomatic rank (sense 1) used in resented. For their part, the minori- the seventeenth and eighteenth ties often complained about the centuries, but now obsolete. insufficiency of the protection. In the 1920s it is likely that the system minister resident. A term for helped to protect minorities against *heads of mission of the third some graver forms of injustice. But *diplomatic class agreed by the with the subsequent decline of the powers at the Congress of Aix-la- League the system became increas- Chapelle in 1818. In direct line of ingly irrelevant. descent from the *resident, the min- When the *United Nations was ister resident was still noted in the established, no attempt was made early editions of *Satow’s Guide but to revive the system for the protec- had disappeared by the time of the tion of minorities, this being virtu- Vienna Convention on Diplomatic ally the only aspect of the League’s Relations (1961). See also Regulation work which found no reflection in of Vienna (1815). the structure of the UN. In part mission 175 this was because the Second World minutes. (1) A record of the pro- War did not result in the creation ceedings of a meeting or con- of new states, from which such ference, with any decisions undertakings could be demanded; highlighted; thus sometimes known in part because of the general as ‘conclusions’. In French the term unpopularity of restrictions being is procès-verbal. Minutes usually placed upon *domestic jurisdic- provide a summary of the proceed- tion. Moreover, on this last matter ings but occasionally these are the new states which later emerged recorded verbatim (word for word). from the breakdown of colonialism It is customary for an official of the were particularly sensitive. None- party acting as host formally to theless, the UN’s increasing em- record the minutes and circulate a phasis on the protection of draft after the meeting for the *human rights has helped to approval of the other participants. provide a little protection for some Agreed minutes may constitute a minorities. The *Organization for *treaty if this is the intention of the Security and Cooperation in parties. (2) The plural of *minute: Europe has established the post of ‘The minutes on the jacket contain- High Commissioner on National ing the last despatch from Rome Minorities to identify and promote suggest a clear division of opinion the resolution of ethnic tension within the Office!’ which might endanger peace and stability. And in 1999 *NATO went mise en demeure [de faire quelque to great lengths to protect the chose]. A formal demand made of Kosovan minority in Serbia. Mino- a government to do something, rities have not, therefore, been usually to agree to a proposal with- wholly forgotten. out conditions or make a plain state- ment of its intentions. Harold minute. In British Diplomatic *Nicolson, who includes the term in Service usage, any kind of written the glossary of his book on Diplo- communication between officers macy, says that the tone of such a within the *Foreign and Com- demand is ‘curt’. monwealth Office or between officers within the same mission. mission. (1) Sometimes ‘overseas What in a business corporation or mission’, a generic term usually other kind of organization is nor- restricted to resident *diplomatic mally now called a ‘memo’ (internal missions and *consular posts but memorandum), the minute may be including those of a less conven- either formal or informal, and is tional nature as well, such as *inter- used even to designate something as ests sections and *representative small as a one-line observation on offices. See also permanent mission; an incoming *telegram. special mission. (2) In American 176 modus vivendi usage, the term is also employed to define its stated subject matter, signify the complete roster of per- none of which has ever com- sonnel – military as well as civilian manded general assent. Partly this is – supervised by the US *head of because some such alleged rights mission accredited to a particular and duties are virtually self-evident; state. and partly – and more importantly – because of the difficulty of getting modus vivendi. A temporary or wide agreement on what rights and provisional agreement, this is an duties are basic. older term for what is now The Convention is, however, more usually styled an *interim often quoted for its statement that agreement. for a territorial entity to be an *international person it needs a monarchy. That system of govern- permanent population, a defined ment in which supreme authority is territory, a government, and the vested by the state’s constitution in capacity to enter into relations a single and usually hereditary with other states. This last re- figure, such as a king or queen. quirement, of course, is another Once the common form of govern- way of referring to *sovereignty ment, monarchies are now rela- (sense 1). tively rare; and the authority vested in the monarch is almost invariably most favoured nation clause of a formal kind only. (mfn). A feature of commercial treaties, this is a clause which monitors. See election monitoring; amounts to an undertaking made observer mission. by one party to a second that any more favourable trade concession Monroe Doctrine. The doctrine (as which it might make in the future it later became known) enunciated to a third would automatically in 1823 by President James Monroe apply to it as well. This grew in of the United States in which that importance in the period between state’s opposition to European the First and Second World Wars encroachment in the Western and its general application became Hemisphere was proclaimed. See the principle on which the General also sphere of influence. Agreement on Tariffs and Trade, now superseded by the *World Montevideo Convention on the Trade Organization, operated. Rights and Duties of States (1933). A *treaty signed by the United multilateral diplomacy. Diplo- States and certain Latin American macy conducted via conferences states. It was preceded and has been attended by three or more states, as followed by other such attempts to distinct from *bilateral diplomacy Munich agreement 177

(both senses). Multilateral confer- Convention on *Diplomatic Relati- ences vary enormously in size, level ons, multiple accreditation of this of attendance, longevity, and extent kind has always been popular with of bureaucratization, from small ad smaller states because of the cost- hoc conferences to huge ones with savings which it permits but in a wide-ranging agenda, such as the recent years has been resorted to by annual sessions of the UN *General larger states as well. (2) The accred- Assembly. See also open diplomacy; iting of the same person by two or parliamentary diplomacy. more states as head of mission to another state. Because of the great multinational corporation (MNC). confidence and unanimity of out- A business corporation which has a look which must obtain between visible and significant wealth-gener- states before they can embark on ating presence in more than one this course, this is rare. There are state or, in other words, engages to some signs, however, that the a significant degree in direct (as *European Union may experiment opposed to indirect or portfolio) with this procedure. See also cut- foreign investment. The term price diplomacy. ‘multinational’ may suggest that the directors and senior managers of multitrack diplomacy. One negoti- these companies are representative ation pursued along several differ- of the countries in which they ent tracks. This includes most operate, whereas in fact they still characteristically the efforts of tend to be dominated by personnel private individuals, churches and from the MNC’s country of origin. other *non-governmental organiza- It is to avoid this misleading tions, banks and *multinational cor- impression that some, including the porations. It might be said that the UN, prefer the term ‘transnational agreement which ended the war in corporation’ (TNC). Kosovo in 1999 was a product of multitrack diplomacy, not least multiple accreditation. (1) The because of the key role believed to accrediting of a diplomat to two or have been played in securing it more states or *international orga- by a Swedish-born financier and nizations. In the usual case, an investment banker whose company ambassador is resident in the was based in London. See also capital of one of the states to which mediation. he or she is accredited, while the other(s) are in the same region. If the capital is host to an interna- Munich agreement. The agree- tional organization he or she may ment between Britain, France, well be accredited to this as well. Germany and Italy in September Expressly sanctioned by the Vienna 1938 which approved Germany’s 178 municipal law plan to *annex certain areas of municipal law. That system of law Czechoslovakia. It led to ‘Munich’ which operates within a *state. It is (the city in which the agreement sometimes spoken of as domestic was signed) becoming almost a law. See also international law and synonym for *appeasement. municipal law. N name of a state. In the normal way of that name. It may therefore be it is entirely up to each *state to necessary for the *sending state to determine its own name and titles, make do, *ad interim, with the and international *comity suggests despatch of a *chargé d’affaires en that other states respect that choice. titre, whose *credentials, being However, problems sometimes arise addressed to the *foreign minister when the chosen name is in a form and not the *head of state, do not which another state finds repugnant need to recite the state’s full titles. because, for example, it appears to This situation arose with regard to conflict with that state’s own con- Italy after its claim, in 1936, to have stitutional or political claims, or annexed Abyssinia. Rather similarly, conflicts with its view of the legiti- Ireland’s insistence after 1937 that macy of a specific situation. The its name was simply that (‘Ireland’) areas in which problems may led to difficulties with those express themselves include: the *Commonwealth states whose head *accreditation of *heads of mission, of state assertedly was sovereign of, the making of *treaties, and the inter alia, the United Kingdom of name whereby a state is known in Great Britain and Northern Ireland. an *international organization. If, The credentials issue was resolved, for example, a state’s purported but for a number of years Britain’s *annexation of a territory is not rec- head of mission to Ireland had to ognized by another state, the be known there as the British second state will not be able to Representative. In a rather different include the name of the territory in sphere, the claim of the former the titles of the first state when Yugoslav province of Macedonia, accrediting a new head of mission; after it had become sovereign in and the *receiving state may refuse 1991, to the name, simply, of to accept the new head without the Macedonia, gave great offence to inclusion in his *letters of credence Greece, on both historical and polit-

179 180 nation ical grounds. The issue held up the Britain. But an exception was made state’s membership of the UN, and in respect of permanent missions to when she was admitted in 1993 it international organizations and del- was by the name which other states egations to conferences, so as not to have since generally used: the lose the advantage in such contexts Former Yugoslav Republic of of the British representative sitting Macedonia. It also delayed the con- next to the representative of the clusion of a *status of forces agree- United States (or, sometimes, ment in respect of the UN’s almost next, Tanzania having since Preventive Deployment operation inconveniently called itself the in Macedonia. ‘United Republic of Tanzania’). A state’s *diplomatic mission, Thus, while a capital city may have *permanent mission, or *delegation a ‘British Embassy’ or a ‘British High will in the normal way bear the Commission’, Britain’s permanent state’s official name, as in ‘Embassy mission to the UN is that of the of France’. But occasionally another, ‘United Kingdom’. easily recognizable, name may be See also alphabetical seating; used. Thus at the 1907 *Hague colony. Conference, which was attended by many Latin American states (at that nation. (1) An aggregation of time an unusual event), the United people who, as the result of having States decided that its name (in certain important phenomena in French, the *diplomatic language common – such as descent, lan- [sense 1] of the day) did not guage, history, culture, or simply begin with États-Unis but with feeling – assert that collectively they Amerique, so giving it a higher place constitute a *national (sense 1) unit. at the conference table than such See also self-determination. (2) A states as Argentina, Brazil, and popular synonym for *sovereign Chile. During the early 1960s state (sometimes extended to Britain – which is formally, in short- ‘nation-state’). ened form, the ‘United Kingdom’ – decided, first in respect of its national. (1) The adjectival form of *Commonwealth posts and later in *nation (sense 1). (2) A subject or respect of its embassies and con- citizen of a particular *state. sulates, that ‘Britain’ and ‘British’ would be substituted for the use of national day. The annual occasion the United Kingdom as both a noun when a *head of mission holds a and an adjective (other than in reception to celebrate a date of great formal legal documents where the national significance. This is usually full title was required), notwith- independence day, the birthday of standing the fact that strictly speak- a monarch, or the anniversary of ing Northern Ireland is not part of the revolution which brought the national security advisor 181 government to power. Ireland cele- nationality. (1) The *national brates St Patrick’s Day. To these (sense 1) collectivity to which a occasions it is normal to invite person claims to belong. (2) The members of the *receiving state’s state of which a person is a citizen government and other local digni- or subject. taries, other heads of mission, and the local *expatriate community. national judge. A judge appointed National day celebrations can by a party to a contentious case at present problems for heads of mis- the *International Court of Justice sions. Invitations to opposition when the bench of the Court does leaders in some countries can lead not include a judge of that *state’s to threats to boycott the occasion *nationality (sense 2). Thus, when by the receiving state, while the neither party has a judge of its need to employ a selective guest list nationality on the bench, each may where the entire expatriate commu- appoint a national judge. Such a nity is too large to accommodate at judge does not necessarily have to the function can generate ferocious be (but in fact generally is) of the ill will on the part of those left out – same nationality as the appointing and little good will on the part of party. This arrangement is a conces- those included, since they expect to sion to the fact that, although all be there as of right. As for the judges on the Court sit as inde- national day parties of other ambas- pendent individuals and not as the sadors, attendance at these has representatives of their states, in become more and more exhausting practice the judges tend to espouse as the number of states has the *claims presented by their own increased. states – and national judges do so almost invariably. national interest. That which is deemed by a particular state to be a National Reconnaissance Office. vital or desirable goal in its *inter- The American *intelligence organ- national relations (sense 1). ization for satellite *imagery collec- tion. Though established in 1960, nationalism. (1) The doctrine that the NRO was not exposed until *nations (sense 1) should constitute 1973 and not officially acknowl- sovereign states. (2) Chauvinistic atti- edged until September 1992. tudes and behaviour on the part of nations (sense 2). (3) Pride in one’s national security advisor. In the nationhood (sense 1), more particu- United States, a White House officer larly in its non-political achieve- who is the president’s personal ments and in what are deemed to be assistant on national security affairs. its distinctive characteristics. Also The holder of this position has called cultural nationalism. easy access to the president and a 182 National Security Agency (NSA) sizeable staff. When the president is has been a much noted feature of distrustful of the *State Department Washington politics since the first and the national security advisor half of the 1960s. is a potent figure, he or she can have much more influence over national self-determination. See American foreign policy than the self-determination. *secretary of state, even though the post does not usually carry a cabinet NATO. The North Atlantic Treaty seat. See also Kissinger; National Organization is a military *alliance Security Council (NSC). created by the North Atlantic Treaty signed by 12 states in Washington National Security Agency (NSA). on 4 April 1949. The key article The *sigint arm of the US *intelli- included the statement that ‘an gence community. armed attack against one or more of [the parties] in Europe or North National Security Council (NSC). America shall be considered an In the United States, the body attack against them all’. Conceived which under the same act of 1947 as an anti-Soviet alliance under that created the *CIA is designed American leadership, NATO became to ‘advise the president with respect the major safeguard of the West to the integration of domestic, during the *Cold War. Four more foreign, and military policies relat- European states acceded to the ing to the national security …’. Its Treaty between 1952 and 1982 statutory membership consists of (with appropriate extensions of the the president (who chairs its meet- Treaty’s area of responsibility), to be ings), the vice president, the secre- followed in 1999 – to the disquiet taries of state and defense, the of Russia – by three states which, director of the CIA, and the chair- in whole or in part, had been man of the Joint Chiefs of Staff. In members of the former *Warsaw addition to these, the president Pact: the Czech Republic, Hungary can invite anyone he likes, for and Poland. In 2002 seven more example his personal *national states (Bulgaria, Estonia, Latvia, security advisor. Though limited by Lithuania, Romania, Slovakia, and statute to an advisory role, ‘co- Slovenia) were invited to begin ordination is predominance’, as accession talks and are expected to Zbigniew Brzezinski, National Secu- join in 2004. The supreme body rity Advisor to President Carter, within NATO is the *North Atlantic points out in his memoirs. As a Council; its headquarters is located result, a tussle for control over in Brussels. foreign policy between the NSC and Since the end of the Cold War the *State Department, as well as NATO has been used as a vehicle other executive branch agencies, for coordinating the response of its neutrality 183 members to ‘out-of-area’ threats, negotiation. (1) Discussion, or notably in Iraq and in the former ‘talks’, between the representatives Yugoslavia. In the case of the of two or more states designed to latter, NATO is playing a promi- produce an *agreement on a point nent role, and is currently in effect which is either of shared concern or administering the Serbian province at issue between them. The charac- of Kosovo. However, in respect of teristic method of achieving success Iraq, the attempt of the United in a negotiation is for the parties States and Britain to enlist NATO to exchange concessions. On this support for their *intervention narrow, traditional conception, in early 2003 did not succeed. See negotiation proceeds through also Partnership for Peace; silence three stages: *prenegotiations, the procedure. *formula stage, and the details stage (where the skeletal formula is naval adviser. See naval attaché. fleshed out). The last two stages are sometimes known as ‘negotia- tions proper’ or ‘around-the-table’ naval attaché. Usually a naval negotiations. See also back channel; officer temporarily attached to a bargaining; consensus decision- *diplomatic mission, although an making; endgame; full powers; individual listed as ‘Naval and Homans’s theorem; interim agree- Military Attaché’, for example, ment; linkage; mediation; open could be an army officer assigned diplomacy; playing it long; precon- the task of representing the navy as dition; proximity talks; ratification; well. As between members of the ripe moment; salami tactics; secret *Commonwealth, the equivalent diplomacy; step-by-step diplomacy; individual is designated as a naval stopping the clock; tabled offers; adviser. See also service attaché. unanimity rule; weighted voting. (2) Communication by any means necessity. The doctrine that a designed to achieve the purpose breach of *international law is indicated in this entry’s sense 1. justified if it is imperative to ensure self-preservation, defend a *vital neutral. A state which has declared interest, or prevent a humanitarian its *neutrality. catastrophe. States are reluctant to endorse the doctrine in general neutralism. A term that was used in terms, but are not averse to invok- the early post-1945 period to ing it in particular cases. See also describe *non-alignment. See also intervention. Non-Aligned Movement. negative vetting. See positive neutrality. A legal status assumed vetting. unilaterally by a state during a time 184 neutrality of *war, indicative of its intention of conflicts of others. Neutrality is to staying out of the war. The status be distinguished from *neutralism involves rights and duties on the and *non-alignment. See also part of both the neutral state and neutral; Non-Aligned Movement; the *belligerents (sense 1). The permanent neutrality; perpetual neutral must not, by acts of either neutrality. commission or omission, assist any belligerent, and must allow the bel- neutralization. A formal collective ligerents to treat the commerce of its act by which a lesser state gives an *nationals (sense 2) in accordance undertaking, *guaranteed by a with the *laws of war. For their part group of greater powers, that it will the belligerents must not infringe not involve itself in *war (except in the neutrality of the neutral state, *self-defence) and will take great and must allow it to act towards care not to give political offence in their nationals in accordance with any quarter. In the past neutraliza- the laws of war. The practice of neu- tion has been used in an attempt to trality has often been far less clear protect small states against powerful cut than the rules of neutrality neighbours and, more particularly, would suggest, for political and/or to maintain the *independence military reasons. Politically, a (sense 1) of *buffer states. During neutral may wish to display benevo- the *Cold War Austria (1955) and lent neutrality towards one side; and Laos (1962) were neutralized but, the proximity of a powerful belliger- for the reasons given in the entry ent may also incline a neutral away on buffer states, the device has from a strictly neutral path, so as to since the middle of the twentieth stave off the danger of its neutrality century lost most of its relevance. being violated. In general, that is See also neutrality; non-alignment; perhaps least likely to occur in wars permanent neutrality. which are limited in both scope and aim. However, the first half of the neutral state. One which in respect twentieth century was marked by of a *war assumes the status of total war, and in its second half the *neutrality. UN Charter posed a potential ques- tion about the relevance of the new diplomacy. The latest fashion concept of neutrality – one made in diplomatic method: *resident mis- pertinent by the Security Council’s sions in the late fifteenth century, post-Cold War *peace enforcement and parliamentary-style debate activity. Accordingly, neutrality is between the official representatives now much less heard about than it of states after the First World War. used to be – although circumstances continue to arise in which states are Newly Industrialized Country anxious to keep out of the armed (NIC). A country in the so-called Nicolson, Harold 185

*Third World which has achieved niche functions. A way of referring very rapid growth in its manufactur- to the limited tasks often performed ing sector and become an important by a *satellite office of a diplomatic exporter of manufactures. mission, as when its responsibilities concern, for example, only com- newsletter. In the early modern mercial matters or the administra- period, a handwritten but unsigned tion of an aid programme. See also circular employed by governments non-resident mission. to keep their foreign missions abreast of developments at home Nicolson, Harold (1886–1968). and elsewhere. In Italy they were British diplomat, politician, journal- known as foglietti and in France as ist, broadcaster and author. His gazettes à la main. Newsletters con- diplomatic career started in 1909 taining important information were and ended with his resignation 20 also produced by private enterprise, years later at the rank of *counsel- a notable example being that pro- lor. Its high points were his mem- duced by the Fugger family of bership of the British delegation to Augsburg, the great mining, com- the Paris peace conference in 1919, mercial and banking dynasty and his work as secretary to the usually described as the financiers British foreign secretary, Lord of the Habsburgs. See also gazettes. Curzon, at the Lausanne conference in 1922–23. After his resignation he news management. The manipula- devoted himself to writing and poli- tion by government departments tics (from 1935 to 1945 he was (including ministries of *foreign National Labour MP for West affairs) of independent media orga- Leicester). For students of diplo- nizations to support a particular macy, his most important books are line of policy. Unnecessary in totali- the ‘Studies in Modern Diplomacy’ tarian states (where such organiza- trilogy, which included a biography tions do not exist), advisable in of his father (who was *Permanent authoritarian ones (where they are Under-Secretary at the Foreign sometimes tolerated provided that Office during the First World War), they behave), and indispensable in an examination of the Paris peace liberal democracies (where they conference, and an account of are the ‘fourth estate’), this is nor- Curzon as foreign secretary. He also mally achieved by the selective published a valuable study of the briefing of journalists and some- Congress of Vienna (1815). It was in times by the ‘leaking’ of official doc- 1939, ironically enough, that he uments.*International organizations published the first of his two also engage in news management, general works on diplomacy, which though they are reputed to be less was entitled simply Diplomacy (sub- good at it. sequently revised in 1950 and 1963) 186 nine/eleven and had been foreshadowed by the peace congresses’. Statesmen, *inter- ‘Terminal Essay’ in Curzon: The Last national organizations, and *non- Phase. The second, called The governmental organizations have Evolution of Diplomatic Method, thus been strong contenders – and appeared in 1954. Much of very prominent among the winners. Nicolson’s writing on diplomacy The first (in 1901, with one other) turns on the distinction between was Henri Dunant, founder of the the *old and the *new diplomacy. *International Committee of the On the former, which he strongly Red Cross. In 2002 the prize was prefers, he is persuasive if hardly awarded to former US president, original; on the latter, while often Jimmy Carter. acute, his sureness of touch is not so obvious. Nevertheless, he is always a NO DIS. A US Foreign Service abbre- pleasure to read, and his Diaries are viation employed by ambassadors justly famous. on *telegrams to Washington when they want to get a wide hearing for nine/eleven. ‘9/11’ is shorthand for their views. It stands for ‘No 11 September 2001, the day of the Distribution’, and thereby guaran- *terrorist attacks by al-Qaeda on the tees that everyone will want to see it! World Trade Center (the ‘Twin Towers’) in New York and the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM). Pentagon in Washington. The movement consisting for the most part of *Third World states Nobel Peace Prize. A prestigious which had as its rationale a determi- prize awarded annually by a five- nation to resist pressure to abandon member committee appointed by their *non-aligned stance. Its origins the Norwegian parliament from are to be found in a *summit funds left in his will by Alfred meeting held in Bandung in Bernhard Nobel (1833–96), the Indonesia in April 1955, though it Swedish industrialist who invented was not formally launched (in dynamite and became one of the Belgrade, Yugoslavia) until 1961. wealthiest men in Europe. In his Since the Lusaka summit in 1970, will, Nobel stated that prizes should summit meetings of members have be given to those who, during the been held triennially. preceding year, ‘shall have conferred the greatest benefit on mankind’ non-alignment. The policy of refus- and that one part be given to the ing to join either of the military person who ‘shall have done the *alliance systems which were a key most or the best work for fraternity feature of the *Cold War. between nations, for the abolition or reduction of standing armies and non-diplomatic agent. An *agent for the holding and promotion of (sense 3) who enjoys neither non-justiciable dispute 187

*diplomatic status nor *consular or through ad hoc diplomatic status. In the case of such agents encounters. who are posted at a capital city, their lack of diplomatic or consular non-governmental organization status may be because their work is (NGO). Though sometimes held to either insufficiently interstate in subsume the *multinational corpora- character (a tourist information tion, the usual connotation of this officer, perhaps) or because it term is a private, non-profit-making involves business activity. In the body which has an international case of those outside the capital, membership. Such bodies, especially diplomatic status is ordinarily when granted *observer status, are unavailable, and while consular often active in *international organi- status might be appropriate (for a zations and major conferences. In trade promotion officer, perhaps), it order to distinguish them from requires the existence of a *consular national non-governmental organiza- post in the city in question. If tions (a phrase sometimes heard in neither status is available or appro- *International Relations (sense 3) priate, it may be that the *receiving circles but unknown in Political state will, by special arrangement or Science), NGOs are sometimes as a matter of courtesy, afford such referred to as international non- agents certain limited privileges and governmental organizations (INGOs). immunities. Very roughly speaking, NGOs are to A state or territory which lacks the *international society what pres- *sovereignty (sense 1) may also, by sure groups are to the state; hence agreement, appoint non-diplomatic the vogue for using the term ‘civil agents to a foreign capital city or to society’ (in its Hegelian sense) to refer a city which is not the capital. to the sphere of free association in Palestine, for example (in the shape which they operate. A good example of the Palestinian Authority), has of an NGO is the International appointed a number of *’general Committee of the Red Cross. delegations’, each led by a *dele- gate-general (although the latter are non-justiciable dispute. A dispute often called ambassadors by the which is not considered by the Authority). See also agent-general. parties to be capable of settlement by *adjudication. Such a view is non-diplomatic relations. Relat- not a reflection of the technical ions and contacts (of a non-military unsuitability of some disputes for kind) which occur between states in adjudication as, formally speaking, the absence of *diplomatic relations any dispute can be settled by this (sense 1). They may occur through means. But if the heart of the a *protecting power or an *interests dispute is not about the applica- section, through *consular posts, tion or interpretation of existing 188 non-intervention

*international law, but is indicative purpose of the non-paper is to test of dissatisfaction with that law, the reaction of the other members adjudication will not provide a and hopefully to generate move- genuine settlement. It may there- ment in *negotiations on the fore be more profitable to proceed subject. Being unofficial, it can by way of bilateral *negotiation, or easily be abandoned if it should by involving a third party – as in arouse strong opposition. Varia- the use of *mediation, *concilia- tions on the non-paper include the tion, *good offices, or *inquiry. ‘non-plan’ and the ‘non-map’. A Non-justiciable disputes are some- non-map showing a suggested times called political disputes. See redrawing of the boundary between also justiciable dispute. the Turkish and Greek zones of Cyprus was produced by the UN non-intervention. The doctrine Secretary-General, Boutros Boutros- that *intervention is improper. See Ghali, in the early 1990s. See also also Panch Schila. flying a kite. non liquet. The statement by an non-party. See third party. adjudicatory body that it is unable to decide a case because of the non-resident mission. A diplomatic absence of relevant legal rules. It is mission, the head and members of thought to be a highly unlikely situ- which are accredited to the *receiv- ation, as if the plaintiff’s case is ill- ing state but are ordinarily resident founded, the court or tribunal in another state (possibly, even, would find in favour of the respon- their home state, or perhaps dis- dent. See also justiciable dispute; persed among several resident mis- non-justiciable dispute. sions) from which, from time to time, they visit the receiving state. non-paper. A near descendant of However, it is possible that one or the *bout de papier of traditional more of its members may be perma- bilateral diplomacy, this term is nently based at an outpost, or what now used, particularly in such may be referred to as a *satellite bodies as the UN and the EU, to office, of the mission in the receiv- describe an authoritative but ing state. Such an outpost may be unofficial document circulated staffed by junior officers, or meant either by a member or by one of to deal with non-political matters the organs of the organization. It is (sometimes called *‘niche func- usually focused on a controversial tions’). As such it is unlikely to be question where the author either regarded as a diplomatic mission in has not formulated an official posi- its own right. Therefore, at its local tion, or has but does not yet wish address it may be called something to imply commitment to it. The like ‘The Office of the Ruritanian North Atlantic Council 189

Embassy’, with the address of the import quota or measures against embassy being that of its non- dumping. resident head; and the outpost’s head may be called ‘the officer in Nordic Council. An assembly of charge’, who will be responsible to parliamentary delegates from the non-resident head of mission. Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Such arrangements seem to be Norway, and Sweden which advises becoming more common – and the Nordic Council of Ministers on must be distinguished from ones cooperation between these states (which appear to be less common) in areas other than defence and where the head of mission is non- foreign affairs. The Council’s secre- resident but a diplomatic mission tariat is in Stockholm, Sweden; that from the *sending state, called its of the Council of Ministers in ‘Embassy’ and headed by a *chargé Copenhagen, Denmark. See also d’affaires ad interim, is resident in parliamentary assembly. the receiving state. See also multiple accreditation; resident mission. Nordic states. A common way of referring to the states whose parlia- non-self-governing territory. A mentarians are represented in the *dependent territory, that is, one *Nordic Council. which does not enjoy *sovereignty (sense 1). See also colony; Committee normalization. (1) The restoration of 24; Declaration on the Granting of of *diplomatic relations (sense 1). Independence to Colonial Countries (2) The restoration of diplomatic and Peoples. relations, plus a growth in trade, cultural exchanges, tourism, and other such indications of a close non-state actor. An entity or group relationship. which seeks to have an impact on This term has become an issue the internationally related deci- in Arab–Israeli negotiations, Arabs sions or policy of one or more favouring the former definition, states. Thus such an actor might be Israelis the latter. an *international organization, a *non-governmental organization, a North Atlantic Council. The gov- *multinational corporation, armed erning body of *NATO. Chaired by elements seeking to free their terri- the NATO Secretary-General, it is tory from external rule, or a *terror- composed of *permanent represen- ist group. A non-state actor may tatives of ambassadorial rank of all also be an individual. alliance members and meets at least once a week. At least twice a year non-tariff barrier. An obstacle to the Council also meets at foreign trade other than a tariff, such as an minister level, and it meets at the 190 note

*summit as well when the occasion used in refusing to accept an of- demands it. Nevertheless the fensive message and returning it to Council’s decisions have the same the sender. authority at whatever level they are taken. These decisions are arrived at nunciature. A *diplomatic mission on the basis of *‘unanimity and of the *Holy See. See also nuncio common accord’. Many subsidiary (sense 2). bodies now exist to support the work of the Council. nuncio. (1) In Europe in the middle ages, a *messenger or note. (1) A strictly formal, third ‘living letter’. (2) Since the six- person, no-frills communication teenth century, a resident represen- which is sometimes known as a note tative of the *Holy See with the verbale. This is the customary mode same *rank as an *ambassador. of written communication between Accredited to the civil authorities, an embassy and a ministry of the nuncio – unlike the *apostolic foreign affairs. A note is generally delegate – has a political (‘exter- rubber-stamped at the bottom and nal’) as well as religious (‘internal’) initialled by the person authorizing commission from the pope. At the its issue. Notes are generally num- Congress of Vienna in 1815 it was bered in sequence, starting again agreed that the papal nuncio each year. (2) A note as in sense (1), would always be the *dean of except that it is couched in the first the *diplomatic corps (and there is person singular (and hence is called an echo of this in the Vienna a first person note). British requests Convention on *Diplomatic Relat- for *agrément are so sought (by the ions). However, a predictable incumbent *head of mission in the dispute subsequently arose as to state concerned). (3) A strictly whether the Regulation agreed at formal communication from one Vienna meant that any nuncio, state to another setting out the pro- wherever he was accredited, would posed terms of an *agreement or head the local order of diplomatic understanding between them. With *precedence, or whether he would a confirmatory reply an exchange of only enjoy this in capitals where a notes is thereby constituted, so nuncio was to be found in 1815. establishing a *treaty or a *memo- Today, it is only common to find randum of understanding. the nuncio automatically made dean of the diplomatic corps note verbale. See note. in Roman Catholic countries. See also internuncio; nunciature; nul et non avenu. Literally, null pro-nuncio; Regulation of Vienna; and void; traditionally the phrase Vatican City State. O obedience, embassy of. See embassy sions. All such missions can only of obedience. operate with the consent of the *host state (sense 2). See also elec- object of international law. A real tion assistance. or notional person who, lacking *international personality, does not observer status. The status granted possess rights and duties under by an *international organization or *international law. Although indi- conference to another international viduals are generally in this posi- organization, *non-governmental tion, exceptions to it are made in organization, or state which is not a respect of some matters which fall member of or participant in the within *international criminal law. organization or conference in ques- tion. The representative of such a observer mission. A mission with body has no entitlement to take part this function. In addition to *mili- in any vote or – in contrast to one tary observer groups and *perma- enjoying *consultative status (sense nent observer missions, such a 1) – to participate in formal discus- mission may be established in rela- sions, although he or she may be tion to an individual event or pro- invited so to do. Official observers ceeding of a domestic kind. Thus are normally granted automatic since the late 1980s the UN and access to *plenary sessions and may other *international organizations also be admitted to closed sessions have created numerous missions to of special interest to them; they are engage in *election monitoring, the also usually provided with all non- members of which tend to include confidential documents. The observ- election officers, area specialists, ing entity may try to use its position lawyers, and parliamentarians. to influence informally some of the Controversial trials are among other proceedings or, more generally, the events which attract observer mis- attitude of the member or participat-

191 192 October War ing states towards it. For many years *Commonwealth states, an office observer status was enjoyed at the established outside the capital city headquarters of the *United Nations by a *high commission to engage in by certain states who did not wish *consular functions. Its head is des- to join or who could not obtain ignated a *deputy high commis- membership. The *Holy See still has sioner (sense 2). a *permanent observer there. Non- governmental organizations and officer. A common term used international organizations have within *diplomatic services today greatly swollen the ranks of for any of their members. observers. It is not uncommon for hundreds of NGOs to have observer officer-in-charge. The sort of title status at an international organiza- given to the head of a *satellite tion. See also permanent observer office of a *non-resident mission. As mission. such an office is not, formally speaking, a *diplomatic mission of October War. The armed attempt the *sending state in the *receiving by Egypt and Syria in 1973 to state but an outpost of the sending reclaim Sinai and the Golan Heights state’s non-resident mission to that from Israel. Militarily it had little state, its head cannot be given one success; but politically it marked a of the titles by which heads of turning point in favour of the Arab diplomatic missions are known. states. This was initially reflected in some subsequent Israeli disengage- official. A member of a state’s civil ment from Arab occupied territory, or diplomatic service or of an engineered through the *shuttle *international organization’s *secre- diplomacy of Henry *Kissinger. tariat. An official is therefore to be Since the Arab attack was distinguished from a *minister (sense launched on 6 October, that year’s 3). See also international civil service. Israeli religious holiday of Yom Kippur – the Jewish Day of official spokesman/woman. The Atonement – the War is often official with the duty of making referred to in Israel as the Yom statements to the press on behalf of Kippur War. In the Arab world it is a ministry or delegation; in French known as the War of Ramadan, porte-parole. because it broke out during that year’s month of Muslim fasting in official visit (of head of state). See daylight hours. state visit. See also Six-Day War. old diplomacy. The essentially office of the deputy high commis- European diplomatic system which sioner. In a small number of prevailed until the First World open diplomacy 193

War. It relied heavily on secret of any kind but diplomacy shall negotiations by professional diplo- proceed always frankly and in the mats based chiefly in resident public view’. embassies. Invented in Renaissance There is no doubt that Wilson, Italy, it was refined by *Richelieu, formerly an academician, was tem- theorized by *Callières and pro- peramentally as well as morally vided with its manual by *Satow. uncomfortable with diplomacy con- While admitting its defects, Harold ceived as negotiation, and that it is *Nicolson was among the more right to regard him as the prophet of prominent of its defenders in the ‘open diplomacy’. It is worth noting, twentieth century. Oddly enough, however, that Wilson was not so while there are several *new diplo- naive as to believe that all negotia- macies there appears to be only tions could be successfully con- one old diplomacy. ducted under comprehensive and intimate public scrutiny (nor did he open diplomacy. A rather loose try to do this in Paris). Though the phrase encapsulating the democratic statement that covenants should be doctrine that both in the making of ‘openly arrived at’ certainly fostered foreign policy and the *negotiation this interpretation, it was an exagger- and *ratification of agreements in its ation for propaganda purposes pursuit, the public – universally which was soon corrected, though peace-loving – should be as fully neither quickly nor publicly. On involved as possible. Though the 12 March 1918, in a letter written to doctrine itself has been traced to his secretary of state, Robert Lansing, Kant, the slogan is associated Wilson stated that ‘when I pro- especially with the name of US pres- nounced for open diplomacy I ident, Woodrow *Wilson, who led meant not that there should be no the American delegation at the Paris private discussions of delicate Peace Conference at the end of the matters, but that no secret agree- First World War. It is to be found in ment of any sort should be entered the first of his famous Fourteen into and that all international rela- Points, which had been presented tions, when fixed, should be open, to Congress on 8 January 1918 as a aboveboard, and explicit’. This propaganda counter-offensive to was transmitted to Congress and the recent Bolshevik revelation included in the Congressional Record of the secret treaties negotiated du- for 12 June. The same correction was ring the conflict. Here, Wilson stated included in the commentary on the his belief that the programme for Fourteen Points drafted by Frank world peace must include ‘Open Cobb and Walter Lippmann, ap- covenants of peace, openly arrived proved by Wilson, and presented to at, after which there shall be no the Allied Supreme War Council by private international understandings Colonel House, the president’s 194 opinio iuris highly influential personal emissary, Statute may, in relation to any in October 1918. It was repeated by other state accepting the same Wilson himself at a secret session of obligation, become subject to the the Council of Ten on 13 January *compulsory jurisdiction of the 1919. See also parliamentary diplo- Court. States are not on the whole macy; secret diplomacy. very keen to do this. And such acceptances of the optional clause opinio iuris. See customary interna- as have been made tend to be for a tional law. specific period of time, and to have reservations attached to them – Oppenheim’s International Law. A which are sometimes far reaching. classic twentieth-century English- Thus the network of compulsory language work which is described jurisdiction which exists is not by its current editors as a ‘practi- extensive. tioner’s book’. Lassa Oppenheim (1858–1919) was of German origin, orator. (1) A professional speech- but came to Britain towards the end maker or teacher of speech-making. of the century and was appointed a Orators were often employed on professor at Cambridge in 1908. He diplomatic missions in ancient wrote the Introduction to the first Greece and in the fifteenth and six- edition of *Satow’s Guide to teenth centuries were still employed Diplomatic Practice. ‘Oppenheim’, as it by *envoys solely for the purpose of became known, first appeared making an oration. *Wicquefort during the period 1905–6, and over says of the *embassy of obedience the next 50 years, latterly revised by that ‘an orator, hired for that other hands, went through a purpose, pronounces the harangue number of editions – eight for in the presence of the pope, and of Volume I on Peace and seven for the college of cardinals’. (2) In echo Volume II on War. Hersch of this ancient usage, ‘orator’ was Lauterpacht had prepared the 5th, also a term commonly employed in 6th, 7th and 8th editions and was this later period as a synonym for working on the 9th when he died in the envoy himself, reflecting as it 1960. After an interval of almost 40 did the importance attached at this years since its last revision, Volume period to the oration delivered by a I appeared in a 9th edition in 1992, special ambassador – usually in clas- edited by Judge Sir Robert Jennings sical Latin – at his reception. and Sir Arthur Watts. order of precedence. See precedence. optional clause. The name given to Article 36(2) of the Statute of the ordinaries. A diplomat’s salary, as *International Court of Justice, opposed to his *extraordinaries. under which any party to the Now historical. Organization of American States (OAS) 195 ordre international public. Princi- for routine operational tasks, com- ples of international public policy; posed of the members’ *permanent to all intents and purposes, a representatives. The OSCE also synonym for *ius cogens. has a *Parliamentary Assembly, a High Commissioner on National Organization for Economic Minorities, and an Office for Demo- Cooperation and Development cratic Institutions and Human (OECD). Founded in 1961 to Rights. It establishes ad hoc mis- replace the Organization for sions to serve as instruments European Economic Cooperation, it of conflict prevention and *crisis is a forum for the industrialized management. states to discuss and attempt to The Organization’s headquarters coordinate their economic and is in Vienna, Austria. The OSCE is social policies. Its headquarters is in a testimony to the remarkable Paris, France. breaking down of barriers in Europe during the 1990s. It has no Organization for Security and executive authority over its Cooperation in Europe (OSCE). members, but does useful work, as This body is the successor to the in Kosovo, where it had 1400 Conference on Security and observers until the start of the Cooperation in Europe, a *standing NATO bombing in March 1999 conference (also known as the forced their withdrawal. Helsinki conference after the city in which the original agreement was Organization of African Unity signed) which served as a multilat- (OAU). See African Union. eral forum for dialogue and cooper- ation between East and West from Organization of American States 1975 onwards. With the end of the (OAS). Founded in 1948, the OAS *Cold War in the early 1990s, the nevertheless has roots going back to Conference became increasingly the late nineteenth century. It aims institutionalized and in 1995 was to assist in the maintenance of transformed into the OSCE. The peace on the American continent, aims of this organization are to has programmes to promote eco- prevent local conflicts, bolster nomic and social development, and European security, and build peace- latterly has put a good deal of ful and democratic societies. The emphasis on the promotion of *heads of state or government of its democracy. For many years it was 55 members (which include Canada composed of the United States and and the United States) meet every the Latin American states, but now other year; its Ministerial Council includes Canada and the non-Latin meets at least annually; and there is states of the Caribbean. The General a Permanent Council responsible Assembly of the OAS meets annu- 196 Organization of the Islamic Conference (OIC) ally; a Meeting of Consultation of other, sometimes seriously, which Ministers of Foreign Affairs is called obstructs much by way of common whenever an urgent issue arises; action. However, some observers and its Permanent Council meets have detected somewhat greater on a permanent basis at the cohesion within the Organization Organization’s headquarters in during the 1990s. Washington, DC, USA. The OAS also has a Juridical Committee to oriental attaché. See dragoman. advise on such matters, and a Commission on Human Rights to oriental counsellor. See oriental watch over their observance. The secretary. Latin American states’ reservations about some aspects of United States’ oriental secretary. A British subject activity on the continent (exempli- proficient in local languages who fied in the Organization’s emphasis held the rank of *secretary or on *non-intervention) has some- *counsellor at British diplomatic and times manifested itself in the work consular missions in the Near East of the OAS. But as these states are (including Persia) in the nineteenth all committed to the maintenance century and first half of the twenti- of existing borders and, generally, eth. (Oriental counsellors sometimes to the *pacific settlement of dis- held the rank of counsellor only putes, the members have from time *locally.) Similar posts, also em- to time been able to work usefully ployed by the US Diplomatic Service together in this area. at this time, were designated ‘Chinese secretary’ in Peking and Organization of the Islamic ‘Japanese secretary’ in Tokyo. (French Conference (OIC). Founded in 1971 diplomacy employed a secrétaire to promote solidarity and coopera- d’Orient in the Near East and a tion between Islamic countries, it has secrétaire d’Extrême-Orient in the Far (at February 2003) 57 members and East.) The oriental secretary was one three states with *observer status. Its of the products of the strong nine- supreme organ is the Conference of teenth century reaction against the the Heads of State, which meets long-standing dependence of British every three years, and its Conference diplomacy on the *dragomans of the of Foreign Ministers meets annually. Ottoman Empire, who had come to Its headquarters is in Jeddah, Saudi be widely distrusted for the most Arabia (the state which provides confidential work. Ronald Storrs, most of the OIC’s funding, and who held the post of oriental secre- therefore wields considerable tary at the British Agency and influence within the Organization). *Consulate-General in Cairo from Various of the OIC’s members often 1909 to 1914, said that he was find themselves at odds with each ‘the eyes, ears, interpretation and overseas territory 197

Intelligence (in the military sense) of outreach. As now used by *diplo- his Chief, and might become much mats (sense 1), a broad and rather more’. Nevertheless, where an orien- vague term signifying either *lob- tal secretary was posted at a major bying, networking, or *public dip- embassy, as for example in Istanbul, lomacy – or all three. See also he was always subordinate to the diplomat-in-residence. *secretary of embassy. overseas mission. See mission. Ottoman diplomacy. See drago- man; hostage; sefaretname. overseas territory. See colony. P

P5. See permanent members. tlement, and resort to regional agencies. P-8. The ‘Political 8’. This term was coined to describe meetings of the package deal. An agreement pro- G7 group of Western industrialized duced by exchanging concessions states plus Russia in the period across a broad range of issues. See between 1994, when Russia also Homans’s theorem; linkage. attended a post-summit meeting with the G7, and 1998, when it pacta sunt servanda. The principle became a full member, thus giving that *treaties are *binding on the birth to the *Group of Eight. Until parties to them. 1998, discussions involving Russia concentrated on political and secu- pacta tertiis nec nocent nec rity questions, to the exclusion of prosunt. The principle that *treaties financial and most economic issues. do not impose any obligations, nor confer any rights, on third states. Pacific Community. Formerly known as the South Pacific Palácio das Necessidades. The Commission, this international Portuguese foreign ministry, so body assists small island states and called because it has been based in territories in the Pacific with the the building bearing that name exploitation of their land, marine, since 1911. and social resources. Panch Schila. The five principles of pacific settlement. The process of *peaceful coexistence attached to trying to solve disputes by such the Chinese-Indian Commercial means as *negotiation, *inquiry, Treaty of April 1954 (by which *mediation, *conciliation, *good India recognized Chinese *suze- offices, *arbitration, *judicial set- rainty over Tibet): mutual respect

198 Partnership for Peace (PfP) 199 for sovereignty and territorial parliamentarians nominated by the integrity, non-aggression, non- member states. Parliamentary interference in domestic affairs, assemblies are therefore unelected, equality and mutual benefit, and even though their members are peaceful coexistence. elected representatives in their national parliaments. The *Council paradiplomacy. International ac- of Europe, *NATO, the *Nordic tivity (typically *lobbying) by Council, and the *Western regional governments such as that European Union all have parliamen- of Quebec, and stateless nations tary assemblies. The nominal such as that of the Kurds. purpose of such bodies is to bring a modicum of democratic account- parallel reciprocity. A condition in ability into intergovernmental orga- which the parties to a conflict foster nizations. Appointments to these an atmosphere conducive to negoti- bodies are also a useful source of ations by simultaneous adoption government patronage. of unilateral *confidence-building measures. The key point is that their parliamentary diplomacy. (1) *Mul- actions should be simultaneous, tilateral diplomacy which takes place thereby avoiding the risk of making in public in the organs of an *inter- the first conciliatory gesture and national organization. A *parliamen- exposing themselves to charges of tary assembly does not engage in weakness or betrayal by hardliners. parliamentary diplomacy, such This term came to prominence assemblies not being diplomatic during the period at the beginning organs. See also open diplomacy; pro- of the 1990s when the United States paganda. (2) Dialogue between the was trying to persuade the Arabs parliamentarians of different states. (including Palestinians) and Israelis This is fostered by the Inter- to attend a peace conference. Parliamentary Union, the Geneva- based world organization founded in paraphe. *Initialling a document, 1889 and currently having as either at the end or in the margin of members over 100 national parlia- each page. From the French para- ments, and by regional inter- pher, to initial. parliamentary organizations. parking offences. See diplomatic Partnership for Peace (PfP). The privileges and immunities. *NATO body designed to create an *entente-style relationship between parliamentary assembly. In inter- NATO members themselves and national relations (sense 2), an like-minded non-member countries organ of or one related to an *inter- in Europe and Central Asia, notably national organization consisting of those which emerged from the 200 party former Soviet Union or were part of Communism against the capitalist the Soviet bloc. world with sufficient restraint to avoid the risk of general war, i.e. party. (1) A *state which has mutual nuclear annihilation. It did adhered to a *treaty. (2) A state not mean (as some in the West which is involved in legal proceed- believed) ‘live and let live’. It had its ings and, by analogy, one involved origins in the ideological convolu- in an international conflict. tions of the Bolshevik leadership in the aftermath of the October passport. See ask for passports; Revolution of 1917. See also diplomatic passport; handed his/her appeasement; Cuban Missile Crisis; passports. Panch Schila. peace. In international legal terms, peacekeeping. Impartial and non- the absence of *war or *armed threatening third-party activity conflict. taken at the request or with the consent of disputants who wish, at peacebuilding. See peacemaking. least for the time being, to live in peace. It may be embarked upon peace dividend. The great surge in with a view to containing a *crisis, funds which was supposed to maintaining stability along a line of become available for non-military international division (perhaps in a spending in the West as military *buffer zone), or resolving a dispute. budgets were cut back in Europe Such activity was periodically taken and North America with the ending throughout most of the twentieth of the *Cold War at the beginning century. But its distinctive charac- of the 1990s. teristics were not delineated and conceptualized as ‘peacekeeping’ peace enforcement. The currently until the late 1950s and the early favoured name for action on the 1960s. This was a result of the paci- basis of *collective security. fying role of the *United Nations in However, whereas collective secu- the *Suez crisis of 1956, which led rity envisaged armed action against to peacekeeping being seen by some cross-border *aggression, peace as a specifically UN province. But enforcement also refers to such that was a mistake: peacekeeping action taken within a state against can be undertaken by any *interna- internal disturbers of the peace. tional organization, group of states, or even by an individual state in peaceful coexistence. A Soviet which the disputants have foreign policy slogan during the confidence. *Cold War which usually meant Typically, until the approach of conducting the struggle of the 1990s, peacekeeping was con- Pentagon 201 ducted by a small *international peacemaking. A term which force made up of battalions sec- encompasses the processes of onded from suitable states, or by a *pacific settlement. But it may also group of *military observers made go beyond them to refer to the cre- available on an individual basis by ation of those attitudes, political their states. Instances of current arrangements, and underlying peacekeeping operations of this social and economic conditions type include the UN Truce which are sometimes thought to Supervision Organization (UNTSO) provide the only lasting basis for on Arab–Israeli borders; the UN secure international and domestic Peacekeeping Force in Cyprus peace. Such an approach is also (UNFICYP), where it operates along known as peacebuilding. the dividing line between Turkish- held northern Cyprus and the rest peace process. A popular synonym of the state; and the Multinational for *negotiation or *diplomacy Force and Observers (MFO) – a non- (sense 3) which aims at the resolu- UN body – in Sinai between Egypt tion of a major conflict. It became and Israel. current during the successful Such operations are tending to Egyptian–Israeli negotiations pro- become known as traditional peace- moted by US President Jimmy keeping, to distinguish them from Carter in the late 1970s. the operations established in the Subsequently it has been applied to 1990s – called, by some, second much longer and less promising generation peacekeeping – which negotiations, more in the hope that often included substantial civilian peace may eventuate than on the as well as military elements, and basis of real progress in that direc- which sometimes were markedly tion. In such circumstances, use of more abrasive and less impartial the term – though well intentioned than the earlier sort. This last type – is ill-advised since it may encour- of activity, however, had by the end age the belief that peace is being of the decade tended to develop made when in fact it is not. into clear-cut *peace enforcement. In conceptual terms this is a good peace support operation. A generic thing, since as a practical matter term used nowadays to refer to any there is no real half-way station *peacekeeping, *peacemaking, or between (traditional) peacekeeping *peace enforcement operation. and activity which is willing to threaten and take armed action peace treaty. A *treaty which brings against one of the disputants. See a *war to a conclusion. also chief military observer; com- mander; contributor state; special Pentagon. A popular way of referring representative (sense 1). to the United States Department of 202 people’s bureau

Defense, after the shape of the build- which a number of members of the ing in which it is located. *League of Nations established to maintain contact with it. They were people’s bureau. The name given not necessarily resident in Geneva by the Libyan government in 1979 (the League’s headquarters and to its *diplomatic missions abroad. meeting place); but the members of those *delegations that were came Permanent Court of Arbitration to receive certain privileges and (PCA). Established by the *Hague immunities, and in time they were Conferences of 1899 and 1907 the constituted as a formal *diplomatic PCA is, as has often been said, corps. The members of the delega- neither permanent nor a court. tions were known as permanent Rather, it consists of a list of arbi- delegates. trators (nominated by the parties to one or other of the Hague conven- permanent diplomatic mission. tions regarding the PCA). When a Another name for a *diplomatic dispute is submitted to it, each of mission. See also permanent mission. the parties selects two arbitrators from the list (only one of whom permanent members. The five may be its own *national (sense 2) states with permanent seats on the or from the arbitrators it placed on UN *Security Council – the P5 as the list), and they select a fifth. The they are often known: Britain, award is given by majority vote. China, France, Russia, and the The PCA has not been much used United States. Each of them enjoys since about 1930, but its Bureau has the right of *veto. The Western per- been active in facilitating ad hoc manent members are known as the *arbitration. P3. Since the early 1990s there has been much discussion about the Permanent Court of International enlargement of the Security Council Justice (PCIJ). Set up in 1921 and and, in particular, about possible superseded in 1946 by the changes to the states entitled to per- *International Court of Justice, manent membership (which has which is in all essential respects remained unchanged throughout similar to the PCIJ. the UN’s life). However, agreement on this matter has not yet emerged. permanent delegate. A member of a *permanent delegation. This was permanent mission. (1) The name the original title of *permanent rep- given to a mission of permanent resentatives at the UN. character sent to the headquarters of an *international organization by permanent delegation. The usual a member state. The mission repre- term for the *permanent missions sents the state at the organization; permanent mission 203 maintains liaison between it and dentials with which the head of a the *sending state; negotiates with British permanent mission is fur- and within the organization; reports nished are not called letters of cre- on its activities; protects the dence but a *letter of introduction. sending state’s interests in relation On the other hand, these proce- to the organization; and ensures the dural differences can once in a while participation of the sending state eventuate in controversy over a in its activities (ordinarily it is head of mission’s credentials. As the mission’s personnel who partici- these do not have to be cleared in pate on behalf of their state in the advance, a civil conflict within a meetings of the organization’s state can result in two claimants to a organs and committees). The *head state’s seat turning up at the organi- of mission is called the state’s zation, which then has to decide *permanent representative to the between them, or postpone the deci- organization. sion. Such matters are, of course, If an organization is of particular rarely subject to detached appraisal, significance for a state, and its but are determined by the political degree of activity justifies such considerations involved and the rel- action, the state is likely to accredit ative number of votes that can be a permanent mission to it. Virtually mustered by the backers of each all members of the *United Nations, claimant. for example, maintain missions in The members of a permanent New York, and the headship of such mission (and also the officials of the missions is one of the most impor- organization to which they are tant overseas appointments in their accredited) are not hugely less in diplomatic services. However, there need of legal *privileges and immu- is no question of *agrément being nities than the members of a diplo- required from the organization or matic mission accredited to a from the head of its secretariat for foreign state. In immediate terms, the head of such a mission. This is this is a matter for the *host state because the organization is quite (sense 2), which can be expected to unlike an individual state, being attend to it by obtaining the neces- instead a collectivity of states; nor is sary legislation. (If it did not wish to the *presentation of credentials by do so, it would hardly have agreed the *head of mission to the head to play host to the organization, nor of the organization’s *secretariat would the latter’s members have attended by the formality which settled on that location.) Generally, customarily and the pomp which such privileges and immunities are occasionally marks the equivalent not as extensive as those given to visit of an incoming head of the members of embassies, but are mission to the receiving state’s reasonably liberal and sufficient for *head of state. Furthermore, the cre- the missions’ needs. 204 permanent neutrality

The Vienna Convention on Switzerland and her independence the *Representation of States in from any foreign influence are in the their Relations with International interest of European politics as a Organizations of a Universal Cha- whole’. Switzerland did not join the racter (1975) sets out one possible UN until September 2002. Austria form of such privileges and immu- also, by treaty, became a permanent nities, but the Convention has not neutral in 1955, but nonetheless been widely accepted, let alone decided to join the UN in the same embodied by host states in their year. municipal law. The absence of *rec- iprocity in this matter means that permanent observer. The head of a it is difficult to bring effective pres- *permanent observer mission. See sure on hosts to accept what others also observer status. judge to be a desirable interna- tional standard. (2) Sometimes permanent observer mission. A ‘permanent mission’ is used as a mission, office, or *delegation headed synonym for a diplomatic mission by a permanent observer. States now accredited to a foreign state, more tend to use the term ‘mission’ as the especially a *resident mission. collective term for their observers, whereas *international organizations permanent neutrality. The position usually call it an ‘office’, but of those states which not only occasionally a ‘delegation’. At the remain *neutral during all wars conference held in Vienna in 1975 between third parties but accept on the *Representation of States in no commitments in peacetime their Relations with International (*alliances or military base agree- Organizations of a Universal Charac- ments, for example) which might ter, an argument arose as to whether lead them into *belligerency in some such missions should be permitted future contingency. This peacetime ‘representative’, i.e. *diplomatic, aloofness from military commit- functions. Successfully supporting ments might, as in the case of this position were those – notably Sweden, be based on a purely unilat- Switzerland and the *Holy See – who eral political position which can, as for political or religious reasons were a result, be changed unilaterally. unable to attain membership of Alternatively, it can derive from an an international organization but international obligation. The para- wished nevertheless to be as closely digm case of this kind of permanent associated with it as possible. See also neutrality, sometimes regarded as the observer mission; observer status. only true version, is Switzerland, at least since the Congress of *Vienna permanent representative. The in 1815. Here it was declared that head of a *permanent mission ‘The neutrality and integrity of (sense 1). Although such officials personal representative 205 are almost invariably given the per- personal rank. Occasionally a sonal title and status of ambassador, diplomatic or consular officer and are so spoken of, formally has been permitted, for personal speaking they are not ambassadors reasons, to use a diplomatic desig- to the international organization in nation which is unrelated to his or question, as an ambassador is tradi- her current responsibilities. Thus, tionally the representative of one an officer who has served as an head of state to another. See also ambassador or minister (sense 1) permanent delegate. and then become a consul-general, may (as a matter of courtesy) possi- permanent under-secretary of bly retain the former designation. state (PUS). The title of the *official Although this will probably be at the head of Britain’s *Foreign and referred to as a personal rank, it is Commonwealth Office, who is also really not that but a personal title. head of the *Diplomatic Service. See also career ambassador; career In other words, Britain’s senior minister. *diplomat. The PUS is, of course, subordinate to the FCO’s *ministers personal representative. A term (sense 3). which may be used for an individ- ual charged with a specific diplo- perpetual neutrality. Another term matic task by his or her *head of for *permanent neutrality. By a state or government. US presidents *treaty of 1839 Belgium was have often used personal represen- declared to be perpetually neutral. tatives – or ‘personal envoys’ – to minimize congressional interference personal diplomacy. Activity of a in their conduct of foreign policy. diplomatic kind conducted by (Under the constitution the presi- someone who is not a *diplomatic dent can only appoint *special agent and may be acting without envoys as officers of the govern- formal authorization or even ment with the prior ‘advice and encouragement, but whose personal consent of the Senate’.) Such agents standing ensures that he or she will are usually not, therefore, ‘personal’ be heard. A *head of state without in the sense of being chosen executive power may engage in because of any intimate personal such activity, an instance being the relationship which they have with role sometimes played by Britain’s him, though they may be. US presi- Edward VII (who reigned from 1901 dents can give any rank or title to a to 1910). See also personal represen- personal representative or, as with tative; track-two diplomacy, Harry Hopkins, who was employed in highly sensitive matters by personal envoy. See personal repre- President Roosevelt during the sentative; special representative. Second World War and was his inti- 206 personal standard mate, none at all. The UN Secretary- receiving state is not obliged to General may also appoint a per- explain its reasons for declaring sonal representative, perhaps to persons personae non gratae or unac- observe a critical situation, to assist ceptable. However, it is well under- in the attempt at its alleviation, or stood that such reasons may to head a *peacekeeping operation include the belief that the individu- or a *peacemaking mission. Such an als in question are engaged in *espi- individual is likely, in UN terms, to onage, connected with terrorism or be less senior than a *special repre- subversive activity, or have commit- sentative (sense 1), but senior to a ted some other breach of the receiv- *representative. See also roving ing state’s criminal law. See also ambassador; special mission. handed his/her passports; tit-for-tat expulsions. personal standard. The flag flown by a *head of mission on his or her piece of paper. See bout de papier. means of transport. It may be a slightly altered national flag, such pillar. A *European Union meta- as the sending state’s *diplomatic phor signifying one of the three flag. For security reasons, such per- areas of cooperation which it is sonal standards are sometimes not hoped will eventually support a fully flown. or at least more united Europe. These ‘pillars’ are the supranational personal union. A term used prior institutions and policies of the to the early part of the twentieth Community (‘first pillar’); the century to describe the rare case of *Common Foreign and Security two *sovereign states that happened Policy (‘second pillar’); and Police to have the same *head of state but and Judicial Cooperation in Cri- nothing else in common. minal Matters (‘third pillar’). persona non grata (png). The term placement. See seating arrange- used by a *receiving state to indicate ments. that a *diplomatic agent or a *con- sular officer is no longer acceptable playing it long. A British diplo- as such. Anyone so designated must matic term, now somewhat dated, be recalled by the *sending state. for procrastinating in a *negotiation Other members of a *diplomatic in the expectation that future mission or of a *consular post may circumstances will put the other also be declared unacceptable – but side in a weaker position, lead it to in their case the Latin expression is drop the issue altogether or see it not used. They too must then be disappear into political oblivion. recalled or their functions with the The Florentines, who were also keen mission or post terminated. A on this tactic, called it ‘enjoying political appointee 207 the benefit of time’. See also under the executive head of the Guicciardini. MFA. A product of the period since the Second World War, policy plebiscite. A vote by the electorate planning departments were inspired of a state or territory on a question in part by the model of the plan- of major importance, such as union ning staffs long employed by mili- with another state or (as for tary chiefs of staff. The EU has a instance in a number of post-First similar department. Known as the World War plebiscites) which state ‘Planning and Early Warning Unit’, the territory should join. Also called this operates under the *High referendum. Representative for CFSP. plenary. The meetings of an inter- political agent. See political resident. national conference or organization which are empowered to take final decisions on the business in hand. political appointee. A *diplomat All member states are entitled to appointed from outside the ranks of attend plenary meetings (whereas the career *diplomatic service. some committees or working groups Political appointments, which are may have a limited membership), normally made at *ambassador level and are likely to be represented by in return for services rendered to the heads of their *delegations or the government (including financial missions. campaign contributions), are much commoner in some countries than plenipotentiary. A diplomat pos- others. In the West, the United sessing *full powers (i.e. to sign a States is best known for this treaty). In the medieval period such practice, and a law passed in 1980 an official was usually known as a which prohibited ambassadorial ‘procurator’. nominations as a reward for cam- paign contributions has had little plural accreditation. See multiple effect. In British practice political accreditation. appointments are remarkably rare. Even Mrs Thatcher, who was well policy planning department. The known for her suspicion of the department in the ministries of *Foreign and Commonwealth Office *foreign affairs of some states and British diplomats in general, charged with engaging in medium- made only one – and that was a or even long-term foreign policy recently retired former career planning. To be able to do this, the diplomat. Political appointments, planners are ideally given freedom it need hardly be said, cause consid- from current operational preoccupa- erable resentment among the tions and permitted to work directly professionals. 208 political director political director. A common title which may not attract media atten- for one of the most senior *officials, tion or which are not penetrable by if not the most senior of all officials, the media; they also need informa- in a ministry of *foreign affairs. The tion presented in the context of post normally carries with it direct specific policy analysis or recom- responsibility for political – as mendations – and they need to be opposed to commercial, consular certain that all of the information and cultural – affairs. Regular meet- which they receive, including that ings of the political directors of the on subjects which does attract media MFAs of the EU’s member states attention, is accurate. As a result, play a key role in its *Common political reporting by embassies and Foreign and Security Policy. consulates continues to be of con- siderable value and is unlikely to political dispute. See non-justicia- disappear. ble dispute. political representative. See rep- political officer. A common term resentative. for a post in the political section of an embassy, including a US political resident. Also known embassy. The political officer, who simply as ‘resident’, the title used especially in ‘hard language’ coun- for the head of the British mission tries is a language and area special- to the seven Trucial States of the ist, deals with a wide range of (Persian) Gulf until their formal subjects beyond the local power dependence on Britain was ended in structure. Today, human rights is 1971. This unusual term was often part of the brief. See also employed because these entities chancery. (also known as the Gulf Sheikdoms) were ‘British *protected states’, for political reporting. Reporting from the conduct of whose foreign rela- a *diplomatic mission to the min- tions Britain was responsible under istry of foreign affairs on the local special treaty relations dating from political scene which is not related the early nineteenth century. The to a specific *negotiation. Once one head of the British mission was thus of the chief diplomatic (and often something more than an ordinary consular) tasks, political reporting *ambassador. Based in Bahrain, the came under attack with the late- political resident’s senior represen- twentieth-century explosion in the tatives in Abu Dhabi, Bahrain, number and speed of alternative Dubai, and Qatar were known as sources of information on world ‘political agents’, as was his subordi- events, including most recently the nate officer in Kuwait (a protected internet. Nevertheless, states need but not a Trucial state). The term political information on subjects ‘Trucial’ arose from the assurances positive vetting (pv) 209 which used to be sought each year duced the rule that before a treaty by Britain from the several rulers was ratified it would be laid before that they would observe a ‘truce’ – both Houses of Parliament for 21 that is, would abstain from piracy. sitting days, thus allowing members of the legislature to comment. The polpred. The English representation junior *minister (sense 3) involved of the term used by the Soviet was called Ponsonby. The succeed- Union in its early days to designate ing Conservative government aban- its *heads of mission, the traditional doned the practice, but it was diplomatic titles being deemed reinstituted when Labour was bourgeois. The alternative Soviet returned to power in 1929, and has term indicated, roughly speaking, since been followed. that the person concerned was a representative of the people. Un- Porte. See Sublime Porte. fortunately for the Soviets, polpred was not a recognized diplomatic porte-parole. See official spokesman/ *class, with the consequence that its woman. holders necessarily found them- selves at the end of the line on any positive vetting (pv). A British occasion on which diplomats were term for the careful and ‘proactive’ ranked according to *precedence. investigation into the background The traditional usage was soon not only of members of, or candi- resumed! dates for, the *intelligence services but also of anyone needing access Ponsonby Rule. In British constitu- to highly classified information, tional law, foreign policy, and including – as and when the need hence the making and *ratification arose – members of the *Diplomatic of *treaties, is the prerogative of the Service. Introduced in the 1950s fol- Crown. Some treaties, however, lowing the discovery that the *KGB have always required parliamentary had recruited people while still at assent to take effect: for example, university who subsequently rose to those ceding British territory, senior positions, ‘pv-ing’ focused on involving financial obligations, or detecting any association with requiring the modification of extremist political organizations municipal law. Those apart, and any evidence of behaviour however, the government (acting in likely to render an *officer vulnera- this area for the Crown) could, in ble to blackmail. (‘Negative vetting’ theory, make what treaties it liked, involves only checking to see if and had no obligation to publicize information in existing records has this activity. adverse security implications.) This During the interwar period, the procedure has now been replaced by Labour government of 1924 intro- ‘developed vetting’, a more flexible 210 post system by means of which the precautionary principle. The asser- rigour of the investigation is varied tion that, to safeguard the environ- according to (a) the degree of sensi- ment, all states have a duty to take tivity of the information to which precautionary action against possi- access is sought and (b) the extent ble dangers to the environment. It to which the individual’s security appears in some environmental may be at risk. *instruments, but is not (yet) a prin- ciple of *customary international post. The city or state where a law – and were it to become so its *mission (sense 1) is located. imprecision might lessen its utility. See also common but differentiated post differential. See hardship post. responsibility, principle of. pourparlers. *Negotiations. precedence. The order in which *diplomatic agents, when present in pour presenter (cards). Cards which that capacity, are ranked. Until the used to be left by diplomats making early nineteenth century it often formal calls on fellow diplomats gave rise to considerable discord, as soon after their arrival in a capital. states sought the ranking for their The practice seems now to have diplomats which matched their own been discontinued, not least conception of their importance. An because of the great increase in the agreed solution to this problem was size of the average *diplomatic reached at the Congress of *Vienna corps. (1815) in the shape of the *Regu- lation of Vienna, which received power politics. A loose term, gener- general acceptance. It has been ally used to express the belief that in echoed in the Vienna Convention on the relations of states, power – espe- *Diplomatic Relations (1961). The cially military power – is crucial. position is now: However, its users tend to ascribe (a) As among *heads of diplomatic too sweeping a significance to mili- missions in a particular capital, the tary power; to suggest that power is order of precedence is divided into sought by states as an end, whereas three classes, on the basis of the it is almost always wanted as a three *diplomatic classes into which means to achieve certain ends; to heads of mission fall. Within each give inadequate weight to the huge class, heads take precedence in importance for states of cooperative accordance with the date and time activity; and to mislead by suggest- at which they took up their func- ing that power (of the appropriate tions. This is determined either on kinds) is absent from domestic poli- the basis of the presentation of their tics. See also realism (sense 3); *letters of credence or *letters of Realpolitik. commission to the *head of state or preferential trading agreement 211 the presentation of a *working copy state. There are occasions when a of them to the foreign ministry. *sending state may wish to obscure Each *receiving state must deter- the significance of an individual’s mine which of these practices it role within a mission, so that, e.g., a adopts, apply it uniformly, and senior intelligence officer may be arrange for credentials to be pre- ‘buried’ well down the list. sented in the order in which heads (e) Heads of *consular posts rank of mission arrive. (Equivalent within each class of head according arrangements must be made by to the date of the grant of the *exe- Commonwealth states of the quatur, or the date of their provi- *Queen’s Realms in respect of the sional admission to the exercise of presentation of *letters of introduc- consular functions when it precedes tion.) Thus the ambassador or high the exequatur. commissioner who has been longest (f) *Honorary consular officers who in a particular capital will be at the are heads of consular posts rank in front of the precedence line. each class after career heads, on the (b) The head of a *special mission same basis as such heads. to a particular state normally takes (g) As among consular officers at a the same precedence as the head of state’s consular post, precedence is his or her state’s diplomatic mission determined by the state in question. to that state. A state’s Order of Precedence (c) The heads of *permanent mis- refers to many other dignitaries sions to the UN have a different besides diplomats. order of precedence each year, in accordance with the arrangements precondition. A concession requir- for the order of seating and *roll-call ed of one party by another before voting in the *General Assembly. agreeing to enter around-the-table This is decided at the start of each *negotiations with it. More often a annual Assembly, when a member feature of adversarial relationships, state is chosen by lot to take the insistence on preconditions is a first seat to the left in the front row, common tactic of those who are and the other members follow in least attracted to negotiations, English alphabetical order from left either because they feel that time is to right in each row of seats. See also on their side or because they fear alphabetical seating. that otherwise their supporters (d) As among the staff of a state’s would suspect their real intentions. diplomatic or permanent mission, prece- See also prenegotiations. dence among *diplomats reflects their *diplomatic rank (sense 1) and pre-emptive attack. See self-defence. their seniority within that rank; as among *temporary diplomats, prece- preferential trading agreement. dence is determined by the sending One which involves discriminatory 212 prendre acte tariff barriers, and hence runs ceremony is still required, there counter to the *most-favoured- appears to be no reason why it nation principle. should not be conducted by a head of state’s deputy, or some other prendre acte. To declare that note appropriate personage – as has occa- has been taken of a statement made sionally been considered or sug- by another party and that this may gested in cases where the head of be brought up against it in the state is also *head of government, future. and therefore extremely busy. But there have been cogent objections prenegotiations. The first stage of a to this idea: sending states would *negotiation, or that which pre- not like it, and the receiving state cedes the formal ‘around-the-table’ might also suffer some disadvan- stage. Prenegotiations are usually tage, with the result that it has only concerned with three questions: rarely been adopted. Generally, whether or not negotiations are a therefore, the traditional ceremony good idea; if so, what the *agenda continues, and often with some should be; and how any formal colour and pomp. Furthermore, the negotiations should be conducted – event can have some political value, that is, questions of procedure. especially for the sending state, Prenegotiations, especially where inasmuch as it may afford an oppor- the agenda and composition of tunity for a helpful private discus- *delegations are concerned, are sion between the newly accredited often thinly disguised talks of a sub- *head of mission and the head of stantive nature. state. In most states the ceremony tends presentation of credentials. to conform to a similar pattern, but Inasmuch as, formally speaking, an there are minor differences in the *ambassador (sense 1) is the repre- degree of formality and form of sentative of the *sending state’s dress, and the personal style and *head of state accredited to the temperament of the head of state *receiving state’s head of state, it is may also affect the detailed proce- natural that his or her *letters of dure at the ceremony. Typically, the credence should be delivered per- head of mission is escorted by the sonally to the latter. At one time head of the foreign ministry’s *pro- this was of real significance, because tocol department or, in the case of of the political importance of *mon- Britain, by the *Marshal of the archs. Now it is, in its essence, a cer- Diplomatic Corps, and perhaps by a emonial occasion only. Indeed, it is senior *official or a *minister (sense no longer an essential prerequisite 3). After the ambassador’s introduc- for an ambassador’s *tour of duty tion, short speeches are made (but formally to begin. And if some such in the United States the speeches Prevention and Punishment of Crimes 213 are exchanged in written form), out, a special audience of the Queen some light discussion ensues, and is arranged for them shortly after then a few members of the ambas- they have taken up their position – sador’s mission and his or her but, as this is not a ceremonial occa- spouse may be introduced. The cere- sion, they have to make do with mony is similar for a *high commis- travelling to it by their own car sioner who is presenting *letters of (which is often a matter of regret!). commission to a head of state. But in Britain, whereas an ambassador is presents. See decorations. conveyed in a cotton-lined landau pulled by two horses, a high com- presidential statement. One made missioner’s coach is silk-lined and by the president of the UN *Security pulled by four (one of which is Council on behalf of all its ridden by a postilion). members. In respect of a high commissioner from one of the *Queen’s Realms to prestige. Reputation for power. another, credentials take the form of a letter of introduction from the prevailing language. An additional sending state’s prime minister to language in which some treaties are that of the receiving state, and are drawn up and which prevails in the presented to the prime minister event of any divergence of interpre- very informally. However, in tation of a point between the ver- London this last aspect of the proce- sions cast in the languages of the dure has recently been abandoned, parties. The Egyptian–Israeli Peace because sometimes it was not possi- Treaty concluded with the follow- ble to arrange an appointment for ing statement: ‘Done at Washing- the new high commissioner to call ton, D.C. this 26th day of March, on the prime minister for some con- 1979, in triplicate in the English, siderable time. Instead, the letter of Arabic, and Hebrew languages, each introduction is now delivered to the text being equally authentic. In Foreign and Commonwealth Office case of any divergence of interpre- in the same way as ambassadors and tation, the English text shall non-Realm high commissioners prevail.’ deliver *working copies of their letters of credentials and letters of Prevention and Punishment of commission. In consequence of the Crimes against Internationally use of letters of introduction, high Protected Persons, including commissioners to Britain from one Diplomatic Agents, Convention of the Queens (other) Realms do not on. Adopted by the UN General meet the Queen at a credentials cer- Assembly in 1973, the Convention emony soon after their arrival. So came into force in 1977, and as of that such diplomats do not feel left late 2002 has 121 *parties. Each of 214 preventive diplomacy them is obliged to take appropriate UN General Assembly in 1947. measures, including ones of co- Rather more than half the world’s operation with other states, to states have become *parties to it. ensure that the purposes of the Convention are achieved. Privileges and Immunities of the United Nations, General preventive diplomacy. A term used Convention on. Adopted by the by the UN’s second *Secretary- *General Assembly in 1946, the General, Dag Hammarskjöld, to Convention has been accepted by refer both to his *‘quiet diplomacy’ three-quarters of the UN’s members. and to *peacekeeping operations. It It provides for the UN’s immunity then fell into disuse. But in 1992 from jurisdiction, the inviolability the then Secretary-General, Boutros of its premises and papers, certain Boutros-Ghali, called for more ‘pre- currency and fiscal privileges, and ventive diplomacy’, by which he *freedom of communication. It also meant not just his personal diplo- entails full ‘diplomatic’ immunity matic activity but also fact-finding for the UN’s senior personnel, and and the ‘preventive deployment’ of immunity in respect of the official ‘peacekeeping’ missions within and acts of lesser officials. However, between states, the latter not neces- even for those states which have sarily with the agreement of both become parties to this Convention, sides. A mission with this term in its national legislation will normally be title operated on the Macedonian required for the UN’s privileges and border with Yugoslavia and Albania immunities to be recognized within from 1995 to 1999. The variety of the legal system of any particular activities that the term has been state. (One well-known derogation used to designate makes it an unsat- from the position set out in the isfactory one. General Convention is that the United States refuses to exempt principal. A *delegation leader of from US taxation those of its high political standing, typically a nationals who are members of the *head of state or government or a UN *Secretariat.) See also the entry government *minister. which begins Headquarters of the United Nations. privileges and immunities. See consular privileges and immunities; prize court. See blockade. diplomatic privileges and immuni- ties; permanent mission. procès-verbal. See minutes.

Privileges and Immunities of the proconsul. A term frequently Specialized Agencies, Convention applied with rhetorical flourish to a on. A convention approved by the grand and senior figure in the protected state 215 administration of an empire, par- cannot arise. See also apostolic dele- ticularly a colonial governor, in gate; internuncio; nunciature; the age of European imperialism. Vatican City State. (‘Proconsul’ was the title given to the commanders of armies or gover- propaganda. The use of mass com- nors of provinces of the Roman munications to reinforce or change Empire.) The *Viceroy of India was public opinion, domestic or foreign. typically seen as a proconsul, If the source is openly admitted it is though he would have resisted most known as ‘white’ propaganda; if strenuously the suggestion that he concealed or misrepresented, as was a mere colonial governor. ‘black’ propaganda. Traditionally regarded in International Relations pro-consul. A rank sometimes given (sense 3) as the antithesis of *diplo- to *consular officers who come macy (sense 1) because of its noise, immediately below vice-consul. For tendency to mendacity, and design many years it was British practice to to appeal to the people over the employ pro-consuls for the purpose head of the government, propa- of administering oaths, taking ganda is not necessarily anti-diplo- affidavits or affirmations, and per- matic; it all depends on its content. forming notarial acts. The rank is For example, propaganda may be not widely used. used to help break an *impasse in negotiations by testing the water procurator. See plenipotentiary. with new ideas, or to sustain the momentum of faltering talks by progressive development. The ‘talking them up’. See also mega- alteration of or the settling of phone diplomacy. apparent inconsistencies in *inter- national law. See also codification; protected state. (1) A *sovereign International Law Commission. state which, by *treaty, has placed itself under the general protection pro-memoria. See aide-mémoire. of another. This almost always involves the conduct by the pro-nuncio. The title preferred to stronger state of the foreign rela- *nuncio for the *Holy See’s diplo- tions and defence of the weaker matic representative of *ambassado- one. The terminological expression rial rank in states which refuse of this status – and, indeed, the automatically to permit this envoy status itself – was deeply out of step to be *dean of the *diplomatic with the ethos of the later twenti- corps. If there is no ‘nuncio’, the eth century, so that all treaties of question of his *precedence pro- protection appear to have been vided for under the terms of the brought to an end by 1971. *Regulation of Vienna of 1815 However, much of the substance of 216 protecting power the status has been incorporated in play chiefly as a result of a breach in the Compacts of Free Association *diplomatic relations (sense 1). For made since the mid-1980s between example, following the breach the Marshall Islands, Micronesia, between Iran and the USA in 1979, and Palau on the one hand and the Switzerland became the protecting United States on the other, whereby power for the United States in the latter has full responsibility for Tehran, while Algeria assumed the the defence – but not for the same role for Iran in Washington. foreign relations – of these very The institution is enshrined in the small sovereign states. See also asso- Vienna Convention on *Diplomatic ciated state; political resident; pro- Relations (1961). See also interests tectorate. (2) A state whose interests section. in a second state are protected by the diplomatic mission of a third. protectorate. (1) In much interna- See also interests section; protecting tional terminology, a synonym for power. *protected state (sense 1). (2) In the 1990s the term was used (as in refer- protecting power. (1) A state which ence to the Serbian Province of is in that relationship to a *protected Kosovo) to refer to that part of a state (sense 1). (2) A state which *sovereign state over which a group undertakes to protect the interests of of third states or an *international a second state in the territory of a organization exercises effective third. This important diplomatic authority. (3) In British constitu- institution originated in the six- tional terminology, a territorial teenth century in the right asserted entity which, while not formally a by the French court – for reasons of part of the monarch’s dominions, is prestige and economic gain – to treated as if it were. To all intents protect the interests of any and purposes, therefore, British pro- Christians whose business or plea- tectorates were in the position of sure took them to the Ottoman *colonies. None of Britain’s remain- Empire and found themselves ing *dependent territories enjoys without the protection of diplomats this status. from their own state. The responsi- bility was discharged, in the face of protest. A formal expression of one increasing competition from other state’s strong dissatisfaction with an European powers, by the French aspect of the policy of another. *embassy (sense 3) in Istanbul and its Depending on the importance of outlying *consulates. Protecting the issue, it may be personally deliv- powers are still employed by states ered to the head of the offending which feel that their interests in state’s *diplomatic mission by the another do not justify the expense of *foreign minister of the protesting a mission but today they come into state or by one of its *officials, proximity talks 217 and/or by *note (sense 1). See also were often made hereditary. démarche. Resembling the modern day *hon- orary consular officer, the proxenos – protocol. (1) Rules of diplomatic citizenship only excepted – was the procedure, notably those designed forerunner of the *resident ambas- to accord to the representatives of sador created in Italy during the late *sovereign states and others, as well fifteenth century. as different *classes of officers within them, the treatment in all proximity talks. *Negotiations con- official dealings to which their rec- ducted between hostile parties via ognized status entitles them. Public an intermediary, usually at the same occasions present the most testing *venue but without face-to-face times for such rules, and it is for contact between the adversaries. this reason that a state’s chief of Commonly occasioned by the protocol has in the past sometimes refusal of one party to recognize the been known as its ‘master of cere- legitimacy of the other, their physi- monies’. (2) An annex to a *treaty. cal proximity at least makes the (3) An agreement of a less formal intermediary’s task of communica- kind than is usually connoted by tion somewhat easier, and also has the word ‘treaty’. (4) The *minutes *propaganda advantages for both of a conference or a formal record parties: to the one refusing *recog- of what has happened, e.g. a proto- nition, that of *signalling to the col of deposit of an instrument of outside world that this obstacle will *ratification. (5) A treaty signed in not be allowed to stand in the way order to elaborate a *framework of peace; to the one anxious to treaty. obtain it, that of suggesting that recognition is no longer so far off. provisional entry into force of The UN-brokered negotiations on treaties. See entry into force. the Greek island of Rhodes during 1949, which led to armistice agree- proxenos. In ancient Greece, a ments between Israel and her four citizen appointed by a foreign gov- Arab neighbours, were something in ernment to defend its interests in the nature of proximity talks. Such his own state, as Cimon the talks under UN *mediators were also Athenian statesman was appointed employed at the Palais des Nations by Sparta to look after Spartan inter- in Geneva in the mid-1980s to ests in Athens. The proxenoi were produce a settlement between usually leading political and social Afghanistan’s Soviet-backed regime figures who were glad to have this and Pakistan, as the latter refused to public testimony that their reputa- recognize the former. They were tions extended beyond the borders also employed by the United States of their own states. Appointments at the talks held in 1995 in Dayton, 218 proxy

Ohio (at an air force base) with a before the word *‘diplomat’ came view to generating a breakthrough into common usage, though the on the problem of Bosnia. See also term ministres publics remained contact group. current in French diplomacy until well into the twentieth century. In proxy. This term is a contraction of 1758 *Vattel said that ‘This expres- ‘procuracy’ and has two closely sion, in its most general sense, is related meanings relevant to diplo- used of every person intrusted with macy: (1) Acting via another, as in the management of public affairs, negotiating, fighting, or voting but it is particularly applied to those ‘by proxy’. (2) One who acts on who are appointed to fulfil such behalf of another. See also plenipo- duties at a foreign court.’ tentiary; representative; representa- tive character. puppet state. A *sovereign state which appears to move not just at public diplomacy. Not to be con- the will of a stronger state (which is fused with *open or *parliamentary not unusual internationally) but diplomacy, a late-twentieth-century only at its will. It is an imprecise term for *propaganda conducted by term, but is probably best used to *diplomats. refer to a less independent situation than that indicated by the terms publicist. A learned writer on *dependent state or *satellite state. *international law. See also sphere of influence; vassal state. public minister. Sometimes also *‘foreign minister’, the term for a pursuivant. In medieval diplomacy, *diplomatic agent of any class a *herald’s assistant. Q

Quai d’Orsay. The French Ministry King’s Messengers have been traced of Foreign Affairs, which settled in to the late twelfth century but it the purpose-built palace on the quai seems to have been Henry VIII, not d’Orsay (no. 37) in Paris in 1853. least because he saw advantage in employing them in a quasi-police qualified majority voting (QMV). role as well, who first gave real The term for the system of impetus to their development. In *weighted voting employed by the 1547, the last year of his reign, he EU’s *Council of Ministers. The decided that the King’s Messengers – weighting of each member state’s at that time 40 strong – should be votes is based on population, formed into a Corps of King’s though the system has always Messengers and placed under the favoured the smaller states. (In prac- control of the Lord Chamberlain. tice, most decisions in the Council Further regularization occurred in are still reached on the basis of 1772, but it was 1824 before the *consensus.) See also constructive King’s Messengers were constituted abstention; unanimity. on the basis which still obtains today. In that year, at the instigation Queen’s Commissioner. A term of the Foreign Secretary, George employed in the mid-nineteenth Canning, and with the willing century by the British to describe assent of George IV, the *Foreign what soon came to be known Office took over their financing and instead as a military, and subse- control. Henceforward, the ‘King’s quently as a *service, attaché. Foreign Messenger Corps’ became the overseas messenger service for Queen’s Messenger. ‘King’s Mes- the whole of the government senger’ when a king is on the (including the royal household). throne, a full-time British *diplo- Previous abuses were also addressed, matic courier. The origins of the notably by tightening up conditions

219 220 Queen’s Realms of entry. From this time onward, more likely to be found in a plane King’s Messengers had to be British than on the back of a horse, and subjects, preferably former officers each flies on average 250,000 miles a in the armed services, under thirty- year on duty (since the late 1980s, five on the date of their appoint- ‘club’ class rather than first class). ment, adept in foreign languages Until 1960, teams of messengers and unlikely to fall off a galloping were stationed abroad in good horse. These conditions were never centres for civil airline connections, substantially modified, the prefer- and by 1945 there were ten such ence for former serving officers teams. However, the vast improve- remaining particularly marked. Of ments in international air transport all possible candidates, such men over the past five decades have made were thought most likely to be loyal, it possible for all journeys to start resourceful, and disinclined to be and finish in London, and the meek in asserting their legal rights system of stationing Queen’s of immunity in the face of ignorant Messengers abroad was ended. The or truculent border officials. In the strength of the corps fluctuated period between the great improve- between 40 and 50 over the 1945–80 ment in roads in the later eigh- period but since then has declined teenth century and the solid steadily, most recently because the advance of the railways by the end of the *Cold War reduced the middle of the nineteenth, King’s number of classified documents to Messengers maintained their own be carried and the frequency with carriages at Dover, which had seats which diplomatic missions had to which could be turned into beds. be visited. The establishment is Always likely to be attacked for the now 15 and, as far as despatches are large sums of money which they concerned, only those classified had to carry to meet their heavy as ‘secret’ or above are carried. expenses as well as for the secrets (Commercial organizations now contained in their *despatches, their carry most mail classified as carriages also had racks for arms, at a ‘confidential’ or below.) The badge minimum two pistols and a sword. of office of the Queen’s Messengers East of Berlin or south of Vienna remains the *silver greyhound. See they were generally forced onto also casual courier; diplomatic bag; horseback again, and had to be express; freedom of communication. accompanied by a guide and two guards – or even, over certain stages, Queen’s Realms. *Sovereign states by a troop of cavalry loaned to them whose *head of state is The Queen by the King of Prussia or Habsburg of, among other states, the United Emperor. Kingdom of Great Britain and Today, the Queen’s Messengers, Northern Ireland. See also Common- whose work remains important, are wealth; high commissioner. quiet diplomacy 221 quid pro quo. In *negotiation, diplomacy (both senses) by some- something given in return. See also one who is not a *diplomatic agent concession (sense 1). and whose public manner of doing things is usually different. The term was notably associated with the quiet diplomacy. The conduct of UN’s second Secretary-General, Dag business in the style of *bilateral Hammarskjöld. R raison d’état. Shorthand for the that the *sending state’s previous doctrine that the moral codes gener- *embassy (sense 1) is either destroyed ally prevailing in relations between or without the means necessary for individuals may be ignored by gov- the staff to be self-sufficient; or in ernment agencies if the security of respect of a state in which the the *state is in jeopardy. In other sending state has not hitherto had a words, it is the doctrine that *resident mission but to which the governments may do anything, despatch of such a mission is now such as breaking promises, ordering deemed to be very urgent. Modelled assassinations, or making alliances on army mobile field headquarters, a with heretics and infidels, if they rapid reaction embassy typically believe such actions are necessary to consists of large containers holding preserve the state. Originating in essential equipment (notably for the thought and practice of satellite communications, encrypt- Renaissance Italy, where it was first ion, computing, and power labelled ragione di stato, *Richelieu generation) and prefabricated accom- was perhaps its most celebrated modation if necessary. Also called a practitioner. See also Barbaro; flat-pack embassy. (2) A colloquial Guicciardini; Machiavelli. way of referring to an embassy which has been so established. Ramadan, War of. The Arab states’ term for the *October War (1973). rapporteur. At a conference, the person chosen to draft a report on rapid reaction embassy. (1) the work of a committee or working Equipment held on standby for the group and, when it is agreed, emergency despatch of a *diplomatic present it to the *plenary body on mission. Such a need might arise in the committee’s behalf. Since the respect of a state which has been report will usually contain propos- subject to such internal tribulation als and the reasons for them, the

222 ratification 223 opportunity to produce the first since despatching them. It is a pro- draft provides the rapporteur with a cedure still valued for the opportu- position of some influence. nity for second thoughts which it provides and the greater authority rapprochement. An overcoming or which it lends to treaties. putting aside of previous difficulties Furthermore, the constitutions of in *diplomatic relations (sense 2), a some states require that treaties, or reconciliation and growth in inti- certain kinds of treaties, must have macy. The term was commonly the approval of a body such as par- employed to describe the improve- liament, in which case it is clearly ment in relations – at first cautious necessary – from a domestic point and slow, then dramatic and rapid – of view – that the treaties signed by between the United States and the these states should be subject to People’s Republic of China at the ratification. One well-known beginning of the 1970s: ‘the Sino- instance of this is the need for American rapprochement’. treaties to which the United States becomes *party to have received the ratification. The formal act approval of its Senate. By contrast, whereby a state consents to be there is no equivalent requirement bound by a *treaty which it has in Britain, although it is customary already *signed. Some treaties, in to seek specific parliamentary accordance with their terms, approval for very important treaties. become operative as from signature Another reason for the requirement – in which case the signature is of ratification is that all states will referred to as ‘definitive’; but others in respect of some treaties need to require ratification for them to pass domestic legislation for the become *binding on a signatory. treaties to take effect. Some states use the terms ‘accep- As to the form ratification takes, tance’ or ‘approval’ to express their usually it is an act of the *head of ratification of a treaty, and *interna- state, but in some cases it may be an tional organizations expressing act of the government or of the their consent to be bound by a foreign minister. For the ratification treaty tend to describe this consent to be effective in establishing the as an ‘act of formal confirmation’. state’s consent to be bound, it must The practice of ratification was then be directly passed to the other institutionalized at a time when signatories or lodged with the poor communications made it *depositary nominated by the difficult if not impossible for there treaty. It must be remembered that to be any certainty that negotiators ratification does not necessarily had not exceeded their *instruc- result in the treaty’s immediate tions, or that their masters had not *entry into force. See also executive changed their minds altogether agreement; Ponsonby Rule. 224 realism realism. In the study of *receiving state. A permanent recall *International Relations, a label generally indicates that the head of either for (1) views or policies which mission’s *tour of duty is being pay more respect to what is achiev- brought to a normal end. See also able in practice than what might be letters of recall. ideal – first strong in the work of *Machiavelli and influenced by a receiving line. A device for the low view of human nature; (2) the efficient welcoming of guests, at an doctrine that the focus of the embassy reception this is a line gen- subject should be the interplay of erally composed of ambassador and states, in which case ‘Realism’ is spouse together with any guest of usually written thus, i.e. with a honour. (At a big reception, selected capital letter; or (3) the position of senior diplomatic staff may also those scholars who believe, gener- stand in the line.) As host, the ally in conjunction with the preced- ambassador will head the line, ing sense, that states aim primarily though a butler or other aide will at dominance over other states, in sometimes stand in front to elicit this event the label also being nor- and announce accurately the names mally employed with a capital of the guests, who then proceed letter. See also idealism; power poli- down the line. Hosts normally tics; Realpolitik. ‘receive’ in this way for about half an hour after the time stated for Realpolitik. The German term for the reception on the invitation. political *realism (sense 1), attrib- However, at a *national day recep- uted to Ludwig von Rochau, who tion, for example, standing in line published Grundsätze der Realpolitik to welcome late arrivals may well in 1853. It is now usually contrasted merge into bidding goodbye to early with ‘Idealpolitik’ or *idealism. departers, thus occupying virtually the whole period of the function. rebus sic stantibus. See clausula rebus sic stantibus. receiving state. The state which agrees to receive a *diplomatic or a recall. (1) The temporary or perma- *special mission from another state. nent withdrawal of a *diplomatic It is also sometimes spoken of as the mission. The latter eventuality, it *host state. should be noted, does not necessar- ily entail the breach of *diplomatic reception. The formal welcome relations (sense 1). (2) The tempo- extended by the *receiving state to a rary or permanent recall of a *head new *head of mission. Unless it of mission. A temporary withdrawal happens that *presentation of cre- often indicates the *sending state’s dentials is to take place very soon displeasure with some act of the after the new head’s arrival, the Red Cross Conventions 225 reception is likely to take the shape recognition of a state. The *recogni- of an audience with the minister of tion by one state of another, foreign affairs. A reception will also extended either explicitly or implic- be arranged for a *special mission. itly. It is often said that this should be granted if the aspirant state meets reciprocity. The principle stipulating the conditions stipulated in the that if one state acts in a certain way *Montevideo Convention (1933). towards a second, the latter is very However, in practice the decision likely (provided it is practical for it to whether or not to grant recognition do so) to claim the right to reply in of a state (and also *recognition of a kind. Very influential, this principle government) is often a political act. underlies much state behaviour, Recognition of a state is distinguish- diplomatic intercourse not least, and able from and a prerequisite for the thus contributes to ensuring the establishment of *diplomatic rela- observance of legal obligations. See tions (sense 1). However, unlike the also bilateral diplomacy; diplomatic latter, recognition is a unilateral act. privileges and immunities; diplo- A breach of *diplomatic relations matic representation; international (sense 1) does not imply a with- law; tit-for-tat expulsions. drawal of recognition. Indeed, if the facts remain the same, recognition recognition. A state’s acknowl- cannot be withdrawn. See also de edgement of a situation, with the facto recognition; de jure recognition. intention of admitting its legal implications. recredential. In French a lettre de récréance, this is a letter of acknowl- recognition of a government. The edgement written by the head of a *recognition by one state of a new *receiving state to the head of a government in another, especially *sending state on receipt from the one which has come to power by latter of *letters of recall of his or unorthodox means. During the past her ambassador. Usually formulaic, two decades many states have aban- it expresses satisfaction at the doned the practice. This policy has agent’s conduct and regret at his or the advantage both of avoiding the her departure. accusation that recognition of a government implies approval, or Redcliffe, Lord Stratford de. See non-recognition disapproval; and in Canning, Stratford. a civil war of easing the establish- ment of diplomatic contacts with Red Cross. See International rebel groups with a view to protect- Committee of the Red Cross. ing the interests of the *sending state. See also de facto recognition; de Red Cross Conventions. The chief jure recognition; Estrada doctrine. embodiments of *international 226 red line humanitarian law, these are the four ference held at Geneva in 1951, it conventions, alternatively known as *entered into force in 1954, and the ‘Geneva Conventions’, which has been *ratified by about three- were agreed at Geneva in 1949 and quarters of the world’s states. are still in force today. They deal Broadened by a 1967 Protocol, the respectively with (i) the care of the Convention confers refugee status wounded and sick members of on those who find themselves in a armed forces in the field; (ii) the care member state and are deemed by of the wounded, sick and ship- the latter to satisfy the Con- wrecked members of armed forces at vention’s requirements. sea; (iii) the treatment of prisoners of war; and (iv) the protection of civil- regime. See international regime. ian persons in time of war. Almost all states are party to these important regional customary international and – at least in the last regard – law. See special customary interna- innovative Conventions. Neverthe- tional law. less, post-1949 changes in methods of warfare, among other things, regional organization. An *interna- required greater attention to be tional organization whose members given to the protection of the civil- are restricted to a region (loosely ian population against the direct interpreted), such as the *African effects of hostilities. As a result, in Union or the *League of Arab States. 1977 two new treaties of interna- tional humanitarian law were registry. The section of a ministry adopted: the ‘Protocols additional of foreign affairs or of a diplomatic to the Geneva Conventions’. A mission in which mail is handled clear majority of states are today and documents are – or should be – bound by at least one of these. See registered, filed, and indexed by also International Committee of the archivists. See also chancelier; diplo- Red Cross. matic archives. red line. Another term for a *fall- Regulation of Vienna (1815). A back position. landmark in the development of diplomatic procedure which was red memo. A message of rebuke agreed at the Congress of *Vienna. sent to one of its diplomats by a The Regulation divided *heads of ministry of *foreign affairs. mission into three classes: (i) *ambassadors, *legates or *nuncios referendum. See plebiscite. (who alone had the *representative character); (ii) *envoys, ministers or Refugees, Convention Relating to others, accredited to sovereigns; and the Status of. Signed at a UN con- (iii) *chargés d’affaires, who were representation 227 accredited only to the minister for the second half of the thirteenth foreign affairs. (This was modified at century though not achieving its the Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle in final form until the sixteenth, the 1818 by the insertion of another relazione was much fuller than class – minister *resident – between a *despatch and was updated by envoys and chargés d’affaires, each successive ambassador and thereby making four classes in all.) solemnly read to the senate on his However, the radical development return. The Venetian relazioni were came in article 4, under which it unique and acquired great fame; as was agreed that, henceforward, a result, copies were bought both by within each class heads of mission governments and collectors. They would take *precedence according were not, however, universally to the date of the official admired. *Torcy, the bustling notification of their arrival at their foreign minister of Louis XIV, who posting. See also diplomatic classes; required a written mémoire or final presentation of credentials. report from his own envoys on their return from abroad, noted reis effendi. A high official of the tersely that the Venetian style con- Ottoman government directly sub- tained ‘beaucoup de paroles, nulle con- ordinate to the *grand vizier. clusion’. See also sefaretname. Originally head of the chancery of the sultan’s divan (council), he later RELEX. From Relations Extérieure, a came to act as secretary of state and common abbreviation for direc- minister of foreign affairs. torates-general of the *European Union dealing with *Common relation. An early modern term for Foreign and Security Policy, trade, a detailed report from a diplomat or development, and enlargement. consul on a particular subject, usually attached to a *despatch. ‘I reparation. (1) The redress of an have bene large in this subject illegal act. See also damages. (2) [Barbary pirates] in former rela- Compensation exacted for an act tions’, Sir Thomas Roe, English which is deemed to have been polit- Ambassador in Istanbul, informed ically or morally improper (usually King James I in March 1621. Such both). Victors in *war have some- reports did not compare with the times exacted reparations from the quite unique Venetian *relazioni. defeated states – as instanced notably in the 1919 Treaty of relazione. A detailed account of the Versailles made at the conclusion of political, military, economic and the First World War. social conditions within a state pro- duced by the *Venetian diplomats representation. (1) A synonym for who had served there. Dating from *diplomacy (sense 1). See also diplo- 228 Representation of States … with International Organizations matic functions; representations. between individual host states and (2) The ceremonial and social – and the organization concerned. often extremely tedious – side of the work of a diplomatic agent, espe- representations. Diplomatic lan- cially an ambassador. Apart from guage for a mild, or at least rela- entertaining and attendance at state tively mild, protest: ‘I have been ceremonial occasions, ‘representa- making representations to the tional duties’ include such chores as MFA about their disregard of the standing in line at the airport with German Ambassador’s privileges the rest of the *diplomatic corps to and immunities.’ welcome some foreign dignitary to the country. (3) The permanent representative. All heads of mission mission abroad of a body such as represent their states, but the term the *European Commission. The representative does not usually Commission has ‘Representations’ appear in the formal titles which in all of the member states of the indicate their *diplomatic rank *European Union. (4) In the plural, (sense 1). However, if (as sometimes an umbrella term for diplomatic happens) a difficulty occurs over the missions and consular posts. See also use of such a title, the states con- representative character. cerned may agree to resort to the generic term ‘representative’, or the Representation of States in their *sending state may unilaterally Relations with International adopt that designation. The two Organizations of a Universal states may also, in these circum- Character, Vienna Convention on stances, agree on the *diplomatic (1975). This deals with the position class into which the representative (including the privileges and immu- falls; alternatively, the *receiving nities) of *permanent missions, state will make its own determina- *permanent observer missions, and tion on the matter. of *delegations to organs of *inter- Such a case arose in respect of national organizations and to British–Irish representation during conferences convened by and under the Second World War (at which the auspices of international organi- time there was a difference of zations. As of October 2002 it opinion as to whether Ireland was a remained five *ratifications short of *dominion). Britain refused to agree the 35 needed for it to *enter into to Ireland’s wish that the represen- force, *host states (sense 2) in partic- tative of each of them should have ular being unhappy at the extent of a diplomatic rank and title. It was the privileges and immunities therefore agreed that their represen- which it proposes. Meanwhile, the tatives should be so called. position of missions and delegations However, a further problem arose as is regulated by specific agreements Ireland refused to use the name representative office 229

‘United Kingdom’, as its full version to it diminish during the course of included the words ‘and Northern the nineteenth century. Even the Ireland’. Thus while Britain called early editions of *Satow’s Guide, her representative in Dublin the published shortly after the First ‘Representative of the United World War, regarded the ‘represen- Kingdom’, Ireland called him the tative character’ of the ambassador ‘British Representative’. as little more than an historical The title of representative may curiosity. Nevertheless, many diplo- also be given to an individual mats from all sorts of states remain appointed by the UN to support deeply conscious of representing the *Secretary-General’s efforts in the person of their *head of state. the field of peace and security. See also exterritoriality; functional See also accredited diplomatic approach; representation. representative; accredited represen- tative; diplomatic representative; representative functions. A syno- personal representative; polpred; nym for *diplomatic functions. representative character; representa- tive office; special envoy; special representative office. Sometimes representative. known as a ‘liaison office’, a mission other than a *consular post or an representative character. The rep- *interests section which represents resentation of the person of the one state in another in the absence sending sovereign. This idea used to of *diplomatic relations (sense 1) be employed to justify *diplomatic between them. In these circum- privileges and immunities, and the stances, typically where one party related right to demand direct refuses to *recognize the government access to the receiving sovereign, or state of the other but both are which according to Article 2 of the keen to promote contacts, represen- *Regulation of Vienna (1815) was tative offices are a favoured solution considered exclusive to *diplomatic to the problem of resident represen- agents of the first class (*ambas- tation. In effect informal embassies, sadors, *legates and *nuncios). This they were employed in Japan’s rela- generally gave ambassadors no tions with certain states prior to the more than a negotiating point on ending of the occupation regime in top-level access, although it could 1952 (though foreign ‘liaison mis- sometimes be used to great advan- sions’ in Japan were formally accred- tage. The disappearance of *monar- ited to the Supreme Command of chical regimes and the political the Allied Powers). They were also emasculation of those which exchanged between the United remained, together with the practi- States and the People’s Republic of cal obstacles to effecting this doc- China in the interval between the trine, saw the importance attached *rapprochement between them in 230 reprisal the early 1970s and US recognition meant to have the legal effect of of the PRC in 1979. And they are reservations but which sometimes currently popular with Taiwan and seem, in the effect they are the Turkish Republic of Northern intended to have, to be little differ- Cyprus. ent from reservations. reprisal. An act which is illegal in residence. The home of the *head itself but which is allegedly justified of mission while in the country of as a means of retaliation for an illegal his or her accreditation when dis- act by another state. During the tinct, as is now commonly the case, second half of the twentieth century from the *chancery or *embassy the issue of reprisals, especially where (sense 1); it might be anything from they involved the use of force, a hotel room to a mansion. became highly controversial. In con- Sometimes described as the ‘private sequence, the concept of lawful residence’, it was expressly included defence has sometimes been stretch- within the definition of the ed to cover acts which once would ‘premises of the mission’ in the straightforwardly have been called Vienna Convention on *Diplomatic reprisals. See also countermeasures; Relations (1961) and is entitled to reciprocity; retorsion; sanctions. exactly the same inviolability and protection as the chancery or republic. A state in which the *head embassy proper. The physical sepa- of state is elected by the people or a ration of the residence from the representative body, as distinct chancery can have advantages for from a *monarchy where the head- diplomacy. When the US *Army ship devolves (generally) on the Attaché in Paris, Major General basis of heredity. Vernon A. Walters, was instructed by the White House in 1970 to reservation. A qualification made make secret contact with the by a party to a *treaty, *resolution, Chinese Ambassador, he decided, or *consensus statement purporting according to his memoirs, ‘that the to exclude itself from the operation way to do this was to go and see of a particular provision of the him at the residence in the Neuilly treaty. In principle, the validity of a suburban district of Paris, rather reservation depends on the consent than to attempt to go to the of the other parties. But in practice Chinese chancery downtown. This the situation often becomes less would draw a lot of attention’. See than entirely clear. Nor is clarity in also diplomatic premises; hôtel de this area helped by the recent prac- l’ambassadeur. tice of *ratifications and *accessions being accompanied by interpreta- resident. (1) In early modern tive declarations, which are not European diplomacy, a *public review meeting 231 minister (including an ambassador) the mission had been called a *High who was permanently resident in Commission, even though Rhodesia the state of his accreditation. (2) had not been a *sovereign state. Later, the term was used to describe This terminology had been used to a minister of the third class, that is, reflect the territory’s special posi- one below an *envoy but above a tion in the *Commonwealth.) *secretary of embassy. By the end of the eighteenth century the term resolution. The standard form in had dropped out of use, though it which UN bodies, and other *inter- re-emerged as ‘minister resident’ as national organizations, record their the title for the third class of diplo- decisions, which may or may not matic agent provided for in the be *binding. The resolution begins addition to the famous *Regulation with a preamble which rehearses of Vienna (1815) at the Congress of the background to the subject Aix-la-Chapelle in 1818. See also in question and then proceeds to Barbaro; political resident. the operative paragraphs. See also General Assembly; Security Council. resident clerk. See duty officer. res nullius. See terra nullius. resident mission. A *diplomatic mission the head of which is resi- retorsion. Retaliatory acts which are dent in the *receiving state. legal in all circumstances. See also Generally, its other members will reprisals. also be resident there, but occasion- ally some or even most of them retreat. The session of a *summit will be resident at a mission in meeting where the heads of state another state, or dispersed among and government meet strictly on several other missions. Sometimes their own and usually in a quiet (although it seems less common location away from the main than it used to be) a resident venue. Traditionally associated mission will have a non-resident with *Commonwealth Heads of head, with the mission in the Government Meetings, retreats, receiving state being headed by a which typically last for a day or a *chargé d’affaires ad interim. See also day and a half, are now a feature of multiple accreditation; non-resident certain other serial summits as mission; satellite office. well. See also Camp David. residual mission. The term by review meeting. A conference held which the British mission in periodically to review the operation Rhodesia was known after the of and if necessary revise a *treaty. latter’s unilateral declaration of For example, the *Conference on independence in 1965. (Before that Security and Cooperation in Europe 232 Richelieu, Cardinal

(CSCE), which was launched by the agreeable. And it is now universally Helsinki Final Act (1975), operated accepted that *diplomatic missions chiefly through meetings of this are established on the basis of the kind held every three or four years. receiving states’ consent.

Richelieu, Cardinal (1585–1642). right of transit. Known earlier as Armand Jean du Plessis, Cardinal the right of innocent passage, the and Duke of Richelieu, was chief alleged right of *diplomatic agents, minister to King Louis XIII of and members of their *families France from 1624 until his death (sense 1), to pass freely through shortly before the end of the Thirty third states on their way to and Years’ War. To students of diplo- from a diplomatic post. Strictly macy Richelieu is best known for speaking, however, diplomats have being the first prominent figure to no greater rights in this regard than insist on the importance to a com- their fellow citizens. Thus, if a visa munity of states of continuous nego- is ordinarily required for people of tiation between them, the first to their nationality, they must obtain create (in 1626) a ministry of one. Nevertheless, diplomatic *foreign affairs, and – despite being agents (and their families) passing a pious Catholic – one of the most legitimately through a third state on successful statesmen in modern the way to or from their posts are European history to apply the doc- entitled to such immunities as are trine signified by the phrase *raison necessary to ensure their passage. d’état. The Cardinal’s Testament See also safe conduct. Politique, which was written shortly before his death for the private rights and duties of states. See guidance of Louis XIII and did not Montevideo Convention. see the light of day until 1688, con- tains a succinct distillation of his Rio Branco, Baron of. José Maria political and diplomatic wisdom. At da Silva Paranhos Junior, Baron of one time thought to be a forgery, it Rio Branco (1845–1912), among is now accepted by historians to be other things consul (in Liverpool), substantially authentic. and foreign minister of Brazil. He is generally credited with the major right of legation (ius legationis). It role in delimiting Brazil’s national was long claimed that states had a frontiers, promoting the policy of right to despatch *ambassadors *rapprochement with the United (sense 1) or *ministers (sense 1) to States, and being the founder of the foreign states. However, the alleged Brazilian diplomatic service. The right was largely without substance, Brazilian diplomatic academy, as there was little point in acting on founded in 1945 (the centenary of it if the *receiving state was not his birth), is named after him. round-table conference 233

Rio Branco Institute. See Rio it. *Standstill agreements often have Branco, Baron of. a rollback element.

roll-call voting. A method of voting ripe moment. The juncture in a used in *international organizations dispute when the parties are most and conferences in which an officer inclined (perhaps out of exhaus- calls the roll of member states, tion) to make a settlement and whose representatives then answer when, therefore, it is best to start a ‘Yes’, ‘No’ or ‘Abstain’ as the names *negotiation or force the pace of an are called. Latterly it has often been existing one. It is, of course, allied replaced by electronic voting. See to the concept of ‘premature negoti- also precedence. ation’. Sometimes presented as a twentieth-century insight, the doc- Rosier, Bernard du (?–1475). trine of the ripe moment, or Provost and later archbishop of ‘ripeness’, was discussed at some Toulouse, Rosier also knew the length by *Guicciardini in the early world of diplomacy and has been sixteenth century; he called it the authoritatively credited with writing ‘right season’. the first textbook on the subject in Western Europe. Completed at the rogatory letter. A letter or com- end of 1436, this was called mission requesting that a judicial Ambaxiator Brevilogus or ‘Short Treat- authority in one state obtain evi- ise about Ambassadors’. His book dence, serve process, or serve a was also remarkable for its prefer- summons on behalf of a judicial ence for the word *‘ambassador’ as authority in another. Consuls play a the title for the most important prominent role in delivering such envoys several centuries before this letters and in some circumstances became routine. may assist in their execution. The US State Department believes that round (of negotiations). A series the use of such letters is a time-con- of negotiating sessions. While a suming, cumbersome, and costly session normally lasts for hours, a process and should only be used as round can last for weeks, months a last resort. or even years.

Rogers Act (1924). See Foreign round-table conference. A confer- Service, US. ence presented by its prime-movers as one at which all *delegations rollback. A provision in an agree- are, as conferees, of equal status ment whereby the parties undertake and there are no opposing sides – to dismantle all of their existing however much these claims are policies that are inconsistent with belied by reality. Round-table confer- 234 roving ambassador ences are typically employed in an it had inherited, and it would be effort to ease the prickly relations surprising if they were not still occa- between delegations representing sionally used for this purpose. *sovereign states and those repre- Today, however, they are more senting *non-governmental organi- visible as a feature of the diplomacy zations and armed factions. The term of a major power which wants to is generally employed as a metaphor promote a settlement of a regional for the round table of medieval conflict. Roving ambassadors are legend at which King Arthur is said normally people of great experience to have sat with his knights to and seniority. reinforce feelings of equality and harmony within his court. rules of procedure. Rules agreed by (Rectangular tables, of course, have a decision-making body to govern sides and – if oblong – may be pre- its proceedings. In international sented as having a ‘head’ and a ‘foot’ relations a well-known instance is as well.) Occasionally, however, a to be found in the Provisional real round table may be employed at Rules of Procedure of the UN *Secu- an international conference, as at rity Council (as amended on the Bonn talks on Afghanistan in 21 December 1982), which deal with November 2001. the calling of meetings, production of the agenda, representation and roving ambassador. A *special credentials, the presidency, the role envoy with the task of visiting a of the secretariat, conduct of busi- number of countries, usually ness (including use of *rapporteurs), although not necessarily within the voting, official and working lan- same region. In the past roving guages, publicity of meetings and ambassadors were usually employed records, admission of new members, to explain its policies by a new gov- and relations with other UN organs, ernment suspicious of the loyalties non-governmental organizations, of the resident ambassadors which and private individuals. S safe-conduct. Sometimes loosely her post, is entitled to personal invi- described as a *laisser passer (in olability and ‘such other immuni- German, Passierschein), this was an ties as may be required to ensure his official permit for a diplomat or any transit or return’. As a result, safe- other individual to enter and travel conducts fell into disuse in the ‘without let or hindrance’ through a twentieth century. See also right of specified state, usually one with transit; visa. which his or her country was at *war. However, until *international salami tactics. A term used by law began to give relatively uniform Henry *Kissinger for an approach to protection to diplomatic envoys in *negotiations which, when on the the country of their accreditation receiving end, he did not favour: after the sixteenth century, it was extracting small concessions one customary for safe-conducts to be after another as if they were thin required by diplomats even in slices cut one after another from a *receiving – as well as transit – long and apparently inexhaustible states, and securing them was a task sausage. for intrepid *messengers. Of course, a number of developments have salute. See gun salute. dramatically reduced the problems which traditionally led diplomats to sanctions. The means adopted to seek safe-conducts, especially in enforce a legal obligation. They may transit states. Among these are air be utilized on an individual or a travel and the emergence of the cus- collective basis. Under the UN tomary rule (since codified in the Charter the *Security Council has Vienna Convention on *Diplomatic the right to take or authorize mea- Relations 1961), that a diplomat sures, including armed measures, in admitted to a third country in the face of any threat to or breach of course of a journey to or from his or the peace; and in so doing it may

235 236 San Francisco Conference intervene in matters which are be used. The person to whom it is essentially within a state’s *domes- given will be responsible for the tic jurisdiction. Given, on the one conduct of the office to the *head hand, the disposition of UN of the mission. Satellite offices, members to favour a broad interpre- sometimes known simply as tation of the term ‘threat to the ‘offices’, are commonly employed peace’ and, on the other, the ending by certain states to handle trade, of the *Cold War, the way was aid, and immigration questions. opened for the Council to engage in or empower the taking of a variety satellite state. A state which is or of measures against those whom it tends to be habitually subservient to deemed to be lawbreakers. Hence another in respect of an important during the last decade of the twenti- area or areas of policy. During the eth century there was a noticeable *Cold War it was widely applied in increase in the number of cases of the West to the East European asso- UN-sponsored collective sanctions. ciates of the Soviet Union. It has Prominent among them were those some affinity with the concept of a directed against Iraq, Libya, and the *vassal state. See also bloc; Brezhnev Federal Republic of Yugoslavia Doctrine; dependent state; puppet (Serbia and Montenegro). state; sphere of influence.

San Francisco Conference. The Satow, Sir Ernest (1843–1929). 1945 conference at which the UN Born of an English mother and a *Charter was concluded. Swedish father, Satow was a British scholar-diplomat whose most satellite office. A term sometimes significant postings were in the Far used to describe a (generally small) East. These culminated in China, to office of a diplomatic or consular which he was posted as Envoy character which does not have the Extraordinary and High Com- status of a *diplomatic mission or missioner shortly after the relief of *consular post in its own right the siege of the *legation quarter in (although its members will enjoy Peking in 1900. Satow received *diplomatic or *consular status). much of the credit for the agree- This is because it is only an outpost ment subsequently negotiated in the *receiving state of a diplo- between China and the other matic mission or consular post powers, and remained in Peking accredited to that state. Accord- until 1906. If students of the Far ingly, the senior member of the East now remember Satow for his satellite office cannot be given a profound scholarship on this typically head-of-mission title, such region, by diplomats he is recalled as ambassador; instead some such chiefly for his authorship of what is title as ‘officer in charge’ is likely to now called *Satow’s Guide to savingram 237

Diplomatic Practice, which is in its secretary at the Foreign Office in the fifth edition and is indisputably the second half of the 1960s. For stu- English-language manual of the dents of Satow, therefore, the most profession. It is a shame, however, valuable edition is the second, while that this still holds to the merely for professional diplomats the best technical truth that Satow ‘never one is obviously the most recent, married’. In fact, he had a ‘common that is the fifth, which has also been law’ Japanese wife called Kane who translated into Japanese and bore him two sons, one of whom Chinese. However, two points need worked subsequently as a botanist to be made about the current at Kew Gardens in London. It has edition, the first to bear the title been alleged – though this is dis- Satow’s Guide to Diplomatic Practice: puted – that, although he was (a) the information on which it is knighted and made a privy council- based is now at least a quarter of a lor, it is for this reason that the century old; and (b) while there is Foreign Office never promoted him still a family resemblance to the to ambassador. In Japan Satow early editions written by Satow remains a celebrity to this day. himself, the massive alterations and the inclusion of whole chapters on Satow’s Guide to Diplomatic institutions and processes which Practice. The highly technical did not even exist in Satow’s manual on *diplomacy (sense 1) lifetime (such as the UN) make first written by Sir Ernest *Satow the appropriateness of continuing and published by Longmans, Green to attach Satow’s name to this and Company of London in 1917 Guide at least questionable. Though under the title A Guide to Diplomatic not an official document, and Practice. In 1922 he published a published commercially, it is in second edition to make corrections effect the British Foreign and to the first and bring the work up to Commonwealth Office’s ‘Guide to date. However, Satow died in 1929 Diplomatic Practice’. and the three subsequent editions to appear were each revised by dif- saving. A British Diplomatic Service ferent persons recently retired from term for a relatively low priority the *Foreign Office. The third message sent telegraphically, rather edition (1932) was produced by than by the less economical Hugh Ritchie, formerly a technical *diplomatic bag. assistant in the Treaty Department; the fourth (1957) by Sir Nevile savingram. A half-way house Bland, whose last post was ambas- between a letter and a *telegram in sador at The Hague; and the fifth that it is a message in the same (1979) was revised by Lord Gore- form as an *unofficial letter but sent Booth, who was *permanent under- *saving. 238 schutzbrief schutzbrief. See letter of protection difficulty, in the solution of which (sense 1). the *protocol (sense 1) department of the receiving state is likely to seal. (1) An emblematic figure or provide valuable assistance. But it design pressed into a piece of wax as remains that diplomatic feathers a means of authenticating either the will sometimes be ruffled. The tradi- document so marked or the signa- tional form of protest at a host’s ture on it. (2) An engraved tool or failure to recognize a guest’s proper ‘stamp’ employed for making such seniority as revealed by the place- markings on wax. States customarily ment is for the insulted guest to turn have a seal of this kind for use on his or her soup bowl upside down papers of the highest importance, on the table, after the soup has been such as *treaties. In Britain this seal served but before it is eaten, and to is called the Great Seal of the Realm. depart in silence. Happily, this (3) A piece of wax or similar sub- rarely happens. stance which overlaps a fold in a At international political meet- letter or document, thereby making ings the representatives of partici- it impossible (or at least very pating states may be seated on any difficult) to open it and then ‘re- basis which is mutually agreed – seal’ it without detection. resort to an *alphabetical basis often being found convenient. But seating arrangements. At official difficulties can arise when the par- and social functions in a *receiving ticipating states are not in *diplo- state, the rules of *precedence apply matic relations (sense 1) or do to the seating of *heads of mission, not even *recognize each other, or and their position as a class is deter- when *non-state actors are in- mined by the receiving state’s volved. Ad hoc solutions are then domestic order of precedence. Other required, which (provided the *diplomatic agents are seated on the parties agree to meet in the same basis of their diplomatic rank and room) may include the use of sepa- the time they have served in that rate or *round tables. *International rank in the receiving state (their organizations have their own position as a class again being deter- arrangements for their meetings, mined by the receiving state’s order which will carry through to social of precedence). *Temporary diplo- functions. Those utilized at the UN mats are placed in the light of their are indicated in the entry on prece- precedence within their mission. dence (c); those of the Com- Precedence at table is widely known monwealth in the entry on that by the French word, placement. body. However, the application of these principles can, in respect of individ- second-generation peacekeeping. ual functions, often give rise to See peacekeeping. secret diplomacy 239 secondment. The temporary attach- secretary-general. A term some- ment of a government *official to a times used to designate an organiza- department which is not his or her tion’s chief administrative *official – own, or of a non-official to a gov- as, for example, in the case of the ernment department. When such UN and in some foreign ministries, an arrangement results in the indi- for example the *Quai d’Orsay. In vidual serving in a *diplomatic the UN *specialized agencies, mission, he or she may usefully be the term director-general is often thought of as a *temporary diplo- preferred. mat. See also attaché. secretary of embassy/legation. In second secretary. In *diplomatic the diplomatic services of the ranks, that which lies beneath modern period, especially its later *first secretary and above *third part, a *diplomatic agent of the secretary. See also secretary of lowest rank. Nevertheless, in many embassy/legation. embassies and legations the secre- tary was the only other diplomatic secret agent. A person employed by agent after the *head of mission and an agency of secret *intelligence was thus often *chargé d’affaires in (sense 2) chiefly to supply *intelli- the former’s absence, which was fre- gence (sense 1) – one engaged in quently prolonged. *Torcy created *espionage. There are three main the French Political Academy to types: the traditional spy, working train secretaries of embassy. temporarily and by stealth; the agent who has been ‘planted’ on a secretary of state. In the United long-term basis in a sensitive target; States, the *ministerial (sense 3) and – most useful – the *agent in head of the *State Department. In place. The distinction between the the United Kingdom, the title given, last two is usually their nationality. in conjunction with the name of their department, to most senior secretariat. The collectivity of ministers (sense 3). One such is officials responsible for the adminis- ‘Secretary of State for Foreign and tration of a body such as an *inter- Commonwealth Affairs’. national organization. See also international civil servant. secretary of state’s certificate. See Foreign Office Certificate. secretary. A term in varying use to designate anyone from a lowly cleri- secret diplomacy. *Negotiations in cal official to the *ministerial (sense regard to which any number of the 3) or *official head of a government following are kept secret: (1) the department. See also secretary of content of the negotiations; (2) the embassy/legation. fact that negotiations are going on; 240 secret intelligence

(3) the content of any agreement from six to ten. These members are successfully negotiated; or (4) the elected by the *General Assembly for fact that any agreement has been two-year terms. successfully negotiated. If secret Any decision of the Council diplomacy is defined as in sense 1, (which votes by *show of hands) this is nothing more than a pleo- has since 1966 required nine votes; nasm since serious negotiation is before that date the required secret by definition. The attack on number of votes was seven. On a ‘secret diplomacy’ during and after non-procedural matter it is also nec- the First World War chiefly had in essary that none of the permanent mind senses 2 and 3. See also open members casts a negative vote. (This diplomacy; Wilson, Woodrow. represents a very early de facto amendment of the UN *Charter, secret intelligence. See intelligence. which specifies that non-procedural draft resolutions require the concur- Secret Intelligence Service (SIS). ring votes of the permanent The British *intelligence agency members to pass.) Any such vote on (sense 2) for collecting *foreign a non-procedural draft resolution intelligence other than by means of which would otherwise have been *sigint, which is the responsibility passed (because it received the re- of *Government Communications quisite number of positive votes) is Headquarters. It was formed, under informally called a *veto, in that it this name, in 1921 and is responsi- prevents the adoption of the resolu- ble to the *Foreign and Common- tion. In the UN’s early years the wealth Office. Sometimes known as phenomenon of the double-veto MI6. See also intelligence commu- was also encountered. Where there nity; Joint Intelligence Committee. was disagreement over whether a proposal was procedural, that ques- Security Council. The *United tion would first be voted on, and Nations organ with primary responsi- was treated as non-procedural; thus bility for the maintenance of a permanent member could first international peace and security. It veto the claim that a draft resolu- was established in 1945 with 11 tion was procedural, and then veto members, five of whom were *perma- the substantive resolution – hence nent members: Britain, China, the ‘double-veto’. France, the Union of Soviet Socialist The UN Charter made provision Republics (with the breakdown of the for the Security Council to have USSR in 1991 Russia inherited this armed forces at its disposal so that it seat), and the United States. As from could take enforcement measures in 1966 the Council’s membership was support of the principle of *collec- increased to 15 by raising the tive security and, in the event of number of non-permanent members such forces being used, for them to self-defence 241 be controlled by the Council’s or its government, which is sought Military Staff Committee. However, abroad as well as at home. (2) The member states declined to place any agencies involved in the collection forces in the Council’s hands, so of this kind of information. In this whole scheme for the imple- Britain this is *MI5 (or the ‘Security mentation of collective security Service’), in the United States the foundered. Instead, what the ‘Intelligence Division’ of the Federal Council has occasionally done in Bureau of Investigation (FBI), in response to *aggression (where the France the Direction de la Surveillance political circumstances have also du Territoire (DST), and in Germany been appropriate) is either to invite the Bundesamt für Verfassungsschutz states to place forces under its (BfV). command or to authorize certain states to take action on its behalf. Security Service. See MI5. (In practice there has been little difference between these two modes sefaretname. A general report on of action.) his mission submitted by an During the *Cold War the division Ottoman envoy on his return to between East and West resulted in Istanbul, perhaps modelled on the the Council rarely acting in the Venetian *relazione. They were rare manner which the Charter antici- before the late seventeenth century. pated, and vetoes abounded. Such reports (alternatively known as However, it did utilize and extend sefaret takriri) were required more the device of *peacekeeping. Since insistently during the eighteenth the end of the Cold War the Council century as the *Porte became has become much more involved in anxious for intelligence on develop- both peacekeeping and *peace- ments in Europe, especially in the enforcement – a consequence of the spheres of military and naval tech- greater political harmony in the nology, science, and industry. Council and the concomitant sharp About 50 sefaretnames survive, decline in the use of the veto. But it though all are in Ottoman Turkish should not be assumed that this save for the one in French written pattern is now fixed. The Council’s by Mahmoud Raif Efendi, chief sec- effectiveness is chiefly a function of retary of the first permanent relations between its permanent Ottoman ambassador to Britain, members. Any general deterioration who was appointed by Selim III in in those relations will be reflected in 1793. the Council’s activity. See also infor- mal consultations. self-defence. The inherent right of states, either on their own or with security intelligence. (1) Informa- the assistance of their friends and tion on ‘internal’ threats to a state associates, to use force to protect 242 self-determination their political independence and overseas empires of the West territorial integrity. According to European colonial powers. See also the UN *Charter, the right of self- colonialism; Declaration on the defence may be exercised only fol- Granting of Independence to lowing an armed attack and until Colonial Countries and Peoples; the *Security Council has taken the General Assembly. measures necessary to maintain international peace and security. sending state. The state which However, the speed and destructive sends a *diplomatic or a *special capacity of weapons have increased mission to another state. greatly since the Charter was written. As a result, sometimes acts senior foreign service. The current said to be in self-defence are taken term for the small group of officers pre-emptively, so as to prevent an in the US *Foreign Service who fill its anticipated attack by orthodox most demanding and sensitive posi- means, or one by a *terrorist group. tions. See also career ambassador. It should be noted that while the Charter does not authorize states to senior member. Where the *trade take pre-emptive action in self- representatives in a national capital defence, it undoubtedly empowers form, or are believed to form, a dis- the Security Council itself to take or tinct body, this is the term some- authorize such action following a times used to describe the person determination by the Council that who plays in it a role analogous to there exists a ‘threat’ to interna- that of *dean. The person con- tional peace and security. See also cerned may be responsible, among intervention. other things, for publishing a list of its members. self-determination. Often prefixed by the term ‘national’, this is a doc- separate opinion. The opinion trine which postulates the right of which may be delivered by a judge *national (sense 1) groups to deter- of the *International Court of mine their political condition for Justice who concurs in the judg- themselves, and more particularly ment or opinion of the Court but whether they should constitute does so, at least in part, on the basis *sovereign states. The doctrine’s of different reasoning from that espousal by President Woodrow expressed by the majority. *Wilson had some impact on the emergence of new states in central serial summit. See summitry. and eastern Europe after the First World War; and its wide popularity serious consequences. A euphem- after the Second World War con- ism for the threat or use of armed tributed to the rapid ending of the force. service attaché 243 service adviser. In a Common- naval ship visits, and visits in both wealth *high commission, the directions by senior and other equivalent to a *service attaché. officers and units. It has been well said that service service attaché. A generic term for attachés stand at the interface any officer in the armed forces (air between secret *intelligence and force, army or navy) temporarily *diplomacy (sense 1), and this some- attached to a *diplomatic mission. times gets them into trouble, espe- The term ‘defence attaché’ is also cially when they find themselves in sometimes used for this group as a unfriendly states. In the first place, whole though the British, French, there is always the risk that they will and Americans now usually reserve find themselves having to serve dif- this title for the senior service ferent – and sometimes competing – attaché at a diplomatic mission, masters: the ambassador, the defence irrespective of that person’s own ministry, the secret service. In the branch of the armed forces. (To second place, they are always liable make things a little clearer, the title to be declared *persona non grata by a indicating service affiliation is *receiving state on grounds of usually added, in the British case for *espionage. It is because of the sensi- example: ‘defence and air attaché’.) tivity of their work that, apart from In French diplomacy the term the *head of mission (where *agré- Attaché militaire denotes seniority. ment is mandatory), the service At *high commissions in the attaché is the only member of the *Commonwealth the word ‘adviser’ staff of a diplomatic mission whose is substituted wherever ‘attaché’ name may, if the receiving state so appears in the above titles. requires, need to be submitted for The duties of service attachés, or approval prior to appointment. (In as they are known in the US Foreign practice, receiving states almost Service ‘armed forces attachés’, always do so require.) Under the invariably involve acquiring infor- Vienna Convention on *Diplomatic mation on the armed forces of the Relations a receiving state can also country in which they are based. refuse to accept service attachés Where relations are close this will altogether, or certain kinds of service not be difficult and, in such circum- attaché. stances, an important part of their Persons faintly resembling service duties is also to organize collabora- attachés had begun to appear in tion between the two countries’ early modern Europe and in 1681 armed forces – examples of which *Wicquefort argued for their intro- are joint training exercises, officer duction, not least to spare the exchanges, harmonization of ambassador himself the inconve- weapons systems, defence sales and nience and possible embarrassment after-sales services and training, of being obliged to accompany an 244 service staff importunate prince on campaign. Seventh Floor. The policy-makers (It could be especially embarrassing in the *State Department in for a Christian ambassador required Washington, this being the level of to accompany the Ottoman sultan the building occupied by the *secre- or his *grand vizier on campaign tary of state and the under-secre- against fellow Christians.) However, taries of state. it was not until the nineteenth century that the habit of appointing Sheriffs’ List. The list provided for recognizably modern military and under section 5 of the *Act of naval attachés became common in Anne, 1708, naming the individu- Europe. Air attachés, of course, were als attached to *diplomatic mis- an innovation that had to await sions (including personal servants the interlude between the First of the ambassador) on whom it was and Second World Wars of the a criminal offence to attempt to twentieth century. initiate legal proceedings, typically for debt. It was known as ‘the service staff. The domestic service Sheriffs’ List’ because although of a diplomatic mission: drivers, compiled in the office of one of the cooks, gardeners and cleaners, for principal secretaries of state it then example. Traditionally, they only had to be ‘transmitted to the sher- enjoyed immunity from the juris- iffs of London and Middlesex for diction of the *receiving state if that the time being, or their under sher- state had specifically granted it. But iffs or deputies, who shall, upon under the Vienna Convention on the receipt thereof, hang up the *Diplomatic Relations, such staff same in some publick place in their enjoy immunity in respect of their offices, whereto all persons may official acts, provided they are not resort, and take copies thereof, *nationals of or permanently resi- without fee or reward’. The dent in the receiving state. See also Sheriffs’ List was thus the original GlavUpDK. London *Diplomatic List, and this List still carried this eighteenth servitude. A right of an absolute century title until the early 1960s, character which one state enjoys in even though it was by this time the territory of another. Such rights generally referred to orally as exist not infrequently – such as ‘the London Diplomatic List’. The those relating to military *bases, offence created by the Act of Anne tracking stations, and pipelines. But was abolished by the Diplomatic as the term ‘servitude’ has semantic Privileges Act passed by the United and historical connotations of a Kingdom parliament in 1964, and large power imbalance between the in the same year the Sheriffs’ List two states concerned, it has fallen was formally restyled ‘The London out of favour. See also capitulations. Diplomatic List’. sigint 245 sherpa. A senior official who is Cyprus that almost brought Greece responsible, in collaboration with and Turkey to war. counterparts from other states, for preparing the ground for a *summit. side accreditation. See multiple ac- In the case of *Group of Eight creditation. summits, this work includes draft- ing the final *communiqué as well side letter. A letter accompanying a as agreeing the agenda, and is sup- broader agreement. Side letters typi- ported by separate meetings cally cover either a point regarded between ‘sous-sherpas’ (one special- as too sensitive to be given the ist in foreign affairs and one in prominence of inclusion in the finance under each sherpa) and main body of a *treaty or contain *political directors from foreign undertakings by the signatories ministries. to a *third party, or vice versa, which are essential to its fulfilment. show of hands voting. Indication Side letters of both kinds accom- of a voting decision by the raising panied the main Camp David of the hand, as for example in the Accords of September 1978 and the UN *Security Council. Egypt–Israel Peace Treaty to which the Accords led in the following shuttle diplomacy. A term owing March. its origin to the frenetic diplomatic style of Henry *Kissinger following sigint. ‘Signals intelligence’ is the the *October War of 1973. Urgently *intelligence activity which involves seeking to promote the disengage- interception and decrypting of ment of Israeli forces from Egyptian communications plus interpretation and Syrian territory, the number of of the significance of emissions flights between the capitals of the from such sources as radar installa- parties which he made during two tions. The former division of sigint periods over the next seven months is usually known as ‘communica- in pursuit of such a limited objec- tions intelligence’ and the latter tive was probably unprecedented as ‘electronic intelligence’. In for anyone of his seniority in the Britain, Government Communica- government of a major power. The tions Headquarters (GCHQ) special- term ‘shuttle’, once applied to this izes in sigint; in the United States activity by the New York Times in the task is performed by the January 1974, seemed to fit it to National Security Agency (NSA). perfection and it stuck. It has also Sigint facilities are not unknown been retrospectively applied to the within *diplomatic missions, while urgent (and successful) efforts of the the communications of these mis- American mediator Cyrus Vance, sions have for long been a major in respect of the 1967 crisis over target of sigint attack themselves. 246 signalling

See also bubble; Echelon; freedom of the *European Union (for example communication; listening device. in the framework of its *Common Foreign and Security Policy via signalling. The attempt to commu- *COREU), and the *Organization for nicate intentions by non-verbal Security and Cooperation in Europe. means, for example by the timing and *venue of a *summit. silent procedure. See silence procedure. signature. The formal signing of the text of a *treaty, usually by the silver car pass. Originally called a heads of the *delegations who have ‘carriage pass’, this item was intro- been entrusted with its *negotia- duced in Britain in the mid-nine- tion. Treaties are often signed teenth century to ensure that the subject to *ratification; but if the carriage of Queen Victoria’s mistress need for that procedure is not stated of the robes was given such assis- in the treaty, it may be assumed tance by the police as would enable that the treaty becomes operative it to proceed without interruption. immediately, or as from the date The pass was soon also given to specified in the treaty – in which *ambassadors (sense 1). From time to case the signature is termed time the design was changed, and in definitive. A treaty may also be the 1930s it was decided to make it signed *ad referendum. See also adop- in silver. In the late 1970s the high tion; full powers; initialling; price of that metal resulted in the plenipotentiary. pass being made of red leather, but it is still called a ‘silver’ pass. It is silence procedure. A device of issued on the authority of the *consensus decision-making in Commissioner of the Metropolitan *multilateral diplomacy, the rule Police Service and, other than in that a proposal with strong support respect of members of the Royal is deemed to have been agreed Family, to the post rather than the unless any party raises an objection post-holder. Besides ambassadors to it before a specified deadline. In and *high commissioners, such a other words, silence signifies assent pass is carried by members of the – or at least acquiescence. It may be government, ex-prime ministers, and used either as in effect a form of other specifically designated ‘special *ratification by governments when people’. their permanent missions have already reached a consensus, or as a silver greyhound. The badge of form of pressure on the reluctant office of the Corps of *Queen’s minority when they have not. The Messengers. A badge of office was silence procedure, so-called, is granted by Charles II to the (then) employed in bodies such as *NATO, King’s Messengers at the Restoration sovereign immunity 247 of the monarchy in 1660. This was (subsequently the *World Trade in recognition of their loyalty to the Organization). royalist cause during the English civil war and subsequent ‘common- single negotiating text. A tech- wealth’ period. However, until the nique employed in *multilateral first King’s Messengers’ passports diplomacy by a ‘coordinator’ or by a were issued in 1900, this badge also mediator in *proximity talks. served to identify them as British Following consultation with each of *diplomatic couriers when on their the parties, a single text is drawn up travels abroad. Until 1714 the badge and submitted to them for consider- was embroidered onto the tunics ation. The text is then amended in worn by the messengers but there- light of this second round of con- after it was made of metal and worn sultations and re-submitted. The about the neck in the manner of a process is repeated as many times as senior decoration, as it still is today. needed to reach agreement. It consists of a garter blue ribbon with a royal coat of arms pendant sitrep. A situation report provided and beneath it a silver greyhound. by a diplomatic mission. It is also (Both the shape of the royal coat of widely used in a military context. arms and the cypher on it vary with each new monarch, thereby under- Six-Day War. The brief and hugely lining the fact that the messenger’s successful Israeli campaign of June loyalty has been transferred to the 1967 against Egypt, Jordan, and current sovereign.) The greyhound, Syria, in which the Gaza Strip and of course, symbolizes ‘despatch’. the Sinai Desert, the west bank of the River Jordan (including East single mission principle. The rule Jerusalem), and the Golan Heights for long adopted by the Swiss were all taken. See also October War. authorities that *sending states could maintain in Switzerland only size of diplomatic mission. See one mission accredited to the UN diplomatic mission. and the other *international organi- zations with headquarters in the small post. A term used in some country. However, in 1994 this foreign services to categorize a post principle was abandoned, enabling which, in terms of size, falls below a sending states who wished to do so certain level. to establish separate missions to the UN’s European Headquarters, to sous-sherpa. See sherpa. individual *specialized agencies, and to the Conference on sovereign immunity. Another, gen- Disarmament, and the General erally less formal, way of referring Agreement on Tariffs and Trade to *state immunity. 248 sovereign rights sovereign rights. Usually, the basic own inclinations and the extent to legal powers which are necessary for which other sovereign states are a *state to act independently, willing to have dealings with it. including its actions on the interna- Thus, this sense of sovereignty is tional stage. See also sovereignty utterly basic for the practice and (sense 2). study of international relations in that it serves to identify the territo- sovereign state. A territorial entity rially based *international actors, which enjoys *sovereignty (sense 1). and hence the entities which engage in *diplomacy (sense 1). See sovereignty. A term which is used in also equality of states. a number of different ways, often (2) The ensemble of legal rights causing confusion due to a failure to which are central to a *sovereign distinguish between these distinct state’s external and internal activ- usages. ity. Often called its *sovereign (1) The condition which makes a rights, *international law either (in territorial entity eligible to partici- respect of the state’s external activ- pate fully in *international relations ity) bestows them on a state, or (in (sense 2). It consists of constitu- respect of the state’s internal activ- tional independence; that is to say, ity) places an obligation on other the situation which exists when an states not to *intervene in the entity’s constitution is not con- state’s domestic affairs. Sovereign tained, however loosely, within a rights include (subject to any wider constitutional scheme, but specific obligations the state has stands apart and alone. Thus the accepted to the contrary) the right constituent states of a *federal state to exercise jurisdiction throughout do not enjoy this sort of sover- its territory, on its *territorial sea, eignty, no matter how large or pow- and in its *air space (these matters erful they are; nor does an often being referred to simply as internally self-governing *colony. the right of *domestic jurisdiction); Sovereignty in this sense is a legal the right to *self-defence; the status which derives from the con- capacity to enter into *diplomatic stitutional position of the entity relations (sense 1); and the capacity concerned, and is both absolute (in to make *treaties. Sovereignty in that it is either possessed or not) this second sense is a consequence and unitary (in that its internal and of sovereignty in the first, in that external implications are inextrica- sovereign rights attach to those bly connected). Externally, sover- entities which enjoy sovereign eignty in this sense makes an entity status. The infringement of a sover- eligible to participate in interna- eign right, however, has no bearing tional relations, but the extent to on the sovereign status of the which it does so depends upon its entity concerned. special envoy 249

(3) The extent to which a sover- ments. But who exercises sover- eign state is under no specific or eignty is quite distinct from general international obligations whether or not an entity enjoys regarding its internal behaviour and sovereignty (senses 1 and 2), or the decision making. In this sense its extent to which an entity is sover- sovereignty consists of the degree to eign (senses 3 and 4). which it is legally free to conduct itself as it sees fit. Thus this concept Soviet bloc. See Eastern bloc. of sovereignty is relative in nature. Sometimes it is called legal sover- special agreement. See compromis. eignty. It is enormously difficult to measure; but it easily permits the special ambassador. See special comment that a state’s sovereignty mission. has been diminished by its accep- tance of a specific obligation. Such special customary international an act has, of course, no effect on a law. Rules of *customary interna- state’s sovereignty in the first sense. tional law which apply among (and Indeed, such acts are a run-of-the- only as among) limited numbers of mill activity for sovereign states. states, often as exceptions to rules (4) The extent to which a sover- of general customary international eign state is under no external pres- law. Such law is sometimes referred sures regarding any aspect of its to as ‘regional customary interna- behaviour. This concept also, there- tional law’ because it often develops fore, is a relative one. Sometimes it among states in one region. See also is known as political sovereignty. As diplomatic asylum. all states, large and small, are con- stantly aware of the factor of politi- special envoy. The way in which cal constraint, all of them enjoy a reference is sometimes made to an less-than-full measure of this kind individual who is charged by his or of sovereignty. But this in no way her state, or by an *international undermines state sovereignty in the organization, with a specific first sense. For sovereign states the mission, often of a *mediatory kind. lack of complete political freedom is Alternatively, such a person may simply a fact of international life. be called a *special representative (5) The power exercised by those (sense 2). These terms were, for who control a state’s decision- example, used in the late 1990s to making processes. Thus it might be refer to the United States and said that a state’s sovereignty is in British representatives who, among the hands of the people, the others, were asked to seek a solution cabinet, the supreme leader, or to the Cyprus problem. See also per- whoever – or, perhaps more accu- sonal representative; roving ambas- rately, some mixture of such ele- sador; special mission. 250 specialized agencies specialized agencies. Those multi- by one state to another (with the member international organizations latter’s agreement) for the purpose having responsibility for economic, of dealing with it on specific ques- social, cultural, educational, health, tions or of performing in relation to and related matters, which have been it a specific task. The head of such a linked to the UN through special mission may be called a special agreements. The UN *Economic and ambassador or a special envoy. Social Council has responsibility for However, the *credentials of a trying to coordinate their work on special mission will refer to the the basis of consultation and recom- mission as a whole (unlike the mendation. But each of the 14 spe- always-personal form of those cialized agencies is an independent issued to the head of a *diplomatic body, with its own membership, mission). If a special mission is budget, deliberative and governing given *full powers, they too may organs, secretariat, and headquarters. relate to all the mission’s members; The full current list is as follows: but alternatively they may empower the Food and Agriculture Organi- specified members of the mission or zation, the International Bank for just its head. The functions of a Reconstruction and Development special mission generally begin (widely known as the World Bank), when it arrives in the receiving the International Civil Aviation state’s territory. Association, the International Fund Before the establishment of perma- for Agricultural Development, the nent embassies with general func- International Labour Organization, tions all diplomatic missions were the International Maritime Organi- special missions. If the *sending state zation, the International Monetary already has a resident mission in the Fund, the *International Telecom- capital of the state concerned, that munication Union, the United mission may resent the arrival of the Nations Educational, Scientific and special mission, seeing it as suggest- Cultural Organization, the United ing that the resident mission cannot Nations Industrial Development competently handle the issue which Organization, the Universal Postal has prompted the despatch of the Union, the World Health Organizat- special mission. However, in the ion, the World Intellectual Property event of the *receiving state reacting Organization, and the World badly to the work of the special Meteorological Organization. See also mission, its use may protect the Privileges and Immunities of the interests of the resident mission – Specialized Agencies, Convention on. and the special mission may in fact have been employed with that in special mission. A temporary mind. See also embassy of obedience; mission, consisting of either an Special Missions, Convention on individual or a group, which is sent (1969). sponsor 251

Special Missions, Convention on past 50 years, believed to be special (1969). The Convention *entered is hers with the United States. into force in 1985, but has been *ratified by only 32 states. Many of special representative. (1) The its provisions for the treatment of title often given by the UN the members of *special missions *Secretary-General to the official are similar if not identical to the who represents him at the head of equivalent ones in the Vienna a field mission with some markedly Convention on *Diplomatic Rela- diplomatic responsibilities, such as tions (1961) and reflect the same certain *peacekeeping operations. *functional theory. Under the (2) An alternative term for a Convention, the existence of *special envoy. See also personal neither *diplomatic nor *consular representative; roving ambassador; relations is necessary for the special mission. sending or reception of a special mission; nor does the severance of sphere of influence. A region either diplomatic or consular rela- within which a powerful state tions of itself terminate any current claims exclusive rights of *interven- special mission. tion. This zone may be anything from a part of a *sovereign state, as special passport. A document in Persia following the Anglo- which is more than an ordinary Russian agreement to divide influ- passport but less than a *diplomatic ence over it in 1907, to a number of passport. It may be supplied to the such states, as in Eastern Europe representatives of a state who serve during the *Cold War. See also abroad but do not enjoy *diplo- Brezhnev Doctrine; dependent state; matic status. See also Queen’s Monroe Doctrine; puppet state; Messenger. satellite state; vassal state. special relationship. One between splendid isolation. The term often two states which is sufficiently inti- used to describe Britain’s pre- mate to result in each doing more twentieth century policy of for the other than it would do for a avoiding *alliances in time of peace. third party. However, it is not always the case that one state’s sponsion. An American term for a belief that a relationship is special is commitment made by a *diplomatic reciprocated by the other. And even agent without official authorization, where both deem their relationship and voidable if inconsistent with to be special, its actual impact on the agent’s *instructions. behaviour may be difficult to chart. One notable instance of a relation- sponsor. In a *multilateral forum ship which Britain has, during the such as the UN *Security Council, a 252 spouse, diplomatic member who has submitted a draft date or during the course of a resolution. specific negotiation. spouse, diplomatic. The partner, standstill ceasefire. See ceasefire. marital or not, of a *diplomatic agent. stare decisis. The principle that a court must apply the legal principle staffeto. Alternatively a staffette or reflected in a decided case to other estafette, a courier of the imperial cases of the same character. The German postal service run by the *International Court of Justice, von Taxis family from the fifteenth however, is not obliged to proceed century until the middle of the on this basis. But its judgments nat- nineteenth. urally have a considerable persua- sive character, both for itself and for stagiaire. A young person doing a states. stage (training period or course) of practical work experience, generally state. Any territorial entity which with a theoretical component – an enjoys *sovereignty (sense 1), no apprentice or student. The term is matter how tiny or weak. So far as currently favoured for those young non-sovereign territorial entities are graduates of *EU member states concerned, the term tends to be who are attached to one or other restricted to those whose size and of the Directorates-General of the governmental powers are judged to *European Commission. be significant, such as the con- stituent entities of a *federal state. stalemate. See impasse. statecraft. The art of preserving and standard of civilization. See inter- strengthening the *state relative to national minimum standards. other states without serious refer- ence to political ideals or any standard time. See Greenwich system of private morality; that is to Mean Time. say, the practical application of the doctrine of *raison d’état. Statecraft standing conference. One which is is thus a very broad concept, includ- permanently in being in the sense ing *foreign policy (for example, that it meets from time to time whether *alliance or *neutrality in a rather than on just one occasion. war is best for the state) as well as the appropriate deployment of standstill agreement. An *agree- instruments in its support: *diplo- ment not to take any further action macy (sense 1), *war, and *propa- on a particular issue, or not to take ganda. Henry *Kissinger’s book any action on it prior to a specific published in 1994 may be called state visit 253

Diplomacy but it is really about and commercial – are organized and statecraft. However, the term continuous. Sometimes rendered smacks of the Old World and ‘state-system’ or ‘system of states’, it *power politics in general and of is a term which was once common, *Machiavelli in particular, and for especially in British writing. How- these reasons is out of fashion. ever, it has tended to lose ground to the more nebulous term, *interna- State Department. Formally the tional system. See also international ‘Department of State’, the United society; Westphalia, Congress of States’ ministry of foreign affairs. (1644–48). Initially, in 1789, it was called the Department of Foreign Affairs, but state visit. A visit of a markedly cer- within a few months its name was emonial nature paid by one *head changed to Department of State in of state to another. Though usually recognition of its acquisition of of most importance for its symbolic certain domestic duties. Although significance and not, unlike the these were subsequently surren- *summit, ending with an agreement dered, the name stuck. or *communiqué, the state visit may provide a cover for important state funeral. See working funeral. talks. It is normal for the head of state to be accompanied by at least state immunity. Sometimes called one government minister (some- ‘sovereign immunity’, the doctrine times many more), such a person which deals with the immunity of being known as a ‘minister-in-atten- foreign states from the jurisdiction dance’. Except in the case of a of local courts and law-enforcement British head of state visiting one of agencies. At one time the immunity her Realms, a head of state would was complete. But with the also usually have his or her *ambas- increased tendency of states to sador (sense 1) or *high commis- engage in commercial activity, sioner in attendance. many states have drawn a distinc- The visits made abroad by heads tion between these ‘private acts’ of state are not always of a markedly and a state’s ‘public acts’, immunity ceremonial nature; furthermore, being granted only to the latter. they are sometimes the guest of a Britain and the United States are *head of government rather than a among those who have withdrawn head of state. As a result, other foreign states’ immunity from suit terms have evolved to describe visits in respect of private acts, their deci- of this kind though there is unfortu- sions being taken in the late 1970s. nately little consistency of usage. The term ‘official visit’ is commonly states-system. A collectivity of used to describe visits which have states whose relations – diplomatic one or both of these characteristics, 254 stationnaire while a meeting between heads of status quo ante. The previous state state devoid of ceremonial is also of affairs. See also status quo. known sometimes as a ‘working visit’, though it might as well be Statute of Anne. See Act of Anne. called a bilateral summit and some- times is. When a head of state visits step-by-step diplomacy. In *negoti- another state for purely personal ations between erstwhile bitter reasons, for example to receive adversaries, the approach which medical attention of a kind not favours seeking agreement on rela- available at home, this is known as tively uncontroversial subjects a ‘private’ or ‘unofficial’ visit. See before attempting to tackle the also stop-over visit. most sensitive ones. Well known to have been adopted by Henry stationnaire. A small warship or *Kissinger in his Middle East negoti- *gunboat stationed by a state at a ations in the early 1970s, the theory foreign port chiefly for the protec- is that only by this means will the tion of its citizens residing there. necessary trust and stability be Usually they were put at the established to make complete politi- disposal of the ambassador. The cal resolution of a conflict ulti- years before the First World War mately possible. It resembles the were the heyday of the stationnaire, theory of *functionalism which or ‘guardship’ as they were also underpinned the launch of known. European integration in the early 1950s. The only problem with this status of forces agreement (SOFA). plausible approach is that it takes a When units of a state’s armed forces great deal of time, and time is not are stationed abroad on non-combat- always available. ant duty, as at a foreign military *base, or when the UN establishes a sticking point. In *negotiations, an *peacekeeping force, it is highly issue on which one of the parties desirable that the legal position of cannot *compromise or make *con- such forces should be clearly estab- cessions. If there is no agreement on lished. This may be done through the such an issue discussion may have conclusion of a status of forces agree- to be postponed until a future occa- ment between the host state and the sion. It need not be but usually is a sending state or organization. matter of detail. See also bottom line. status quo. The existing state of affairs or things as they are now. stop-over visit. A brief visit made to Such a condition is, by definition, one state en route to a more impor- beloved of conservatives. See also tant engagement in another. Such status quo ante. visits may be made by *heads of summitry 255 government, *ministers (sense 3), later transferred to the *grand and *officials, as well as by *heads of vizier’s residence outside the palace; state. See also state visit. hence its association with the Ottoman government. stopping the clock. In *negotia- tions where success seems immi- subsidiarity. The principle whereby nent but a declared deadline has the *European Union does not take been reached, the process of stop- action (except in the areas which ping the clock so that the deadline fall within its exclusive compe- is nominally retained but is, in prac- tence) unless it is likely to be more tice, given a short extension. See effective than action taken at also eleventh hour. national, regional or local level. straw poll. See straw vote. Suez crisis. The 1956 crisis in which, in response to Egypt’s nationaliza- straw vote. An informal counting tion of the Suez Canal, Britain and of opinions, as in judging the direc- France, in conjunction with Israel, tion of the wind by casting a straw invaded Egypt. Their attempt to into the air. The straw poll, as it is undo the nationalization, and topple alternatively known, is a common President Nasser of Egypt, was dra- device employed in *consensus matically unsuccessful. decision-making in *international organizations, not least for the summer embassy. The cooler loca- selection of chief administrative tion, adjacent to the capital of a hot officers. country, to which an embassy sometimes moved during the subject of international law. An summer months. entity enjoying *international per- sonality. See also object of interna- summitry. The use of meetings of tional law. *heads of state or *heads of govern- ment for diplomatic or *propaganda Sublime Porte. The term widely purposes. There are two main kinds: used for the Ottoman government ad hoc summits, which are called as until the Ottoman Empire was dis- the occasion seems to demand, and solved following the First World are well illustrated by the Camp War. It is a half English and half David summit on the Middle East French rendering of Bãb-i Ali in September 1978; and serial (strictly, ‘high gate’), the original summits, which usually have their name of the gate at the end of the origin in ad hoc summits but then second court of the sultan’s palace become part of a regular series, as in Istanbul (today known as the with the meetings of the *European Topkapi Palace). This name was Council or the *Commonwealth 256 superpower

Heads of Government Meetings states. It is thus as if on these (CHOGMs). Summitry has very matters state boundaries did not ancient origins but did not acquire exist. This contrasts with the more this title until developed by the usual organizational situation press following use of the word where, even if such a body has the ‘summit’ by Winston Churchill in power to bind its members, it only the course of a speech at Edinburgh binds the state as such. The in February 1950. See also Air Force *European Union is the sole One; communiqué; Commynes; instance (as at the beginning of the declaration (sense 1). twenty-first century) of a supra- national organization. superpower. The current term for what, until the end of the Second suzerainty. A situation in which World War, used to be called a one *sovereign state exercises an *great power, i.e. a power of the first acknowledged and significant rank in terms of reputation for mili- degree of supremacy over another, tary strength. Since the end of the often on the basis of a *treaty *Cold War, and the disintegration between them, but possibly on a of the Soviet Union, the United political basis alone. The relation- States has generally been seen as the ship may be marked by the sole superpower. See also major payment of *tribute to the suzerain. power; middle power; permanent The term went out of fashion in the members; Security Council. earlier part of the twentieth century. See also dependent state; supranationalism. The situation protected state (sense 1); vassal which exists where, on matters state. within its competence, an *interna- tional organization has the legal SVR. The Russian Foreign Intelli- power directly to *bind natural and gence Service, a successor body to legal persons within the member the *KGB. See also FSB. T tabled offers. In *negotiations: Talleyrand managed the conduct (1) offers which have been with- of French diplomacy under the drawn (American usage); or Directory (1797–99) and Napoleon (2) offers which have been submit- (1799–1808), as well as under the ted (British usage). restored Bourbon king, Louis XVIII (1814–15). Having brilliantly tacite reconduction. The continu- secured the re-entry of France into ation in force of an agreement the circle of *great powers at the after the period stipulated in it Congress of *Vienna and played a has elapsed, the signatories having pivotal role in rebuilding the raised no objections. European equilibrium, Talleyrand ended his diplomatic career as Talleyrand-Périgord, Charles- ambassador to London (1830–34), Maurice de (1754–1838). A French by which time he was in his early politician, diplomat and foreign eighties. Opportunists, among minister. Brilliant, practical, un- others, have condemned him for scrupulous, and a man capable opportunism, though it is difficult of immense personal charm, to see how this squares with the Talleyrand was born into the high risks he took in opposing Napoleon, aristocracy but developed a liberal especially after his dismissal in and reformist outlook. He was a 1808. See also Metternich. politician of great influence within France from the earliest days of the telecommunication. Any mode of revolution in 1789 until his death. communication over a long distance He was also a minister of foreign which requires human agency only affairs with a remarkable capacity in the sending and reception of the for surviving under different message which it contains and not, regimes, and one of the most dex- as with a *diplomatic courier, in its trous negotiators of his age. carriage. The use of smoke-signals,

257 258 telegram mechanical telegraph (‘semaphore’), telegraph, electric. A form of towers, drums, and pigeons with *telecommunication in which elec- messages tied to their legs, therefore, tric current is passed along a wire or are instances of telecommunication cable (land or submarine), the circuit just as much as *telegrams, faxes, and being made and broken in the trans- e-mails. Nevertheless, it is not surpris- mitting device in such a fashion as ing that telecommunication did not to produce a code or letters in the make a major impact on diplomacy receiver. Introduced into diplomacy until the introduction of the electric towards the middle of the nine- *telegraph towards the middle of teenth century, the telegraph – by the nineteenth century. See also making it possible to issue new airgram; International Telecommuni- *instructions almost instantaneously cation Union. – is generally believed to have made extinct the great ambassador such as telegram. A printed out message Stratford *Canning, who was ‘great’ sent by *telegraph. The telegram has largely by virtue of being a law unto traditionally had its own special himself. Less carefully considered format: a ‘from … to …’ heading than its impact on the influence of (e.g. ‘Outward Telegram from the resident ambassador (which itself Ministry of Foreign Affairs “X” to may have been exaggerated) have Mission “Y”’; ‘Inward Telegram to been the implications of the tele- MFA “X” from Mission “Y”’), graph for the usefulness of this kind precise times of despatch and of envoy. In fact, it has made the res- receipt, a number, security classifi- ident ambassador a more flexible cation, subject heading, numbered instrument of ministries of foreign paragraphs, and circulation list. affairs. These features have tended to con- tribute to the impersonality of this temporary diplomat. Someone form of diplomatic communication. temporarily attached to a *diplo- On the other hand, the basic text of matic service in the capacity of a a telegram may be written in a style *diplomatic agent. much like that of a letter, if gener- ally pithier, and steadily became the terra nullius. Territory which is not normal means of communication under the jurisdiction of any state – between MFAs and missions abroad and hence available for peaceful from the middle of the nineteenth *annexation. To all intents and pur- century until it began to give poses the concept is now a histori- ground to electronic mail at the cal curiosity. Sometimes terra nullius end of the twentieth. See also was referred to as res nullius. despatch; Greenwich Mean Time; NO DIS; saving; savingram; un- territorial division. See geographical official letter; Z. department. Third World 259 territorial sea. That part of the sea third party. Any party (state, inter- adjacent to the land over which the national organization, non-govern- coastal state is entitled to exercise mental organization, or individual) *sovereignty (sense 2). It may not not directly involved in a particular exceed 12 nautical miles in breadth. bilateral relationship. See also con- For long it was known as territorial ciliation; good offices; mediation. waters. third room. The traditional de- territorial waters. See territorial sea. scription in the *Foreign and Commonwealth Office for the junior terrorism. (1) The use or threat of members in each of its *departments. violence against civilian targets for It owes its origin to the fact that they political ends, including its use by usually worked in one large office states themselves. Terrorism spreads while the head of the department fear more widely by appearing to and his chief assistant each had operate randomly. (2) The some- rooms of their own. what narrower definition employed by the US *State Department: third secretary. In *diplomatic ‘premeditated, politically motivated ranks, that which lies beneath violence perpetrated against non- *second secretary. In the Indian combatant targets by subnational Foreign Service, third secretaries are groups or clandestine agents, always probationers or ‘officer- usually intended to influence an trainees’. See also secretary of audience.’ (3) Political violence embassy/legation. committed by those of whom one disapproves – ‘one man’s terrorist is Third World. In French tiers monde, another man’s freedom fighter’. a term used to describe all of those As representatives of states, diplo- states which possess neither devel- mats and *diplomatic premises oped capitalist (‘first world’) nor became particular targets for terror- developed socialist (‘second world’) ists (senses 1 and 2) in the last four political and economic systems. The decades of the twentieth century. emergence of this expression, which Despite the special obligation to has been attributed to its use by the give them physical protection French economist and geographer which is placed on *receiving states Alfred Sauvy in an article in 1952, by the Vienna Convention on coincided with the major period of *Diplomatic Relations (1961), not decolonization in the 1950s and all of their governments have had early 1960s. The decay or collapse either the will or the capacity to of the Communist command provide it. See also compound; economies, together with the emer- diplomatic protection (sense 2); gence of huge differences in stan- hostage; Inman standards. dards of living between groups 260 thirty-eighth floor within the Third World, have ren- modern diplomatic history, and dered the term largely meaningless. languages. Though the academy See also Least Developed Country; began to go downhill after the Newly Industrialized Country. departure of Torcy in 1715 and col- lapsed in 1721, the idea that diplo- thirty-eighth floor. The top occu- macy was a profession and that pied floor of the UN headquarters entrants should be trained had been building in New York, which houses firmly planted. See also Callières. the top official – the Secretary- General. tour d’horizon. See exchange of views. tit-for-tat expulsions. An exchange of expulsions of *diplomatic agents. tour of duty. The period of time This usually begins when one state spent by a diplomat at a post declares a number of members of a abroad, today typically three years. *diplomatic mission *persona non At *hardship posts, however, it is grata for having engaged in ‘activi- sometimes shorter, and at the ties incompatible with their status’, most comfortable posts sometimes i.e. almost invariably *espionage. longer. A period in the ministry of The state that has suffered then foreign affairs at home is also some- replies by expelling a group of times described as a ‘tour’. diplomats from the first state who – if the size of that state’s diplomatic track one diplomacy. A *media- mission permits it – are equivalent tory (sense 2) effort by one or in number and rank to those who more states, or by an *international have been returned to it. This is a organization. good example of the principle of *reciprocity. track two diplomacy. Formerly known as ‘citizen diplomacy’, Torcy, Jean-Baptiste Colbert, *mediation (sense 2) in an inter- or Marquis de (1665–1746). French intra-state conflict conducted by foreign secretary in the final years any agency other than a state or of the reign of Louis XIV. Among an intergovernmental organization, other things, Torcy was the instiga- typically by a *non-governmental tor in 1712 of the small Académie organization. The term was coined politique. Designed to train *secre- in 1981 by Joseph Montville, then a taries of embassy who might subse- US diplomat. Track two diplomacy quently be promoted to the highest may be pursued on its own or in ranks, it has since been customary partnership with *track one diplo- to refer to this as the first ‘school for macy, in which case it will form ambassadors’. Its curriculum con- part of an instance of *twin-track sisted chiefly of *international law, diplomacy. trade office 261 trade commissioner. (1) The title – porary examples are provided by less common since the middle of the staff of the Trade Commissioner the twentieth century – often given Service of Canada. See also to a *non-diplomatic agent charged Commercial Diplomatic Service; with the furtherance of the sending trade representative. entity’s trade. The agent would be non-diplomatic either because the trade commissioner, EU. The sending entity lacked *sovereignty member of the *European Com- (sense 1) (and therefore could not mission responsible for the EU’s accredit *diplomatic agents), or common trade policy. because the task was deemed inap- propriate for a diplomatic agent, or because it was conducted outside trade mission. A party of business- the *capital city (where, ordinarily, men visiting prospective customers agents were not eligible for *diplo- overseas, usually with the assistance matic status). Such agents were fre- of their *embassy (sense 3) in the quently officials of a governmental country in question. See also com- agency other than the ministry of mercial diplomacy; commercial foreign affairs. Nowadays, trade pro- officer; economic officer; trade motion is accepted as part of a office. diplomat’s job. When, therefore, it is conducted at a capital city, it is trade office. Often previously entrusted to the *sending state’s known as a ‘trade mission’, one gen- *diplomatic mission, and the indi- erally established by a state outside viduals in question will almost cer- the capital city of the *receiving tainly enjoy diplomatic status – state, with a view to furthering the although they may not be members *sending state’s trade or commerce. of their states’ foreign service but However, when such an office is *temporary diplomats. When the employed as a disguise for work that task is performed in a city other is as political as it is economic, than the capital, the officers con- notably when states are not in cerned are often part of a consulate, *diplomatic relations (sense 1), it is and hence have a consular title – for usually located inside the capital, as example, ‘vice-consul (commercial)’ in the case of the British Trade – and *consular status. *Agents- Mission (subsequently Embassy) general play a somewhat similar opened in Cairo at the end of the role to that performed by this kind 1950s. Sometimes such a post is of trade commissioner. See also called a trade promotion office, or a satellite office. (2) A now compara- commercial office. See also represen- tively rare term for a *commercial tative office; satellite office; trade officer attached to a diplomatic commissioner; trade officer; trade mission. The best-known contem- representative. 262 trade officer trade officer. A *non-diplomatic treaty. An agreement whereby two or agent who serves in, and is very more states signify their intention to possibly the head of, a state’s *trade establish a new legal relationship office or commercial office outside between themselves – one which, the capital city of the *receiving being legal, involves the creation of state. Sometimes such an officer is *binding obligations. In almost all attached to a *consular post, in cases treaties are in written form, and which case he or she is likely to the Vienna Convention on the *Law enjoy, as of right, *consular privi- of Treaties confines the term to leges and immunities. Otherwise, written instruments. However, it is special arrangements may be made possible to make an oral agreement for the officer to be accorded certain which has the same status as a privileges and immunities, either written one. Treaties may be formally or as a matter of under- concluded as between *heads of stood courtesy. Such arrangements state, states, governments, *ministers are likely to bear a fairly close (sense 3), or between any other relationship to those for *consular authorized agents. A variety of terms officers as set out in the 1963 besides that of ‘treaty’ may be used to Vienna Convention on *Consular describe the new instrument, such as Relations. Today a trade officer is convention, protocol, agreement, very likely to be a member of his procès-verbal, declaration, modus or her state’s foreign service. See vivendi, exchange of *notes, exchange also trade commissioner; trade of letters, and final act. Other than in representative. very exceptional circumstances, a treaty may not impose obligations or trade representative. A catch-all confer rights on third parties without term for any diplomatic, consular, their consent. See also accession; or non-diplomatic agent charged adoption; declaration (sense 4); with trade responsibilities. Lists of depositary; entry into force; ini- ‘trade representatives’ are some- tialling; interim agreement; ratifi- times found in *consular lists, and cation; reservation; signature; United sometimes issued separately by the Nations Treaty Series. *senior member. triangular diplomacy. The term traditional peacekeeping. See employed by Henry A.*Kissinger to peacekeeping. describe the relationship which he sought to create in the early 1970s transnational corporation (TNC). between Washington, Moscow, and See multinational corporation. Peking. This meant *détente with the Soviet Union and *rapprochement Treaties, Vienna Convention on with the People’s Republic of China, the Law of. See Law of Treaties. together with a continuation of the truce 263 deep Sino-Soviet rift – the third side troika. A triumvirate, from the of the triangle. As the only party to Russian for a sledge drawn by three be on reasonable terms with both, horses. The word entered diplomatic Kissinger believed, with some justice, currency in 1960 when the Soviet that only the United States was in a Union proposed, unsuccessfully, that position to obtain concessions from the office of UN Secretary-General be each by the simple expedient of shared by representatives from the intimating the possibility of moving East, the West and those who fell even closer to the other. into neither of these camps – the *neutralists. See also troika (EU). tribute. Money or more often goods delivered by a *vassal state to a troika (EU). Until the changes intro- *suzerain, usually at prescribed duced into *European Union external intervals. Both the Chinese and representation in 1999, the *troika Ottoman Empires were well known consisted of the representatives of the for exacting tribute from the smaller state currently holding the presi- states and tribes along their fron- dency of the *Council of Ministers, tiers. Not a feature of a diplomatic together with those of the ones relationship, which assumes sover- immediately preceding and succeed- eign equality, tribute is less impor- ing it. Since the rotating presidency is tant to the suzerain for its economic held by a member state for only six value than for the mark of submis- months at a time, these three parties sion which it represents. Since, worked in diplomatic harness to pre- however, envoys from non-tributary serve continuity of experience and states who journeyed to such imper- enhance the political weight of EU ial courts to establish *diplomatic external representation. The preced- relations (sense 1) with them invari- ing state provided advice to the ably carried gifts of their own, this current holder, while the one which naturally led to misunderstanding, was next in line learned by appren- especially in China. According to ticeship. The *European Commission Chinese ceremonial, objects offered was also permanently associated with to the Emperor were tribute by the troika, thereby providing further definition; ‘gifts’ were objects continuity. Following the appoint- offered by the Emperor. Hence the ment in mid-1999 of the first *High boats provided by the Chinese for Representative for the Common Lord Macartney’s ill-fated journey Foreign and Security Policy, the from the coast to Tientsin in 1793 troika was abolished. carried banners bearing the legend: ‘Envoy paying tribute to the Great truce. An imprecise term, which Emperor’. This was just the begin- probably indicates a temporary ces- ning of Macartney’s problems. See sation of armed hostilities. See also also audience; kowtow. armistice; ceasefire. 264 trusteeship trusteeship. The idea that a terri- trusteeship system. The UN system tory should be administered by a which replaced that for *mandates, state which, for the time being, is providing for the supervision by the deemed better able to look after it Organization’s *Trusteeship Council than its own inhabitants. During of states administering *trust territo- the late twentieth century this idea ries. A few mandates achieved became deeply out of keeping with *independence (sense 1) immedi- the ethos of the times. However, ately after the Second World War, during the 1990s the idea was and one – South West Africa – could mooted in certain quarters that col- not be transferred to the new lapsed states might be placed under system as the mandatory power some kind of international trustee- (South Africa) refused to cooperate. ship. Unsurprisingly, as a formal But the other mandatories who had status this had no attraction what- been on the victorious side agreed soever for the generality of states to change their mandates into trust and so nothing came of it. But in territories; one defeated mandatory one or two cases, notably Kosovo (Japan) had her mandates passed to following the imposition, with UN the United States; and the manda- *Security Council approval, of inter- tory who during the War moved national control over the province from the losing to the winning side in 1999, the practicalities of the sit- (Italy) was again put in charge of uation began to look rather like that Italian Somaliland. Provision was of de facto trusteeship. See also made for states administering Trusteeship Council; trusteeship *non-selfgoverning territories to put system. them under the system, but none did so. As all trust territories have Trusteeship Council. The UN now become, or joined, *sovereign organ set up to supervise the work states, the system is effectively of the states administering those defunct. territories which became part of the *trusteeship system. It was a some- trust territories. Territories placed what more intrusive body than that under the UN *trusteeship system. instituted by the *mandates system. However, as all such territories have moved away from this status (most twin-track diplomacy. The becoming *sovereign states, but conduct of a *negotiation by two some integrating into adjacent separate but co-ordinated means. states), the Council has no remain- See also backchannel; track two ing functions – but instead of being diplomacy. wound up it has been left available for use as and where it may be two track diplomacy. See twin- required. track diplomacy. U ultimatum. An announcement of a War an ultimatum from Hitler fol- party’s non-negotiable demand or lowed rather than preceded military position, though there are varia- action, a practice ‘greatly to be dep- tions both in form and implication: recated’, notes the most recent (1) A formal announcement that edition of *Satow’s Guide. failure to undertake a specified (2) An indication made by one action, usually by a specified time, side during a negotiation (usually at will result in a specified penalty, a fairly advanced stage) of the usually involving the use of force; absolute minimum it is prepared to in other words, a very precise mili- accept and/or the maximum it is tary threat. An ultimatum of this willing to concede: ‘this is an ulti- kind was traditionally delivered matum – take it or leave it’. by *note or memorandum and required a ‘prompt, clear and cate- ultimo. Of last month, as in ‘Thank gorical reply’. Perhaps because the you for your *despatch of the 19th meaning of this term is so clear and ultimo.’ Now historical. See also because it carries a great deal of his- instant. torical baggage, it can be provoca- tive. David Owen, speaking of the unanimity rule. The taking of deci- time when he was the EU *media- sions in an *international organiza- tor in the former Yugoslavia in tion or an international conference 1994, has reported that the Bosnian on the basis of unanimity, that is, Serbs were ‘very angry about the on the basis of the expressed agree- constant use of the word “ultima- ment of all members or partici- tum” because it was the emotive pants. In these circumstances each word used by the Germans before member or participant has a *veto. the bombing of Belgrade in 1941’. It used to be the norm, and for that The Serbs were lucky; on more than reason was generally applicable in one occasion in the Second World the *League of Nations. But since

265 266 under flying seal (UFS) the Second World War it has superior military power to cede or become much less common. lease land and grant sweeping However, it is still found in those *exterritorial rights to the European (few) organizations where it is nec- powers in the middle of the nine- essary, for their continued well- teenth century. The ‘treaty system’ being, that in respect of at least part which replaced the previous ‘tribu- of their work, all the members tary system’ for dealing with bar- should march in step. A prominent barians was established by the example is the *North Atlantic Treaty of Nanking in 1842 and the Council of NATO. See also consen- Treaties of Tientsin of 1858 but sus decision-making; constructive only finally accepted by the abstention; Council of Ministers Manchu dynasty after the occupa- (European); weighted voting. tion of Peking in 1860 and the plundering and burning of the under flying seal (UFS). A Summer Palace. The unequal *despatch sent UFS was one sent treaties were not finally abolished from one point to another via a until 1943. See also capitulations. third, the latter being either invited or required to read it before reseal- unfriendly act. Traditional *diplo- ing it and sending it on its way. For matic language (sense 1) for an example, this might have been a action likely to lead to war. More despatch sent from a ministry of generally, any action which is *foreign affairs to one of its deemed to be unnecessarily hostile, embassies abroad via another one in especially by a state with whom the the same region, or one from a aggrieved state considered itself to *consular mission to the ministry of be in *friendly relations. foreign affairs at home via the embassy under whose immediate unilateral declaration. A *binding authority the consular mission fell. undertaking made unilaterally by a A feature of the era before copying *minister (sense 3) of one sovereign documents was easy and cheap, state to another sovereign state. The which extended into the twentieth undertaking may even be made century, sending messages UFS was orally. an effective method of keeping informed those within the same unilateral diplomacy. See diplo- diplomatic service with the most matic representation. need for the information contained in the despatch. unilateralism. The disposition to act alone, without concerting with unequal treaty. The term applied allies or bowing to the opinion of a by the Chinese to the *treaties body such as the UN *Security under which they were forced by Council. To the distress of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) 267

*European Commission, it periodi- Council are chiefly responsible. The cally breaks out in the *European *Trusteeship Council also played a Union. part. The *pacific settlement of dis- putes always lies high on the UN’s United Nations (UN). Established agenda, and in that connection the in 1945 by the victorious powers in work of the *International Court of the Second World War, initially the Justice must be mentioned. UN had 51 member states. Sub- The UN’s headquarters is in New sequently the *neutral states in that York, United States. But many war, the defeated states, and the members of its *secretariat are based numerous new states which emer- at widely spread locations through- ged with the end of *colonialism out the world, including those who and the breakdown of some federal service the UN’s regional economic states were also admitted, so that in commissions and some of its pro- December 2002 the UN had 191 grammes. The Secretary-General members. heads the secretariat; the current, The UN’s main initial purpose and seventh, incumbent, is Kofi was to maintain international Annan, a national (sense 2) of peace and security on the basis of Ghana. the principle of *collective security, See also multilateral diplomacy; which largely fell by the wayside on specialized agencies; UN system. account of the mutual distrust of its two major members, the Soviet United Nations family. See United Union and the United States. Nations system. But, largely through its *Security Council, the UN made some useful United Nations High contributions in the area of *peace- Commissioner for Human Rights. keeping; and since the end of the An Office established in 1993 to *Cold War has operated much more encourage respect for human rights on the lines expressed in the UN through discussion with states and *Charter. international organizations. The The Charter also spoke of the High Commissioner is also responsi- need to respect the principle of ble for coordinating all the UN’s *self-determination, of the desirabil- human rights activities. ity of cooperation on economic, social, cultural, and humanitarian United Nations High Commissio- matters, and of promoting respect ner for Refugees (UNHCR). The for *human rights. In all these areas Office of the UNHCR, established there has, over the years, been a in 1951, is an important body huge expansion in the UN’s work, within the *United Nations system. for which the *General Assembly Its headquarters is in Geneva, and the *Economic and Social Switzerland. 268 United Nations system

United Nations system. A term majority in the UN hoped. It has, which is sometimes used to refer however, been used on a number of collectively to the UN, certain UN other types of occasion. programmes and funds (such as the UN Children’s Fund – UNICEF Universal Declaration of Human – and the UN Development Pro- Rights. A *declaration (sense 1) of gramme), and the *specialized the UN *General Assembly passed in agencies. This group is also some- 1948 which set out the basic rights times known as the UN family, or and fundamental freedoms to the UN family organizations. which all men and women every- where in the world were deemed to United Nations Treaty Series. The be entitled. The subsequent endeav- UN-published series containing the our to translate these rights into treaties registered with its *secre- legal (and hence *binding) obliga- tariat by the organization’s tions bore fruit in two 1966 treaties: members (who are obliged under the International Covenant on the UN Charter so to register all Economic, Social and Cultural their treaties). Reflecting the UN’s Rights, and the International inheritance from the *League of Covenant on Civil and Political Nations of a commitment to *open Rights, both of which *entered into diplomacy, the series has now force in 1976, and to both of which become extremely large. the majority of states are parties. Quite apart from them, however, Uniting for Peace resolution. A res- many provisions of the Universal olution passed by the UN *General Declaration are widely thought to Assembly in 1950 in the hope that it have the weight of *customary law. would facilitate Assembly recom- There is often, however, a gulf mendations for the maintenance of between the law and state practice, peace in circumstances where the which can be very difficult to *Security Council was unable to act bridge. See also human rights. because of a *veto. At its core was the provision that in this event an UNO-City. A popular name for emergency special session of the the Vienna International Centre, Assembly could be called on 24 opened in 1979, where the *UN hours notice on the vote of any system has a significant presence. seven members of the Council or on the call of a majority of UN unofficial letter. A British members. It was passed in face of Diplomatic Service term for a letter strong opposition from the Soviet sent by a member of a diplomatic bloc, but was never used against mission to a named officer at home, these states in the manner in which or vice versa. See also despatch; they feared – and the then-Western savingram; telegram. uti possidetis 269

UpDK. See GlavUpDK. was actually achieved must be con- sidered a moot point! UTC. The acronym for Coordinated Universal Time, the accepted term uti possidetis. The doctrine that for what used to be – and often still existing territorial boundaries should is – called *Greenwich Mean Time. be preserved. It was used in support The new term emerged in 1970 of the claim of the incoming regimes from the *International Telecom- in former colonial territories to munication Union, which also felt inherit all of the territory; and subse- that in order to eliminate confusion quently in support of their denial of a single acronym should be the right of ethnic sub-groups to adopted. However, it was found secede or join a neighbouring state. impossible to agree on using either Both assertions were well received. the English word order, CUT, or the The first minimized problems for the French word order, TUC, and UTC outgoing colonial powers; and the was chosen as a compromise. second was thought by all the suc- Whether the objective of employing cessor regimes to be very much in one acronym to remove confusion their interest. V vacant seat formula. An expedient contain some predictions for the sometimes adopted by *interna- future course of events in the tional organizations when more country concerned and thoughts than one group claims to be the about how policy might accordingly legitimate government of a member be shaped towards it. See also state. Instead of accepting the *cre- farewell call. dentials of one of the groups (thus rejecting the other), the organiza- vassal state. Somewhat akin to the tion may simply leave that state’s modern concept of a *satellite state, seat temporarily vacant. This was a state required to pay *tribute to a done literally – and graphically – in *suzerain (and hence sometimes the rather different circumstances known as a tributary state). It is which resulted from the refusal of now a little-used term. See also the United States Senate to allow its dependent state; puppet state. country to join the *League of Nations, in the creation of which its Vatican City State. The ‘minuscule’ president, Woodrow *Wilson, had *state in Rome, as it was described played an important part. At the by Pope Paul VI at the UN in 1965, League Council, a seat was left granted to the *Holy See under the vacant for the absent permanent *Lateran Treaties of 1929. In area member, and remained vacant the Vatican City is about one-sixth throughout the League’s life: the of a square mile. ‘empty chair’. Vattel, Emmerich de (1714–67). valedictory despatch. A head of Born in Neuchâtel in Switzerland, mission’s last *despatch before Vattel was a diplomat but achieved leaving his or her post. Tradi- his fame for his writing on *interna- tionally, this is a reflective summing tional law. In 1746 he obtained up, which, for the brave, will employment in the diplomatic

270 veto 271 service of the Elector of Saxony and noted that ‘professional diploma- in the following year was appointed tists’ considered it ‘rather vulgar’ to *minister plenipotentiary at Berne. use this word, no doubt because of Not finding his duties taxing, it was its association with sport and here that he completed his major popular entertainment. For both work, Le Droit des Gens (The Law of practical and political reasons the Nations). Published in 1758, this choice of a venue is rarely arbitrary. swiftly became a standard work, not Venue may be significant either by least for its treatment of *diplomatic virtue of the country, the precise law. Indeed, it has been said that location within the country, or the this represents the last of the great building in question – or sometimes classic writings on the subject. In by virtue of all three. For example, Vattel, *diplomatic privileges and the exploratory encounters between immunities were grounded firmly in the United States and North Korea, their *functional necessity for the which eventually led to the signing efficient conduct of diplomacy. in Geneva in 1994 of the agreement between them on nuclear matters, Venetian diplomacy. The diplo- began at an official Chinese venue: macy of the mercantile and seafar- the International Club in Beijing, ing republic of Venice, which was which is a facility belonging to the originally shaped in the *Byzantine Chinese ministry of foreign affairs. pattern but eventually developed a The fact that China’s *good offices quite distinct tradition. Until the (sense 1) had been accepted made republic was extinguished by any subsequent informal Chinese Napoleon in 1797, the Venetian *mediation more likely and secrecy diplomatic service, which is gener- easy to obtain; Beijing itself was one ally believed to have been the first of the few sites where both the organized and closely supervised United States and North Korea had diplomatic service to have been major embassies; while choice of created, was regarded as the model the International Club within the for all Europe. Carefully selected, city (rather than one or other of the subject to the most austere regula- embassies) reinforced the neutrality tions, and highly motivated to of the setting and made Chinese serve the republic, until the end support for the talks easier still. Venetian diplomats continued to be regarded as the best informed men verbatim record. See minutes. in the *diplomatic corps of any capital city. See also bailo; Barbaro; veto. A vote which has the effect of calendar; relazione. killing a proposal which would oth- erwise have become a *resolution of venue. The place chosen for a nego- the organization or a decision of the tiation, though Harold *Nicolson meeting in question. Depending on 272 vice-consul the *rules of procedure and the Wars. For diplomacy, the *Regulat- accepted practices of the body con- ion which it agreed solved at long cerned, the vote may be a ‘no’ or last the serious problem of *prece- simply an *abstention. See also dence, while the restoration of Security Council. the Swiss Confederation and the guarantee by the Congress of vice-consul. See consular post; hon- Switzerland’s *permanent neutral- orary consular officer. ity fortified a tradition which was subsequently to prove of consider- vice-consulate. See consular post; able value to the world diplomatic honorary consular officer. system. vice-dean. The deputy of the *dean Vienna Conventions. See Consular of the *diplomatic corps. Such a Relations; Diplomatic Relations; person might be useful if the dean Law of Treaties; Representation of represents a government or state States in their Relations with which is not recognized by one or International Organizations of a more other states with ambassadors Universal Character. in the local diplomatic corps, though it is unusual for this to be Vienna, Diplomatic Academy of. an obstacle to the conduct of The Austrian training school for ‘decanal’ business. diplomats. Reopened in 1964 when Bruno *Kreisky was foreign minis- vice-marshal of the diplomatic ter, the Diplomatische Akademie, corps. See marshal of the diplomatic which is located in the consular corps. wing of the Theresianum in Vienna, traces its origins to the reforms of viceroy. A man who governs a terri- Count *Kaunitz in the middle of the tory in the name and by the author- eighteenth century. ity of a head of state, generally a monarch; literally, a vice- or deputy-king; hence a ‘vicereine’ is a Vietnam War. The huge armed vice- or deputy-queen. See also effort by the United States over proconsul. almost a decade (1964–73) which tried, unsuccessfully, to prevent Vienna, Congress of (1814–15). South Vietnam falling to the North The *congress of the powers, domi- Vietnamese-led Communist insur- nated by *Metternich but not at rection. See also Bunker. the expense of *Talleyrand, which restored the *international order in vin d’honneur. A reception to mark Europe following the protracted a significant event in a diplomat’s convulsions of the Napoleonic career, such as the presentation of voeu 273

*letters of credence to the *receiving required but does not always guar- state’s head of state. antee entry. Arriving diplomats are not exempt from visa regulations. virtual diplomacy. The conduct See also letter of protection (sense of *diplomacy (sense 1) via elec- 1); right of transit; safe-conduct. tronic information and communi- cations technologies (ICTs) and visiting fireman. Anyone who thus without face-to-face contact. arrives from the outside at the Credit for the invention of this scene of a difficult negotiation to term in the late 1990s is claimed reinforce or take over from those by the United States Institute of already charged with its conduct. Peace. However, while ICTs are In embassies the term is usually making a large difference to the applied to a senior official or min- ways in which some states arrange ister arriving from home. At the communication between their UN *Security Council it can mean foreign ministries and their diplo- more or less anybody who is not a matic missions, and provide them member but is given a hearing, with background material, such including representatives of *non- developments do not undermine governmental organizations. Since the utility of traditional diplo- ‘visiting firemen’ are often more matic missions for the perfor- intent on fanning the flames of mance of *diplomatic functions. controversy than hosing them See also telecommunication. down, it will be understood that the phrase is commonly employed virtual embassy. An *embassy with heavy irony. See also special (sense 1) which is so small that it envoy. may even be located in a hotel room, provided it has a computer vital interest. An interest consid- with a modem and wire or wireless ered so essential to the general well- access. An obvious misnomer, as being of a state that it is one such an embassy is not intangible, in defence of which it is prepared but just virtually virtual. See also to go to war. See also honour; rapid reaction embassy. necessity. visa. (1) Earlier visé (from viser, to voeu. A recommendation, wish or look at), an entry in a passport pro- view recorded at a conference to viding evidence that it has been accompany a *treaty but which has examined and found correct. (2) A no *binding force upon the signato- special authorization (stamped or ries; in some circumstances it may placed in a passport) to visit or be more or less a pious hope. The to undertake paid or business activ- Assembly of the *League of Nations, ity in a state. This is frequently which generally took decisions on 274 volte face the basis of the *unanimity rule described needed only a simple (and always so in respect of impor- majority. tant substantive matters), utilized the idea of a voeu by ruling that volte face. A complete reversal of a a decision which could be so position, or about-turn. W waiver. The process whereby a war crime. A breach, by an individ- state, in respect of one of its *diplo- ual, of the *laws of war (or of, as matic agents or *consular officers, this subject is now known, *interna- sets aside the right of *diplomatic or tional humanitarian law). Such laws *consular immunity which is nor- used to refer only to those who par- mally enjoyed by the individual in ticipated immediately in war. But in question. This is not a frequent the major war crimes trials which occurrence, and is only done after took place after the Second World careful consideration. However, in War, the concept of war crimes was recent years waiver appears to have extended to cover crimes against been sought by a *receiving state peace, and crimes against humanity rather more strongly than hitherto, – for which the political leaders of often with success. the defeated states could be, and were, indicted. See also international war. An *armed conflict which has criminal law. been formally instituted by a decla- ration of war or the expiry of an warden network. The members of a *ultimatum. Since 1945 such *sending state’s *expatriate commu- announcements have gone resound- nity who have volunteered to act as ingly out of fashion, no state points of contact across the country wishing to lay itself open to the during a local crisis or emergency. charge of having initiated a war; Such networks are now common in associatedly, all armed action is chronically unstable or hostile now described as defensive in char- regions, though their efficiency has acter, or as in necessary support of been impaired when, for their own some universal norms, such as those safety, wardens have themselves been relating to *human rights. See also ordered by their companies to leave Briand–Kellogg Pact; neutrality; per- the country during an emergency. See manent neutrality. also emergency room; hot line.

275 276 Warsaw Pact

Warsaw Pact. Concluded in 1955 Communist states of Europe and (and formally titled the Eastern America, and more particularly to European Mutual Assistance Treaty), those of them who were members the Pact was a *Cold War *alliance of *NATO, which was then an between the Soviet Union and *alliance established to counter the seven states in east and central *Eastern bloc. (2) That part of the Europe. It provided for a unified world which is generally termed military command with its head- western, as contrasted (in both his- quarters in Moscow. It was wound torical and cultural terms) with the up in 1991. East or the Orient. way bill. See diplomatic courier. Western European Union (WEU). The WEU dates from 1955, but has weighted voting. The system its origins in an earlier arrangement adopted in certain *international made by the Brussels Treaty of organizations, notably the Inter- 1948. It has always had some national Monetary Fund, the Inter- difficulty in carving out a distinc- national Bank for Reconstruction tive niche for itself, and for much of and Development, and the its life seemed content to take some- *European Union, of allocating thing of a back seat. During the last votes in proportion to the ‘weight’ fifteen years it has been more pro- of the members, usually judged by active, with a certain measure of the size of their financial or other success. But it still remains caught, contributions to them. This has as it were, between *NATO and the appeal for *realists but it is politi- *European Union. cally sensitive. First, it draws atten- tion to the large material differences Westphalia, Congress of between states when set alongside (1644–48). The *congress at which their *equality of status. Secondly, an end to the Thirty Years’ War there is usually dispute over the was negotiated. It had *venues at criteria to be employed in comput- two Westphalian towns: Catholic ing these differences, as well as in Münster, to which were assigned applying the criteria if and when the *plenipotentiaries of France; they have been chosen. Where and Protestant Osnabrück, 55 kilo- weighted voting is the formal rule, metres removed, to which were in practice the influence of the assigned those of Sweden. The rep- *consensus method is usually con- resentatives of the Emperor, the siderable. See also qualified majority third of the main parties at the voting (QMV). congress, were divided between the two towns, while the plenipoten- West, the. (1) Often used during tiaries of the many other parties the *Cold War to refer to the non- (including the Spanish, the Swiss, Wicquefort, Abraham de 277 and the Dutch) gravitated to the Wicquefort, Abraham de (1598– one or the other depending on 1682). An *intelligencer, *gazetteer whether they were closer to France and, like *Machiavelli, a diplomat of or Sweden, or on whether one of the second order who is remem- the venues had already attracted bered more for what he wrote the delegation with which they than for his other accomplish- wished chiefly to negotiate. The ments. Born in Holland, Wicquefort main fruits of the negotiations nevertheless spent most of his were the two treaties of peace diplomatic career in Paris. Here he signed on 24 October 1648 bet- served as *resident of the Elector of ween the Empire and Sweden and Brandenburg-Prussia from 1626 the Empire and France. Known until 1658, when, having fallen foul collectively as either the ‘Treaty’ or of Mazarin, he was first briefly the ‘Peace’ of Westphalia, they are imprisoned in the Bastille and then generally reckoned to have expelled. Invited to The Hague resolved the structure and codified by John de Witt, the Grand the constitutional rules of the Pensionary of Holland, Wicquefort European *states-system as it had was employed as a translator for the emerged from the unity of States General but chiefly as the medieval Christendom. Thereafter, Grand Pensionary’s special secretary it has not been unusual to see the for French correspondence. In 1675 term ‘Westphalian system’ used to Wicquefort, who had in the previ- describe the post-1648 system of ous year also secured the appoint- international relations, i.e. that in ment of resident in Holland of the which states – secular, sovereign, Duke of Brunswick-Luneburg-Celle, independent, and equal – are the was accused by his enemies of members, and stability is preserved selling state secrets. He was tried by by the *balance of power, *diplo- the Court of Holland and, despite macy and *international law. See his plea of *diplomatic immunity, also international society. imprisoned for life on the grounds that he remained a Dutch national Westphalian system. See West- in the paid service of its govern- phalia, Congress of (1644–48). ment to which he had taken an oath of secrecy. Sent, like *Grotius Whitehall. The name of a street in before him, to the prison of London which, because a number Loevestein (though he escaped to of government offices front on to it, Celle in 1679), he devoted his time is sometimes used – particularly to furious writing. Without the aid by those posted abroad – as a of his large library, which had been synonym for the government of confiscated, he wrote first the Britain, or for a particular govern- Mémoires touchant les ambassadeurs ment department. et les ministres publics, which he 278 wife, diplomatic signed simply ‘L.M.P.’ (Le Ministre Wisma Putra. The Malaysian min- Prisonnier), and then his massive istry of *foreign affairs, so-called L’Ambassadeur et ses fonctions. First because since 1966 it has occupied a published in the year before he building of this name. However, died, translated into English as The since 2001 the ministry has been Embassador and His Functions in operating from a new Wisma Putra 1716, and subsequently reissued complex in the recently developed many times, this became the most administrative city of Putrajaya, highly regarded manual of diplo- 20 kilometres south of Kuala macy of the eighteenth century. As Lumpur. The old office in the has been remarked, Wicquefort was federal capital has been taken over the *Satow of the ancien régime. See by the Institute of Diplomacy and also locally engaged staff. Foreign Relations. wife, diplomatic. See spouse, dip- working copy (of credentials). The lomatic. copy of an incoming *head of mission’s *credentials which is fur- Wilhelmstrasse. See Auswärtiges Amt nished on arrival to the *receiving (AA). state’s foreign ministry. It is some- times called ‘true copy’ and is Wilson, President Woodrow (1856 known in French as the copie figurée –1924). The American President who, (earlier as copie d’usage). See also in January 1918, enunciated his letters of credence; presentation of ‘Fourteen Points’ for a just end to the credentials. war (which the United States had joined in 1917) against the Central working funeral. The funeral of a Powers. Wilson included references major political leader which is to the need for peaceful change on attended by scores of high-level del- the basis of *self-determination (only, egations from abroad. It is thus an however, in Europe); but most opportunity not only for diplomatic notably he called for what was soon *signalling but also for confidential to be termed *open diplomacy, and discussion between the mourners for ‘a general association of nations’ and the politically bereaved govern- to guarantee the ‘political indepen- ment, and perhaps more especially dence and territorial integrity [of] between the mourners themselves. great and small states alike’. This last The term has been attributed to soon found expression in the *League Robert Carvel, Political Editor of the of Nations and its scheme for *collec- London Evening Standard, who tive security – but the United States introduced it in an article on the did not become a member, chiefly Requiem Mass for West German because of the hostility of its Senate Chancellor, Konrad Adenauer, in to the whole idea. April 1967. Wotton, Sir Henry 279

Funerals of this kind, which are Ambassador is an honest man, sent attended by high ceremony and to lie abroad for the good of his generally styled ‘state funerals’, are country’. Wotton (pronounced extremely useful in diplomacy. ‘Wootton’) was an amiable but They provide an occasion which is impecunious dilettante and literary above reproach for *heads of state amateur. He did not find stable and government to break existing employment until knighted on the commitments for discussion on an accession of James I and sent to urgent matter of the moment; and Venice as *resident ambassador. On they provide a cloak behind which his way out, in 1604, he stayed in the representatives of hostile states Augsburg. Having already some rep- may meet. If the deceased leader utation in the town, he was invited was an incumbent rather than by a resident to write some bon mot retired, the funeral also provides in a notebook kept for the purpose, what will probably be the first and the famous quotation was the opportunity for foreign leaders result. It was intended, of course, as to make contact with his or her a pun on the word ‘lie’, which in successor. this context could mean either ‘sojourn abroad’ or ‘tell lies abroad’. working visit. See state visit. (It is not known whether Wotton also meant it to refer to having world public opinion. See General sexual relations.) Unfortunately for Assembly. Sir Henry, while he appears to have conceived the saying in English, he World Trade Organization (WTO). wrote it out in Latin: ‘Legatus est vir This international organization was bonus peregrè missus ad mentiendum established in 1994 as the successor Reipublicæ causâ.’ According to his body to the General Agreement friend Isaak Walton, ‘the word lie on Tariffs and Trade (GATT). It (being the hinge upon which the is intended to continue and conceit was to turn) was not so strengthen GATT’s work. Its head- expressed in Latin [mentiendum], as quarters is in Geneva, Switzerland. would admit (in the hands of an It is not part of the *United Nations enemy especially) so fair a construc- system, but has cooperating tion as Sir Henry thought in arrangements and practices with the English’. This was his undoing, for UN. the notebook eventually fell into the hands of a Catholic controver- Wotton, Sir Henry (1568–1639). sialist who used it in a polemic The English diplomat and poet who against James I published in 1611, has gone down in diplomatic presenting it as evidence that the legend as the author of the epi- king had sent a confessed liar to gram, often misquoted, that ‘An represent him abroad. James never 280 Wriston Report (1954) entirely forgave Wotton the in- until 1624. In all, he spent nearly discretion which provided such twenty years as either resident ammunition to his enemies. The ambassador or *ambassador in ordi- hopes cherished by the diplomat in nary in Venice, and ended his career 1612 of being the King’s secretary as provost of Eton College. were accordingly dashed, and Wotton was doomed to remain in Wriston Report (1954). See Foreign Venice (with interludes elsewhere) Service, US. Y

Yalta formula. The provisions summit meeting of the Big Three which find expression in Article 27 (the USA, USSR, and Britain) in of the UN *Charter on the voting February 1945. procedure of the *Security Council, including (therefore) the *veto; so called because it was agreed at the Yom Kippur War. The Israeli term Soviet Crimean resort of Yalta at a for the *October War (1973).

281 Z

Z. The abbreviated telegraphic indi- zone of separation. See buffer zone. cation of *Greenwich Mean Time.

282 A Guide to the Key Articles of the Vienna Convention

Accession: Article 50 First-arrival privileges: Article 36 Administrative and technical staff: Flag, use of: Article 20 Article 37 Freedom of communication: Article 27 Agrément: Article 4 Freedom of movement: Article 26 Arrival and departure of staff, Head of mission, appointment of: notification of: Article 10 Article 4 Care-of-pilot: Article 27 Holy See, precedence of representative Chargé d’affaires: Article 19 of: Article 16 Definitions: Article 1 Languages: Article 53 Diplomatic archives: Article 24 Multiple accreditation: Articles 5 and 6 Diplomatic bag: Article 27 Nationality of staff of mission: Diplomatic classes (heads of mission): Article 8 Articles 14 and 15 Nationals of receiving state: Article 38 Diplomatic courier: Article 27 Outstations of mission: Article 12 Diplomatic functions: Article 3 Parties: Article 48 Diplomatic immunity: Articles 31 and 32 Persona non grata: Articles 9 and 43 Diplomatic inviolability: Articles 22, 27, Precedence: Articles 16 and 17 29, and 30 Presentation of credentials: Articles 13 Diplomatic mission, duties to receiving and 18 state of: Article 41 Professional or commercial activity: Diplomatic premises: Articles 21 to 23, Article 42 and 45 Protecting power: Articles 45 and 46 Diplomatic privileges: Articles 33 to 36 Ratification: Article 49 Diplomatic privileges and immunities, Servants: Article 37 commencement and termination of: Service attachés: Article 7 Articles 39 and 43 Service staff: Article 37 Diplomatic relations, breach of: Article 45 Size of mission: Article 11 Diplomatic relations, establishment of: Staff of mission, appointment and Article 2 departure of: Articles 7 and 44 Diplomatic status, end of: Article 43 Third states: Article 40 Entry into force: Article 51 Waiver: Article 32 Family of diplomatic agent: Articles 10 Wireless transmitters: Article 27 and 37 Working copy of credentials: Article 13

283 The Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations (1961)

The States Parties to the present Convention, Recalling that peoples of all nations from ancient times have recognized the status of diplomatic agents, Having in mind the purposes and principles of the Charter of the United Nations concerning the sovereign equality of States, the maintenance of international peace and security, and the promotion of friendly relations among nations, Believing that an international convention on diplomatic intercourse, privileges and immunities would contribute to the development of friendly relations among nations, irrespective of their differing constitutional and social systems, Realizing that the purpose of such privileges and immunities is not to benefit indi- viduals but to ensure the efficient performance of the functions of diplomatic missions as representing States, Affirming that the rules of customary international law should continue to govern questions not expressly regulated by the provisions of the present Convention, Have agreed as follows:

Article 1 For the purpose of the present Convention, the following expressions shall have the meanings hereunder assigned to them: (a) the ‘head of the mission’ is the person charged by the sending State with the duty of acting in that capacity; (b) the ‘members of the mission’ are the head of the mission and the members of the staff of the mission; (c) the ‘members of the staff of the mission’ are the members of the diplomatic staff, of the administrative and technical staff and of the service staff of the mission; (d) the ‘members of the diplomatic staff’ are the members of the staff of the mission having diplomatic rank; (e) a ‘diplomatic agent’ is the head of the mission or a member of the diplomatic staff of the mission; (f) the ‘members of the administrative and technical staff’ are the members of the staff of the mission employed in the administrative and technical service of the mission; (g) the ‘members of the service staff’ are the members of the staff of the mission in the domestic service of the mission; (h) a ‘private servant’ is a person who is in the domestic service of a member of the mission and who is not an employee of the sending State; (i) the ‘premises of the mission’ are the buildings or parts of buildings and the land ancillary thereto, irrespective of ownership, used for the purposes of the mission including the residence of the head of the mission.

Article 2 The establishment of diplomatic relations between States, and of permanent diplo- matic missions, takes place by mutual consent.

Article 3 1. The functions of a diplomatic mission consist inter alia in: (a) representing the sending State in the receiving State; (b) protecting in the receiving State the interests of the sending State and of its nationals, within the limits permitted by international law; (c) negotiating with the Government of the receiving State; 284 The Convention 285

(d) ascertaining by all lawful means conditions and developments in the receiving State, and reporting thereon to the Government of the sending State; (e) promoting friendly relations between the sending State and the receiving State, and developing their economic, cultural and scientific relations. 2. Nothing in the present Convention shall be construed as preventing the perfor- mance of consular functions by a diplomatic mission.

Article 4 1. The sending State must make certain that the agrément of the receiving State has been given for the person it proposes to accredit as head of the mission to that State. 2. The receiving State is not obliged to give reasons to the sending State for a refusal of agrément.

Article 5 1. The sending State may, after it has given due notification to the receiving State concerned, accredit a head of mission or assign any member of the diplomatic staff, as the case may be, to more than one State, unless there is express objection by any of the receiving States. 2. If the sending State accredits a head of mission to one or more other States it may establish a diplomatic mission headed by a chargé d’affaires ad interim in each State where the head of mission has not his permanent seat. 3. A head of mission or any member of the diplomatic staff of the mission may act as representative of the sending State to any international organization.

Article 6 Two or more States may accredit the same person as head of mission to another State, unless objection is offered by the receiving State.

Article 7 Subject to the provisions of Articles 5, 8, 9 and 11, the sending State may freely appoint the members of the staff of the mission. In the case of military, naval or air attachés, the receiving State may require their names to be submitted beforehand, for its approval.

Article 8 1. Members of the diplomatic staff of the mission should in principle be of the nationality of the sending State. 2. Members of the diplomatic staff of the mission may not be appointed from among persons having the nationality of the receiving State, except with the consent of that State which may be withdrawn at any time. 3. The receiving State may reserve the same right with regard to nationals of a third State who are not also nationals of the sending State.

Article 9 1. The receiving State may at any time and without having to explain its decision, notify the sending State that the head of the mission or any member of the diplomatic staff of the mission is persona non grata or that any other member of the staff of the mission is not acceptable. In any such case, the sending State shall, as appropriate, either recall the person concerned or terminate his functions with the mission. A person may be declared non grata or not acceptable before arriving in the territory of the receiving State. 286 The Convention

2. If the sending State refuses or fails within a reasonable period to carry out its obligations under paragraph 1 of this Article, the receiving State may refuse to recog- nize the person concerned as a member of the mission.

Article 10 1. The Ministry for Foreign Affairs of the receiving State, or such other ministry as may be agreed, shall be notified of: (a) the appointment of members of the mission, their arrival and their final departure or the termination of their functions with the mission; (b) the arrival and final departure of a person belonging to the family of a member of the mission and, where appropriate, the fact that a person becomes or ceases to be a member of the family of a member of the mission; (c) the arrival and final departure of private servants in the employ of persons referred to in sub-paragraph (a) of this paragraph and, where appropriate, the fact that they are leaving the employ of such persons; (d) the engagement and discharge of persons resident in the receiving State as members of the mission or private servants entitled to privileges and immunities. 2. Where possible, prior notification of arrival and final departure shall also be given.

Article 11 1. In the absence of specific agreement as to the size of the mission, the receiving State may require that the size of a mission be kept within limits considered by it to be reasonable and normal, having regard to circumstances and conditions in the receiv- ing State and to the needs of the particular mission. 2. The receiving State may equally, within similar bounds and on a non-discrimina- tory basis, refuse to accept officials of a particular category.

Article 12 The sending State may not, without the prior express consent of the receiving State, establish offices forming part of the mission in localities other than those in which the mission itself is established.

Article 13 1. The head of the mission is considered as having taken up his functions in the receiving State either when he has presented his credentials or when he has notified his arrival and a true copy of his credentials has been presented to the Ministry for Foreign Affairs of the receiving State, or such other ministry as may be agreed, in accordance with the practice prevailing in the receiving State which shall be applied in a uniform manner. 2. The order of presentation of credentials or of a true copy thereof will be deter- mined by the date and time of the arrival of the head of the mission.

Article 14 1. Heads of mission are divided into three classes, namely: (a) that of ambassadors or nuncios accredited to Heads of State, and other heads of mission of equivalent rank; (b) that of envoys, ministers and internuncios accredited to Heads of State; (c) that of chargés d’affaires accredited to Ministers of Foreign Affairs. 2. Except as concerns precedence and etiquette, there shall be no differentiation between heads of mission by reason of their class. The Convention 287

Article 15 The class to which the heads of their missions are to be assigned shall be agreed between States.

Article 16 1. Heads of mission shall take precedence in their respective classes in the order of the date and time of taking up their functions in accordance with Article 13. 2. Alterations in the credentials of a head of mission not involving any change of class shall not affect his precedence. 3. This article is without prejudice to any practice accepted by the receiving State regarding the precedence of the representative of the Holy See.

Article 17 The precedence of the members of the diplomatic staff of the mission shall be notified by the head of the mission to the Ministry for Foreign Affairs or such other ministry as may be agreed.

Article 18 The procedure to be observed in each State for the reception of heads of mission shall be uniform in respect of each class.

Article 19 1. If the post of head of the mission is vacant, or if the head of the mission is unable to perform his functions, a chargé d’affaires ad interim shall act provisionally as head of the mission. The name of the chargé d’affaires ad interim shall be notified, either by the head of the mission or, in case he is unable to do so, by the Ministry for Foreign Affairs of the sending State to the Ministry for Foreign Affairs of the receiving State or such other ministry as may be agreed. 2. In cases where no member of the diplomatic staff of the mission is present in the receiving State, a member of the administrative and technical staff may, with the consent of the receiving State, be designated by the sending State to be in charge of the current administrative affairs of the mission.

Article 20 The mission and its head shall have the right to use the flag and emblem of the sending State on the premises of the mission, including the residence of the head of the mission, and on his means of transport.

Article 21 1. The receiving State shall either facilitate the acquisition on its territory, in accor- dance with its laws, by the sending State of premises necessary for its mission or assist the latter in obtaining accommodation in some other way. 2. It shall also, where necessary, assist missions in obtaining suitable accommoda- tion for their members.

Article 22 1. The premises of the mission shall be inviolable. The agents of the receiving State may not enter them, except with the consent of the head of the mission. 288 The Convention

2. The receiving State is under a special duty to take all appropriate steps to protect the premises of the mission against any intrusion or damage and to prevent any dis- turbance of the peace of the mission or impairment of its dignity. 3. The premises of the mission, their furnishings and other property thereon and the means of transport of the mission shall be immune from search, requisition, attachment or execution.

Article 23 1. The sending State and the head of the mission shall be exempt from all national, regional or municipal dues and taxes in respect of the premises of the mission, whether owned or leased, other than such as represent payment for specific services rendered. 2. The exemption from taxation referred to in this Article shall not apply to such dues and taxes payable under the law of the receiving State by persons contracting with the sending State or the head of the mission.

Article 24 The archives and documents of the mission shall be inviolable at any time and wherever they may be.

Article 25 The receiving State shall accord full facilities for the performance of the functions of the mission.

Article 26 Subject to its laws and regulations concerning zones entry into which is prohibited or regulated for reasons of national security, the receiving State shall ensure to all members of the mission freedom of movement and travel in its territory.

Article 27 1. The receiving State shall permit and protect free communication on the part of the mission for all official purposes. In communicating with the Government and the other missions and consulates of the sending State, wherever situated, the mission may employ all appropriate means, including diplomatic couriers and messages in code or cipher. However, the mission may install and use a wireless transmitter only with the consent of the receiving State. 2. The official correspondence of the mission shall be inviolable. Official correspon- dence means all correspondence relating to the mission and its functions. 3. The diplomatic bag shall not be opened or detained. 4. The packages constituting the diplomatic bag must bear visible external marks of their character and may contain only diplomatic documents or articles intended for official use. 5. The diplomatic courier, who shall be provided with an official document indicat- ing his status and the number of packages constituting the diplomatic bag, shall be protected by the receiving State in the performance of his functions. He shall enjoy personal inviolability and shall not be liable to any form of arrest or detention. 6. The sending State or the mission may designate diplomatic couriers ad hoc. In such cases the provisions of paragraph 5 of this Article shall also apply, except that the immunities therein mentioned shall cease to apply when such a courier has delivered to the consignee the diplomatic bag in his charge. 7. A diplomatic bag may be entrusted to the captain of a commercial aircraft sched- uled to land at an authorized port of entry. He shall be provided with an official docu- The Convention 289 ment indicating the number of packages constituting the bag but he shall not be con- sidered to be a diplomatic courier. The mission may send one of its members to take possession of the diplomatic bag directly and freely from the captain of the aircraft.

Article 28 The fees and charges levied by the mission in the course of its official duties shall be exempt from all dues and taxes.

Article 29 The person of a diplomatic agent shall be inviolable. He shall not be liable to any form of arrest or detention. The receiving State shall treat him with due respect and shall take all appropriate steps to prevent any attack on his person, freedom or dignity.

Article 30 1. The private residence of a diplomatic agent shall enjoy the same inviolability and protection as the premises of the mission. 2. His papers, correspondence and, except as provided in paragraph 3 of Article 31, his property, shall likewise enjoy inviolability.

Article 31 1. A diplomatic agent shall enjoy immunity from the criminal jurisdiction of the receiving State. He shall also enjoy immunity from its civil and administrative juris- diction, except in the case of: (a) a real action relating to private immovable property situated in the territory of the receiving State, unless he holds it on behalf of the sending State for the purposes of the mission; (b) an action relating to succession in which the diplomatic agent is involved as executor, administrator, heir or legatee as a private person and not on behalf of the sending State; (c) an action relating to any professional or commercial activity exercised by the diplomatic agent in the receiving State outside his official functions. 2. A diplomatic agent is not obliged to give evidence as a witness. 3. No measures of execution may be taken in respect of a diplomatic agent except in the cases coming under sub-paragraphs (a), (b) and (c) of paragraph 1 of this Article, and provided that the measures concerned can be taken without infringing the inviolability of his person or of his residence. 4. The immunity of a diplomatic agent from the jurisdiction of the receiving State does not exempt him from the jurisdiction of the sending State.

Article 32 1. The immunity from jurisdiction of diplomatic agents and of persons enjoying immunity under Article 37 may be waived by the sending State. 2. Waiver must always be express. 3. The initiation of proceedings by a diplomatic agent or by a person enjoying immunity from jurisdiction under Article 37 shall preclude him from invoking immu- nity from jurisdiction in respect of any counter-claim directly connected with the principal claim. 4. Waiver of immunity from jurisdiction in respect of civil or administrative pro- ceedings shall not be held to imply waiver of immunity in respect of the execution of the judgement, for which a separate waiver shall be necessary. 290 The Convention

Article 33 1. Subject to the provisions of paragraph 3 of this Article, a diplomatic agent shall with respect to services rendered for the sending State be exempt from social security provisions which may be in force in the receiving State. 2. The exemption provided for in paragraph 1 of this Article shall also apply to private servants who are in the sole employ of a diplomatic agent, on condition: (a) that they are not nationals of or permanently resident in the receiving State; and (b) that they are covered by the social security provisions which may be in force in the sending State or a third State. 3. A diplomatic agent who employs persons to whom the exemption provided for in paragraph 2 of this Article does not apply shall observe the obligations which the social security provisions of the receiving State impose upon employers. 4. The exemption provided for in paragraphs 1 and 2 of this Article shall not pre- clude voluntary participation in the social security system of the receiving State pro- vided that such participation is permitted by that State. 5. The provisions of this Article shall not affect bilateral or multilateral agreements concerning social security concluded previously and shall not prevent the conclusion of such agreements in the future.

Article 34 A diplomatic agent shall be exempt from all dues and taxes, personal or real, national, regional or municipal, except: (a) indirect taxes of a kind which are normally incorporated in the price of the goods or services; (b) dues and taxes on private immovable property situated in the territory of the receiving State, unless he holds it on behalf of the sending State for the purpose of the mission; (c) estate, succession or inheritance duties levied by the receiving State, subject to the provisions of paragraph 4 of Article 39; (d) dues and taxes on private income having its source in the receiving State and capital taxes on investments made in commercial undertakings in the receiving State; (e) charges levied for specific services rendered; (f) registration, court or record fees, mortgage dues and stamp duty, with respect to immovable property, subject to the provisions of Article 23.

Article 35 The receiving State shall exempt diplomatic agents from all personal services, from all public service of any kind whatsoever, and from military obligations such as those connected with requisitioning, military contributions and billeting.

Article 36 1. The receiving State shall, in accordance with such laws and regulations as it may adopt, permit entry of and grant exemption from all customs duties, taxes, and related charges other than charges for storage, cartage and similar services, on: (a) articles for the official use of the mission; (b) articles for the personal use of a diplomatic agent or members of his family forming part of his household, including articles intended for his establishment. 2. The personal baggage of a diplomatic agent shall be exempt from inspection, unless there are serious grounds for presuming that it contains articles not covered by the exemptions mentioned in paragraph 1 of this Article, or articles the import or export of which is prohibited by the law or controlled by the quarantine regulations of The Convention 291 the receiving State. Such inspection shall be conducted only in the presence of the diplomatic agent or of his authorized representative.

Article 37 1. The members of the family of a diplomatic agent forming part of his household staff, if they are not nationals of the receiving State, enjoy the privileges and immuni- ties specified in Articles 29 to 36. 2. Members of the administrative and technical staff of the mission, together with members of their families forming part of their respective households, shall, if they are not nationals of or permanently resident in the receiving State, enjoy the privileges and immunities specified in Articles 29 to 35, except that the immunity from civil and administrative jurisdiction of the receiving State specified in paragraph 1 of Article 31 shall not extend to acts performed outside the course of their duties. They shall also enjoy the privileges specified in Article 31, paragraph 1, in respect of articles imported at the time of first installation. 3. Members of the service staff of the mission who are not nationals of or perma- nently resident in the receiving State shall enjoy immunity in respect of acts performed in the course of their duties, exemption from dues and taxes on the emoluments they receive by reason of their employment and the exemption contained in Article 33. 4. Private servants of members of the mission shall, if they are not nationals of or permanently resident in the receiving State, be exempt from dues and taxes on the emoluments they receive by reason of their employment. In other respects, they may enjoy privileges and immunities only to the extent admitted by the receiving State. However, the receiving State must exercise its jurisdiction over those persons in such manner as not to interfere unduly with the performance of the functions of the mission.

Article 38 1. Except insofar as additional privileges and immunities may be granted by the receiving State, a diplomatic agent who is a national of or permanently resident in that State shall enjoy only immunity from jurisdiction, and inviolability, in respect of official acts performed in the exercise of his functions. 2. Other members of the staff of the mission and private servants who are nationals of or permanently resident in the receiving State shall enjoy privileges and immunities only to the extent admitted by the receiving State. However, the receiving State must exercise its jurisdiction over those persons in such a manner as not to interfere unduly with the performance of the functions of the mission.

Article 39 1. Every person entitled to privileges and immunities shall enjoy them from the moment he enters the territory of the receiving State on proceeding to take up his post or, if already in its territory, from the moment when his appointment is notified to the Ministry for Foreign Affairs or such other ministry as may be agreed. 2. When the functions of a person enjoying privileges and immunities have come to an end, such privileges and immunities shall normally cease at the moment when he leaves the country, or on expiry of a reasonable period in which to do so, but shall subsist until that time, even in case of armed conflict. However, with respect to acts performed by such a person in the exercise of his functions as a member of the mission, immunity shall continue to subsist. 3. In case of the death of a member of the mission, the members of his family shall continue to enjoy the privileges and immunities to which they are entitled until the expiry of a reasonable period in which to leave the country. 292 The Convention

4. In the event of the death of a member of the mission not a national of or perma- nently resident in the receiving State or a member of his family forming part of his household, the receiving State shall permit the withdrawal of the movable property of the deceased, with the exception of any property acquired in the country the export of which was prohibited at the time of his death. Estate, succession and inheritance duties shall not be levied on movable property the presence of which in the receiving State was due solely to the presence there of the deceased as a member of the mission or as a member of the family of a member of the mission.

Article 40 1. If a diplomatic agent passes through or is in the territory of a third State, which has granted him a passport visa if such visa was necessary, while proceeding to take up or return to his post, or when returning to his own country, the third State shall accord him inviolability and such other immunities as may be required to ensure his transit or return. The same shall apply in the case of any members of his family enjoy- ing privileges or immunities who are accompanying the diplomatic agent, or travel- ling separately to join him or return to their country. 2. In circumstances similar to those specified in paragraph 1 of this Article, third States shall not hinder the passage of members of the administrative and technical or service staff of a mission, and of members of their families, through their territories. 3. Third States shall accord to official correspondence and other official communi- cations in transit, including messages in code or cipher, the same freedom and protec- tion as is accorded by the receiving State. They shall accord to diplomatic couriers, who have been granted a passport visa if such visa was necessary, and diplomatic bags in transit the same inviolability and protection as the receiving State is bound to accord. 4. The obligations of third States under paragraphs 1, 2 and 3 of this Article shall also apply to the persons mentioned respectively in those paragraphs, and to official communications and diplomatic bags, whose presence in the territory of the third State is due to force majeur.

Article 41 1. Without prejudice to their privileges and immunities, it is the duty of all persons enjoying such privileges and immunities to respect the laws and regulations of the receiving State. They also have a duty not to interfere in the internal affairs of that State. 2. All official business with the receiving State entrusted to the mission by the sending State shall be conducted with or through the Ministry for Foreign Affairs of the receiving State or such other ministry as may be agreed. 3. The premises of the mission must not be used in any manner incompatible with the functions of the mission as laid down in the present Convention or by other rules of general international law or by any special agreements in force between the sending and the receiving State.

Article 42 A diplomatic agent shall not in the receiving State practise for personal profit any professional or commercial activity.

Article 43 The function of a diplomatic agent comes to an end, inter alia: (a) on notification by the sending State to the receiving State that the function of the diplomatic agent has come to an end; The Convention 293

(b) on notification by the receiving State to the sending State that, in accordance with paragraph 2 of Article 9, it refuses to recognize the diplomatic agent as a member of the mission.

Article 44 The receiving State must, even in case of armed conflict, grant facilities in order to enable persons enjoying privileges and immunities, other than nationals of the receiving State, and members of the families of such persons irrespective of their nationality, to leave at the earliest possible moment. It must, in particular, in case of need, place at their disposal the necessary means of transport for themselves and their property.

Article 45 If diplomatic relations are broken off between two States, or if a mission is perma- nently or temporarily recalled: (a) the receiving State must, even in case of armed conflict, respect and protect the premises of the mission, together with its property and archives; (b) the sending State may entrust the custody of the premises of the mission, together with its property and archives, to a third State acceptable to the receiving State; (c) the sending State may entrust the protection of its interests and those of its nationals to a third State acceptable to the receiving State.

Article 46 A sending State may with the prior consent of a receiving State, and at the request of a third State not represented in the receiving State, undertake the temporary protec- tion of the interests of the third State and of its nationals.

Article 47 1. In the application of the provisions of the present Convention, the receiving State shall not discriminate as between States. 2. However, discrimination shall not be regarded as taking place: (a) where the receiving State applies any of the provisions of the present Convention restrictively because of a restrictive application of that provision to its mission in the sending State; (b) where by custom or agreement States extend to each other more favourable treat- ment than is required by the provisions of the present Convention.

Article 48 The present Convention shall be open for signature by all States Members of the United Nations or of any of the specialized agencies or Parties to the Statute of the International Court of Justice, and by any other State invited by the General Assembly of the United Nations to become a Party to the Convention, as follows: until 31 October 1961 at the Federal Ministry for Foreign Affairs of Austria and subsequently, until 31 March 1962, at the United Nations Headquarters in New York.

Article 49 The present Convention is subject to ratification. The instruments of ratification shall be deposited with the Secretary-General of the United Nations. 294 The Convention

Article 50 The present Convention shall remain open for accession by any State belonging to any of the four categories mentioned in Article 48. The instruments of accession shall be deposited with the Secretary-General of the United Nations.

Article 51 1. The present Convention shall enter into force on the thirtieth day following the date of deposit of the twenty-second instrument of ratification or accession with the Secretary-General of the United Nations. 2. For each State ratifying or acceding to the Convention after the deposit of the twenty-second instrument of ratification or accession, the Convention shall enter into force on the thirtieth day after deposit by such State of its instrument of ratification or accession.

Article 52 The Secretary-General of the United Nations shall inform all States belonging to any of the four categories mentioned in Article 48: (a) of signatures to the present Convention and of the deposit of instruments of ratification or accession, in accordance with Articles 48, 49 and 50; (b) of the date on which the present Convention will enter into force, in accordance with Article 51.

Article 53 The original of the present Convention, of which the Chinese, English, French, Russian and Spanish texts are equally authentic, shall be deposited with the Secretary- General of the United Nations, who shall send certified copies thereof to all States belonging to any of the four categories mentioned in Article 48. IN WITNESS WHEREOF the undersigned Plenipotentiaries, being duly authorized thereto by their respective Governments, have signed the present Convention. DONE at Vienna, this eighteenth day of April one thousand nine hundred and sixty-one. Bibliography

In addition to standard reference works such as the Dictionary of National Biography, American National Biography, Biographie Universelle – Ancienne et Moderne, Whitaker’s Almanack, and The Statesman’s Yearbook, together with the diplomatic lists and foreign service lists of a number of states, the following were especially useful:

Adair, E. R., The Exterritoriality of Ambassadors in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries (Longman: London, 1929). Adcock, Sir Frank, and D. J. Mosley, Diplomacy in Ancient Greece (Thames & Hudson: London, 1975). Bailey, Sydney D. and Sam Daws, The Procedure of the UN Security Council, 3rd edn (Clarendon Press: Oxford, 1998). Bainbridge, Timothy, The Penguin Companion to European Union, 2nd edn (Penguin Books: London, 1998). Barston, R. P., Modern Diplomacy, 2nd edn (Longman: London, 1997). Busk, Sir Douglas, The Craft of Diplomacy: How to run a diplomatic service (Praeger: New York, 1967). Bynkershoek, Cornelius van, De Foro Legatorum: The jurisdiction over ambassadors in both civil and criminal cases, first publ. 1721, repr. (Oceana: New York, 1964). Cable, James, Gunboat Diplomacy, 1919–1979: Political applications of limited naval force, 2nd edn (Macmillan – now Palgrave Macmillan: London, 1981). Dembinski, Ludwig, The Modern Law of Diplomacy. External Missions of States and International Organizations (Nijhoff: Dordrecht, 1988, for the United Nations Institute for Training and Research). Denza, Eileen, Diplomatic Law: Commentary on the Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations, 2nd edn (Clarendon Press: Oxford, 1998). Detmold, Christian E., The Historical, Political, and Diplomatic Writings of Niccolo Machiavelli (James R. Osgood: Boston, 1882), vols. III and IV (‘The Missions’). Gentili, Alberico, De Legationibus Libri Tres, first publ. 1585, repr. (Oceana: New York, 1964). Goldstein, Erik, ‘The Politics of the State Visit’, DSP Discussion Paper, no. 26, Feb. 1997. Gore-Booth, Lord, Satow’s Guide to Diplomatic Practice, 5th edn (Longman: London, 1979). Grenville, J. A. S. and B. Wasserstein, The Major International Treaties Since 1945: A History and Guide with Texts (Methuen: London and New York, 1987). Hamilton, Keith and Richard Langhorne, The Practice of Diplomacy: Its evolution, theory and administration (Routledge: London, 1995). Horn, D. B., The British Diplomatic Service, 1689–1789 (Clarendon Press: Oxford, 1961). Jennings, Sir Robert and Sir Arthur Watts (eds), Oppenheim’s International Law, 9th edn (Longman: London, 1992). Jones, Raymond A., The British Diplomatic Service, 1815–1914 (Colin Smythe: Gerrards Cross, 1983). Lachs, Phyllis S., The Diplomatic Corps under Charles II and James II (Rutgers University Press: New Brunswick, New Jersey, 1965). Lee, Luke T., Consular Law and Practice, 2nd edn (Clarendon Press: Oxford, 1991).

295 296 Bibliography

Lloyd, Lorna, ‘What’s in a name? The curious tale of the office of high commissioner’, Diplomacy and Statecraft, vol. 11, no. 1 (Mar. 2000), pp. 47–77. Loeffler, Jane C., The Architecture of Diplomacy: Building America’s embassies (Princeton Architectural Press: New York, 1998). Mattingly, Garrett, Renaissance Diplomacy (Penguin: Harmondsworth, 1965). McClanahan, Grant V., Diplomatic Immunity. Principles, practices, problems (Hurst: London, 1989, for the Institute for the Study of Diplomacy). Newsom, David D. (ed.), Diplomacy under a Foreign Flag (Hurst: London, 1990; St. Martin’s Press – now Palgrave Macmillan: New York, 1990, for the Institute for the Study of Diplomacy). Nicolson, Harold, Diplomacy, 3rd edn (Oxford University Press: London, 1969). Platt, D. C. M., The Cinderella Service: British Consuls since 1825 (Longman: London, 1971). Satow, Sir Ernest, A Guide to Diplomatic Practice, 2nd and revised edn (Longmans, Green: London, 1922). Scruton, Roger, A Dictionary of Political Thought, 2nd edn (Macmillan – now Palgrave Macmillan: Basingstoke, 1996). Sen, B., A Diplomat’s Handbook of International Law and Practice, 2nd edn (Nijhoff: The Hague, 1979). Shaw, Malcolm N., International Law, 4th edn (Grotius Publications: Cambridge,1997). Shearer, I. A., Starke’s International Law, 11th edn (Butterworths: London, 1994). Steiner, Zara (ed.), The Times Survey of Foreign Ministries of the World (Times Books: London, 1982). Thayer, Charles W., Diplomat (Michael Joseph: London, 1960). Vattel, Emmerich de, Le Droit des Gens, first publ. 1758, repr. (Oceana: New York, 1964). Wicquefort, Abraham de, The Embassador and His Functions, first publ. 1681, trsl. by John Digby in 1716, repr. (Centre for the Study of Diplomacy, Leicester University: Leicester, 1997). Wolfe, Robert (ed.), Diplomatic Missions. The Ambassador in Canadian Foreign Policy (School of Policy Studies, Canadian Centre for Foreign Policy Development: Queen’s University, Kingston, Ontario, 1998). Wood, John R. and Jean Serres, Diplomatic Ceremonial and Protocol: Principles, procedures and practices (Macmillan: London, 1970). Young, E., ‘The development of the law of diplomatic relations’, The British Yearbook of International Law 1964, vol. 40 (Oxford University Press: London and New York, 1966), pp. 141–82. Zartman, I. William and Maureen R. Berman, The Practical Negotiator (Yale University Press: New Haven, 1982).

The authors have also drawn on the following previous works of their own:

Berridge, G. R., Talking to the Enemy: How states without ‘diplomatic relations’ communi- cate (Macmillan – now Palgrave Macmillan: Basingstoke, 1994). —— Diplomacy: Theory and Practice, 2nd edn (Palgrave – now Palgrave Macmillan: Basingstoke, 2002). James, Alan, ‘Diplomacy and International Society’, International Relations, vol. 6, no. 6 (Nov. 1980), pp. 931–48. —— Sovereign Statehood: The Basis of International Society (Allen & Unwin: London, 1986). —— ‘Diplomatic relations and contacts’, The British Yearbook of International Law 1991, vol. 62 (Clarendon Press: Oxford, 1992), pp. 347–87.