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2019 In Search of Lost Meaning: Exploring Lexical Lacuna in English of Indiana Lindsay Anne Fieger

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THE FLORIDA STATE UNIVERSITY

COLLEGE OF ARTS & SCIENCES

IN SEARCH OF LOST MEANING: EXPLORING LEXICAL LACUNA IN ENGLISH

TRANSLATIONS OF INDIANA

By

LINDSAY ANNE FIEGER

A Thesis submitted to the Department of Modern Languages and in partial fulfillment of the requirements for graduation with Honors in the Major

Degree Awarded: Spring 2019

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The members of the Defense Committee approve the thesis of Lindsay Anne Fieger defended on April 12, 2019.

Dr. Marie-France Prosper-Chartier Thesis Director

Dr. Rafe Blaufarb Outside Committee Member

Dr. Lisa Ryoko Wakamiya Committee Member

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Table of Contents General Introduction: ...... 4 Chapter One: Theoretical Framework ...... 5 Introduction ...... 5 I. Lexical Gaps: ...... 5 II. Untranslatability ...... 7 Chapter Two: Methodology for ...... 9 Introduction ...... 9 I. Direct Translation ...... 11 i. Borrowing ...... 11 ii. Calque ...... 12 iii. ...... 13 II. Oblique Translation ...... 13 i. Transposition ...... 14 ii. Modulation ...... 14 iii. Equivalence ...... 15 iv. Adaptation ...... 16 Chapter Three: Lexical Analysis of Indiana ...... 16 Introduction ...... 16 Note on the Editions ...... 17 I. Equivalence and Borrowing: Cultural References and Idiomatic Expressions...... 17 i. Cultural References ...... 18 1. Soubrette ...... 18 2. Grisette ...... 20 3. Culotte de peau ...... 22 4. Femmelette ...... 24 5. ...... 25 6. Bourgeoisement ...... 26 ii. Idiomatic Expressions ...... 28 1. Il saisit […] l’occasion aux cheveux ...... 28 2. Il la tutoyait ...... 29 3. A la mode ...... 31 4. En goûtant les délices d’un amour vrai ...... 32 5. Ivre de bonheur ...... 33 II. Translating sentiments and emotions ...... 34 Fieger 3

i. Le rêve and other derivations ...... 35 ii. Chagrine ...... 38 iii. Ennui ...... 40 III. Glance vs. Look: Regard and L’œil ...... 42 Conclusion ...... 46 Works Cited ...... 48

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General Introduction:

Translation is not merely a task, but a complex union of both artistry and linguistic methodologies in order to arrive at the desired outcome: an accurate translation (Vinay and

Darbelnet 7). Translating is artistic in that it is up to the translator’s creative mind to determine whether or not a particular translation is the most appropriate, or if an alternative should go in its place. It is the translator’s job to be an expert on manipulating and their meanings; they must think critically and creatively in order to convey concepts from one language to another precisely and accurately. Moreover, theories and processes have been established and are used by translators to facilitate their work. One can then pose the question of how to communicate ideas and emotions originally conceived in the source language, shaped by the original author’s perspective and culture, to another?

My research focuses on the field of literary translation, which consists of translating a literary work from its source language to the target language. Because of the many complexities involved in translation, a literary work may be translated in several versions into one language. I have decided to center my lexical analysis on Indiana, a novel written by the French female author George Sand and first published in 1832. I will attempt to apply the theories of untranslatability and lexical gap to two English translations of Indiana; by George Burnham

Ives1 (1900) and Sylvia Raphael2 (1994) respectively3. In a comparative study, the two translations will be analyzed for differences and similarities in lexicon. I will then be able to determine if the two translation theories I have selected are applicable to Indiana. In other words,

1 George Burnham Ives will be referred to by his last name from this point forward. 2 As with Burnham Ives, Sylvia Raphael will be referred to using her last name throughout the course of this analysis. 3 Note on the translations chosen for this analysis: “George Burnham Ives’s early-twentieth-century translation has seen many iterations, including one as recent at 2011. Today, the most commonly used translation is by Sylvia Raphael….[the translation by Sylvia Raphael] is the most modern and the most available…” (Powel and Prasad Fieger 5

what lexical gaps are apparent in the two English translations of Indiana? And consequently, do

these lexical gaps result in untranslatability?

Chapter One: Theoretical Framework

Introduction

In the following section, I will discuss two theories, lacuna and untranslatability, that will

form the theoretical framework of this thesis. The literature which has been done on the topic

will be briefly discussed, in order to provide context for how these theories have been used in the

past, and how my research differs from the literature that currently exists. I will explain not only

the background of the two theories but demonstrate how they will be applied to my own analysis

of the English translations of Indiana.

I. Lexical Gaps:

Lexical gaps, also called lexical lacunæ4, are a direct result “of the lag of vocabulary

behind conceptual development within one and the same language” (Wang 754). Wang further

explains that a lexical lacuna may occur when a particular semantic concept exists in one

language but not the other, thus creating a metaphorical “empty space” (Wang 748). The result is

that semantic and affective depth can be lost in this gap through translation, as the TL5 may not

possess the necessary vocabulary to express the term from the SL in a similar manner.

The reasons why lacunæ arise within one language6 or between two distinct language are numerous. It is largely argued by several scholars and translators alike that culture is a strong

4 Plural ending of ‘lacuna’. 5 Throughout this paper, the term “starting language” will be abbreviated to SL, while the term “target language” will represented by the abbreviation TL. 6 In Maria Grzegorek’s article “A Note on Semantic Representation of Lexical Items and Lexical Gaps”, she utilizes a XY schema to illustrate that semantical representations depend upon their phonological components. For example, “A ‘dead plant’ is an accidental gap in English because there is no lexical item which expresses this meaning” in the Fieger 6 component which causes this phenomenon, a theory with which I am most in agreement. This is primarily due to the fact that, as well stated by Ledia Kazazi, “language is not just a means of expressing cultural values, but it is itself a cultural value.” (354). Language embodies culture, as it forms a necessary cornerstone of cultural expression and representation. Therefore, when translating from one language to another, semantic concepts that are present in one language may not be able to be communicated effectively in the TL, simply because the culture of the TL is unfamiliar with the phenomenon expressed in the SL. Using the semantic triangle developed by

C.K Ogden and I.A. Richards, the “concept” portion of the triangle (which is linked to both the representation and the referent) is missing, “which creates cultural gap” (Kuriačková 10). In the later analysis, we will see how cultural differences as described above between French and

English speakers serve as a direct cause of lacunæ in the novel.

In regard to existing literature that explains or applies lacuna theory to the lexicon found in English translations of 19th century French literature, very few resources exist. Most of the research done on lacuna relates to the gaps between two languages that differ from those which concern this research. The theory, first developed by Prof. Yuri Sorokin, was applied to the field of Russian psycholinguistics. In his work, he used the newly coined linguistic term to explain that lexical gaps were a “source of culture-specific units of ethnic mentality” (Ufimtseva 81).

However, the work done by Yuri Sorokin and Irina Markovina on explaining how culture affects our own language’s development, related only to the gaps found between Russian and English.

Likewise, Quan-zhi Wang defined and explained these gaps in terms of semantic lacunæ that

same way that “corpse” means “dead human” and “carcass” means “dead animal”. However, this will not be the focus of this work. Fieger 7

exist between English and Chinese7 in his article “Lexical Gaps: Their Fillings and Impacts”, while Ledia Kazazi argued lacuna as a consequence of different cultures in her analysis of the

English translation of Circles, an Albanian novel by Martin Camaj.

Although Vinay and Darbelnet clearly define how methods and strategies can be used to render a translation from French to English and vice versa, their focus is not on lacuna nor untranslatability. They briefly acknowledge however, the importance of lacuna to their work: for

“if there were no lacunae, a large part of this book [Comparative Stylistics of French and

English: A methodology for translation] would be superfluous” (Vinay and Darbelnet 65).

Lacuna is an integral part of translation; while it is only noted in passing by Vinay and Darbelnet and is not applied to a literary work, it serves as one of the cornerstones in understanding translation as a whole. Therefore, similar to what Vihideh Sharei8 has done, I will be analyzing the two translations of Indiana by applying the methodology for English and French translation developed by Vinay and Darbelnet to the semantical gaps observed in the English translations of the novel.

II. Untranslatability

One can argue that if lacuna between languages cannot be filled using the various translation processes that exist, untranslatability is the most logical result. Untranslatability, or the phenomenon in which words “can be translated indirectly by transferring the source item and explaining it if no parallel item can be found in the target language and no compensatory effect

7 Additionally, Wang suggests that lexical gaps can be closed using a form of hypernym, or a broad lexical category in which other more specific words fall in (such as furniture), modification and using “antonymous expressions”, which he illustrates using Chinese words which have no equivalent in English . 8 In an article titled “A Comparative Study of the Strategies Employed in ‘The Old Man and the Sea’ Translated from English into Persian on the Basis of Vinay and Darbelnet’s Model”, Sharei employs the translation model developed by Vinay and Darbelnet, specifically whether direct or oblique translation is used more frequently, to the Persian translation of Hemmingway’s novel The Old Man and the Sea. Fieger 8

may be produced within the same paragraph” (Ping 289), is a hotly debated topic. Some linguists

and translators alike debate the fact that a or phrase is inherently “untranslatable”. They

argue that in fact there is always some way to communicate the meaning effectively from the

source language into the target language. However, other scholars maintain the view that some

translation involve an “insoluble problem” which causes “translation [to become] ultimately

impossible” (Ping 289). According to Ping’s article “Translatability vs. Untranslatability- A

Sociosemoitic Perspective”, several kinds of untranslatability are proposed to exist, such as linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability9. He defines three other types of untranslatability at the sociosemoitic level10, which include referential, or “when a referential element in the source message is not known or readily comparable to a particular item in the target language” (Ping 292), pragmatic, or “some pragmatic meaning encoded in a source item is not encoded likewise in a functionally comparable unit in the target language, or where the exact pragmatic meaning(s) carried by the source sign is/are unclear or indeterminable due to historical reasons or to the intentional equivocation on the part of the author” (Ping 293). Finally, he outlines intralingual untranslatability, or the phenomenon when “the source expression is apparently not transferable due to some communicatively foregrounded linguistic peculiarity it contains” (Ping 293). Thus, most utterances can be translated in some way, but whether or not the full affective/cultural depth and meaning are conveyed is debatable.

Based upon the research of the topic, I maintain the position that untranslatability does exist, because of the imperfect system one uses to render a translation. Through my analysis of

9 Linguistic untranslatability, or the instance “when there is no lexical or syntactical substitute in the target language for a source language item” (Ping 289) and cultural untranslatability, an occurrence that “is due to the absence in the target language culture of a relevant situational feature for the source text” (Ping 289) were defined by J.C. Catford in his book A Linguistic Theory of Translation (1965). 10 The term “sociosemoitic” can be defined as “the discipline that treats all systems of signs used by human societies” (Yongfang)

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Indiana, I will attempt to defend this claim by finding and analyzing instances where

untranslatability, in the terms defined by Ping and other linguists, is found between the English

translations of this 19th century work. It is the goal of my research to determine whether or not instances of untranslatability exist in Indiana due to the presence of lacuna. This will be

determined by examining the way in which the translator has decided to translate a particular

word or phrase that could be deemed untranslatable according to preexisting criteria.

Chapter Two: Methodology for Translation

Introduction

A translator will attempt to employ all available translation processes before coming to the

conclusion that a word cannot be translated to have a similar semantic meaning in the TL.

Lacuna and untranslatability are not failures on the part of the translator to account for

semantical differences between languages but reflect the inability of the languages themselves to

express concepts from another language using its own available signs. For example, the French

word mie or “the soft part of the bread” constitutes a lexical gap “because in English-speaking

countries most bread does not permit a clear distinction to be made between hard and soft parts”

(Vinay and Darbelnet 66). Thus, while in French it is important to distinguish the crust from the

inner part of the bread, the does not account for this semantic difference in the

same way.

The theoretical background on methodology will be primarily based on the work done on

French and English translation by Jean-Paul Vinay and Jean Darbelnet. In their book, they

outline how one goes about translation through utilizing the various translation processes that

help facilitate the process of rendering an accurate translation. These processes are supplemented

with French and English examples, which prove useful to the analysis I will be doing on the two Fieger 10

translations of Indiana. With the translation processes clearly defined in terms of French to

English translation, I will hopefully be able to apply those same processes as part of my analysis.

Before explicating how the previously discussed translation theories apply to this 19th century French literary work, one must first understand the specifics of how a translation is attained. In other words, how one goes about translating a word, phrase or text from the source language, or the SL, to the TL (Vinay and Darbelnet 11). One must take signs11, which are

defined as “utterances […] that originate from the vocabulary and are modified by the grammar,

the intonation, etc. that together give the utterance a global meaning12” from the SL and transfer

them as accurately as possible to the TL (Vinay and Darbelnet 12). Not only do the grammar,

syntax, and language nuances of the TL affect the way a message is conveyed, but other “modes

of expression”, such as “the involuntary disclosure of the speakers’ social status, their characters

and their mood of the moment” also play an important role (Vinay and Darbelnet 12). The

situation, or “the reality evoked by words” gives a much-needed context to the particular

utterance that is being translated (Vinay and Darbelnet 12). These elements combine to attempt

to create an accurate translation from the SL to the TL. According to Vinay and Darbelnet, it is

important to note that the most important part of a translation is to convey meaning to a general

audience; thus, the translator must take the general public’s understanding of the language as

more important than their own.

There are several translation processes that are utilized by translators communicate this

important element of meaning to their audience as accurately as possible. Firstly, it is the

translator’s job to decide which method of translation they will be employing: either “direct, or

11 It is important to note that signs have two parts; the conceptual part, which can be referred to as “its signified” and part that relates to linguistics, called the “signifier” (Vinay and Darbelnet 12). 12 This global meaning can be referred to as the “message”. This “message” is also “the reason for the utterance”. Fieger 11

literal translation and oblique translation13” (Vinay and Darbelnet 31). In most cases, this choice will be heavily influenced by “parallel categories…. [or] parallel concepts” that may or may not exists between the SL and the TL (Vinay and Darbelnet 31). There may be instances when a particular concept in the SL simply does not exist in the TL. A translator will then have to improvise, selecting a translation method that most accurately communicates the original meaning.

I. Direct Translation

If a direct translation will suffice, there are three different methods that translators can use: borrowing, calque, and literal translation. While convenient and often employed at the lexical level, direct translation has a tendency to be awkward and fails to account for nuances in a language when applied to translating whole phrases and paragraphs. For example, earlier forms of machine translation often literally translated words and phrases from one language to another, resulting in unusual constructs and a lack of awareness for the multi-faceted nature of word meaning and grammatical structure (Kotz 594).

i. Borrowing

Borrowing, which is considered “the simplest of all translation methods” (Vinay and

Darbelnet 31) is quite straightforward in its meaning: a word from the SL is used in its exact form and has the same meaning in the TL. Both French and English use borrowing either as a way to compensate for a lexical gap, or as a result of globalization, with foreign terms becoming more well-known across the globe. An example of a Modern English word that the French

13 An “oblique translation” can be defined as “the property of translation which is heavily dependent on the procedures of modulation, equivalence, and adaptation.” Therefore, it is considered the opposite of a literal translation, and tends to be more abstract in nature. Fieger 12

language has adopted would be “shopping”14. Likewise, the English language has adopted a plethora of French words; one such example that comes to mind is “blasé”, as it is often used in

English to mean “unimpressed”. Borrowing is especially common between French and English and is often employed today. A close linguistic history between the two languages following the

Norman Conquest of 1066 exists as French was once viewed as “a representation of ‘chivalrous society in its most polished form” (Roth 255) and was synonymous with sophistication and the upper class. This can possibly explain the ease with which the two languages attempt to close lexical gaps through borrowing. Although the usage of French in England was eventually discontinued, many elements of the , such as “derivational morphology” (Roth

257), are very much still prominent in the English vocabulary.

ii. Calque

Calque is defined as “a special kind of borrowing whereby a language borrows an expression form of another, but then translates literally each of its elements” (Vinay and

Darbelnet 32). A calque is very similar to borrowing but differs slightly in the way that a concept is formed in the TL. There are two different results that stem from this translation method: a

“lexical calque”, or “a calque which respects the syntactic structure of the TL” and a “structural calque”, or a calque that “introduces a new construction into the language” (Vinay and Darbelnet

32). An example of a structural calque would be “le marriage est une association à cinquante- cinquante”15 while an example of a lexical calque would be “compliments de la saison”16 (Vinay and Darbelnet 32).

14 It is important to note that these terms are not used in Quebecois; one would say “magasiner” in Canada instead of “faire du shopping”, an expression commonly used in France. 15 This calque, borrowed from English, translates to “Matrimony is a fifty-fifty association”. This is rather an awkward construction, and it is obvious that the origin of this expression is not French. 16 The construction of this particular phrase follows the syntactic structure already present in French. “Compliments of the season” (Translator’s note). Fieger 13

iii. Literal Translation

In an ideal world, words and phrases in the SL possess exact equivalents in the TL and can be translated word for word17. These literal translations, such as the phrase “where are you?” in English and its French equivalent “où êtes-vous?”, are rather uncommon when examining

French and English translation. Therefore, “if literal translations arise between French and

English, it is because common metalinguistic concepts also reveal physical coexistence, i.e. periods of bilingualism, with the conscious or unconscious which attaches to a certain intellectual or political prestige, and such like” (Vinay and Darbelnet 34). If the speaker is bilingual, there will be a higher probability that literal translation will appear in their speech and can be translated directly.

II. Oblique Translation

When a direct translation cannot be employed, either for semantic or syntactical reasons, translators must use oblique translation in order to transfer the message from the SL to the TL.

Vinay and Darbelnet give five different instances where a literal translation would not fit. In these cases, an oblique translation would be required. If the word, phrase, or text either “gives another meaning, has no meaning, is structurally impossible, does not have a corresponding expression within the metalinguistic experience within the TL, or has a corresponding expression, but not within the same register” (Vinay and Darbelnet 34-35), an oblique translation is most fitting. A translator must take care that the message, including the instance in which it is found, is transferred completely from the SL to the TL. Therefore, it is imperative that in the case of oblique translation, the entire concept that is being translated must be examined in its entirety.

17 Vinay and Darbelnet note that the occurrence of literal translations happens most often when both the SL and the TL are in the same language family, or “share the same culture” (Vinay and Darbelnet 34). Fieger 14

There are four different oblique translation methods: transposition, modulation,

equivalence, and adaptation. Each process can be used to aid the translator in transferring more

conceptual words and phrases from the SL to the TL. These processes are selected on a case by

case basis, and there are instances where only one process can be applied, or all of the processes

can be utilized in just one phrase in order to successfully convey meaning into the TL.

i. Transposition

Transposition is a process that “involves replacing one word class with another without

changing the meaning of the message” (Vinay and Darbelnet 36). However, there are two

different kinds of transposition, obligatory (a type of transposition that must be used because the

TL requires a particular construct) or optional (which is dependent on the style of the translator

and not necessarily the rules of the TL). Transposition is a type of translation process that

includes different ways of expressing the same concept; it possesses a quality of

interchangeability. The French phrase “le secteur étatisé de l’industrie” translated to the English

“the state-controlled sector of industry” (Armstrong 181) would be an example of obligatory

transposition because grammatically, a literal translation is not possible. To contrast obligatory

transposition with the optional one, there are instances in which a translator will chose to change

the class of the word for aesthetic purposes, such as in the case of “avant son arrivée” being

translated as “before she arrives”. In French, this concept is expressed most commonly using the

nominal form, while in English, on would use the verbal form in most cases.

ii. Modulation

Another oblique translation process, modulation, can be defined as “a variation of the form of the message, obtained by a change in the point of view” (Vinay and Darbelnet 36). It is favored over transposition when the new message translated from the SL does not follow the Fieger 15

grammar of the TL in a fluid way and is therefore considered cumbersome. Similar to

transposition, there is an optional form as well as an obligatory form. However, in this case, the

choice between the two types of modulation is dependent upon the translator’s knowledge of the

TL. The choice to use obligatory modulation is generally supported by “the frequency of use, the

overall acceptance, and the confirmation provided by a dictionary or grammar of the preferred

expression” (Vinay and Darbelnet 37). Additionally, obligatory modulation is generally the more

official form of modulation, as optional modulation tends to be based on “single instances [that

are] not yet fixed and sanctioned by usage”18 (Vinay and Darbelnet 37). For example, the

sentence “Albert Camus a trouvé la mort dans un accident de voiture”, translated into English as

“Albert Camus lost his life in a car accident”, would be considered obligatory modulation, due to

the fact the English translation of this sentence constitutes the accepted equivalent. However,

with Vinay and Darbelnet’s example of the English phrase “it is not difficult to show…” being

translated into French as “il est facile de démontrer”19, it is important to note that the translator can either use the negative or positive version of this clause. Therefore, because of the flexibility present in this translation, it would be considered optional modulation (Vinay and Darbelnet 37).

iii. Equivalence

The third oblique translation process that can be utilized is equivalence; an expression

that has an equivalent in the TL. However, equivalence constitutes a translation that incorporates

the full meaning of the utterance from the SL but differs in both its structure and style when

translated to the TL. Onomatopoeias and idiomatic expressions such as proverbs are most often

18 A translator must take great care when using optional modulation as it “does not actually become fixed until it is referred to in dictionaries and grammars and is regularly taught” (Vinay and Darbelnet 37). The utilization of optional or free modulation that has not been previously approved would be considered an incorrect translation. 19 “Il n’est pas difficile de démontrer” is also an acceptable translation which does not employ modulation. Fieger 16

translated using equivalence20. Because these are so intertwined with the culture in which they originate, they cannot be directly translated and also possess the same meaning. Thus, equivalents in the target language must be created. Using this particular instance, the equivalent of “like a bull in a china shop” in French would be “comme un chien dans un jeu de quilles”

(Vinay and Darbelnet 38), which when translated literally, has no cultural significance to native

English speakers.

iv. Adaptation

The final and most problematic method of oblique translation is referred to as adaptation.

This particular method of translation is used “in those cases where the type of situation being referred to by the SL message is unknown in the TL culture” (Vinay and Darbelnet 39).

Adaptation can be defined as a certain type of equivalence, one that is entirely dependent upon the situation that surrounds the word or phrase once it has been translated. The translation of titles, both of movies and literary works, most often employs adaptation. This is primarily due to the fact that many of these titles contain cultural references that simply do not exist in the TL.

For example, the movie title “Trois hommes et un couffin” is translated into English using this type of “situational equivalence”; although the title can be translated literally as “Three Men and a Bassinet”, the more appropriate title in English would be “Three Men and a Baby”, as it ultimately adapts the most effectively to capture English-speaking audiences.

Chapter Three: Lexical Analysis of Indiana

Introduction

In this analysis, I will be examining and subsequently comparing two separate translations of the same 19th century work by George Sand. In order to conduct my research, I

20 Equivalence is most often preferred when a calque will not suffice. Fieger 17

have decided to analyze two translations which have a significant amount of time between their

dates of publication. I have selected a translation published in 1900 by George Burnham Ives, 68

years after the novel’s original publication. The second translation is that of Sylvia Raphael,

published in 1994. This translation is one of the more recent renderings, published 162 years

after the original publication and 94 years following Burnham Ives’ rendition. I will analyze the translations of certain lexical elements while also comparing and explaining the lexical differences that are found between those translations; in particular, general distinctions in word choice, equivalence in idiomatic expressions, the usage of borrowings, communication of visual cues and conveying feeling words. These elements all support the presence of lacuna in a work which has multiple translations. With this analysis, I hope to identify and explain in-depth the lacunæ present in the English translations of Indiana and account for any differences between them with the application of translation processes to form my argument. In conclusion, I will determine if untranslatability is overcome by each respective translator.

Note on the Editions

Although Raphael explicitly states that she has based her 1994 translation off the 1856 edition by Hetzel, it is not stated which edition Burnham Ives chose to follow for his translation.

However, in the article entitled “Teaching Indiana in English”, it is noted that the translation by

Ives is based off the editions released in 1852 (Massardier-Kenney 144). Based on the literature that exists on the matter, I can conclude with confidence that the French version of Indiana that I will be using, published in 1861, does not contain differences that would severely affect my lexical analysis and comparison of the translations.

I. Equivalence and Borrowing: Cultural References and Idiomatic Expressions

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i. Cultural References

Borrowings, defined earlier, are a phenomenon which appears throughout the course of

Indiana. Many of these borrowings21 involve cultural concepts and referents which, one could argue, are extremely difficult to translate. The translators examined in this analysis use primarily

three different approaches to rendering cultural references: borrowing, equivalence and

adaptation. It can be noted that Burnham Ives employs borrowing more often than Raphael. In

doing so, two problems present themselves: the first is that by using the borrowed term from

French, and without including an index of foreign words, Burnham is assuming that his audience

understands the cultural significance of the foreign words used. While Raphael’s approach is

more inclusive towards her readership, in either the adaptation of the terms or using a definition-

based approach, I argue that some qualities of the original French word that are lost in the

lacuna. A selection of words falling into this category will be examined based on the depth that is

lost in translation.

1. Soubrette

OF22: « […] elle ne fut plus qu’une femme de chambre et la femme de chambre d’une jolie

femme, ce qui donne toujours à la soubrette l’air d’un pis-aller. » (20).

T1: “[…] she was nothing more than a maid and a maid in the service of a pretty woman- a

circumstance that always makes a soubrette seem like a make-shift” (30)

T2: “[…] she was no more than a lady’s maid, and a pretty woman’s maid, which always

makes the serving-girl seem a second best” (38)

21 These borrowings could be considered “foreign vocabulary” which “comprise[s] all the forms, all the functions and all the senses of lexical items which at a given time make up the foreignisms in a language” or are part of the “zone flue” which includes “the items that have been produced and enjoy some currency in a language, but have not yet become an entity of the lexicon, i.e. they have not yet been recorded in the dictionary” (Schultz 2). 22 OF indicates the Original French word or phrase. Subsequently, T1 signifies Translation One (Burnham Ives) while T2 indicates Translation Two (by Sylvia Raphael). Fieger 19

The origins of soubrette, in this sense, can be traced to the 17th century. The term refers to a , or a character that exhibits one or multiple stereotypes, in comedy theater. One of the most well-known examples of a soubrette appears in La Tartuffe, a comedy written by

Molière. Through the character Dorine, we observe the cultural and theatrical implications of this specific kind of French woman (Ostrorog 52); a coy servant girl that is a member of the working class. Given these socio-historical and artistic implications, soubrette is then applied to ’s character; she personifies many of the stereotypes (mischievous and sexually mysterious) that come with the term. Not only does the term carry characteristics which are unique to this type of woman, but also alludes to the rigid class structure that existed in the microcosm of Indiana and

in French society as a whole.

Burnham Ives’ translation of soubrette uses the borrowed French word. One could argue two

points with this choice. Firstly, that he keeps the cultural reference and diminutive aspect23 but

appeals to a different audience, one that is aware of the said cultural reference. Additionally, in

using the borrowing, Burnham Ives is able to also maintain the characterization included within

the term. To contrast this, the translation by Raphael employs a more definition-based

translation, in which she attempts to use adaptation24 to render an accurate translation of

soubrette. While a translation of the term is more appealing to the general audience, it loses the

dimension of “a saucy, coquettish, and intriguing”25 servant girl, and, as mentioned above, the

domain in which it is found in 19th century French society (“Soubrette”). This term is more of a generalization26, as it describes more generally the term “serving-girl” rather than using the more

23 The diminutive aspect to which I am referring is ‘ette’, which is added as a term of endearment or to signify age of the person being referred to. 24 Used in the linguistic sense. See page 15 for definition. 25 All definitions that support the English translations used in this analysis come from the American Heritage Dictionary. 26 Generalization is the case in which a wider extension applies to a word used (Vinay and Darbelnet 59). Fieger 20

technical or borrowed term (Vinay and Darbelnet 62). Thus, the unique characterization of this

specific type of servant is lost in the lacuna observed in the Raphael rendering.

2. Grisette

OF: « Pour lui une grisette n’était pas une femme et Noun, à la faveur d’une beauté de

premier ordre, l’avait surpris dans un jour de laisser-aller populaire » (21)

T1 : “In his eyes a grisette was not a woman, and Noun, by virtue of a beauty of the first order, had taken him by surprise on a day of popular merrymaking” (31)

T2 : “For him, a working-girl was not a woman, and Noun, thanks to her perfect beauty, had

taken him by surprise on a day when he was letting himself go with village people” (38)

In a similar manner to the previously mentioned example, the term grisette is a unique

French cultural reference that is translated using two approaches by each respective translator: borrowing and equivalence. Raymon has fallen for the lady’s maid and childhood friend of

Indiana, Noun. He is struck by her beauty and seductive nature but, given the difference in their social class, a sexual relationship between them would be frowned upon. For this reason,

Raymon proceeds to internally rationalize his feelings that may lead him to a “lower class love affair” (Raphael 38). It is in this way that he comes to find excuses for his behavior in his upbringing, while demeaning Noun by calling her a grisette, which conveys the following type:

She took that name [grisette] from the cheap grey cloth once associated with her…as a young

worker living away from home, on her own, a female who had evidently cut herself loose

from family ties….one might describe her as a type, the sexually available working class girl,

but her name as it was popularly understood would be better translated into contemporary

English by idiomatic terms such as “good-time girl” or “party girl”, which suggests one who

is notoriously “easy”. (Cottom 74) Fieger 21

It is in this way that the usage of the word in the thoughts of Raymon is intended to place Noun into a category, albeit one that does not shed a favorable light upon her. This context coupled with the French definition27, permits us to observe that there is a societal aspect included in the word; a grisette not only indicates a working-class girl, but also one that is sexually promiscuous and occupies a unique class in French society28. With Burnham Ives’ choice to employ the borrowed term, he captures the insulting nature of grisette, which Raymon was attempting to place upon Noun. In other words, the borrowed term provides a multifaceted portrayal of the person in question, and the socio-historical context in which she is found. However, no index is provided to define the word or explain its meaning in the context of the novel. It is therefore assumed that the reader understands the historical and cultural context of this word. This lack of clarification could result in another type of lacuna, one that is related to reaching too specific of an audience. This in turn may exclude a more general readership; that which is not familiar with the French language nor its culture during the 19th century.

To contrast this translation, that of Raphael is more accessible to the general audience, as she uses a more definition-based translation. However, this equivalence presents lacuna, in that her rendering of grisette loses the insulting quality and the cultural connection that is implied along with it. ‘Working girl’ is merely her function and is arguably not as powerful as grisette.

Although ‘working-girl’ insinuates the social class that she occupies (which is inevitably lower than Raymon’s own class), it does not imply that Noun is considered loose in the eyes of

Raymon, nor the degree of poverty in which this type of person lives. I would argue that the usage of ‘grisette’ in Burnham Ives text implies a type of poverty that is one step above that

27 All French definitions come from the Larousse Dictionary. 28 “[Grisettes] separate themselves from their poor parents when they are eighteen years old, rent their private room, and live there just as they like- a privilege that the daughter of the comfortable bourgeois does not have” (qtd. in Cottom 75). Fieger 22

which one would generally associate with the working class; a grisette, in effect, “was

customarily distinguished from the lorette, or kept woman”29 and therefore was in “a category apart from the other classes” (Cottom 75). With the rendering of ‘working-girl’, we situate this

type of person into one broad category, thus making us unaware of the multifaceted

characterization of this type of woman.

3. Culotte de peau

OF: « Si vous avez servi, vous connaissez parfaitement ce que les soldats appellent culotte

de peau, et vous avouerez que le nombre en est grand parmi les débris des vieilles cohortes

impériales » (Sand 63).

T1: “If you have served in the army, you are familiar with what the troops call skin-breeches,

and will agree that there are large numbers of them among the remains of the old imperial

cohorts” (97)

T2 : “If you have been a serving soldier, you are perfectly familiar with what soldiers call a

Colonel Blimp, and you will admit that there are a lot of them amongst the remnants of the old

Imperial cohorts.” (88)

The translation of this word rendered by Burnham Ives denotes a type of calque to achieve a

translation. The term, ‘skin-breeches’ (97), defined as “short pants covering the hips and thighs

and fitting snugly at the lower edges at or just below the knee” (“Breeches”), indicates in a

literal manner a type of soldier that would wear these type of pants, popular from the 17th century

all the way through the 19th century. The various elements of the expression pose interesting

questions that deal with the particularization of the English language in this instance. The French

29 A lorette, unlike a grisette, was considered in the 19th century as a stereotypically and sexually illicit woman characterized by “her animality, her uncouthness, her stupidity, her lack of manners, and her boisterousness” (Sullivan 252). Fieger 23

peau has two distinct particularizations in English: skin, in reference to a human, and hide,

referencing the skin of animals. It is interesting to note that while “skin” indicates the material,

the word peau represents a more general extension, as the English language distinguishes

between “skin” and “hide”(Vinay and Darbelnet 59). We do not observe the same phenomenon

in French; peau is used to denote both ‘skin’ and ‘hide’.

Moreover, we observe a type of modulation30 with this kind of borrowing. Burnham Ives elects to use a more literal translation to specify the garments that this type of person wears.

Contrasting this, Raphael creates a type of characterization, with which she captures the full notion of who Colonel Delamare is as a character. Thus, the perspective is shifted, from the type of garment denoting the person wearing them in the first translation, to the type of these pants being absorbed into the characterization of a “Colonel Blimp”. This term, based on a British caricature created in 1934, presents a discrepancy in the available English equivalents for culotte de peau (Streicher 3). Given that Burnham Ives rendered his translation in 1900, the arguably more fitting translations was not in existence and thus not at his disposal. Therefore, with this particular instance, we become aware that the passage of time, and thus the , plays to the advantage of subsequent translations of a novel. In this way, the extent of lacuna can be mitigated through the development of language and expression.

In using the abovementioned cultural reference, Raphael maintains the characterization of the man that wears the garment; not only does it denote a type of clothing, but it also denotes a type of person, one that closer approximates the true colors of Delmare observed throughout the novel. As Raphael equates Delmare with this negative portrayal of “an elderly, pompous, short- sighted reactionary, esp. an army officer or government official” (“Colonel Blimp”), we observe

30 Refer to page 14 for definition of this translation process. Fieger 24

a negative connotation that is attached to his character, one that is not present in the rendering of

Burnham Ives. Thus, the negative aspect of the ‘Colonel Blimp’ caricature, the visual aspect, and certain specific details are all lost in the lexical gap.

4. Femmelette

OF: “Cela vous sied femmelette!” (137)

T1: “It would look well on you, hussy!” (206)

T2: “It would look well on you, a silly weak woman!” (176)

We are aware of the ways that both Burnham Ives and Raphael attempt to close some of the lexical gaps that exist with this cultural concept in their choice to reference previously mentioned context in their translation. According to the French definition31, femmelette, in using the diminutive, denotes a type of women that is of weak character (“Femmelette”). Raphael keeps the element of weakness in utilizing transposition, as she expands the term of femmelette into three separate words; two , ‘silly’ and ‘weak’, that characterize this type of person, the

‘woman’. I would argue that this “lengthening out” of femmelette through transposition diminishes the strength of the insult that appears in the original text.

Likewise, it can be argued that ‘hussy’ communicates a different meaning than the original

French, as well as Raphael’s translation. This word, which is defined as “a saucy or impudent

girl” or “a woman considered to be brazen or promiscuous”, carries a more sexually deviant

connotation, one that is not present in the SL (“Hussy”). However, the polemic meaning of the

word ‘hussy’ not only includes this sexual element but guards the strength of the insult. One-

word insults are arguably more forceful and effective in communicating disgust, anger, or any

31 Actual definition by Larousse: “petite femme; femme faible”; “small woman; weak woman” (My Translation) Fieger 25

other negative emotion intended for the recipient. It is in this way that Burnham Ives succeeds in

transferring this forcefulness from the SL to the TL.

Burnham Ives’ translation of femmelette as ‘hussy’ demonstrates a lacuna that is sexual in nature in comparison with Raphael’s rendering. In using this particular word, he seems to use the surrounding textual context to arrive at the word ‘hussy’. In the conversation between Colonel

Delmare and Indiana which proceeds femmelette, we can ascertain that Colonel Delamare has his suspicions regarding Indiana’s whereabouts (sexual and otherwise) as he asks: “will you condescend to inform me, madam,’ he said, ‘where you passed the morning and perhaps the night?” (Burnham Ives 206). These suspicions are confirmed by this statement and reinforced in the choice to use ‘hussy’ in reference to Indiana and her perceived immoral character. Raphael, on the other hand, seemingly renders her translation in examining the word in itself, and not applying the sexual undertones implied by Delmare to her translation of femmelette. While both translators transfer the demeaning quality of Delmare’s remark, the color of each instance differs.

5. Pastiche

OF : « À côté de cette œuvre de raillerie historique, elle avait écrit le mot pastiche » (175)

T1: “Beside that work of historical raillery she had written the word copy” (267)

T2: “Beside this work of historical mockery, she had written the word pastiche” (222)

With the usage of the word pastiche, a satirical meaning presents itself. Pastiche, or “a

dramatic, artistic, literary, or musical piece openly imitating the previous works of other artists”

(“Pastiche”), is in its most obvious form. The author, painter, poet or creator intended,

from the outset, that his or her audience is aware of that they are copying the work of another Fieger 26

person32. Although satire dominates, the goal is to revere the original creator; it is in this way

that a pastiche differs from a . In Burnham Ives’ rendering of the word, we are presented

again with a textual lacuna. His translation is interesting due to the fact that instead of Burnham

Ives using the borrowed term as he typically does, he renders it using a synonymous term which

actually appears at the beginning of the passage. Raphael uses the actual word that the artist

wrote on the painting: pastiche. In using ‘pastiche’, Raphael captures the almost mocking nature

of the piece of art; the girl starts with simply painting, but eventually arrives to creating a

pastiche. Ives decides to translate the term to appeal to the language of his audience, but in doing

so lacuna results, as ‘pastiche’ conveys an element of reverence that ‘copy’ does not insinuate.

Raphael more accurately renders this translation, in the literal way (as the young woman actually

wrote ‘pastiche’ rather than ‘copy’ on her finished work). In doing so, Raphael departs from her

typical style which utilizes borrowings very sparingly.

6. Bourgeoisement

OF: « Insensiblement, cet excellent homme, encouragé par l’intérêt que Raymon accordait à

ses confidences, le mit bourgeoisement, dès la première entrevue, dans le secret de toutes ses

affaires. » (177)

T1: “Encouraged by the interest with which Raymon listened to his confidences, the

excellent man, in true bourgeois fashion, gradually confided all his business affairs to him.”

(269)

T2: “Little by little, the excellent man, encouraged by Raymon’s interest in his confidences,

let him unpretentiously into the secret of all his affairs”. (224)

32 An example of this would be Alice Through the Needle’s Eye by Gilbert Adair, a spin-off of Lewis Carroll’s Alice Through the Looking Glass (Somers and Tweedie 407). Fieger 27

One would argue that both translations capture certain elements included in the meaning

of the expression “bourgeoisement”, but in quite different ways. Stemming from the word

bourgeoisie33, this adverbial form which describes a complex social class that played a crucial

role during the 19th century, the era in which Indiana is situated. We can ascertain that the

translation by Burnham Ives uses a term which is quite specific to French culture during this time

period. In an era defined by class, the bourgeoisie status not only defined a place within the

social hierarchy, but also a set of behavioral characteristics and values unique to this group. The

following provides an example of a person that would occupy this class of people:

In his [Jean-Baptiste Monfalcon] own life, he perfectly exemplified the nineteenth-

century French bourgeoisie as recent historiography has helped us understand it. The son

of a Lyon silkweaver [sic] who had risen to the status of a small-scale merchant and

property-owner, Monfalcon had attended medical school. (Popkin 823)

It is therefore evident that the bourgeoisie consists of self-made wealth that is rather

considerable. Thus, in this context, bourgeois34 represents a particular type, of which M. Hubert, the adoptive father of Raymon’s future wife, is an example. The associated cultural meaning should be considered with the instance in which the word is found; a conversation occurs between Raymon and M. Hubert. The latter is obviously a member of the bourgeoisie, due to his status as “the owner of a considerable capital” (Raphael 224); he is in the process of looking for a suitable candidate to become the new owner of his property and husband to his daughter. As he is impressed by Raymon and thus feels they are on the same social level, bourgeoisement is used to indicate a type of cultural equality.

33 Nominal form. 34 Adjectival form. Fieger 28

Given the dynamic nature of the word bourgeoisement, Burnham Ives and Raphael approach its translation in different manners. Burnham Ives, on the one hand, transposes the term into the adjectival form of the borrowing (bourgeois). Subsequently, he reinforces the qualities that M. Hubert exhibits which confirm his status as a member of the bourgeoisie. It is in this way that he saves some of the original meaning.

Raphael, however, is referencing a unique quality of this person that may or may not be due to his status as a bourgeois man; ‘unpretentiously’ transcends social constraints set by the

‘bourgeois’ status. It is likely that ‘unpretentiously’ reflects that M. Hubert involves Raymon in his affairs without any kind of reservation. While Raphael takes a word, which has little significance outside the sphere of French culture and renders it more “accessible” to her readership, her translation removes the societal context in which Raymon and M. Hubert occupy together. Additionally, bourgeoisment in the modern context has negative connotations, and it could be for this reason that she elected not to use this word. However, this causes the socio- historical meaning of bourgeoisement to be lost in translation.

ii. Idiomatic Expressions

1. Il saisit […] l’occasion aux cheveux

OF : « Il saisit, comme on dit, l’occasion aux cheveux, et, s’emparant d’une main qu’il trouva sèche et froide » (72)

T1: “He seized the opportunity by the hair, as the saying is, and, taking possession of a hand which felt cold and dry in his, he replied” (109)

T2: “He took the bull by the horns, as they say, and grasping a hand that he thought cold and lifeless, he said” (98) Fieger 29

With the Burnham Ives idiomatic equivalent, we become aware of a general tendency on his part to use literal translations when confronted with idiomatic expressions, while Raphael searches for equivalents in the TL that communicate a near equal meaning to the expression in the SL. According to the expression provided by Burnham Ives, he translates the term literally with a more archaic equivalence35. Additionally, I would argue that using a type of calque with this translation, a lacuna presents itself not only with the degree of severity (i.e. ‘difficult’) but also the manner with which the action is dealt.

With Raphael’s rendering of the phrase, we are presented with an example of equivalence; the in the SL is translated into the TL with cultural significance, while also maintaining most of the meaning of the original utterance. This translation renders directness and severity of the action; in other words, a type of forcefulness. However, in both translations, another lacuna presents itself: one that denotes the intensity and speed observed in the original phrase. With the original French expression, we are aware that the meaning indicates not only a type of directness and take charge approach, but also punctual aspect36 (“la saisir avec empressement”37). This

quickness is not present in either of the expressions.

2. Il la tutoyait

OF : « …lorsqu’il parlait à voix basse à Indiana, il la tutoyait, et il fut sur le point de prendre

la réserve que l’usage imposait à sir Ralph en d’autres moments pour la prudence d’un amant

heureux » (75)

35 The expression in French has its origins in Greco-Roman mythology; Caerus (or Occasio in ), the son of Zeus and god of opportunity, chance, and favorable circumstances, “was portrayed as a youth with a bald head and a single lock of hair on his forehead (which means that opportunity must be grasped as it approaches)” (“Caerus”). 36 “The punctual aspect is the opposite of the durative [aspect]…it marks actions whose duration cannot be extended, i.e. which finish as soon as they are started” (Vinay and Darbelnet 75). 37 “to seize [it] quickly” (My Translation) Fieger 30

T1: “…when Sir Ralph spoke to Indiana in an undertone, he used the more familiar form of address, and he was on the verge of mistaking the reserve which customs imposed upon Sir

Ralph at other times, for the precaution of a favored lover” (114-115)

T2: “…when Ralph spoke quietly to Indiana, he said ‘tu’, and Raymon nearly took the

reserve which convention imposed on Ralph at other times for the prudence of a happy lover”

(102)

Tutoyer, meaning “user de la deuxième personne du singulier pour s’adresser à quelqu’un par

opposition à vouvoyer”38, is a that is entirely dependent on the distinction of the formal

vous versus informal tu in French (“Tutoyer”). This language, like other , distinguishes between scenarios in which it is appropriate to use either tu or vous. Tu is usually reserved for interactions among friends, family, or those that are younger than the speaker. Vous, however, is most often preferred in professional situations, in addressing an older person or when the person is unknown to the speaker. Even the translation found in Larousse presents the many ways that one can attempt to close the lacuna that exists when translating this verb. The

dictionary’s English definition, “to use the familiar ‘tu’ form with” communicates something

quite different in the example which accompanies it, “she’s on first-name terms with her teacher”

(“Tutoyer”). While the former defines the term, the latter seeks to find an equivalent in the TL.

Both translators use the translation process of adaptation, but in unique ways. The translation

by Burnham Ives uses a definition of the term to help the reader explain the way in which Ralph

speaks to Indiana: it communicates that he is on the same level socially as her. Moreover, the

definition based translation indicates an element of closeness between these two characters as a

result of their shared upbringing. On the other hand, Raphael also uses adaptation, as she finds a

38 “to use the second person singular to address someone as opposed to using the formal form of address (vous)” (My Translation) Fieger 31 way in which to translate a concept unknown to English-speaking culture and the language itself.

However, in using this particular construct that borrows a foreign word to help facilitate adaptation, she is assuming that the reader is familiar not only with the meaning of the word ‘tu’, but also the social and grammatical implications of the verb. It is in this way that through the multiple translations of this particular verb, we can observe cultural and linguistic lacunæ in both

Burnham Ives and Raphael’s translations.

3. A la mode

OF : « tout ce qu’elle désirait, c’était de mettre sa nièce à la mode dans le monde » (125)

T1: “…all that she desired was to have her niece à la mode in society” (188)

T2: “…all she wanted was that her niece should be in the forefront of society” (161)

As à la mode is considered part of the English lexicon, the borrowing of this term by

Burnham Ives would be considered a borrowing not just on the part of the translator, but also on the part of the English language in general. Meaning “according to or in style or fashion”, the expression indicates that the person conforms with the societal norms, usually referring to aristocracy (“À la mode”). The meaning in French is near equal to that of English; thus, the borrowing process has not caused lacuna. I would argue that Raphael’s translation, which does not use the borrowed term, creates an intensification in degree. With Burnham Ives’ translation, he conveys the idea that Indiana is classified as part of the group.

However, Raphael’s translation of the same phrase, which does not employ the borrowing, presents a spatial term (‘forefront’) that set her apart from the rest of the women in society. The phrase appears in a context in which Mme de Carvajal, the featherbrained sister of M de Carvajal

(Indiana’s father), views the scandalous gossip about the affair between Raymon and Indiana to be a favorable event. She believes that Raymon pining away for her niece will somehow make Fieger 32

Indiana a more desirable match. Based on this background, we can ascertain that when Mme de

Carvajal indicates that she would wish Indiana to be “à la mode dans le monde” (Sand 161), she

means that her niece would be set apart. If this is the case, the translation rendered by Raphael

arguably fits the context more accurately.

4. En goûtant les délices d’un amour vrai

OF : « il me semble que, si l’exaltation et l’ardeur de nos sentiments nous abusent au point de croire que c’est là de l’amour dans toute puissance, nous apprenons plus tard, en goûtant les délices d’un amour vrai, combien nous nous en étions imposé à nous-mêmes » (167)

T1: “…It seems to me that, although the excitement and ardor of our sentiments abuse us to the point of believing that that is love in all its power, we learn later, when we taste the delights of a true love, how entirely we deceived ourselves” (254)

T2: “It seems to me, too, that if the exaltation and fervour [sic] of our feelings deceive us to

such an extent as to make us believe that that is love in all its power, we learn later when we

experience the joys of a real love, how much we deceived ourselves” (211)

We are again confronted with Burnham Ives’ tendency to translating idiomatic expressions and visual imagery found in Indiana literally. This idiom appears in the context of the narrator reflecting on the “true love” for Raymon that Indiana thought consumed her. In his rendering,

Burnham Ives uses the literal sense of both goûter and délices to create a near equal expression using “lexical calque”39. In using this process, the translator is able to convey the gustatory imagery that is evoked by the word goûter, which is one of the five senses. The translation, ‘to taste, to savor, to enjoy’ all reflect a more internal connotation; that the person is internally experiencing something happening within them. Likewise, délice also contributes to this notion

39 See page 12 for definition. Fieger 33

of a full and internal sensory experience. Thus, love is like a sweet fruit that one merely savors in

the moment but is gone in an instant, with nothing but the memory of it. This temporal aspect

and imagery are not only important due to the fact that they guard meaning included in the

original text, but also communicate a sort of romanticized view of love relationships between the

characters in the novel.

Raphael on the other hand, uses a different approach when translating the imagery, thus

creating a lacuna between her translation and the original French text to convey the concept in

the TL. The sensory aspect found in Burnham Ives translation, which evokes the sense of taste, is

absent in Raphael’s translation. The word ‘experience’ does not necessarily relate to taste as does goûter. It is therefore a more general term which Raphael equates with a particular type of experience; a sensory one. Love is equated with an “experience”, something that may be long or short. In using ‘experience’, Raphael equates the feeling of love with something that has the possibility to last. The duration of an experience, at least in this instance, is not explicit in the text. With Burnham Ives’ translation, we can ascertain that ‘taste’ insinuates brevity; this is not the case with ‘experience’.

5. Ivre de bonheur

OF : « Ivre de bonheur, elle courut, légère et animée d’une vie nouvelle, s’installer dans un hôtel garni » (180)

T1: “Drunk with joy, she hastened, light of heart and instinct with new life, to take apartments in a furnished house…” (275)

T2: “Beside herself with happiness, light-hearted and filled with new life, she took a room in a hotel without delay…” (229) Fieger 34

In accordance with the abovementioned observations, Burnham Ives’ rendering of ivre de

bonheur is consistent with the claim that he employs the literal sense of the word ivre to convey

a certain quality of imagery of the figurative nature of drunk (Vinay and Darbelnet 63).

According to the definition of ‘drunk’, we are aware that the term can communicate either a

literal meaning, as “intoxicated with alcoholic liquor to the point of impairment of physical and

mental faculties” or a more figurative one of “overcome by strong feeling or emotion”

(“Drunk”). Therefore, with the first translation, there is an object to object relationship between

‘intoxication’ and ‘joy’, that both affect the subject as if they were inebriated. In other words, joy acts as a metaphorical substance which intoxicates Indiana, as would an alcoholic beverage. To contrast this, Raphael’s translation employs a more figurative sense of the word ivre. The object to object relationship is between a state of being, ‘beside oneself’, and an emotion, ‘happiness’

(229); happiness does not act in the same figurative way as ‘joy’ does. Burnham Ives decision to use ‘drunk’ is both more literal and powerful; it renders the person into a state of complete ecstasy. I argue that this change in interaction observed between the two translations and the original French text is an example of lacuna.

II. Translating sentiments and emotions

There is no doubt that emotional depth plays an enormous role throughout the tumultuous lives of all the characters of Sand’s Indiana. For example, we are captivated by the elaborate professions of love on the part of Ralph and the cries of despair following the death of Indiana’s beloved Noun with rich detail. However, the translation of those deep emotions felt by the characters from French into English poses and interesting question: how are such profound feelings captured in their most unaltered form and render a near equal response from the TL audience? An emotion, often so specific to the language in which it is expressed, falls victim to Fieger 35

the loss of affective depth that occurs through translation. According to Catherine Lutz, one must

seek “to translate emotional communications from one idiom, context, language, or

sociohistorical mode of understanding into another” (Lutz 8). In Indiana, three particular

emotions/sentiments present discrepancies when translated into English and between

translations: la rêverie, le chagrin, and l’ennui. With these words, I would argue that lacuna is

very much evident, as the English translations of these concepts attempt in distinct ways to

capture the full depth of these sentiments that is conveyed in the original text.

i. Le rêve and other derivations

From the start of the novel, we are presented with difficult situations of affective words that

the translators must attempt to accurately transfer from the SL to the TL. The story opens with a

description of Indiana, Colonel Delmare and Ralph; the way in which the translators account for the translation of such an emotive word as [trois personnes] rêveuses is interesting to note (2).

These three people are sitting quietly, but the manner of their expression, I would argue, is captured in different ways by each respective translator. On the one hand, Burnham Ives elects to use the more all-inclusive and emotionally charged equivalent of “three pensive individuals

[that] were gravely occupied in watching the wood burn” (3), thus communicating a sort of sadness, profound depth and loftiness shared among the three characters. He keeps the adjectival form that is present in the original French text. Raphael, meanwhile, uses “lost in thought” to mean rêveuses, which communicates a state of being rather than a shared characteristic.

Moreover, she chooses to employ optional transposition by taking the conventional noun construction and rendering it using a past to describe their action of sitting in the room as well as their overall demeanor in that moment in time. Fieger 36

Given additional information on ‘pensive’40, we can ascertain that ‘dreamy’ would be an

appropriate synonym of this word when it appears in another context. When describing Indiana,

Burnham Ives’ translation of [cette femme] rêveuse [et triste] (10) for ‘dreamy’ not only captures

the whimsical aspect the original French word contains but also reinforces its full meaning in

pairing the adjective with “dreamy and melancholy creature” (14). Raphael, however, uses

‘pensive’ in her translation, which I would argue is more all-encompassing. This is due to the

fact that ‘pensive’ also indicates a chimerical element as well as the mournful one. In this particular instance, Raphael’s translation doubly reminds the reader of the sad nature of this woman; ‘pensive’ followed by ‘sad’ (24) together reinforce a melancholic quality included in rêveuse.

We observe another occasion in which this sentiment is translated in different ways. These differences ultimately result in lacuna. In the original French text41, the word rêveur is translated with two “synonyms” in both translations: ‘pensive’ and ‘withdrawn’. The synonyms, although appearing to be interchangeable, still represent lacuna in the slight difference between them.

Through the word choice on the part of Burnham Ives and Raphael, the adjectives chosen communicate different nuances and thus evoke slightly different meanings. “Pensive”, as mentioned previously, delineates a reason why the person is preoccupied, as they are currently deliberating and reflecting on serious and/or sad matters which require one to separate themselves from others. Raphael’s rendering of Sand’s words as “his character became gloomy and withdrawn” (109), on the other hand, indicates distance from his family and traumatic childhood. I would argue that the nuances included in ‘withdrawn’ more accurately reflect the

40 “Pensive often connotes a wistful, dreamy, or sad quality” 41 « Alors, tout enfant qu’il était, son caractère devint sombre et rêveur, un invincible timidité paralysa toutes ses facultés » (Sand 81) Fieger 37

context that surrounds the word. ‘Withdrawn’ indicates the particular quality of Ralph’s

personality that not only reflects his state of being, but also his tendency to be melancholic,

distant, and any other characteristic that one can associate with ‘withdrawn’. Additionally, this

characteristic indicates a sort of breakdown of one’s personality; unlike ‘pensive’, ‘withdrawn’

carries a more permanent connotation. One can often escape the state of being ‘pensive’ but not

so with ‘withdrawn’.

To continue the idea of figuratively separating one’s mind from the world through deep

thought, Burnham Ives’ translation of the word rêveur, “his character became gloomy and pensive” (123), also indicates a metaphorical space that the person’s actions and demeanor have created. ‘Pensive’ doesn’t necessarily convey that the person has separated his or herself

physically in any way. Thus, ‘pensive’ and ‘withdrawn’ take on different semantical senses,

which results in lacuna.

Rêve, translated as a “dream” or “ideal”, communicates a rather lofty and whimsical sense. In is in this context that we observe yet another example of the discrepancies that arise from rendering this particular word into English. Ralph, the cousin of Indiana, finds himself musing about the future given his troubled past. It is in one of these scenarios that we find two different translations of rêve42. Raphael uses this more widely used translation of ‘dream’. However, the translation provided by Burnham Ives, ‘visionary scheme’, translates this same term in a much different manner. In using equivalence, he renders a translation that uses an adjective,

“visionary”, to capture the notion of the dream (that which is likely unattainable and contained within the fantasies of the thinker) and pairs it with the word “scheme”, which has a more negative connotation which “dream” does not often evoke. With scheme meaning, “a systematic

42 Original French: « Ralph allait donc toujours soutenant son rêve de république d’où il voulait exclure tous les abus, tous les préjugés, toutes les injustices… » (Sand 88). Fieger 38

plan of action” or “A plan, [especially] a secret or devious one; a plot”, the adjective attached to this word renders any plans that may be harmful or destructive as useless (“Scheme”). However,

“dream”, unlike “scheme” lacks any sort of linear quality that may come with carrying out a plan. Burnham Ives choice to use ‘scheme’ could be a reference to the subsequent mention of a

“projet fondé tout entire sur l’espoir d’une nouvelle race d’hommes”43 (Sand 88); he in fact translates projet as scheme, which is more fitting than the translation for rêve. In other words, a dream might not necessarily indicate any sort of plan of action so to speak, where as a scheme carries the understanding that there is some kind of plan behind a vision for future events. In reference to the context in which this instance of rêve appears, we can ascertain that Ralph indeed had a ‘dream’ rather than a ‘visionary scheme’. The narrator juxtaposes Ralph’s progressive and unrealistic ideals that are part of this dream with Raymon’s more sound and traditional ones. Ralph “wanted to banish all abuses, all prejudices, all injustices…the hope of a new race of men” (Raphael 117), which is sadly impossible. The context doesn’t seem to suggest that therein lies any type of plan that will ever be put into action.

ii. Chagrine44

In the English translations of Indiana, we find one instance in which the translation of chagrine45 differs between Burnham Ives and Raphael, and in this difference, lacuna presents

itself. In the description of Indiana’s father, M. de Carvajal, one can observe a difference in

43 Burnham Ives translation: a scheme founded entirely upon the hope of a new race of men. (133-134); Raphael translation: “a plan based in its entirety on the hope of a new race of men” (117). 44 The adjective chagrin in this instance ends in an ‘e’ due to the fact that the noun which it describes, humeur, is feminine. 45 Meaning “qui éprouve du déplaisir, de la tristesse: qui manifeste ce sentiment” or “qui est porté au mécontentement, à la mélancolie” (“who experiences displeasure, sadness; who manifests this feeling” or “who is inclined towards unhappiness, towards melancholy”) (My translation). Fieger 39

describing his demeanor, which poses an interesting loss of meaning46. With the Burnham Ives translation, we are made aware that “his [M. de Carvajal’s] daughter [Indiana] suffered keenly from his detestable humor”, with chagrine being translated as ‘detestable’ (45). When we compare this rendering in the Raphael translation, “his daughter [Indiana] had suffered cruelly from is embittered temper” (51) a difference in perspective becomes evident with chagrine translated as ‘embittered’. With the translation of ‘detestable’, the statement of M de Carvajal being “the most disagreeable neighbor in the colonies” that proceeds the description of his humeur is reinforced (45). The adjective ‘detestable’, or “inspiring or deserving abhorrence or scorn”, reflects an external connotation; that his character is odious based on the opinions of others (“Detestable”). This translation can be supported by the English equivalent of the adjective provided by Larousse; the words ‘ill-tempered’ and ‘quarrelsome’ also reflect the involvement of others (“Chagrin”).

To contrast this, the adjective ‘embittered’ used by Raphael reflect an internal perspective; the loathsome characteristics of M de Carvajal’s temperament have internal origins.

‘Embittered’, in other words, comes entirely from M de Carvajal’s own sense of self and does not insinuate outside involvement. Therefore, the reader may be unaware of the way in which his temperament is characterized; is it frowned upon by society or is it inherently resentful? But

Raphael’s translation most accurately translates the word chagrine itself; chagrin is a feeling which has internal origins. Based on the previous context of the word, the Burnham Ives translation, ‘detestable’, most closely approximates the scenario in the novel. M. de Carvajal is portrayed as a character that is not only a hateful person, but above all is hated by all those

46 Original French : « M. de Carvajal, enivré de passions politiques, bourrelé de regrets ambitieux, était devenu aux colonies le planteur le plus rude et le voisin le plus fâcheux ; sa fille avait cruellement souffert de son humeur chagrine » (Sand 31). Fieger 40

around him. It is in this way that lacuna is present in Raphael’s translation as emotional depth

and the perspective of the noun is changed based on the difference in the rendering of the word

chagrine. This observed change in perspective is a type of modulation47; ‘embittered’ represents an internal perspective, while ‘detestable’ is placed on M. de Carvajal by an external one. It is through this change in perspective that we have a loss of meaning.

iii. Ennui

In order to analyze the variations in the translation of the word ‘ennui’ and thus the reasons why lacuna occurs, we must first understand the history of its usage in English, as well as the historical implications of its usage in a 19th century novel. Originally derived from the Latin idiomatic expression mihi in odi est, meaning “I hate or dislike”, it evolved into a verbal form used in Old French. During the 13th century, Middle English borrowed this verbal form and transformed it into the modern day word ‘annoy’ (“Ennui”). The Old French expression continued to evolve, which lead us to the word ‘ennui’, which is used today in French to mean a multitude of things, from chagrin to boredom or even trouble. However, this word was borrowed from French into English once again in the 18th century, in which case a single part of the word’s multifaceted meaning was used: boredom.

Moreover, this word represents an interesting phenomenon that characterized French society during the 19th century. Ennui, along with mélancolie and other romantic sentiments, classify the mal du siècle; “a profound spiritual crisis [that] indicates the misery and anguish of several generations [and] evokes the lyric as well as the sociological aspects of ” (Hoog and

Brombert 42). It is a type of suffering that stemmed from disenchantment and revolution; in effect, “ennui, taken in its broadest and most philosophical meaning […] was in part, the

47 See page 14 for definition. Fieger 41

sickness of the age” (Hoog and Brombert 46). Given that Indiana was published in 1832, ennui

arguably reflects not only boredom, melancholia, trouble and annoyance, but also the cultural

climate of the times. With this term, the complete Romantic soul in its state of disenchantment

and suffering is reflected. Therefore, I would argue that rendering ennui into an English

“equivalent” loses the rich cultural significance and some textual meaning. Thus, we observe a

lacuna.

To demonstrate this 19th century concept, we observe yet another instance where Burnham

Ives renders his translation using the borrowed term, while Raphael elects to use an adaptation.

As the despondent Indiana returns to her lodging upon discovering that her beloved Raymon has married another woman, she reflects on the way Paris interacts with the feelings she is experiencing. It is in this context that we observe ennui in its truest form; “ce bruit de rue, discord et incessant, que ne vous permet pas même de dormir pour échapper au chagrin ou à l’ennui”48 (Sand 184). Burnham Ives, in keeping the French term in his translation, completely captures the abovementioned “spiritual crisis” that Indiana is enduring. Indiana represents, in this situation, the romantic soul that has become disenchanted with her circumstances; thus, she fits the profile of the type of person that would experience ennui. With his translation, Burnham Ives effectively communicates this ideal through using a borrowing. On the other hand, when one looks at Raphael’s translation, the question is posed: how does the translation of ‘boredom’ by

Raphael even in part allude to the profound suffering Indiana is experiencing as a result of this discovery (that Raymon has chosen another woman to be his wife)? ‘Boredom’, an accepted

48 Burnham Ives translation: “the discordant, never-ending noise from the streets, which does not even allow you to sleep and thus escape grief or ennui” (281); Raphael translation: “the discordant, continuous noise from the street doesn’t even let you sleep to escape from grief or boredom” (234). Fieger 42

translation of ennui, only renders one single part of this multifaceted cultural concept. The rest,

which include melancholy and disenchantment, are lost as a result of her translation.

As previously discussed, we observe again the specification of the word ennui through the

translation of Raphael in contrast with the more general borrowed term found in the translation

by Ives. In using the borrowed term, Ives captures a multifaceted meaning of the word ‘ennui’;

which may include ‘discomfort’ and ‘melancholy’. Raphael, on the other hand, specifies the particular component of this emotionally-charged word.

III. Glance vs. Look: Regard and L’œil

With the rendering of visual cues, we observe that the differentiation that the translators make in the translation of regard shows a type of lacuna that is temporal in nature. In this analysis, I have chosen to focus on the variation in the choice to use ‘glance’ versus ‘look’. I would argue that they carry two distinct temporal connotations and that the transposition of expressions containing œil and regard, which use the nominal and adjectival forms, to the verbal/adverbial form demonstrate loss of meaning. Likewise, through the use of transposition, which we observe often with this particular word, the expression becomes an action and changes the overall visual connotation of the word.

We are presented with the issue described by Vinay and Darbelnet, in which regard and other visual expressions have many equivalents in English. The word regard has many possible translations: ‘look’, ‘glance’, ‘gaze’ and ‘expression’ to name a few. However, the number of word choices does not always guarantee a vast amount of options for the translator, as each specific word captures a different nuance. Typically, the word ‘regard’, which is used extensively throughout the novel, will have an adjective that modifies it, such as with the example regard de complaisance (Sand 4) or regard scrutateur (Sand 112), which will indicate Fieger 43

its appropriate meaning. However, in English, the abovementioned translations of regard often

are the result of transposing the elements found in the SL to render a more precise meaning in the

TL.

These differences in nuances can also be accounted for by applying transposition. In the

original French text, the regard is often modified by an adjective to distinguish this rather

general word in each specific context. When translated into English, the word is often transposed

to eliminate the adjectival form entirely but keeping the nominal form or changing the lexical

category all together. However, the usage of transposition is not used in a parallel manner

between translators, and in this difference, lacuna presents itself.

We can observe this change with the translation of un regard triste et passionné (Sand 83-

84), as both Burnham Ives and Raphael translate this phrase in distinct manners. Burnham Ives

renders the regard using the nominal form that is modified by adjectives: Indiana looks at

Raymon “with a sad but passionate glance” (127). The translation by Raphael utilizes transposition, as that ‘glance’ described as one entity becomes a verb, with Indiana “looking at him [Raymon] sadly but ardently” (112). Furthermore, we observe that, again, Raphael chooses

‘look’ over ‘glance’. The use of the verb which indicates that the expression of sadness and

passion can be deemed more intentional than that of Burnham Ives’ translation. Thus, in

Raphael’s translation, the transposition creates a lacuna, as the original text used the nominal

form that highlights the quality of the expression, which is communicated almost directly in the

translation by Burnham Ives.

Transposition is a current phenomenon in French to English translation; nominal forms from

the SL are transposed to verbal forms in the TL. Generally, French is more abstract; in using

and the results of an action we observe parallels between the language and culture. To Fieger 44

contrast this, those who speak English as their mother tongue tend to think in a more direct and

pragmatic manner. Thus, we see that using the verb is more in par with an English speaker’s

thought. In Burnham Ives and Raphael’s renderings, they are more apt to provide more concrete actions, such as ‘look’ or ‘glance’ as translations for the more abstract French expressions.

In general, Burnham Ives chooses to use the word “glance” as a translation for regard and

tends to avoid the usage of the word “look” all together, such as with the example “attentive and

interested smiles”49 (Burnham Ives 33). Raphael, on the other hand, translates this particular word most often with the English “look”. There lies an aspect of speed in which the regard is performed by the character in question; generally, ‘glance’ is considered more rapid and clandestine than a ‘look’. A ‘glance’, defined as “a brief or cursory look” can communicate a less purposeful action than a ‘look’; one may glance at something by mistake. With this word, the

punctual aspect is emphasized, which we do not find as apparent with “look”. A look is deemed

more often than not as intentional. Additionally, the synonym ‘expression’ that is often

associated with ‘look’ indicates that regard, when translated to ‘look’, more closely means the

overall expression of the person to whom it is referring. ‘Glance’ lacks this physical aspects; the

term references the action and not the physical aspect of someone’s demeanor. In other words,

one would use the term ‘look’ as an equivalent of ‘expression’ rather than ‘glance’. These

differences in translation demonstrate clearly a lacuna: the quality that determines the durative

aspect is lost in Raphael’s translation.

Furthermore, there are many occasions in which the difference in the temporal quality of

glance and that of look affects the general meaning and interpretation of this situation. Indiana,

49 This is the translation for the phrase « Raymon l’aimait, et il avait raison ; il y était recherché, il y plaisait ; et, pour lui, cette foule de masques indifférents ou railleurs avait des regards d’attention et des sourires d’intérêt » (Sand 22). Fieger 45

in her letter to Raymon, expresses the profound distress she feels towards him as she writes “un seul mot, un seul regard de vous ont banni à jamais toute confiance, tout espoir de mon âme”50

(Sand 147). In the English translations, we observe the temporal distinction once again, as

Burnham Ives elects to use ‘glance’ while Raphael chooses ‘look’ for her rendering. The lacuna results from this difference; is it the severity (that Indiana can feel such profound emotion with a brief stare) or the duration that takes precedence?

As for other visual cues, we are presented with many instances in which expressions and emotions are conveyed through metaphors using the eyes. These metaphors are translated in different manners from the SL to the TL, and the discrepancies that we observe between them result in visual and affective depth being lost. I have chosen to focus on one area that denotes this lacuna: the usage of transposition on the part of Raphael that in turn eliminates the “eye” imagery. For example, Raphael translates the phrase “nous verrons d’un œil ravi” (190) as “we shall delight in seeing” (242), thus rendering a double transposition (chassé-croisé or interchange) the semantical element of the phrase to use a verbal form (“[to] delight”) to indicate “d’un œil ravi”. To contrast this, Burnham Ives keeps the imagery found in the TL; in his translation, “d’un œil ravi” becomes “with delighted eyes” (291).

Likewise, with the phrase “qu’il les dévora d’un œil jaloux et furieux” (164) is rendered by

Burnham Ives using the abovementioned parallel imagery: “and devoured them with a jealous, frenzied eye” (248). Raphael instead turns the adjectival forms, jaloux and furieux, which describe the œil into a two part nominal and adjectival, “with furious jealousy” (207), thus

50 The English translations of this phrase by Burnham Ives and Raphael in their entirety are “a single word, a single glance from you banished all confidence and all hope from my heart forever” (220) and “one single word, one single look from you, banished for ever [sic] all trust, all hope, from my heart” (188) respectively.

Fieger 46

eliminating the visual imagery present in the SL and the first translation. In accordance with the

abovementioned theory, œil represents the abstract way in which actions are expressed in French.

It is in this way that the abstraction is replaced with a more pragmatic expression in the Raphael

translation. In those same instances, we find that Burnham Ives approaches the SL with a more

literal translation, as he transfers the “eye” directly instead of using transposition. This choice to

use ‘eye’ in place of transposing the word or phrase captures the full sense of the imagery found

in the TL and, I would argue, creates a type of lacuna in Raphael’s translation.

Conclusion

Throughout the course of this lexical analysis, lacunæ have presented themselves in a plethora of ways; whether that be with imagery, cultural significance or characterization.

Burnham Ives and Raphael’s translations not only demonstrate the different approaches to rendering a translation such as this, but also the desired outcome. The words I have chosen to analyze could contain lacuna, in part, due to the fact that they lie at the very core of the romantic period during the 19th century. Ennui, rêve, and many of the others not only signify words, but in

fact cultural phenomena during this era. Thus, how is a translation of these terms even possible

for a readership in the 20th and 21st century? The many examples of lacuna present throughout

Indiana arguably add up as a whole to the notion of untranslatability; in other words, untranslatability exists in the novel due in part to the translation of cultural terms and 19th century sentiments for which we have no equivalent in English. We see particularly with

Burnham Ives’ usage of borrowings and the way in which Raphael employs definition based translations, equivalences and adaptations to communicate meaning not only in the word itself, but also in highlighting the text that surrounds it. The two translators oscillate between accurate renderings and those which don’t fit quite as well. As Burnham Ives and Raphael attempt to Fieger 47 close this cultural gap, we are presented with two different novels: one which appeals to the

French speaker and the romantic reader and the other which is more approachable than romantic.

It can be maintained that Burnham Ives, through his use of substantives and less common idiomatic phrasing, reflects a more abstract French thought. Raphael, meanwhile, creates a more pragmatic novel; one which demonstrates the concrete thought of an English speaker. I am led to the conclusion that the readership is very much present in the translator’s mind as they render each respective version, but further research is required in order to ascertain the impact that this consideration has on the translations.

Fieger 48

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