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IN THE NAME OFALLAH, THE MOSTBENEFICENT, THE MOSTMERCIFUL IMPACTS OF ENGLISH CRITICISM ON PUNJABI CRITICISM 1947-2005 (An analytical and critical study) (Session 2003-2004) (Thesis Ph.D Punjabi)

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SUBMITTED BY

NAHEED QADIR Lecturer, Govt. Islamia College for women, Faisalabad

SUPERVISOR

Dr. NAHEED ZAMAN KHAN Associate Prof. Department of Punjabi,

PUNJABI DEPARTMENT PUNJAB UNIVERSITY ORIENTAL COLLEGE LAHORE 2010 IMPACTS OF ENGLISH CRITICISM ON PUNJABI CRITICISM 1947-2005 (An analytical and critical study) (Session 2003-2004) (Thesis Ph.D Punjabi)

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Thesis submitted in partial fulfillment for the requirement of degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Punjabi, from Punjabi Department, in the University of the Punjab, for the year 2003 - 2004 SUBMITTED BY NAHEED QADIR Lecturer, Govt. Islamia College for women, Faisalabad

SUPERVISOR Dr. NAHEED ZAMAN KHAN Associate Prof. Department of Punjabi.

PUNJABI DEPARTMENT PUNJAB UNIVERSITY, ORIENTAL COLLEGE LAHORE 2010 Permission has been granted by the University of the Punjab, reference No. I/735-ACAD, Dated. 15.02.2010 Declaration

I hereby declare that this thesis is a result of my individual research andIhave not submitted this thesis concurrently to any other University for any degree whatsoever.I

NAHEED QADIR TOMYPARENTS WHO TAUGHTME TO CAREANDREASON AND TO TAYYABA FATIMA WHO PUTITALL TOGETHER AND MORE Contents Title Page No.

Preface i-iv Chapter 1 Literary criticism: an over view 1. Introduction 1 2. Criticism and literature 4 3. Critical theory 7 4. types of literary criticism 9 o Legislative criticism o Judicial criticism o Theoretical criticism o Evaluative criticism o Historical criticism o Biographical criticism o Comparative criticism o Descriptive criticism o Impressionistic criticism o Textual criticism o Psychological criticism o Sociological and Marxist Criticism o Archetypal criticism 5. Function / objectives of criticism / how 14 criticism acts 6. Essential principals of literary criticism 19 7. criticism and psychology 22 8. Image in poetry 26 9. Qualifications of a critic 27 10. References 32 Chapter 2 35 Important critical theories from Plato to present 35 o Moral criticism 43 o Formalism/New criticism 46 o Structuralism 53 o Post-structuralism 58 o Psychoanalytic criticism 64 o Marxist criticism 69 o Reader response/reader 74 oriented criticism o Feminist criticism 78 o Post modernism 82 o Post colonial criticism 83 References 87 Chapter 3 93 Urdu Criticism 1- Language and cultural evolution in sub-continent 93 i. The Dravidians and other invaders from 94 5000BC to 712ao and their impacts ii. The impacts of ‘Mughals’ on local 95 language and culture iii. The East India Company and 96 imperialism in India iv. Impacts of British rule on Urdu Language 98 and Literature in the Sub-Continent 2- The contribution of Sir Sayed Ahmad Khan and 102 impacts of other Movements on Urdu Literature and Criticism 3- Hali and Azad’s contribution towards Urdu 105 Literary Criticism 4- Twentieth Century and impacts of English 108 Literary Movements on Urdu Literature and Criticism References 122 Chapter 4 Punjabi criticism 126 Parti 126 History of the Punjab in literary perspective 126 1. Different Religious as well as literary movements 127 in Punjabi literature 2. The role of in vaders specially Mughal's 131 3. East India company and its socio-cultural impacts 135 on Punjab Part 2 138 Punjabi criticism after partition 138 • Early criticism in the form of ‘memoirs' 140 • Najam Hussain Sayed 147 170 * Sharif Kunjahi • Hussain Shahid 172 174 • Arif Abdullah Mateen 176 • Dr. Aslam Rana 178 • Dr. Shahbaz Malik 179 • Dr. Sarfraz Hussain Qazi 179 Dr. Ismat ullah Zahid • 183 Zafar Lashari 184 Prof. Syed Masood Hussain 185 Azra Waqar • Dr. Nabila Umer 186 • Prof. Samiultah Qureshi 188 • Dr. Dilshad Tiwana 190 References 192 Conclusion 198 Bibliography 210

\ PREFACE

Surely, it is by the grace of bountiful Allah Almighty that I see my

self at the threshold of an achievement. My life dream is going to be

materialized, I am grateful to Him. It was no doubt an uphill task, to

justify the topic and consolidate my thoughts in the form of thesis. It

was sheer grace of Almighty Altah that criticism has always enamoured

me. It has been my joy when I was doing my masters and now, in Ph D

it has been a goal ambitiously sought for. I first became conscious of

the impacts of English criticism on Punjabi criticism while reading

certain Punjabi critics. Then I deliberately opted for the topic as no

research has been done in this respect.

I have tried to trace the impacts of English criticism on Punjabi

criticism from 1947-2005. I specially tried to convey my point of view in

a simple and lucid language, so to be understandable and accessible

to the upcoming researchers and common readers. I have divided my

thesis into four chapters.

Chapter one Literary criticism: an over view’, deals with the

meaning of literary criticism, relationship between criticism and

literature, theory of criticism and its various types that have further led

to different critical discussions and theories and a brief lay out of the

qualities of a critic. Unless and until we get aware of the distinction

between creative art and critical art, I feel we cannot fully grasp the

\ point. Critic is a person of acute and sharp sensibilities; his requisite

qualities and caliber are also discussed in this chapter. ii

The second chapter. 'Important critical theories from Plato to present1 highlights the development of various thoughts and theories regarding literary criticism. After discussing the critical thoughts of the pioneers of criticism (Greek, Roman and English), and along with that also dilating upon the critical discussions initiated by them, I have described briefly the most important critical trends. I have focused my attention to those alone that were the most influential in respect of their impacts, first on Urdu and then on Punjabi criticism.

Chapter three, Urdu Criticism’ is devoted to a bird’s eye view of

Urdu criticism. Here again my concern is not the history of Urdu criticism but powerful impacts of English criticism on Urdu and later on

Punjabi criticism. The chapter highlights the literary developments in the region starting from the Dravidians, moving along the coming of

Muslim invaders, MughaEs and the British to the subcontinent. Certain movements of colonial and post colonial period and their impacts on literature and then on criticism have been discussed. The contribution of Sir Syed Ahmad khan and impact of other movements on Urdu literature and criticism along with the impact of English literary movements on Urdu literature and criticism have been discussed in this chapter to understand the impacts of English criticism on Punjabi criticism in a comprehensive manner. ! have overlooked the chronological order and might have left some detail but only which seemed irrelevant to my topic. iii

Chapter four, the most important and the crux of the thesis, is about Punjabi criticism, Part one denotes to history of the Punjab in literary perspective- Here I have started with a brief introduction of

Punjabi language and literature and then certain important movements of the period that influenced Punjabi literature and criticism. In Part two,

\ have discussed the biographical memoirs as these are the earliest forms of criticism. Though the critical thoughts found here are quite scattered but important as seeds of later fully bloomed criticism. Here I have to consider the chronological order as wefl. But the chronological order of the critics is according to the publishing year of their books. later, one by one 1 have dilated upon the critical works of different critics to bring to surface the hidden elements of English criticism. It is a sort of review and criticism of criticism.

1 have given my results in the conclusion,

I am deeply thankful to my supervisor Dr. Naheed Zaman Khan, the guiding star, who always encouraged me, guided me, advised me, and extended full support and co-operation that helped me to accomplish the task. My special thanks and regards to Dr Ismat ultah

Zahid, Chairman Department of Punjabi Language and Literature, for

the kindness that I always find in plenty. He always inspired me, Dr.

Nabila Rehman deserves my special love as she off and on honoured

me with her honest and knowledgeable piece of advice. To admit it

honestly, when I was doing masters it was Prof. Khalid Humayon who

nourished and developed my critical mind and thoughts, iv

1 need not to thank my affectionate friends. Prof. Razia Sajjad,

Prof. Fouzia Sehar Malik (herself a Ph.D scholar). Prof, Nusrat

Perveen and Prof. Tayyaba Fatima, who were always at my beck and call, always curious to guide me and loving enough to pray for me.

Accomplishment of this study was made possible by bounteous contribution of my loving friend Tayyaba Fatima. She gave me encouragement and co-operation on every step.

My father, Ch. Ghulam Qadir (Late), my mother Razia Ghulam

Qadir always encouraged and prayed for my success, my brothers Ch.

Farooq Ahmad. Engr. Altaf Qadir and Ch. Ehsan Qadir boost up the little efforts l made in this respect. Especially my brother Engr. Altaf

Qadir is a ministering angel who contributed a lot to the peace of my mind needed to accomplish my work. My sisters Prof. Rakhshanda

Akhtar, Mrs. Samina Qadir and Mrs. Riffat Qadir contributed a lot in the form of prayers.

My bosom friend and sister in law Prof. Shazia Ahmad is really a helping hand to me. She relaxed me completely and freed my mind from household entanglements. But for her abundant love and care I could not have done it I am grateful to her and pray for her well being.

My special word of thank to the family of my dear friend Tayyaba

Fatima, especially her father Ch. Mukhtar Ahmad, her mother Mrs.

Najma Mukhtar and her beloved daughter Kanza Fatima for their love,

prayers and kindness, V

Lastly I feel myself bound to thank librarian Punjabi Deptt. Dr.

Ijsz Ahmad (Deputy Chief Librarian) and Mr. Liaqat Ali, Mr Tahir ui

Islam (Steno Grapher) and Mr. Sudheer There are many others who have contributed with their silent efforts \ acknowledge their co¬ operation also.

My heartiest thanks to them alt, I cannot repay them but always pray for their health, happiness and prosperity.

Naheed Qadir

16.09.2010 Chapter 1

it 1

Chapter 1

Literary Criticism: an Overview

1. Introduction

Literary criticism is simply the attempt to explain a literary work.

It’s a multi dimensional task of which the critic has to extract the

original meaning of literary work as well as he has to give more right

place to that piece of art. The word criticism is derived from the Greek

word 'kritikos' which means able to discern and decide. It is art of

discerning merits and demerits and deciding about the true worth of a

piece if art. It is to pronounce right judgment upon the merit of literary

work, It aims at not only extracting the beauty, but an art of

establishment as well as application of principles. It is a creative activity and a pure work of genius to sift grain from chaff, to distinguish merit

from demerit. It is an explanation of the reasons behind the creation, elucidation of the impacts of age. personality and society interpretation of the beauty, and evaluation of the truth. It is a sort of assessment that

facilitates the understanding of the reader and broadens his vision of literature.

“Literary criticism is the study, discussion,

1,1 evaluation, and interpretation of literature. 2

It is an art of answering different questions about the work of

literature such as what the writer has tried to express. How much real

his approach is? Is it worth expressing?

"Discipline concerned with philosophical,

descriptive, and evaluative inquiries about

literature, including what fiterature is, what it

does, and what it is worth".*

Criticism varies from critic to critic according to his genius, We may have varied opinions on a single piece of literature. Sometimes a critic analysis the work under discussion in the backdrop of age, personality of writer, and sometimes he only traces the hidden beauty and truth according to his own idiosyncrasies. Sometimes he appreciates the work as in itself, keeping himself aloof from it, and sometimes it is a personalized attempt to judge a work and communicate the effect produced upon the critic.

D.H. Rawlinson quoted a paragraph of D.H. Lawrence written in an essay on Galsworthy,

"Criticism can never be a science: it is in the first

place „ much too personal, and in the second, it is

concerned with values that science ignores. The

touchstone is emotion, not reason. We judge a

work of art by its effect on sincere and vital

emotion, and nothing elese. All the critical twiddle- J

twaddle about style and form, all this pseudo¬

scientific classifying and analysing of books in an

imitation -botanical fashion, is mere impertinence

and mostly dull jargon.,, “3

It is science as it is investigation and formation of judgment according to certain set pattern and intellectual standards. It is an art because it involves free play of emotions and Imagination. Whether It Is art or science it is a written appraisal of a work of literature and the well-versed exploration and assessment of literature.

“The art or science of literary criticism is devoted

to the comparison and analysis, to the

interpretation and evaluation of works of literature".4

It is the process of passing judgment and explaining the nature of a work of literary art. literary criticism is the estimation of absolute literary values, and a work of art is too complex to be measured, soT a critic should insist on the free play of his own genius and should not be tied up by any critical method.

According to Northrop Frye:

“By criticism I mean the whole work of scholarship

and taste concerned with literature which Is a part

of what is variously called liberal education, 4

culture, or the study of the humanities, I start from

the principle that criticism is not simply a part of

this larger activity, but an essential part of it".6

2. Criticism and literature

Literary criticism existed for as long as literature.

Kalimuddin Ahmad said:

"Criticism may be as inevitable as breathing".6

Criticism is bom when the first man tries to satisfy the queries

about literature, when his instinctive preference changes into conscious option. ‘Criticism begins when a man becomes aware of, that it would clear his idea to say a thing this way, rather than that, as soon as a man becomes aware of that he likes this object better than that. This is as much as to say that, criticism begins when literature begins.

Criticism is about the questioning and answering about literature. And criticism is distinct from literature.

Socrates was the first person to differentiate the ability to criticize literature from the ability to compose it. as each requires a different genius. To compose literature, one should be capable of enthusiasm or inspiration and to analyze literature rationally one needed definite intellectual principles and a different bent of mind,

Socrates invited poets to explain their own poetic thought but they were 5

unable to do so. On the other hand poet admirers were fertile enough

to express the poetic thought of those poems. Socrates 'Apology’ is

important reference in the history of criticism because here he

distinguished criticism from literature.

There are certain views asserting that creative effort is superior to critical effort. Or the power to compose literature is greater than the power to analyze it. Even Wordsworth holds the critical power low than the inventive. To him the time consumed in writing criticism should be better utilized in composing something original.

But what about those genius who evaluate that literary work. who have the potential to exercise their creative power and capacity of strong communication skills to evaluating the original text and then give true judgment on that piece of art. Mathew Arnold admits that:

“The critical power is of lower rank then the creative".7

He accepts that the free exercise of the creative power is the goal and true happiness of a man. But it is not necessary that exercise of free creative activity may get its full play only in producing literature.

A man may find exercise of creative power in activities other than literature. Creative power needs certain material as it cannot work alone, just as a plant needs good soil, water, air and sunlight all to grow well. Creative power requires certain elements to work with and in literature particularly it requires true ideas and suitable atmosphere that nourishes it. An artist has to observe life keenly and minutely to get

material for producing a great work, and then he has to sefect the

relevant material by rejecting the irrelevant- Because ali jumble of

experience cannot be the basis of a great work. This process is a

critical activity. Whereas every genius is a bom critic of art, how can we

exclude criticism from the sphere of creation? Rene Wellek quoted

Oscar Wilde:

"Criticism is itself an art which need not bother

wilh a standard of resemblance. Criticism is

creation within a creation," a

An artist gets its raw material from life directly and a critic also finds his subject indirectly from life, it is reconstruction that is also creation. Like a creative artist he can also color his critique on other man’s work with his own vision of life, perception of life and his experience of life. He is free to extract the hidden meaning by using his creative powers and ingenuity. He is also promised to have a full play of imagination and emotion, free play of mind and faculty of curiosity.

Therefore creative activity is not denied to criticism,

Criticism is the essential part of literature. The critic goes to that spiritual atmosphere, from where the writer takes the beautiful ideas and critic always discovers the original person who is behind the text by evaluating his work. 6 7

“Criticism is purely subjective. Criticism treats the

work of art simply as a starting point for a new creation." B

So in this way criticism is not a lesser rank creative work but it is logical, and metaphorical also.

3. Critical theory

It's a form of hermeneutics; a knowledge which is interpreted in

literary text and symbolic expressions or in images, symbolic

expressions and it includes the interpretation of the literary text. It is the

understanding of literature in the light of truth.

literary criticism should not be considered a separate field of

inquiry from literary theory because it is a practical application of

literary theory, as criticism always deals directly with a literary work.

Different writers made different opinions about literary criticism.

Criticism, as we know, we can’t make a true definition in two

lines because it has been differently approached by critics. We can

define it with its usage, its principles, its theory and with the

comparison of works of art. Some times we apply one theory on any

literary work and extract the original thought but most of the times we

feel that there need much to identify the original thought. So we apply

other theories on that piece of art and then extract results, and these - results could be more inevitable, as described in Gay lay's book: 8

‘These may be drawn from the usage of speech

and writing, or framed in accordance with some

theory; or, the two methods may be combined,

one being used to correct and verify the other. In

what follows we shall first consider popular usage

of the term, then call attention to Its theoretical aspects".10

Criticism is often considered as a fault finding process, but it is

more than a process of praise than censure. It is the process of passing judgment upon any piece of art with a purpose to satisfy the curiosity of reader and to enhance the understanding and transmit the beauty.

So it Is a conscious effort with a lofty purpose to learn and propagate that can be achieved by comparison.

Gayley quoted Mr. Godkin:

“All genuine criticism consists in comparison 11 between two ways of doing something."

it is the business of the philosopher to discover new ideas, but it is the business of the critic to evaluate the literary work according to the theory of criticism (set pattern/rules), exercise the imagination and emotion for the better/true judgment. It is necessary to see the object one who as itself it really is. A critic is a man with acute sensibility, but 9

imagines and writes a piece of art called writer, whose imagination power is too strong.

Now we may go to the right approach, how the literary criticism

works. Which theories are the basis of criticism and how the critics

follow these theories to evaluate any piece of art?

4. Types of literary Criticism

Literary criticism is the art of judging literature. Every critic to pronounce his judgment approaches literature differently and adopts different methods to record his response. That's why we come across different types of criticism. This classification is simply to enhance the systematic understanding of literary judgments.

•Legislative criticism

The earliest attempts to criticize literature fall in this head,

Earlier critics tried to teach and guide the writers. They directed their remarks to poets rather than to readers. They instructed them how to write and how to write better. It was practiced by the Elizabethans, remained dominant till Dryden registered a change in 17* century.

•Judicial criticism

It seeks to pass judgment on works of literature on the basis of certain rules wrongly derived from the Greek and Latin philosophers, 1U

especially Aristotle and Horace. Works were not judged according to

their merits but on the basis of their adherence to classical rules. If a

work found short of the standard, it was condemned and appreciated

as good only when adhered to rules already set. In classical era it

remained dominant especially Dr. Johnson, a powerful advocate of this

criticism, criticized poets in their works in the spirit of a hanging judge,

pronouncing judgment.

•Theoretical criticism

ft is concerned with literary aesthetics. Literature is evaluated in general not particular on the basis of literary theory. That is buitt up by dilating upon basic principles of beauty and process of creation. It took its inception in Sidney’s apology for poetry. Later Dryden in 17* century gave it eminence. It got its apex in 18th century and came to end in

Coleridge’s “Biographia Literarea”.

•Evaluative Criticism

It deals with the estimation of the worth of a work of art. A critic evaluates it on subjective standards either aesthetic, moral, social or personal. So a reader is likely to have varied opinion on one particular piece of literature. For example, T.S.EIiot judges on the basis of moral and ethical standards. 1J

•Historical criticism

Judges a work of art In the back drop of its age. It gives prime

importance to the social conditions, because socio-economic, political,

religious, conditions do influence on writer and subsequently his work

can be best appreciated in the background of the age in which it was

written.

Shakespeare's dramas can be best assessed evaluated with the

knowledge of social and political life of the day. The only draw back of historical criticism is that a critic sometime tends to forget the very existence of the work.

•Biographical criticism

As the name implies it gives importance to author's life to evaluate his work. His family background, his kith and kin, his own character, idiosyncrasies, all are studied in detail and the knowledge is used to explain his work. Like historical criticism it may suffer from the same danger of over indulgence with biography. It may divert his attention from the main objective. T.S.EIiot's theory of impersonality stresses the same point.

•Comparative criticism

A literary work is evaluated by comparing it with other works of similar nature. It may be compared with that of foreign language. It \2t2

requires a critic to have a thorough knowledge of literature in many

languages, to enable him to compare and contrast. Mathew Arnold

wants a critic to propagate the best that is known and that has been

thought in any language at any age. A critic should be mindful of the

fact that comparison should be between relevant works.

• Descriptive criticism

It consists of self justification. Sometimes writers analyze their own work with a view to defend it or explain the forces working behind it. It analyzes the aims, methods and effects of existing literary work.

Dryden has defended in his prefaces; his essay on Dramatic Poesy is an example of descriptive criticism.

•Impressionistic criticism

It records an individual’s response and impression he gathers from any work of art. It gives priority not to principles or criteria but to personal impressions. It narrates the adventures of an ingenious and educated mind in contact with master pieces. A critic does not pronounce judgment but simply conveys the enjoyment that he gets from the literature. Waiter peter and other English aesthetes are impressionistic critic. Too much stress on personal impressions may make the criticism faulty. Therefore T.S.Eliot and other neo classics rightfully advocated adherence to rules and regulations. u

•Textual criticism

It one is of the most important modem approaches to atticism. A

textual, formalistic or ontological critic the first concern is the object as

in itself without any other consideration of biography, history, sociology

or psychology etc. for judgment a critic depends on the structure and contents of literature.

•Psychological criticism

Psychological researches of Freud, Jung and Bergson provided new interpretations of literature and dig out hidden meanings. A critic is now better placed to study the interior life if the writer, to reveal the unconscious self and the hidden motives and then consequently get an exact interpretation of art. He can give meaning to fictitious characters; can explain the inexplicable complex actions and reactions of characters. I. A. Richards is a powerful exponent of this type of criticism.

•Sociological and Marxist criticism

It evaluates a work of art with reference to the social milieu of its author, because art cannot be produced in vacuum. Literature and society are reciprocal; literature is the cause of social effects as well as the effect of social causes. Sociological critic examines a work of art in its social context and studies its social effects. Marxist criticism is its 14

specialized branch. It examines a work of literature in the background of Marxist interpretation of social forces,

•Archetypal criticism

It is branch of psychological criticism, which deals with the unconscious not of the writer or his imaged characters but of human race. It is also called Totemic, mythological or ritualistic criticism. A critic tries to discover the underlying mythological patterns. It is based on Freud theory of 'Collective consciousness' that civilized man retains pre historical knowledge that he has flourished in primitive myths. In this way it somewhat explains the appeal of mythical stories even in this scientific age. T.S.EIiot and others make mythicat patterns and critics examine such literature to discover it.

5. Function/ Objects of Criticism/ how criticism acts

-Highest criticism is the expression of the personal

impression of an exceptionally gifted and sensitive

individual; it is a record of his aesthetic pleasure

and response to a work of art and it stimulates and

encourages the reader, and helps them to

12 understand literature.”

Literary criticism is an interpretive process used to weigh the social value of a written idea. 15

1- Criticat reviews can assist you personally by supporting

points you may make in your own literary interpretation,

Referencing another legitimate literary review often

enhances the quality of your reading of a text.

2- Literary critics may sometimes challenge the ideas values of

literature.

3- Empathy is a necessary tool when criticizing a text. When

reading another critics textual interpretation that conflicts with

your own values. You experience the reading through

someone else's perspective and hence have the opportunity

to increase your own tolerance for differing ideas.

4- Published authors and poets work as literary critics some

professors also publish extensively in the field of literary

criticism, typically focusing on one area of expertise.

5- An understanding of historical literary criticism may also

provide insight on past cultures. Readers often assume that

what's true today was true in the past, but certain forms of

literary criticism place writings in their proper context,

Literary criticism is a tool for interpreting literature. Literary criticism provides the writers with the tools for self-evaluation and self- improvement. It introduces work of periods and cultures different in

theme and treatment. It teaches us what in literature is good and what

is bad, and saves our time and mental energy. It really prepares the public for the author. It shows the author how to adapt himself to his 16

public. It regulates and disciplines literary taste. It frees literature from

the tyranny of prejudice or whim. It gives people who have not time to

read the original information about new books and new ideas.

Mathew Arnold quoted Mr. Brunetiere:

“The function of criticism is to act on public

opinion, on authors, and upon the general

direction of literature and art. By maintaining

literary traditions criticism perpetuates from age to

age the literary consciousness of the

nation." 13

Us function is to enlighten and stimulate reader, and thus to

provoke quickened intelligence and keener appreciation. The main

function of literary criticism is to interpret and for its field of scope it has

got the whole range of literature.

Literary criticism comes in various shapes and aims. At best it

poses searching questions of the writer, and insists that he

understands how the arts, the sciences and philosophy have different

but coexisting concepts of truth and meaning. Art in the end cannot be

divorced from contemporary life, and that consideration leads on to

literary theory.

Critic’s eye is a rare gift. The criticism that continues to be written naturally concentrates on established figures. The remainder, 17t7

the reviewing/criticism appraising the great torrent that pours off the

small presses, is often partisan, shallow and/or doggedly optimistic.

Even the aims of criticism seem somewhat doubtful. No single critical

approach seems invariably successful, and insights from differing

approaches do not necessarily cohere. Nothing brings finality of

judgment, moreover, and one critic’s findings can be undone by another's ingenuity. Much more damaging, the premises even of literary theory have been uprooted by radical theory.

Rene Weilek said:

“Criticism can help us to leave the age in which we

were born and to pass into other ages, criticism

makes us cosmopolitan; will annihilate race

prejudices, by insisting on the unity of the

human mind in the variety of its forms.” 14

What does literary criticism hope to achieve? There are many schools of thought, but all take as their starting point the analysis of the reader's or listener's response, literature may be complex, requiring a good deal of explanation or even correction of corrupt scripts, but there has to be an immediate impact of some sort: not very strong, and not blatantly emotional necessarily, but something that allows the critic to ask: how is this obtained? How significant is it? How does it compare with similar works? IK

Literary criticism is interesting, and opens the door to a wider

appreciation of literature and criticism can open unsuspected levels of

meaning and significance. It gives ability to deal adequately with past

literature, increase intellectual activity and give more sensibility to

estimate the value of current literature.

There are many different ways in which criticism works but I think that they can ail be seen in two broad categories:

1 either criticism acts via the intellect

2 or it acts via emotions

In practice, it acts through both simultaneously. Criticism functioning through the intellectual mode does so as a result of intellectual activity both on the part of the critic and of his audience.

Yet literary history shows that criticism does not shadow some primary literary progenitor. In the first place, the recurrent case of authors neglected in their own times but acclaimed decades or centuries later is only the most noticeable aspect of a reverse process by which criticism creates, which is accepted as literature. It is fact that the guardians of traditional approaches to literature and criticism do not like to regard themselves as mists of any kind does not affect its validity. Criticism passes from the subordinate position of defender of poetry to a position of self appointed authority from which it can turn to the offensive, in social as well as literary comment. 19

6. Essential Principles of literary criticism

Permanent value of a work of art depends upon four elements of

literary work;

* emotion • imagination * thought • form

Further more, there are four aspects of meaning:

* sense * feeling * tone • intention

To judge these elements and aspects, some principles have been made to understand literature. But Critical principles can never be a substitute for judgment; they can assist us to avoid unnecessary mistakes on understanding literature. According to Wifliam P. Trent:

"The principles for which most academic critics

stand are, I think, three in number; (1) that due

weight should be given to the collective wisdom of

past and trained knowferfge of the present; (2) that

there are more or less ascertainable degrees of 20

value in the various genres of artistic production;

and (3) that no art can be absolutely divorced from

ethics." 15

This is the power of a critic, who judge properly by measuring

these elements and consider these elements as an essential part of the

literature. For this purpose, we execute principles of literary criticism

from the works of literature as well.

"The ultimate end of criticism is much more to

establish the principles of writing, then to furnish

rules, how to pass judgment on what has been

written by others.' 19

We can’t lay down a definite critical method for a selected piece

of literature. Judgment of literary works has a real extra-metaphorical

equivalent.

‘Criticism enables the man who has the energy to create literature.”"

Every critical judgment is based upon the implications of

the principles of literary criticism.

In old times when critics evaluated classical literatures, they

stress on form, diction, construction and other technicalities. They

follow Aristotle, but now, the meaning of criticism goes beyond these boundaries, it takes much importance to evaluate a piece of literature 212l

according to its theme, what a writer want to give a thought, is there

any influence of writer’s creation on society. A writer is closely attached

to society. His or her creation is true depiction of society, So the

judgment is based upon truth.

'Truth is the final test of merit in literature for a

work, which does not correspond with the facts of

life or with the universal and fundamental beliefs of

mankind, cannot be regarded as great whatever

its technical excellence may be.,ft8

The second essential principle is ‘principle of symmetry’, A critic

should examine the real symmetry in the work of literature. Whether

the writer is successful in organizing his truth/material or not? Aristotle

laid great stress on the principle of symmetry because the imaginative

beauty depends on it. Critic should examine various parts of

composition, whether they are organically related to each other or not.

The third most important principle is the ‘principle of

idealization’. It is about that selection of work which a critic is going to

examine, but ft excludes that unpleasant effect of aesthetic

consciousness from that selection which affect the reader. That type of

reality should remove, By following it there are many theories of criticism, each have its own characteristics and demand and according to demands of literature new theories of criticism were flourished.

Critics have their deep observations about literature; they formulated 22))

new ideas according to the study of literature. Duo to the complexity of

literature, critics make new standards of judgments. Even more, the

studies of literature become complex when critics examine the psychology of writer and follow those archetypes; from which the writer produces ideas. Manner, matter and imagination are elements of excellence of literature, and critics have to judge these elements professionally by applying relevant theories of criticism. The implication of the theories may be one, two or more, but the critics have to go deep to that piece of art to get original meaning and theme.

Another principle of literary criticism is to judge logical relationship of analysis and evaluation, The structure of a text is based on form, history, the reading experience, and the interpreter's self¬ reflection. And the major principle to judge these elements is historical and contemporary knowledge of genius. If a critic does not understand emotion, melody, character building, sounds, language, form and beauty, value and have no aesthetic sense he will never be able to judge a piece of literature. And to judge these elements a critic should apply different theories of literary criticism on that specific piece of art, and then he will be able to understand and judge that piece of literature.

7. Criticism and psychology

From centuries literature provides true knowledge of human life, deep insight into human nature and clear access to inner recess of human mind That is why critics are analyzing literature in the light of

psychology, just to go inside the writers mind and discover the relation

between fundamental features of the writer and the qualities of that

piece of literature,

Psychological analysis of a work of literature means to understand

literature on psychological grounds, due to that understanding, critics

present diverse interpretation of a single phrase which is looking too

easy and undemanding. It s an interpretation of the 'Ego' in human

mind, how urges come into mind and take special place, and then

come into writings. Psychoanalytic critics find these urges in writer’s creation in the form of diction, symbols, images and then analyze that specific piece if literature in the light of psychology of the author. Carl

Jung introduces Archetypal criticism (called Jungian criticism also) in which a critic tries to bring imaginative experiences which he finds in literature.

"The dream content is the actuality; the dream

thought is a fiction of the psychologist. The fact is

that the store of desires, images, and feelings in

the mind may be presented in two ways: 1- in

waking conscious thought, which can be

expressed in abstract language; 2- in the dream,

where rt has concrete representation in

pictures." 19 24

Criticism and literature go side by side, when we see

innovations in literature, then to understand literature, criticism makes

developments as well. In ancient times literature was not considered as

a separate field of enquiry, but with the passage of time criticism

makes its own identified place. Literature was taken on psychological

foundations in the start of 20lh century. Sigmund Freud was the first

person who introduced psychoanalysis in literature, and this requires

profound meditation.

Jt is an intense study of imagery and articulation. Through

Freud's literary essays we come to know about the psychology of the

characters and writers as well. By following it we find many critics who admired Freud’s theory e.g. Jacques Lacan and Car) Jung, so we may claim that mysteries of literature are now no more unsolved because of psychoanalysis of literary symbols, writers mind and formation of the characters. Now we can analyze diction, symbols, actions, dialect and resemblance of place and reference,

Psychoanalysis of the writer is pure scientific work. It depends on research and questionnaire and then we can find out results, it's a reading of sub conscious of the writer.

Critics always go deep into psychology just to explain works of literature. Because every writer has his own state of mind out of which new ideas clothe themselves as new creations. Psychology enters the realm of criticism in two ways: in the

analysis of act of creation and the psychological study of the writer .A

psychoanalytical critic unfolds (he labyrinths of author's personality to

trace some relation between the features of the particular piece of art

and the state of mind that is cause of creation. It is only possible when a

critic will take imaginative literature as an activity not a series of work.

Aristotle is concerned with the definition of tragedy not with the

conducive elements and environment that lead to the creation of

tragedy. On the other hand Plato gave psychological explanation of the

act of creation. The romantic critic especially Wordsworth in his Preface

to Lyrical Ballads' describes the psychological qualities of a poet or the

state of mind conducive to creation of poetry. His definition of a poet,

poetry and poetic diction, all show that he is trying to relate the process

of creation to a certain state of mind i.e. psychological investigation of

the process of creation. A good example of psychoanalysis is to go deep

in the creation and find images/ symbols in it, then the study of the

author and then find out the results, ft is true that every writer exists in

his creation. So the study of symbols, diction and author’s mind is the

study of psychology of creation and this is called psychoanalytic

criticism.

The critic goes to those archetypes which are the basis of creation. Freud started this type of criticism and then other genius followers like Jung, Norman N. Holland, Harold bloom and Lacan took it to the peak. 25 26

8. Image in poetry

Images are the sudden presentation of complexed thoughts. We can

see them in the great works of literature. Images come from human

consciousness, and experienced by a reader. There are three types of

images: visual, auditory, tactile 20 These images works in literature and

a reader can understand the original meaning through them better.

They can engage any of the seven senses.

It is really better to express a thought in image rather than writing several books. As we can say poetic images are too strong in their thoughts rather than prose. A poet can express himself in two lines with full expression but a fiction writer can’t do that.

“The best poetry deals not only with natural

images but with lofty thoughts, spiritual

suggestions and obscure relations."21

So a poet can use them freely, now it’s the responsibility of the critic to bring up original meanings by using psychoanalysis of the writer and by deconstructing the poem as well. Images/ symbols have great place in world literature. Sometimes a poet or writer doesn't want to express his feelings in detail or sometimes he doesn't want to show himself in his writings and some times due to social pressures, authors use images and symbols. It’s a source of knowledge as they can serve as clue that may unfold the personality of a writer for the critic, they may lead to the original thought or the motive behind the creation,

9. Qualifications of a Critic

Criticism is as Inevitable as breathing. The main rote who plays

In criticism is the mind of critic, who is well known about literature, art and theories of criticism. He knows very well about the ideas/trends, prevailing in literature and criticism. Critic must have the knowfedge of current literary patterns, terminologies as well as current critical approaches towards literature also.

“A good critic keeps his criticism from becoming

either instinctive or vicarious, and the labour of his

understanding is always specific, like the art which

he examines: and he knows that the sum of his

best work comes only to the pedagogy of

elucidation and appreciation.22

A literary critic makes analysis in broad depth with evidences to make decisions, also communicate his own betiefs clearly and accurately according to the set literary theories, even he has an authority to make new critical/literary theories as well. He must be reasonable and reflective. A critic should be well informed and judges well the credibility of sources, and must know what to compare and what to analyze, tf the literary critic is open minded and mindful of alternatives then he can make decisions well. He must identify the 27 28

conclusions and judges well the quality of an argument including the

acceptability of its reason.

A literary critic should define terms/theories in a way appropriate

for the context/piece of art. He must consider other's point of view to

justify his decisions. If critic’s beliefs are true, then his decisions are

surely justified. He must be clear about the intended meaning of what

is said, written, or otherwise communicated, seeking as much precision

as the situation requires.

A critic should avoid confusing others with his critical thinking

prowess. He has an ability to focus on specific piece of literature. He

must have ability to give reason and to interpret the authors intended

meanings, A legitimate effort should have been made to uncover

meanings of the text. A true literary critic must be sensitive to the

feelings, level of knowledge and degree of sophistication of others. He

must draw conclusions when needed.

Critic must be an open minded person, because a skilled critic

not only recognizes that people disagree with his ideas but he values

this fact. Furthermore he respects the rights of others to express their

own different views. Because he wants to know the truth, he is not a

rigid person, so a critic follows reason and evidence wherever he lead.

In this way he foresees possible aftermaths of adopting a point of view.

Another important quality of a critic is that he must be systematic and inquisitive, because he must organize and focused. He has to 29

gather evidences, test ideas and then stay with a complex and tough

question, because a true critic is always hungry for facts and concepts

and willing to explore the universe of ideas even before he knows how

to apply the wisdom he gains, and these facts must be relevant to work

of art. A literary critic is well aware of literary theories , concepts and

critical theories, so he has several solutions for understanding literature. Critic must be mature about his decisions so to resist the desire to reach quick, superficial results and he Is willing to suspend judgment when evidence is incomplete.

'Again judging is often spoken of as the critic’s

one business, and so in some sense it is; but the

judgment which almost insensibly forms itself in a

fair and clear mind, along with fresh knowledge, is

the valuable one; and thus knowledge, and ever

fresh knowledge, must be the critic's great

concern for himseff

By following it a literary critic pays special attention to one of several aspects:

* Purpose of that piece of art. * Its effect on audience/reader Language and structure of that specific piece of art.

* The information it conveys, Critic always studies the characteristics of a text and he

understands the variability of performance of dramatic works and

variability of reader's mental interpretation of the text. When a critic is

studying the purpose of the authors he concedes/ acknowledges the

forces beyond the conscious intentions of the writer that can affect

what he actually communicates.

“The critic must have imaginative sympathy. He

must be able to put himseif in the place of the

writer and thus see things from his point of view.

and share his vision of life."24

A literary critic must explore the complex relationship between

truth and fiction and must aware of cultural expectations which shape

experience.

HHe must be a man widely read not oniy In the

literature of his own language, but in that of as many languages as possible. — He must have proper training and technical skill in the different

branches of literature."25

A true critic must be aware of historical and theoretical context

that contributes to the understanding of reader. He must have knowledge of the observations of the philosophers, creative writers, literary, historical and cultural studies scholars, because he must have a strong critical background in his mind to justify his opinion. JO 31

"A critic must be able to feel the Impact of a work

of art in all its complexity and force.

The main business of literary critic is to refine the sense of literary traditions. Critic's function is to help making a true balance between the past, present and future as well.

He must have the philosophic mind and great psychological ability to evaluate a piece of literature, if he has an ability to discover the person who Is behind the book then he is a true critic and can reach the original imagination of the writer. References References

1* Nicholson. Rudolf: Encyclopaedia of great literary critics,

Anmol Publications Pvt. Ltd. f New Delhi: India, 2008, p,v

2- http://www.britannlca.com/EBchecked/topic/343487/literarv- criticism

3- D.H. Rawlinson: The practice of criticism, Cambridge

University Press: Cambridge, 1979, p2

4- J A.Cuddon, Penguin Dictionary of literary terms and literary

theory. (Penguin Books Ltd., London), 1992, p207

5- Northrop Frye: Anatomy of criticism, Princeton university

press, New Jersey, 1973, p3

6- Kalimuddin Ahmad: The meaning of Criticism, National Book

Foundation, Islamabad, 1982, p10

7- Matthew Arnold. Essays in Criticism, Macmillan and co,.

limrted. London, 1911, p4

8* Rene Wellek, Ahistory of modern criticism 1750-1950,The

later nineteenth century, vol.4t Cambridge university press,

Cambridge, 1983, p414

9- Ibid

IQ- Charies Mills Gaylay A.B., An Introduction to the methods

and materials of literary criticism, Ginn & Company

publishers. U.S.At 1899, p1

11- Ibid p2 31 33ll

12- Dr. Raghukul Tilak. Principles & history of Literary Criticism,

Rama Brothers Educational Publishers, New Delhi, p5

13- Matthew Arnold, Essays in Criticism. Macmillan and co.,

limited, London, 1911, p15

14- Rene Wellek, A history of modem criticism 1750-1950,The

later nineteenth century, vol.4, Cambridge university press,

Cambridge, 1983, p 415

15- William P. Trent, The Authority of Criticism and other essays,

Charles Scribner’s sons, 1899, p12

16- J.W. Mackail, Coleridges Literary Criticism, Humphary

Milford, London, 1921, p67-68

17- Lascelles Abercrombie, principles of literary criticism, High

Hill Books, London, 1960, p12 Criticism, 18- Dr. Raghukul Tilak, Principles & history of Literary

Rama Brothers Educational Publishers, New Delhi, p7 Mind, The Macmillan 19- Frederick Clarke Prescott, The Poetic

Company, New York, 1922. p71 to the methods 20- Charles Mills Gaylay A.B., An Introduction Company and materials of literary criticism, Ginn &

publishers. U.S.A, 1899, p291 Pound, Boni and 21- Ernest Fenollosa, Instigations of Ezra

Liveright Publishers, New York, 1920, p376 Literary Criticism, Collier 22- Wilbur Scott. Five Approaches to

Books, New York, 1962, p322 34

23- Matthew Arnold, Essays in Criticism, Macmillan and co.,

limited, London, 1911, p37

24- Dr. Raghukul Tilak. Principles & History of Literary Criticism,

Rama Brothers Educational Publishers, New Delhi, p9

25- Ibid

26- D.H. Rawtinson: The practice of criticism. Cambridge

University Press: Cambridge, 1979, p2 Chapter 2

* 35l5

Chapter 2

Important Critical Theories from Plato to Present

Literary criticism, an exercise of judgment on the works of

literature is a creative activity that took its inception simultaneously with

literature. On the authority of past, we can confidently say that criticism

and creation began at the same time. We find critical thoughts In the

writings of Aristophanes and in the epics of Homer, but when look for

pioneers of criticism, the one name springs up to mind, who is leading

ail critics, initiating literary discussions, originating new thoughts is

Plato, He distinguished for the very first time between the ability to

criticize literature and the ability to compose it. He was really a

systematic critic.

"Plato was the first conscious literary critic who has

put his ideas in a systematic way in his Dialogues."1

Plato gave a fresh knowledge about literature and criticism. It is true that he was a path finder, breaking new grounds with his philosophical thoughts. His theory of poetry initiated discussions and is of tremendous importance for a critic. It holds his views on poetic inspiration, imitation and his allegations against poets and poetry. As far as critical theories are concerned these are strongly allied with the spirit of age. 36

Plato considers poets light and holy and winged creature, which

are helpless to compose poetry without divine inspiration. Poetry is

only the product of inspiration. It implies that it is not rational and even

poets themselves do not often understand what they write in a state of

frenzy. When Socrates called renowned contemporary poets to define

the meanings of their poetry, they were unable to do so. Therefore

poetry cannot be relied upon

“In fact poetry is the antithesis of action, and is

imitation, says Plato."2

In the 10th chapter of Republic (which is the oldest book of

philosophy) dialogues between Socrates and two of his associates

concluded in the condemnation of poets and poetry. Plato reserved no place for poets in his utopian state. Plato as an idealist, believed that

original world exists in the form of ideas, this real world is the copy of

that original workf. Poet imitates this real already copied world. He thought poetry was imitation of the imitation twice or thrice removed from the ultimate reality so nothing beneficial it contained for the people and is harmful for the citizens. According to his opinion poets were misleaders. In Republic book X, Plato gives us two different opinions for the deportation of poetry from his ideal state.

* Moral * Psychological

The psychological reason of Plato's synthesis is: 37

"It has been plausibly argued that Plato’s

condemnation of the poets is due to some reaction

against what he felt to be dangerous tendencies in

himself. He confesses to the powerful charm which

Homer had wielded over him from his childhood.'*3

In old Greece Homer's Iliad and Odysseys were very popular.

Homer created these approximately in 800BC. So till the age of Plato these had better place in Greek society due to its unnatural characters

(where Homer tried to show good and evil). It leaves strong impressions on readers or viewers even today. The heroes of Iliad and odyssey have supernatural qualities and are unbeatable.

On the other hand, Plato in his Republic book x, admits that people get inspiration from characters and have lasting impressions on their minds. So poetry has great influence on human mind in all ages.

Through this synthesis we think that he was afraid of poets and poetry because of the influential thoughts. Other opinion is:

"According to Plato, reality existed in the world of

ideas, not in the world of material things."4

Second thing which is very important is his ’theory of ideas’. He thought original world is in the form of ideas: this present world is the imitation of that original world. Poets imitate this present world so they do not give any original thought. So they are spoiling the people. 38l8

This thought originated moral criticism. It started with the fears

of Plato and he gave the idea of ideal stale. He was the first one who

ran an academy in Athens for many years. His purpose was utilitarian

i.e. to produce balanced personalities to run an ideal state. He also

wanted to establish the supremacy of philosophy over poetry. His

attack against poetry was chiefly because of the contemporary

substandard poetry that excited baser emotions harmful for the balanced upbringing of the youth. In adolescent, emotionally strong literature affects the personality. He found that supernatural characters, war against god and goddesses made the human mind corrupt.

“For morality and ethics, the citizen had better go

almost anywhere rather than to the poets. In

Homer god is represented as doing things which

are morally wrong."6

He stressed on the knowledge based upon truth, not on imagination. So in this scenario we find Plato quite justified. He rightly advocated that philosophy is an abode of truth and poets mislead the truth seekers He also compared the work of art to a living organism having the body as well as a head and feet with middle, in a way he emphasized the doctrine of artistic unity.

Aristotle. Plato's disciple, in his ‘The Poetics' he rejected Plato's

‘theory of ideas’ and developed his own theory. He gave three reasons for rejection: J9jy

• That Plato's ideas contradict itseff only by ‘denying the

possibility of negations’

• 'His illustrations of ideas are merely empty metaphors * That theory uses transient abstractions to create examples of observation'

No doubt Plato created the theory only for the knowledge and wisdom of reality. But there are many draw backs of his theory. He banished poets from creating new world of ideas where poets may take a great pleasure because he banished poets from imitating the beauties of nature.

'Plato was a mystic who behind the visible and

temporal apprehended the external and unseen."6

But Aristotle gave them better place that they are creating something new. They are imitating nature but this is creative imitation.

He modified theory of imitation and believed in the reality of the existing world. He admitted that poets are imitators but interpreted imitation as a creative process not mimicry or servile copying. Poets are makers, creators, creating something better and different. He widened the scope of imitation by making it the basis of all arts. So it unites poetry with other fine arts like music, painting etc. They differ from one another in three respects: that is the object, means and the manner of imitation. He also accepted the effect of emotions aroused by poetry.

He justified poetry morally, emotionally and intellectually. His teacher 4U

advocated suppression and repression of emotions, whereas, he pleaded for the need to have emotional outlet. Though he never alluded to Platonic ideas but ‘The Poetics' effectively invalidates his arguments.

Arrstotle conceived tragedy as an idealized imitation of an action serious, complete, and of a certain magnitude with the purpose to excite emotions of pity and fear and then to bring ‘Catharsis’ there of.

The language is flavoured with all available sauces. He enumerated six elements of a tragedy: Plot, character, diction, thought, melody and spectacle. Two of these formative elements relate to medium of imitation, one to the manner of imitation, and the last three to the objects of imitation. His conclusions are based entirely on Greek drama. It is not only the first thoroughly philosophical discussion of criticism but the foundation of all subsequent discussions. Furthermore

Rafay Habib says:

“Aristotle's notions anticipate developments in

several areas of literary criticism: the issue of

poetic imitation, the connection between art and

reality, the distinction between genres as well as

between high and low art, the study of grammar

and the language, the psychological and moral

effects of literature, the nature and function of the

audience, the structure and rules of drama as well

as the notions of plot, narrative, and character. All 41

of these notions are still profoundly pervasive in

our thinking about literature and the world.”7

Longinus as the first romantic critic, gave a subjective standard

to evaluate literature. He judged it on the basis of sublimity. The value

of literature relatively depends on the nature of introspection. In his

book 'On the Sublime’ Longinus defined sublimity as the echo of a lofty

mind, an eminence, an excellence In language. He also gave five

sources of sublimity:

• Impetuous feelings * Grand thoughts • Appropriate use of figure • Nobility of diction • The harmonious composition

The first two are the natal gifts that cannot be acquired, God gifted but needed to be developed, nourished and strengthened, Other three sources add to the natural grandeur. So Longinus becomes a pioneer in the field of aesthetic appreciation of literature. Plato approached literature from moralistic point of view, Aristotle evaluated literature on intellectual grounds, Horace wanted literature to be a medium of instruction and delight, but Longinus wanted it primarily to uplift the reader to move and transport the soul. All other things become secondary to him, transportation is always rooted in flight of imagination, and therefore he is called the first romantic critic who 42

discarded entirely other theories of pleasure and persuasion. He

anticipated much that is modem in critical work by showing concern

with the essence rather than with form of literature.

Later in 16,h century Puritans attacked poetry again on

emotional grounds. Stephen Gosson equated poets with pipes and

jesters and called them caterpillars of the commonwealth. Poets were

considered enemies to virtue and victim of popular debauchery. He

denounced poetry also on the plea that Plato banished them from his

ideal state and on emotional grounds.

Sir Philip Sidney countered the puritan's attack and clarified the

function and nature of poetry in an 'Apology for Poetry'. It was a kind of

formal beginning of literary theorizing in England. He was considered

the first great literary critic of England, because he had not only

defended poets as 'makers' not mere imitators but also defined a

double definition of poetry with the synthesis of Aristotle and Horace

elaborating the nature and function of poetry. Like Aristotle he defined imitation as mimesis that is creative imitation. It is representing, counterfeiting or figuring forth. Poetry is speaking picture so to say with an end to teach and delight. Later part of this double definition he has taken from Horace. He believed that nature's world is brazen, a poet renders it golden.

These were the pioneers who laid down the foundations of literary criticism. Now it is better to discuss briefly the most influential 43

theories In criticism. Those have far reaching influences that not only

changed the course of English criticism but also have impacts on

Punjabi criticism. Most of these theories have flourished in the last two

centuries according to the need of the community and the wisdom of

the age.

Through all ages people have good concern with literature

whatever its form is. Whether it is in the form of epic or ballad or

drama, ft remained a source of interest. As for as ancient epic is

concerned, (Greek epics of Homer) the main focus of poet was to

decide and discern the value and place of god and goddesses. They

showed supernatural hero or unbeatable characters, fighting with and

defeating evil to give delight and enjoyment to the citizens of Athens.

Literature is not only an important source of pleasure but also a source

of moral guidance and spiritual inspiration. Through literature writers

have promoted their religion, In this way literature as well as its critical

tradition gets tremendous importance in society. Jn this wake moral criticism becomes important and also has the longest history.

1. Moral Criticism

It deals with the original intrinsic meaning of a text. It focuses on

'what it says’ rather than ‘way of saying1. It is not to be assumed that this theory ignores way of saying but its main focus /stress is 'to concentrate on original meaning1. 44

"Formalists have argued for the heavy emphasis, in the practice of criticism . upon the way of saying, the arrangement of the parts, the ‘how1 of a poem's

meaning, while moral critics have attended to the

what’ of meaning "8

That's why Plato had great concern with the moral effect of

poetry, and from Plato more thoughtful spokesmen like Horace, and In

renaissance period we can read the mind of Sir Philip Sidney, who also

had great concern with moral values of literary work. Dr. Johnson

discussed moral contents of the writers in his book The Lives of the

Poets’, Mathew Amok* also felt the great importance of this. So, after

the study of different critics and their critical thoughts, belonging to

different eras, one thing is ascertain that they all commonly stressed moral vaiues in literature.

In twentieth century Neo-Humanists (order, restrained were their first priority) evaluated literature on moral basis, they thought that literature is a criticism of life. And they made principles for studying literature. According to them the main theme of studying literature is the study of means as affecting citizens/ men. Moral critics judge literature on ethical grounds and on the basis of its effects on readers as well, They stress on that kind of literature which is ethically sound and encourages virtue. According to this theory corrupt and misguiding literature in condemned. 45.rt

tn twentieth century a group of critics leads the ideas of moral criticism,

which I already has described as neo humanists and they were enough

to make a school of thought. Irving Babbitt and More were the strong

defenders of humanism. This theory opposed the two tendencies of

literature:

• Naturalism

* Romanticism

It is difficult to say whether the moralist world acknowledges or

not the supernatural characters and believes. According to their opinion

these supernatural characters and thoughts lead to impurity, not to

moral or aesthetical sensitivity. G.R.Elliott made a positive relationship

between moral values and religion, but many of the Babbitt's followers did not acknowledge this belief.

TS.EIiot forcefully criticized both Babbitt and

Foerster for this oentral weakness as he saw it:

morality that has no vindication outside of itself

cannot compel reasonable belief." 9

With the passage of time every movement and theory changes its directions, according to the needs and demands of time and this moralist movement is still alive with the alliance of religion. T.S. Eliot is a leader among 'Christian Humanist' we find moral touch in Allan Tate,

John Crowe Ransom, F.R. Leavis’s critical explications. During the late period of seventeenth and the early years of eighteenth centuries ‘wit' 46

was the main subject for debate. More intellectuals define and devote it

with moral worth.

Joseph Addison also describes 'wit' as a negative quality /

activity {which is deeply associated with corrupting imagination,

distortion of truth, profanity and skepticism). Knowledge itself has a

moral basis, Humanist were challenged by liberal critics i.e. Allan Tate,

Wilson and other schools of criticism like Chicago school and new

critics. Sidney's 'Defence of Poesie' was against puritans charge to

poetry, and behaviour of puritans. Aristotle established the 'essential

truth, and usefulness of imaginative literature’ in his poetics. In this fight

Sydney’s 'Defence of Poesie* was a great milestone to understand

literature as well, and in Renaissance period that was used to understand literature.

“At this stage in Sidney’s argument, poetry is

simply a superior means of communication, and its

value depends on what is communicated. And to

determine that value we have to go to others arts-

to history or moraf philosophy.1,10

Note: Moral criticism and Dramatic Construction will go together.

2. Formalism/New Criticism

Formalism is the most influential theory in this respect.

Formalism and new criticism go together. It is also known as aesthetic 47

criticism, ontological criticism or textual criticism owing to many similar

characteristics. Their main concern is to focus on text, studied as an

object, and in its elements like plot, character, imagery, conflict, setting as well as rhythm. They also consider whether or not the text contains vagueness, inconsistency, ironies which are the main turning points and need more interpretations. They consider it important to examine text as a whole because all the elements work together.

The formalistic critic’s concern is to identify and discuss the complexities of a work and then has to decide what idea will be better for resolving these complexities. According to formalistic approach, it is really wrong to judge a text which is based on emotional effects (on the reader).

"Formal criticism begins with an examination of

the imagery of a poem, with a view to bringing out

its distinctive pattern."11

It is very difficult to know the meaning of a text created by an author and if someone (critic) knows the author's intention it should not be the basis of criticism as well. Another thing which is very much important is that text should be studied as an object without considering the socio- economic or historical impacts of society on reader. One thing must be in mind that a reader / critic will stress on words. Formalists developed a theory of narrative from which we can make differentiating plot from story. 48

The Formalists also developed a theory of

narrative, making a distinction between ptot and story."12

From 1920's to date, it is really the most influential critical i method to evaluate literature. The formalist’s point of view about criticism is to understand literature as itself. We need some keys to

unfold, and unlock the hidden truth and these keys exist in the text

itself. They oppose to evaluate text in the light of history and politics of

that age in which the text was written. In this way American approach

to criticism which reached at its apex in 1940’s and 1950's called ‘New

Criticism’ is a type of formalism. Almost every school of criticism is

influenced by the formalistic approach, important of them are Prague

school as well as the Chicago school (but their interest to evaluate

literature on historical basis was clearly not formalistic). Formalist’s

main focus is to study literature in systematic way to discourage the

extemaf factors. They simply (formalistic and new critics) focus on

close reading of text and stress on formal aspects like theme,

metaphor, form, style, structure, meter, imagery and rhythm etc (These

are supporting aspects to understand literature). T.S. Eliot gave us

clear approach towards formalism and organic unity of a work as well.

He is one of the major figures who developed formalistic criticism and

emphasized.

“T.S,Eliot is a major figure in the development of

Formalistic criticism. Under the influence of Pound 49

and Hulme, he announce the high place of art as

art. rather than as an expression of social,

religious, ethical or political ideas and advocated

the close study of the texts of the works themselves."13

Formalists thought text as an isolated entity and there is

something to be studied in the text alone. They just focus on the words,

and nothing to boot. According to formalists, literature is an

autonomous object that is unified in terms of form and meaning that

features in paradox, irony and complexity in itself. Its main purpose is

to appreciate the art and technique in the sense of aesthetics. They

valued literature as high art.

LA. Richards in his The Meaning of Meaning 1923' offered a vast vocabulary for discussing and analyzing the work of art, and investigation of meaning also and through this he started semantic approach in literary criticism,

“Formal criticism, in other words, is commentary,

and commentary is the process of translating into

explicit or discursive language what is implicit in

the poem."14 50

Reaction against Victorian and Neo humanists:

The main factor for the development of formalistic approach was

a reaction against Victorian and Neo Humanities. (Their main focus

was to watch moral theme and moral uses of literature) and these

moralists gave new attention to historical, psychological and

biographical aspects of literature. There was a reaction against Marxist

and due to Marxist pressures and psychological stresses the writers

feel anxiety also.

Many of the critics criticized other critics for their wrong way of

criticizing a work of art and just focusing on one part / aspect of the

literature as well. T.S.Eliot The Sacred Wood’ 1920 and Wifliam

Empson's 'Seven Types of Ambiguity,1930', Allen Tate's 'Reactionary

Essays’ 1936, R.P.BIackmur’s ’A Burden for Critics' are the most

influential and notable works of formalistic approach.

“Even John Crowe Ransom, the Dean of the

group, has protested, in commenting on Brooks,

‘Well Wrought Urn’ the use of analysts to such an

extreme that the sense of the whole is lost in the

study of a part."1*

If we go back to the history we can easily trace the origin of the formalism. There were two groups which were active in establishing language studies as well as poetic language. 51

• Moscow linguistic circle • OPOJAZ (St. Petersburg-based group)

Russian formalists rejected the previous critical approaches

which were dominated before. They worked on the language and word

formation, the unity of words. They elaborated the main differences of

literary language and non literary language as well as practical

language.

But later the main stress was shifted / changed from this above said

relationship I differences to the formal aspects of literature (literary

text).

“The best known Formalist concept is that of

'defamiliarisation' (ostranenie), a concept

particularly associated with Shklovsky and

discussed in his ‘Art as Device’ published in 1917."1®

When Shklovsky defined 'defamiliarisation’ and argued that art

is the source of renewal of human perception and a device. Later

formalisms main point of view was formal aspects of literary text and linguistics as well rather than relationship between literary and non literary language. Although Bakhtin was Marxist but not too committed to Marxist approach. He argued and criticized formalism. 52

Cleanth Brooks argued on formalistic approach that a critic must

pay attention on the historical conditions of that specific piece of art as

well as (he audience and author:

"I have stated these objections as sharply as I can

because I am sympathetic with a state of mind

which is prone to voice them. Man’s experience is

indeed a seamless garment, no part of which can

be separated from the rest. Yet if we urge this fact

of inseparability against the drawing of distinctions,

then there is no point in talking about criticism at

all. I am assuming that distinctions are necessary

and useful and indeed inevitable/17

On the other hand the formalistic critic assumes an ideal reader as well as writer's approach that what is authors approach in his work but, not the personality of the writer. As we said above that formalism and new criticism go together and the main purpose is to see the object as itself, and have a good concern with language, form, order, harmony.

It is concerned to trace how the parts of the text

relate, how it achieves its 'order1 and ‘harmony1

how it contains and resolves ’irony’, ‘paradox',

’tension1, ‘ambivalence’ and 'ambiguity1; and it is

concerned essentially with articulating the very 53tl

‘poem-ness’- the formal quintessence - of the poem rt$elf."ta

New criticism is a text based method of criticism of the

formalistic critics. They not only focus on imagery, metaphor but they

also give importance to historical background of the text as well as the

biographical information of the author. Cleaneth Brooks analyzed

literature by ‘ironies, paradoxes and ambiguities / complexities of the

text itself.

New critics admit that words/text is too important to analyze a

piece of art but they focus on construction of the text and ways of

interpretation also. This is the addition in formalistic approach, so this is

called New Criticism.

3. Structuralism / Semiotics

This movement of thought started in human sciences widely

spread in Europe, This movement affected many fields of inquiry like history, sociology, philosophy and anthropology and literary criticism.

Now it is concerned with language, signs and signification. Noam

Chomsky is also an important contributor in structuralist theory,

“Structuralism is thus based, in the first instance,

on the realization that if human actions or

productions have a meaning, there must be an 54

underlying system of distinctions and conventions

which makes this meaning possible.'1*

ft is a scientific for codes, rules and systems underlying all

human socio-cultural practices It is the understanding of the meaning

and knowiedge of fiterary text as well as symbolic expressions all

include in the interpretation of literary text. It emerges from language

and linguistic theories, concentrate on those elements like: myth rituals,

relations as well as eating conventions. There are the elements of

culture which are deeply connected to literature. In this way critic can

analyze and comment about individual literary work as well as their

system from which they belong. For example our social life as well as

economic life need some codes like: economic symbols or codes are

cash, stock, check etc, but as far as our social life is conoemed it depends upon the codes f signals of body language, like: gestures and may resolve with the exchange of small symbolic expression like: parties, dinner, hi tea's, So language is beyond written communication,

We can exchange our feelings without saying or writing any thing.

Moreover, we are mostly involved in structuralist activities in our daily life like: If we examine the physical structure of buildings built in the centre of city, then we can say we have structuralist approach to discover underiying elements of mechanical structure and if we are busy in examine the single building to discover underiying principles of the whole structural system. Then we must say that we are going to make a strong bond between single individual item and a particular 55

'structural class' and in the first example we are going to generate a

structural system of classification.

As far as literature is concerned, structuralism is used every

where in literary criticismH as we discussed before the relationship of

individual with whole and a whole is discovering underlying principles

by examining / evaluating the structure of large no. of stories discover

underlying principles that given 'composition'.

“Structuralist method as such is constituted at the

very moment when one rediscovers the message

in the code, uncovered by an analysis of the

immanent structures and not imposed from the

outside by ideological prejudices." 20

A genius critic Northrop Frye shows the genres of literature in four categories with the exploration of four seasons. This is really a new approach towards structuralism.

1. The Mythos of Spring: Comedy

2. The Mythos of Summer: Romance

3. The Mythos of Autumn: Tragedy

4. The Mythos of Winter: Irony and Satire

The sign system is really too complicated that many theorists made different opinions about the structure of signs. Two structuralist theorists Raman Selden quoted Barthes that he argued: 56

"Writers only have the power to mix already

existing writings to reassemble or redeploy them;

writers cannot use writing to 'express' themselves,

but only to draw upon that immense dictionary of

language and culture which is 'always already written'.™21

'Peirce' and ‘Saussure’ gave three opinions about understanding and analyzing the systems of sign which define ones’ experience,

• Iconic signs. • Indexes. • Symbols.

1. The iconic signs resemble the things as stick figures

which signify the things like: signs of men and women

pasted on the doors of washrooms to identify the gender

or road signs for ‘fallings rocks’ or computer signs appear

on the monitor like 'my computer* which defines the

hardware installed in the system. Here signifier

resembles the things with one another

2. The indexical signs in which signifier works as reliable

referent like smoke as a sign of fire, clouds for rain,

fragrance etc.

3, There are true symbols in which the relation to the thing

of signifier is arbitrary, like sounds for example, sound 57

'Kat' or the written word ‘Cat1 are conventional signs as

well, (t is a non linguistic object that would be analyzed as

a language.

Structuralism is mainly concerned with poetics. Individual texts

elaborate the general qualities of literature.

"The goal of all structuralist activity, whatever

reflexive or poetic is to reconstruct(reconstituer) an

‘object’ in such a way as to manifest thereby the

rules of its functioning ( the ‘functions' ) of this

object." 22

A sign works sometimes directly and sometimes indirectly, in bill

board advertisements where a female is wearing beautiful dress

exploring her beauties shows that who will drink this juice / drink he will

be attractive to beautiful female like that displayed on the board. Text always makes a relationship with culture as develops relationship between words and ‘things' and shows set patterns in it, which makes it a product of society. It is the study of the text patterns.

"It is true that literature uses language as its

medium but this does not mean that the structure

of literature is identical with the structure of language."23 58

It attempts to investigate as a whole the formation / composition

of a culture by decoding and interpreting its sign systems. These

include literary text and forms of literature (genres), cultural behaviours.

Structuralists evaluate the text as a key to understand ideas

beyond the text itself. Their main question about literature is that how

the literary text is structured and what are the differences between

literary and non literary text, the affect of literary text on readers. They

use the literary text as signs to make a strong relationship with society

and culture.

4. Post Structuralism

The decade of 1960’s was very fruitful in the sense that many

new trends and thoughts of literary criticism flourished In this period.

The prevailing literary discourse made the literary criticism a scientific

study as structuralism as well as psychoanalytic criticism (The study of

conscious / sub conscious / ego/ superego etc,) because a writer may

be simultaneously a poet, a novelist, a critic or a story writer Many kind

of movements he faces in his inner self then he creates something for

his own satisfaction or for readers.

The structuralists observe the process of language with mainly

Saussure’s system of language where ’langue' has no relationship with

’parole'. Langue is an underlying object (abstract object) which governs our knowledge whereas parole' Is the language in which human beings 59

share their feelings and do Iheir daily gossips. The language system is

closely related to culture as well as myth, rituals etc. Post structuralism

is a reaction to structuralism and would not exist without structuralism which is based on Saussurian linguistics. In other sense ft complements structuralism,

“Post structuralism doubts the adequacy of

structuralism and as far as literature is concerned

tends to reveal that the meaning of any text is, of

its nature, unstable. It reveals that signification is

of its nature, unstable "24

The important part I aspect of post structuralist theory that is used in literary criticism is Deconstruction. Jacques Derrida is the main person who initiated the techniques of close reading of texts. Mainly it is the deep interpretation of the structuralism. Where Saussure admits that there is not requisite link in signifier and signified.

“However Saussure also notices that there is no

necessary connection between signifier and

signified. Some times a language has one word

(signifier) for two concepts (signified), in English

'sheep' is the animal and 'mutton' the meat;

French has only one word for both signifieds (mouton)."25 m

It is because different ideas stand for different words. One signified seeks for its signifier this will make a 'positive unit’. Then they

preserve a certain identity of meaning. Each signified comes with

another signifier and that can be traced in dictionary. Post structuralism’s main effort is to trace the activity of the signifier that it makes / forms chains and 'cross current' of meaning with other signifiers.

Bakhtin rejects the Saussure's notion of ‘language’. He insists on seeing language in social context. They make a relationship between signifier and signified that it is the human struggle of conflict and Interference. This interaction may result in signifier and signified.

The l-you relationship between author and reader is being invoked in different narratives, just to concentrate the social element known by every one (just to get attention of the reader). Michael Foucault, Luis

Althussar made different opinions about ideological discourse.

"For Foucault discourse is always inseparable

from power, because discourse is the governing

and ordering medium of every institution.

Discourse determines what it is possible to say

what are the criteria of ’truth' who is allowed to

speak with authority, and where such speech can

be spoken."26 61

Barthes idea about ideological discourse shows in his essay

The Death of the Author'. Here he rejects the idea that author is

authority and source of meaning and origin of text as well. It sounds

like the new critics whose main focus is the text itself and believes on the 'unity of text’

“What is new in Barthes is the idea that readers

are free to open and close the text’s signifying

process without respect for the signified,"27

Although readers are always free to connect the text with the

system of meaning and ignore the intention of the author. Next he gives us knowledge about pleasure in text and makes a difference between two senses, pleasure and bliss. It is the matter of the erotic novels. Where the 'reader!/ and 'writer!/ qualities go through in reader’s mind and he extracts the meaning what he wants. In first place reader is a consumer of a fixed meaning but on the second place he is a producer.

Major influences on post structuralist literary theory are of

Jacques Derrida. Jacques Lacan (a psychoanalyst) and Michael

Foucault (A Cultural Theorist), Derrida's main emphasis and attack was

on Logo centrism of western thought, but:

"Derrida attacks such logo centrism and claims

that writing is a better model for understanding

how language functions."2® 62

His main emphasis was on signifier rather than signified. That

we can understand language by writing options. As for as Michael

Foucault is concerned, he was initially structuralist. But soon after

realizing the shortcomings of structuralism he moved towards post

structuralism. His main focus was 'systems of thought3 (social

practices) and in Saussurian opinion these were treated like language

that meanings which are produced in sign system, through 'codes of signification' and operation of rules. (Then Foucault also claimed that human subject was also produced by such rules and codes) that all the individual creations like art / literature are closely connected and continuity of the previous generations I works of art. These are the emanations of cultural system and meanings should be understood in accordance with that cultural system.

Paul de man (a leading Yale deconstructionist) argues that the logical and grammatical structure of language has a clear division in literary text and this play of signification which is undividable is just because of this division.

“The function of this centre was not only to orient,

balance and organized the structure. One cannot

in fact conoeive of an unorganized structure but

above all to make sure that the organizing

principles of the structure would limit what we

might call the free play of the structure."29 63

That language being used to criticize the text is helpful for the

text. And the text which is evaluated hefps to form the language. In this

context we can find that language and text cannot be 'separated' from

one another and language is quite helpful to create an objective reality.

Believing this post structuralist assumption that all reality is a social

construction and according to them there is no ‘objective reality'. Every

culture has a dominant group that determines the ideology, so

consciously or unconsciously they represent the ideology of that

specific culture which they represent.

Some of the writers challenged the dominant cultures like

Gabriel Garcia Marquez, Toni Morrison, and Edward Said etc. They reject the values, ethics and opinion about life of an individual, and think that it doesn’t matter, but as on the whole.

“We know that a text is not a line of words

releasing a single ’theological’ meaning (the

message of the author- God) but a

multidimensional space in which a variety of

writing, none of them original, blend and clash.

The text is a tissue of quotations drawn from the

1,30 innumerable centres of culture. 64

5. Psychoanalytic criticism: Jungian criticism

"In the largest sense, ell criticism is psychological

criticism, since all criticism and theory proceed

from assumption about the psychology of humans

who make or experience or are portrayed in

literature. When Plato speaks of poetry enfeebling

the mind or of poetic creation as a divine madness,

when Aristotle writes of catharsis or Coleridge of

imagination, they are making psychological statements."31

Psychoanalytic criticism is basically a type of applied psychoanalysis which is deepty apprehensive with communication between conscious and unconscious process and with the laws of mental functioning. When we study the psychoanalytic criticism, we observe one thing prominently that it concentrates on the relationship between the writer and the creation.

With the passage of time the Studies of psychoanalytic criticism widens its achievements. On the first place when a writer creates a piece of art then the critic traces its origin to go back in authors mind, touching the intention that makes the writer a creator and then finds the relationship between the writer and his creation. These investigations are too necessary to achieve original results. When a critic goes through that piece of art and checkout the series of works: 6S

“In explaining the nature of a work of literary art,

the critic is often led Into psychology, into a

discussion of the state of mind out of which literary creation arises. '32

Evidence from antiquity proves that Aristotle is not concerned with ’how

tragedy comes in creation1 had he been interested in ‘how1 then he would be more powerful in describing theory of tragedy.

"A poetic 'text', as I interpret it, is not a gathering

of signs on a page, but is a psychic battlefield

upon which authentic forces struggle for the onfy

victory worth winning, the donating triumph over oblivion,’’33

Now the relationship between reader and text is too important in the theory of psychoanalytic/ Jungian criticism, Norman N. Holland applied ego psychology’ to the study of literature. It is the study of the behaviours of the characters as well. It is the study of the author’s mind and his creation and then defines relationship between author and creation. It is the study of ‘collective unconsciousness’. Sometimes the works of art are too complex but if we judge these works and analysis them in the light of psychology it becomes easier to understand complexed literature. Like Eliot's The Waste Land’ is a beautiful expression of myth. He creates imagery from beginning to end and achieves his goal. 66

Basically this theory is built on Freud's theory of psychology.

The key note of his theories is the study of unconscious, the study of desire and then the defence of a person as well, because a man is unaware of the conflicts of his unconscious. From childhood a child goes through different stages, many happy and unhappy events occur in his life. These events make an impact on his/her unconscious and finally these desires come in different positive and negative forms. He further defines those desires and unconscious. Conflicts raise form infantry to adulthood. Then these affect three areas of mind:

• Id: it is the main location of ’drives' that is called libido, where all

the desires come into existence.

* Ego: This is the defence against the powers of the ’drives1. • Super ego: It begins from childhood and finally manifests as a result of The Oedipus complex. It is the area of unconscious

that is the house of judgment of self and others.

So all above mentioned elements of mind influence our behaviours and this is true that these behaviours can be seen in the writings of writers, Sometimes writers continuously use prominent / typical words in their writings. So a psychoanalytic critic has to go In the subconscious of writer to find out the reason for using these specific words. Harold Bloom and Jacques Lacan are the main interpreters of the psychoanalytical theory of criticism. 67

"Bloom combines the archetypal criticism of

Northrop Frye with a psychoanalytic approach to a

poetic influence, Frye’s self-enclosed literary

universe, a benign, cooperative realm in which

literature refers only to itself, is invaded by themes

of contestation." 34

This is the conflict of personal world and external world. It

depends upon the reader as well, that what he wants to extract from

that specific piece of art / literature.

Jungian criticism

Carl Jung was the student of Freud. He gave a theory of

collective unconscious, and through which all human species bound.

He made a strong relation between collective unconscious and literature because of psychoanalysis. It is closely related to Freudian theory.

All symbols, imagery, stories based on myth are taken from history of mankind. Jung developed archetypal myths, searched for the symbols to execute original meaning of a text. A strong connection between archetypes and text can be seen and there are characters that illustrate the archetypal figures like great mother or nurturing mother in literary works. 68

"His theory of the human personality is built on the

concept of a self as the true centre of the psyche

which, for Jung comprises, the totality of all

psychic processes, conscious as well as

unconscious.

Symbol as motif and as sign:

When we read a piece of art, our attention moves in two directions to understand it: One is inward: we focus on words, the things they mean. The second is outward: to understand literature and extract the verbal pattern' they make and impact on readers. But one thing is common in both understandings that we are dealing with symbols as well. When we are concerned with out wards, then we can understand it with a series of representations'. So the characteristics of that symbol we may recognize it with its noise etc.

These symbols are like signs. For example we take 'cat' or 'dog' as a symbol or sign. But it is not a symbol of any thing unless it connects and correlates the event. Northrop Frye is the seeker of objectively in his thinking and writings. He understands literature with the 'system of modes' Symbols, myths and genres, these can be seen in historically established patterns, and these come from the common desires of men. 69

“Psychoanalytic theory had an impact on literary

studies both as a mode of inspiration and as a

theory about language, identity and the subject.

On the other hand, along with Marxist it is the most

powerful modem hermeneutics and authoritative

meta-language or technical vocabulary that can be

applied to literary works, as to other situations, to

understand what is 'really' going on. This leads to

a criticism alter to psychoanalytic themes and relations/38

6. Marxist criticism

Marxist literary theory understands literature in relation to historical and social reality as interpreted from a Marxist point of view.

Marxist literature reflects the forces that show conflict in society and class structure as well. It shows ultimately socialist behaviour based on

Karl Marx theories. Who is highly influenced by the philosophy of

Hegel. No doubt it reveals truth about society, class struggle and shows a clear conflict between upper class and lower class. How the ruling upper class is enjoying every facility of life and fulfil their needs and wants but, it’s difficult to survive for lower class Marx statement which is quoted by Raman Selden:

“It is not the consciousness of men that

determines their being, but, on the contrary, their 70

social being that determines their consciousness-1137

Marxist literature is reaction against capitalism. It is true depiction of worker class seeking their basic needs. Their tough material conditions make great impacts on lower class. Then realist writers do their best to reveal their economic as well as moral conditions. It views that literature which is a part of the material environment of society, but not merely a reflection.

Marxist adopts material dialect’ in literature. They search for the economic base of society as well as material realities, So all these contradictions, conflicts will reflect in literature in art or music as well.

Because all these forms of expression are derived from society. This conflict leads to revolution by oppressed class, they make new grounds for a new system where capitalism is no more. The benefit of their struggle will ultimately go to working class because when the equal society will compose, so there every one will own everything.

“In Marxist texts on this materialists concept, Marx

and engles and Balzac, Lenin on Tolstoy, is a qua

material, reflection of objective reality, that

literature is conceived as an historic reality- in its

very form, which scientific analysis seeks to grasp."38 71

We find George Lukacs as a key figure fn Marxist criticism (who

was Hungarian) who developed the theory of reflection. He thought that literary works are reflections of society. Macherey Said:

"The task of Marxist critic is to make vocal

those silences and expose the texts

unconscious content. Thus, he is concerned

with a kind of Sub-text."39

Here the sub-text is that text which is unwritten but holds the main ideology of that specific piece of literature. In fiction silences, gaps and other things that are internally connected to the main theme are 'sub-texf , that may be narrative or symbolic also, but the historical as well as ideological / socialist perspective must be more dominant in the specific piece of art.

Terry Eagleton, a British Marxist theorist, developed many views of Althusser and Macherey. He made a good relationship between ideology and literature, examines the “outside ideology' of text and ideology of the text as well. According to Marx, ideological system is the product of social and economic existence. Louis Althusser has had influence on Marxist literary theory. To him ideology is a relationship of individual with his circumstances. The main reality of history is that all the forces which are struggling from generation have their own history,

No ideology can be produced in one night, behind ideology, and there we see years struggle. 72

“The relation between text and production is a

relation of labour the theatrical instruments

(staging, acting skills and so on) transform the Yaw

materials' of the text into a specific product, which

cannot be mechanically extrapolated from an inspection of the text itself." *°

Any form of fiction or verse is deeply interconnected with history.

So in this way, we come to know that Marxist discourse is not a sudden element is society, but it has a historical ideological background in itself. But the text which we can see is the only way to describe the social conditions of the society as well. The theories gradually come into being; it's a struggle against capitalism. And every injustice of society reveals in literature, now this is the duty of the Marxist critic, to analyze and judge the literary work, the class problems' as well to discover the original thought, original ideology that these type of thinking and thinkers are the main stream of society. They fead the society in a positive way. This type of 'literary catharsis’ is necessary for a healthy society as well.

Where capitalist system made negative social Impacts on society the Marxist ideas are understandable easily. If a cultural data of society gives us complete details about the social as well as economic conditions, then we can easily check out the impacts of different theories of literature on the cannon of literary criticism. In this way now we can judge that Marxist approach is enjoying the place that is really 73

considerable for academic 'critical approach*. Jt directly concerns with

the socio-economic as weli as historical processes of society.

Accordingly it negates the formalistic emphasis on the interpretations of

literature.

“Marxist terminology connects, directs and

corrects the surplus of the writers material

connects him with the surplus of tendency and

latency that reality produces about the so-called facts.”41

The theory gives us complete details about society and the method it adopts is dialectic. We can see the systematic doctrines of socialism and communism in Karl Marx writings as well as friedrich

Engles. They concentrate on the struggle between working class and their capitalist masters. In the end when classless society will establish, that will be a golden age for them. In mid nineteenth century Ralph

Waldo Emerson and Walt Whitman were influenced by this thought and they projected it in their writings. In the early nineteenth century a large number of writers expressed their interest in social reforms' and here we can see a social stress in their writing for projecting the movement of social history. Some theorists think that Marxist only stress on content but less concerned with form. 74

“Marxist criticism is a tense dialectic between

society and literature, between an attitude toward

history and an appreciation of art."42

A Marxist critic never reflects the form but he focuses on

content, As for as literature is concerned the writings reflect the

thoughts of writer and society. It is a true reflection and they reflect

truth about social tensions. We can see this in the fiction of ‘Russian

realists' like Dostoyevsky. Chekhov, Gogol and Tolstoy as well as

western writers like George Eliot, Dickens. Conrad.

Mln truth every work reflects to some degree the

age of its composition and thus the condition of

society, but the connection of the Marxist would be

that fiction formed without benefit of Marxist

principles can never show true social wholeness or

meaningfulness" 43

7. Reader response criticism / Reader oriented theories

It is that kind of theory in which a critic can use different type of lenses like feminist, psychoanalytic or structuralist as well, It considers

‘readers reaction' to literature as an important source for the elaboration / discussion of the text's meaning. In reader response theory: 75

i. Reader’s rale is very much inevitable to under stand

literature,

ii. Reader always does his best to consume / understand the

meaning of literary text in an optimistic way.

Stanley Fish, Norman Norwood Holland are the key persons, many

other critics also join them but their approach towards reader's

response is quite better than others,

“The reader's response is evidence of the

presence of poetic meaning at a given point in the

text but is not constitutive of it."44

A reader is always active in conceiving the meaning of specific piece of literature. Every person / reader has his own way of reading.

He constructs the meanings according to his approach and always consciously or unconsciously works on the text to execute the original meaning. Here the reader / perceiver has central role in understanding meaning, and this philosophical approach is well known as phenomenology. He decodes the message written in the text and makes it meaningful. Here is a difference between reader, narrator and narrate©, ideal reader.

Narrator/ Author: A person who is describing the story / novel poem

etc, 76

Reader: A person who is reading that specific piece of

literature.

Narratee: That person who is addressee.

Ideal reader: That sort of person who understands every move

and action of writer.

Open text always invites reader to go deep in text and get

access to the mind / consciousness of the author. A German theorist

wants to make a bridge between Russian formalism (that only

considers the value of text and pays no attention to history as well as

social theories which simply ignore the text) and reader response theory.

This is an important way to elaborate and evaluate a literary text, and how to make a difference between literary or non literary uses of fanguage. When we judge trends of specific period or specific writer we should establish the criteria of judgment according to the works or dignity of the subject. Critics of the nineteenth century rejected the formalistic approach and increased the direct involvement of reader.

"The ‘actual reader1 receives certain mental

images in the process of reading: however, the

images will inevitably be coloured by the reader’s

‘existing stock of experience1. If we are atheists we

will be affected differently by the Wordsworth 77

poem— than if we are Christians. The experience

of reading will differ according to our past experiences. " 45

Now the task of the critic is to explain and judge the impacts of

text on reader then text as an object. The experience of reading and

making of images in the practice of reading will definitely be different

according to our past experiences. These imaginary objects and their adjustments according to our expectations are modified with the text.

“Transactionai/Reader Response Theory is

constructivist in nature because it emphasizes in

the active role of the reader in meaning making."46

No doubt the reader oriented theories challenge the text oriented theories like formalism, new criticism. But in different times different critics pay attention on different aspects. Some critics focused on hermeneutics and phenomenology like Jauss and Iser, Fish believes on sequence of words while Bleich admires the subjective psychology of the reader.

“Different sets of reading strategies and norms

produce different communities of interpreters."47

All the blank gaps in the literary text have to be filled in by the reader, just to interpret the text. So in this way, reader response criticism means that this theory has optimistic view in it. That text must 78

be read in the light of history, social and cultural horizons. So that

reader’s point of view or emotions are at priority level.

8. Feminist criticism

In late 1960's we can find Feminist literary theory for the

evaluation / interpretation of literary text and now a days it becomes an

important theory. It shows its roots in literature of every culture. It

shows women experiences in every genre, notably novel as well as poetry. Furthermore we can see how the women are suppressed economically, socially, politically, as well as psychologically? How in male dominant societies women have to face such problems and look for those aspects of culture that are patriarchal?

“Just as the masters are never obliged to leam the

language of the slave."48

In this way, critics are seeking to explore ’explicit* and ‘implicit’ misogyny about women in male writings. Women writers are often ignored and if we are right in our opinion mostly they are excluded from the contribution to literary tradition also. Unless and until a woman has a too much writing force to defend herself or another condition is to explore women's literary tradition as there is a tendency not to acknowledge their contribution. These Gender issues always play a part in general cultural life as weil as in the experiences of literature. 79

According to Christian philosophy, they portray ‘Eve’ the basic

origin of sin and death in world. So they focus on this point and want to

make women stand on that place. Critic has to check out this behaviour

in literature that how does a writer portray the relationship between male and female in his writings, male and female roles in a society and women's creativity in literature as well.

"It questions the long-standing, dominant, male,

phallocentric ideologies (which add up to a kind of

male conspiracy), patriarchal attitudes and male

interpretations in literature (and critical evaluation

of literature), ft attacks male notions of value in

literature- by offering critiques of male authors and

representations of men in literature and also by

privileging women writers." 49

Furthermore it challenges and rejects the male ideology about women feelings and thinking about life. Because that it is a traditional approach of male, so they breakdown these old ideas about women and show the new horizons of female mind and behaviours. This discourse more deeply observes the language and style of female writers in their writings. So if it exists (the difference of language from male) the distinctions will make automatically. This will result in sexual polarization- It is the recognition of women how the women's own writings are important. We may find two traditions which are based on

French as well as Anglo-American critics, the first considers the 80

fundamental distinction not the biological basis, is about the way in

which women and men are thinking differently, as a result they write

differently. These are 'essentialists' associated with French feminism.

Other is relativists1 (associated with Anglo-American critics) they

analyze the male and female authors writings that how they represent men and women In their writings.

“Feminist criticism begins, according to Sydney

Janet Kaplan, in the personal response of women

readers to women writers, and in the implicit

repudiation of any critical stance which claims to

be objective."50

Its origin is in the struggle for women's rights which was initiated by the different female writers In late 18th century and in 20th century we can see a clear picture of this movement that the critical works of

Rebecca west and Virginia Woolf, concerned with women authors.

Who portrays women suffering from economic and cultural discrimination I disadvantages and she gave the term 'patriarchal society1.

The post war period is also very important in the evaluation of feminist criticism. It is the issue of women’s cultural identification as well as rote of a woman in society and why there are few writers or is there any difficulty for women to write? The representation of women by male authors is aiso a very important debate in feminist criticism. In 81

latG 1960 s another debate arises in this theme that how women are

suppressed by male and women have to face injustice in society.

"Suppression, distancing, alteration or any other

defences against women's role in a text's creation

are compelling examples of women's history, and are therefore a vital subject for feminist criticism."51

We can see this sense of injustice in the works of Marry Ell man,

Lenin Showalter and Kate Millet etc. This theory is concerned with the socio-economic pressures (which a woman have to face) on feminine side and specially in literature it is concerned with the female authors socio- economic position and behaviours of mate critics and publishers as well. Helene Cixous a most important French feminist theorist has a great influence on feminist criticism. She is concerned with language and believes that female has to find out their own 'linguistic space1 but she is not rigid in her point of view.

Well on the other hand when we see the influence and result of feminist criticism. We easily can understand it with the impacts of post structuralism with Marxist approach as well as with moral approach.

Josephine Donovan says in her essay:

"Feminist criticism is moral because it sees that

one of the central problems of western literature is

that in much of it women are not human beings, 82

sets of consciousness. They are objects, who are

used to facilitate, explain away, or redeem the

projects of men.*52

So in this way it's an attempt to reveal the feminine ideology and

truth and unmask the gender discrimination in literature. It‘s an attempt

to unveil the ‘collective female literary Career' psychodynamics of

female thinking, ideology and creativity. It is the presentation of the

women’s inside.

9. Postmodernism

Postmodernism connotes change and development in literature, art, music, architecture, philosophy etc., It signifies different tendencies since the 1940’s Or 1950’s. The term ascribes certain reaction against modernism though there are some common features also.

The staunchest upholder of postmodernism in cultural sense is

Jean-Francois Lyotard. In his book The Post Modern Condition' rejected the idea especially the 'grand narratives of progress’ and condemns Jurgen Habermas’ thought that believes of enlightenment or ideals of reason and progress are the basis of postmodernism. Lyotard takes postmodernism as an outcome of late 20th century culture.

Fredric Jameson (a Marxist critic) also assails postmodernism as a socio-economic product. Though he attaches certain importance to it but insists to take it as a capitalistic cultural phenomena. Linda 83

Hutcheon. alone is not concerned with the cultural aspects of postmodernism. She remains engrossed with postmodernism, literature and art. She distinguishes postmodernism from modernism.

Initially 'avant-garde' movements in literature and art are considered modernist in nature. Postmodernism prevailed different experimental techniques in fiction, in drama and poetry. It does not recognise tradition and conform to authority.

Linda Hutcheon finds use of pastiche, fragmentarinlsm as common in both modernism and post modernism. There are other distinctive features:

"Other discernible features of postmodernism are

an eclectic approach, aleatory writing, parody and

pastiche. Nor should we forget the importance of

what is called magic realism in fiction, new modes

in science fiction, the popularity of neo-Gothic and

the horror story.* 53

Marxist, Feminist, Psychoanalytical, Post-structuralism criticism are other aspects or facets of postmodernism,

10. Post colonial criticism

One, who is well aware of the world politics and trends in literature, can easily locate post colonialism in literature. Post colonial 84

critics are deeply attached with the literature produced by colonized

authors as well as ‘Colonial Powers'. Deeply concerned with the issues of economics, religion, culture and power, judge the Impacts of these elements on colonized territory’s literature. Furthermore they evaluate the sufferings of 'colonialized people' in literature. As being colonialized, people has to face cultural issues and issues relating to identity and many more. So the work of the critic i3 to extract these elements from the writings of different authors. Edward Said’s writing

Orientalism’ 1978 Is the land mark in post colonial criticism.

"Said argues that colonialist scholarship

constructed an 'other'... this alienated entity, this

‘other’ was the orient'. Some features of this orient

were exaggerated. Some suppressed and the

1,54 complexity was ignored.

Basically Orientalism’ is an analysis of ’European colonial intentions and attitudes'. It is concerned with the dominant forms of

'knowledge making' of western literary canon and their role. The 'first world' cultures criticized by the 'post colonial critics' (also called third world or 2nd world critics) as dominant culture and colonial behaviours.

Due to colonialism two types of cultures get the opportunity to meet and contradict each other. These colonial powers forcefully Imply their values on the colonized people, and when they become independent and get rid of these colonial powers, still have great 85

influence on the natives and still remain in the minds of colonized

people. This may result in conflicts of identity' because suppressors

always destroy the culture, norms and traditions of native (suppressed)

people It may lead to the adoption of colonial culture or tradition as

well as language.

“Post colonial theory discusses the historical

development of those countries which were

formally part of colonial empires, examining what

new found opportunities exist for oppressed

people to find their own voices in a situation where

the outlook of colonial masters has been

internalized through education"56

In these times, when colonial culture is at its peak, different writers, poets make their opinion about cultural feelings as well as individual. It can be seen in their writings. These may be funny, ironical or metaphoric. Those critics who deal with post colonial literature and called post colonial critics, their major concern is to extract original thought of native from writings, their depressions, oppressions and cultural problems etc. It has been a popular subject from 1970's, been taught in American and British universities.

The most relevant body of literary theory involves

the study of literature that was produced in, or in

about, the experience of people who once lived in K6 areas that were colonized, usually by the major western powers (especially Great Britain). This literature is usually categorized under the heading of post cotoniatism."56 References 87

References

1. Dr, Raghukul Tilak, Principles & History of Literary Criticism,

Rama Brothers Educational Publishers, New Delhi, p28

2. Maurice Hutton, Many Minds, The Musson Book Company

Limited, Toronto, date N/A, p 62

3. Lewis Campbell, Plato’s Republic. John Murray, Albemarle

St., London, 1902, p87

4. A short history of literary Criticism, Vernon Hall, The Merlin

Press, London, 1963, p3

5. A short history of literary Criticism, Vernon Hall, The Merlin

Press, London, 1963, p3

6. Dr. J. K. A. Wertheim, Hellenic Influence on the English

Poetry of the Nineteenth Century, H.G.Van Dorssen,

Amsterdam, date N/A, p126

7. Rafey Habib, A history of literary criticism: from Plato to

present, Blackwell publishing ltd. 2005.UK, p60

8. Wilbur Scott, Five Approaches to Literary Criticism, Collier

Books, New York, 1962, p23

9. ibid p25

10.David Daiches ,Critical Approaches to Literature,

Longman Green and Co. Ltd., London, 1956, p53

11. Northrop Frye, Anatomy of criticism, Princeton university

press, New Jersey. 1973, p85 88

12.J.A.Cuddon, Penguin Dictionary of literary terms and literary

theory. (Penguin Books Ltd., London), 1992, p351

13, Wilbur Scott, Five Approaches to Literary Criticism , Collier

Books, New York, 1962, p179

14.Northrop Frye, Anatomy of criticism, Princeton university

press, New Jersey, 1973, p86

15.Wilbur Scott, Five Approaches to Literary Criticism , Collier

Books, New York, 1962, pi82

16.K.M. Newton (ed.), Twentieth Century Literary Theory, A

reader, St. Martin Press Inc., New York, 1997, p1

17.K.M. Newton (ed.), Twentieth Century Literary Theory, A

reader, St, Martin Press Inc., New York, 1997, p 27

18.Raman Selden(ed), A Reader's Guide to Contemporary

Literary Theory, Prentice Hall Publishers Ltd., UK, 1997,

p18

19.Jonathan D, Culler, Structuralist Poetics, Routledge

Clasics, UK, 2002, p5

20.K.M. Newton (ed.), Twentieth Century Literary Theory; A

reader, St. Martin Press lnc„ New York, 1997, p9Q

21.Raman Selden(ed), A Reader's Guide to Contemporary

Literary Theory, Prentice Hall Publishers Ltd., UK, 1997,

p66 89

22.Gayatri Chakravorty SpivakfTranslator), Jaques Derrida

of Grammatoiogy, The John Hopkins University Press,

USA, 1997, pvi

23.Raman Selden{ed), A Reader's Guide to Contemporary

Literary Theory, Prentice Hall Publishers Ud., UK, 1997, P72

24.J.A.Cuddon, Penguin Dictionary of literary terms and literary

theory, (Penguin Books Ltd., London), 1992, p735

25.Raman Sefden(ed), A Reader's Guide to Contemporary

Literary Theory, Prentice Hall Publishers Ltd., UK, 1997,

p150

26.Raman SeJden(ed), A Reader's Guide to Contemporary

Literary Theory, Prentice Hall Publishers Ltd., UK, 1997,

p154

27. fbid p157

28.K.M, Newton (ed.)f Twentieth Century Literary Theory, A

reader, St. Martin Press lnc„ New York, 1997, p112

29.K.M. Newton (ed.), Twentieth Century Literary Theory, A

reader; St. Martin Press Inc., New York, 1997, pi15

30 ibid p122

31.Norman Norwood Holland, Hollands Guide to psychoanalytic psychology and literature -and- 90

psychology, Oxford University Press, Inc., New York, 1990, p29

32.David Daiches ,Critical Approaches to Literature,

Longman Green and Co. Ltd., London, 1956, p340

33.K.M. Newton (ed), Twentieth Century Literary Theory, A

reader, St. Martin Press Inc., New York, 1997, p149

34,Erenar , Makaryk{ed.), Encyclopaedia of Literary

Theory, Approaches, Scholars, Terms, University of

Toronto Press, Inc., Canada, 2000, p258

35.Elizabeth Wright, Eva Elizabeth Wright, Psychoanalytic

Criticism; a reappraisal, Routledge Publishers, USA,

1998, p59

36.Jonathan Culler, Literary Theory, Sterling Publishing

Co., Inc., 2009, p171

37.Raman Selden(ed), A Reader's Guide to Contemporary

Literary Theory, Prentice Hall Publishers Ltd., UK, 1997,

p88

38.Terry Eagleton, Marxist Literary Theory: A Reader,

Blackwell Publishers Ltd., Oxford, UK, 1999, p278

39.J.A.Cuddon, Penguin Dictionary of literary terms and literary

theory, (Penguin Books Ltd., London), 1992, p530

40.K.M. Newton (ed.), Twentieth Century Literary Theory; A

reader, St. Martin Press Inc., New York, 1997, p171 91

41.Terry Eagfeton, Marxist Literary Theory: A Reactor,

Blackwell Publishers Ltd., Oxford, UK, 1999, p86

42.Wilfred L. Guerin , A hand book of critical approaches to

literature, third edition, Oxford University Press, New

York, 1992, P313

43.Wilfred L. Guerin, Earl Labor, A Handbook of Critical

Approaches to Literature, Oxford University Press,

1992, p315

44.Jane P. Tompkins (ed.), Reader-Response Criticism:

From Formalism to Post structuralism, The John

Hopkins University Press, USA, 1980, pxiil

45.Raman Selden(ed). A Reader's Guide to Contemporary

Literary Theory, Prentice Hall Publishers Ltd., UK, 1997,

p56

46.Diane H. Tracey, Lesley Mandel Morrow, Lenses on

Redding: An Introduction to Theories and Models, The

Guilford Press, New York, 2006, p56

47.K.M. Newton (ed.), Twentieth Century Literary Theory, A

reader, St. Martin Press Inc., New York, 1997, p188

48.ibid p222

49.J.A.Cuddon, Penguin Dictionary of literary terms and literary

theory, Penguin Books Ltd., London, 1992, p338 92

50.Gayle Greene, Coppelia Kahn, Making a Difference:

Feminist Literary criticism, Methuen & Co., New York,

USA. 1985, p37

Sl.ibid p244

52.K.M. Newton (ed.), Twentieth Century Literary Theory, A

reader, St. Martin Press Inc., New York, 1997, p214

53.J.A.Cuddon, Penguin Dictionary of literary terms and literary

theory, Penguin Books Ltd., London, 1992. p734

54.Dr. Tariq Rehman The News’ October 02, 2003,

Edward Said: An Obituary.

55.Christa Kneilwotf, Christopher Norris, The Cambridge

History of Literary Criticism, Vol. IX, Twentieth Century

Historical, Philosophical and Psychological

Perspectives, Cambridge University Press, UK, 2001,

Page 6

56.George Ritzer, Globalization: A Basic Text .John Wiley

and sons Ltd., UK, 2010, Page 512 Chapter 93

Chapter 3

Urdu Criticism

1- Language and Cultural evolution in Sub-Continent

The Indo-Pak subcontinent had been inhabited by many races.

It had been house of early civilizations like. Soan Valley. Mehr Garh. and Indus valley civilization etc., many races migrated here from other parts of the world, ambitious warriors challenged its independence, many sought for its treasures, many invaded it and plundered it. Some went back and some made it their home and stayed here. No doubt shaken by surging disruptness, conspiracies, political upheavals, war fare and wrangling, but led to a rich diverse and dynamic civilization ever on increase, ever ready to welcome new but tightly and strongly held its own traditions, clung to its old culture, resulting in a rich amalgam of different cultures or civilizations.

"The history of civilization in the Indian

subcontinent begins in the northwest (now mainly

Pakistan). This region formed an extension of the

Middle East/ Iranian cultural zone and it was from

there that it acquired Neolithic farming techniques

by 5000 BC. The techniques spread on, first t o

Central India and then to the far south by 2000 BC."1 94

a- The Dravidians and other invaders (From 5000 BC to

712 AD) and their Impacts

The history of human habitation over here dates back to 5000

BC when Bronze culture flourished in the cities of Mohenjo Daro' and

Harappa’. The Indus valley civilization, a well organized and well

groomed urban society, enjoyed peak from 2300 BC to 1700 BC. It

came to an end due to reasons yet unknown. After the decline the

centre of Bronze Civilization shifted to the Ganges by 1500 BC.

The local Dravidian culture suffered a serious set back by the

arrival of Aryans from Eastern Europe and Central Asia 1700 BC. The

Aryans settled in villages, introduced caste system and divided the people according to the work they did. They imposed deep imprints of

their culture on the ’Dravidians’. The Aryans were followed by the

Persians in 515 BC. They conquered all the land and remained the masters till 4th century BC. Then Alexander arrived with its cultural impacts. Though he returned in 325 BC but some soldiers settled here

(Kalash Valley) to prolong the Greek cultural impacts. The Mauryan dynasty established itself in the subcontinent made it a Hindu society.

Then the sub continent was Invaded by the Parthians the Kushans, the

Huns etc. these people came and went but left behind their culture being taken up by the local people. Hinduism was followed by

Buddhism being practiced by the local and also by the neighbours. It reached its climax and then replaced by the Islamic culture. In 712 AD 95

the Arabs came, the subcontinent became an Arab territory for the next

300 years bearing deep impacts on its culture language and art.

b- The Impacts of 'Mughals' on local language as well as

culture

The Mughals especially had contributed a lot in changing the

focal culture. They introduced Persian culture and made Persian

language as a lingua Franca of the subcontinent. Later the new

language Urdu (took its birth from Sanskrit, Arabic and Persian) saw

Persian as a source of learning and knowledge.

"Urdu is supposed to have taken an independent

form as spoken language in the 13“M4th century.

It was almost the only communication link between

the ruling Afghans (who originally spoke Persian)

and the Indian populace. Naturally it took many an

influence from Persian which distinguished it from

its contemporary dialects, like Braj, Bangui and Punjabi."2

Consequently:

“Medievaf Urdu poetry grew under the aegis of

Persian poetry*3 96

The King 'Akber's' era was remarkable in translating and

flourishing literature. A close contact was developed between Persian

and Urdu literature. Art and music got the eminence and best of the

Greek, Sanskrit, Arabic and Persian pieces of art were translated in

Urdu. That was the golden period in the sense of flourishing literature

and translating from other languages. Urdu writers copied and followed

the foot steps of Persian masters. They respected Persian literary

traditions.

In 1600 AD, the growing demands of European nations, the

need to increase trade or the desire to gain more territories to

strengthen power made the Europeans to look out for further resources

beyond the borders. These varied motives of the imperialists-

economic, political and strategic- came together and encourage the

drive for empire.4

c- The East India Company and Imperialism in India

First of all the Portuguese came to the subcontinent in 16lh

century followed by the Dutch and the French, later the English came

and East India Company was established in India. They came here as

traders but strengthened themselves as the rulers. By 1805 East India

Company was a dominant power playing havoc with the local people

and the local culture.

By 1857. Indian war of independence, scorned by the English as

Indian mutiny began a new phase of history. The English started the 97

modernization of the subcontinent and imposed their culture and

language (Lord Macaulay's educational reforms can be seen in this perspective).

“Religion and religious symbols have been used

successfully both in colonial and post colonial

societies as a way of surviving, subverting and

challenging colonialism and Christendom."s

As per rule all types of oppressors behave and think alike and on the other hand suppressors at all stages have one thinking and ideology. They rule the subjects by dividing them and humiliating them and by establishing the supremacy of their own culture. In the consequence two classes are made in the oppressors:

• Who blindly and slavishly follow the rulers by copying their customs and culture and adopting their language and tradition,

They try to abridge the gap in a hope to have somewhat better

place in the eyes of the masters. . The other who hate the rulers, hate their culture and think them the cause of their deprivation and degradation. They also

condemn those locals who are trying to come closer to the

rulers. 98

d- Impacts of British Rule on Urdu language and literature in the Sub-Continent

Similarly the English masters deliberately left the Indians lagged

behind, purposefully condemned their culture and in turn make room

for their own culture, language and literature. The English language

being the Lingua Franca of the masters got the prime importance and

hold over local languages. Urdu receded back and now followed

English traditions obsequiously. It looked towards English language

and literary traditions as ideal. There were those who tried to flutter in

chains but to no avail. They tried to retain original place for Urdu,

Those pioneers who tried to let Urdu breathe in that hostile environment were few.

From centuries ruling/colonial nations leave impacts on

colonized nations. These may be in the form of culture, rites and rituals, trends, behaviours or if we are not wrong to say that every aspect of life accept changes or welcome it. The first basic impact of rulers is the language change. When specifically in subcontinent,

Babar' (king) came here and occupied the whole subcontinent, he flourished his culture through his army and through his rule (that was not a conscious effort but to rule over local natives). About 700 years the Muslim Mughal Empire ruled there.

That time the language of Mughais was Persian, so it took place of the official language of the country. Gradually they established their 99I

own system but the natives had to learn ‘Persian’ to take good place in government and society, We can observe the impacts of Persian language in literature of that time, in the style of poetry and in the form of different genres of poetry. Many new forms were introduced during that period, this language and culture may be observed in the other literatures of the subcontinent, like in the writings of Punjabi Sufi poets or late in Urdu poetry. When two traditions meet, they exchange their literature as well as culture. They also exchange local myths and concepts about life,

'The result of such transculturation was a mixing,

a "hybridity*. which was become an important issue

in colonial discourse."6

Every literature of world is influenced by the other literatures, like if we observe English literature, we can easily find specially French and Italian impacts on English literature.

In 1606, when Norman (French conqueror) conquered England, their main impact on the local inhabitants was the flourishing of their own language and culture as well. The French refined the local dialect, before them the local literature was called Anglo-Saxon literature and that was totally a representation of Christianity (called the classic period). Due to French influence many new forms and words of French come in English literature, ItIO

A remarkable contribution of Chaucer can never forget in this

concern. He translated French poetry and its characteristics in English.

“English literature that survives to us from religious

treaties to romances is translated or adopted from

writing in other languages, particularly French and

Italian. Chaucer's works show a conspicuous and

recurring interest in the issue of translation."7

He was influenced by the old poets of Italy and French* In short every nation borrow ideas, trends, thoughts and even words from others (especially invaders) and finally absorb them and make them a part of their own culture.

As far as Urdu is concerned, from its very beginning, she borrow words, form, style from local as well as foreign languages (especially from the languages of invaders). These impacts can be seen more clearly in different genres of literature like Ghazal, Masnavi, Qasida in old traditions and short story, drama, novel, sonnet, and many more can be quoted in this concern. New techniques/ experiments took place in Urdu literature (especially under the British influence).

Simultaneously these impacts are more visible in Urdu criticism, especially British colonial period is very important in this regard.

"Urdu literature under the impact of western

literary personalities and movements received a

new impetus, and, both in prose and poetry, new 10]t0l

thoughts, themes, forms and expressions were borrowed from western literature."*

Weil, adoption of language is not only the adoption of language but it is the adoption of culture, thought, myth, and traditions of that specific language. When Urdu was under Persian impacts, the local poets adopted Persian style of writing poetry or prose (Wafi Dakni's

‘Dewan’ is a starting point from where we can observe the influence of

Persian thought). From beginning till mid nineteenth century Persian thought and style was the main style of Urdu poetry.

British came here and colonized the united India in 1857 after the mutiny. But the Englishmen made their roots strong in Indian society through 'Fort William College’. 'Fort William College' was established in 1800, where John Giichrest (principal Fort William

College) started the remarkable work of translations. And through translations the local people especially intellectuals got knowledge about English literary style and trends of poetry.

“Doctor John Gilchrist who was at the head of the

Fort William College at Calcutta at the

commencement of the 19th century has been fitly

called the father of Urdu Prose. To his exertions

we owe the elaborations of the vernacular as an

official speech, and the possibility of substituting it tU2

for the previously current Persian as the language

of the Court and the Government.”9

2- The Contribution of Sir Sayyed Ahmad Khan and Impacts of other Movements on Urdu Literature and criticism

Sir Sayyed Ahmad Khan, the first Muslim intellectual and reformer, who realized the miserable plight of Muslims and tried to change their fate. He located the problem and forced backward

Muslims of India to take interest in western language and Jiterature and also tried to clear the mist of misunderstanding between the Muslims and the English. He established Aligarh College and approached renowned Muslim scholars in this regard. He asked them to translate western literature and through this flourish western thought, wisdom and knowledge in their local languages.

“The writers of Aligarh school did not look back

to it for guidance or inspiration when they

launched the new school of prose after the

mutiny. They wrote rather in response to a new

set of intellectual, social and economic

requirements, and they derived their inspiration

from the West and not from the Fort William College."10

Aligarh Movement is one of the main influential movements of united India. Other movements were religious like: Bhakti, Sofia, 103

Brahmo Samaj, Arya Samaj, Syed Ahmad, Tehreek-e-Khilafat,

Shuddhi, and Sanghtan etc, These movements were poJftical as welt

as religious and had no deep impacts on Urdu literature and criticism

as well. New thoughts from English language were promoted through

Aligarh movement. Sir Sayyed's admired the work of Half which was the promotion of naturalism in poetry.

"Azad and Hafi set out to replace their inherited

IndO'Persian concept of poetry with what they

understood to be the contemporary English one: a

Wordsworth-like vision of 'natural' poetry."11

Furthermore we can discuss the works of Sir

Sayyed's followers like: Azad, Hali and Shiblee and especially their impacts on Urdu criticism under one heading.

There were others who tried to abridge the gap between east and west like prevailing the western culture and literature in the subcontinent.

In this environment / circumstances Sir Sayyed Ahmad Khan was the only person who took pain and worked with devotion and loyalty, for the betterment of Muslims of India. His efforts in facilitating the understanding English language and literature and bringing western knowledge to the local people of India were much profound.

Impacts of his modernist thoughts were more powerful in later nineteenth century, with the adaptation of English knowledge and 104

culture. He was a bridge between local inhabitants and British

knowledge. He forced especially Muslims to learn modern knowledge

and thought. In this context, his social reforms and educational policy

was a milestone for the betterment and for uplifting the damaged /

suppressed colonized society, aiming to give local people full respect. authority and knowledge. But he was unhappy by the behaviours of local gentlemen:

"It is much to be regretted, however, that the

native members of the said committees, when

they sit with European and the educational

authorities in the same room, look more like

thieves who have entered a gentlemen's house for

theft, than like bold advocators of an important cause."12

He stressed on education and on adoption on English language.

He forced them to take part in the local educational committees and to support the local intellectuals. He was in favour to get knowledge from west. When he established Aligarh College, his main motive was to give modern knowledge in the field of science and arts.

"The aim of the {Mohammadan Anglo-Oriental)

college was to form a class of persons,

Mohammadan in religion, Indian in blood and IUS

colour ‘but English in tastes' in opinion and in intellect.

He blended the thoughts of East with the West and gave happy

results to the local people.

3. Hali and Azad’s Contributions to Urdu Literary

Criticism

Sir Sayyed's contemporary Altaf Hussain Hali was highly influenced by the thoughts of Sir Sayyed. He worked in a Government book depot for four years from 1870-1874.14 Halt's main responsibility was to edit and translate English books into Urdu. So this was his base of English language.

His 'Muqadama sher o shairi1 is a tremendous achievement in

Urdu literary criticism, written as a preface to his collection of poetry and it is the first manifesto of Urdu poetry.15Kaleemuddin Ahmad said:

893)dAlV* 16“-ÿ/fjtnfJ

(It can be said surely that Urdu criticism commenced with 'Muqadama sher-o-shairi' earlier it was just a supposition a myth and unsubstantial.) 106

His 'Muqadama sher o shafri’ is highly influenced by Wordsworth's 'preface to lyrical Ballads.

“It is still a matter of speculation whether Half was

acquainted with Wordsworth’s Preface to the

Lyrical Ballads. The Muqadama has a close

resemblance to it."’7

That it was not the matter of 'Sheer Coincident' that the

Wordsworth and Half's approach towards literary criticism seems same. He preached naturalism and advocated simple language and simple theme. That effort was under the instruction of the English government to replace Persian influence and denounce it as substandard. It is conformed that he was influenced by the western thoughts. Although he was not well versed in English and had to depend on translations but he had tried to convey the thoughts well.

Another drawback was his borrowed knowledge was limited to

Macaulay and Milton. He is considered the first practical critic in Urdu, and his remarkable writing 'Muqadama sher o sham’ (translated as introduction to poetry and poetics) is a preface to his collected poems.

The literary I critical taste which is developed in Hali was transferred from the translations of the literary work. So that was blown in Urdu literature as well.

Generally 'Muqadama sher o shairi' is divided in three parts; first he described the role and importance of poetry in all societies. To him [07

poetry is rooted in the society. It is affected by the society and in return

it affects the society. He quoted Milton in his Muqadama sher o shalri'

while describing the qualities of poetry as simple sensuous and passionate.19

But he failed to elucidate the term rightly. Old biographical

memoirs are too important in understanding critical behaviour of the

critics. These biographical memoirs have their own sociological and

historical importance, the true depiction of their age and Azad’s

‘Tazkira' (biographical memoir) called ‘Ab-e-Hayatf (translated as

'Water of life1) is one of main historical document in this perspective.

Dr. Sayyed Abdullah says:

19“-ÿtv

(The expertise, Azad has in making others understand the qualities of poetry of a particular period in the light of a specific cultural environment, is rare. In his critical style, cultural environment is also seen along with his aesthetical and impressionistic standard.)

‘Ab-e-Hayar is called the first remarkable significant history of

Urdu literature. 108

“For the first time it presents Urdu poetry against

some sort of historical background and gives

critical assessments of the poets in something

approaching a modem style."20

He not only described the literary history of his time but fixes the periods of Urdu poetry as well and places the Urdu poets according to his critical approach.

"Azad was a man of sterling qualities and

possessed a charming and impressive personality.

He was a bom orator and kept his audience spell

bound by his eloquences.

A. Twentieth Century and Impacts of English Literary Movements on Urdu Literature and Criticism

As I said earlier, that Sir Sayyed was not such a literary critic but his impacts on contemporary scholarship were deep rooted. Criticism in his age was somewhat dry, serious and reformative. Soon after him, in the start of 20Ul century the Romantic Movement started and evaluation of literary work was started on the basis of romanticism. His views about cultural life and socio-economic conditions of the Muslims of India were the main points to line up the critical aptitude towards right path and Hali adopted his views and followed him towards 1U9

modernity. That was a social change which began from the literary

tradition as well as critical perspective.

"The new forms in prose such as 'essay', 'review',

'newspaper article', 'novel', novelette1, short story',

'modem drama', 'biography', 'history' and 'literary criticism', all based on English example- have expanded the scope and usefulness of the

language as a vehicle of expression.1,23

After their great efforts the Urdu criticism getting stepped in modernism, new thoughts and trends and (taken from English literature and criticism) found place in the writings of intellectuals and their impacts can be seen more deeply in the 'Taraqi Pasand Tehreek' ( The

Progressive Movement) and 'Halqa Arbab'e-Zouq1. They adopted new styles of criticism. Before them in the age of Hali and Azad, criticism was just like review writing and there was no difference in review, criticism or remarks. But this movement made a remarkable contribution in literature as well as in criticism.

“Azad and Hali themselves, in their less doctrine

moments, know this perfectly well. As soon as

they move into the realm of practical criticism, their

official ideology seems discreetly to fade into the

background. They recognize that metaphorical

extravagance and complexity can be found very jll0la

earlyÿ and conversely that simplicity and

straightforwardness can be found very late."23

After 1935 Urdu criticism developed its own place by its thoughtful scientific principles. Nineteenth and twentieth century is very much important in Urdu literary as well as critical tradition. Azad and

Hali wrote natural poetry and were much influenced by Sir Syed, but this was the phenomena of that century.

"Altaf Hussain Hali and Mohammad Hussain Azad

advocated ralivatism particularly as a response to

colonial critiques of sensual, artificial qualities in

Urdu poetry."24

As we discussed earlier that under the impacts of British rule new trends started and new themes, styles of prose and poetry were adopted by the intellectuals and consequently new critical approaches like: impressionistic, formalistic, Marxist, linguistic and psychological criticism being used to evaluate Urdu literature. And under the British impacts/ English impacts of criticism, Urdu criticism recognised its boundaries and evaluated literature on these bases borrowed from

English.

"Urdu criticism, too, under the impact of European

concepts of criticism, came to the forefront and, for

the first time, systematic and evaluative criticism

was written in Urdu.”25 mUt

After the World War II, many changes can be observed in

literary criticism. Here in United India there was rapid development of

Marxist criticism and simultaneously in that period Formalistic criticism got roots in America. Two renowned movements of Urdu literature

'Anjuman Taraqi Pasand Musanafin', (Progressive writers movement. who are concerned with historical and social perspectives). In the age of Sir Sayyed criticism was mostly driven by western thoughts, but with progressive movement local and national interest got importance.

Their main focus was socio-economic conditions of society not the internal aspects of the text as well as psychological conditions of the writer.

"They made Urdu writers realize that the role of

literature as a weapon for social change was quite

valid in the eyes of a large number of people. Their greatest — or at least most notable, even if not property acknowledged are analyzed—

contribution was that they shifted the centre of

literary experience from afaq (the universe in the

abstract) to anfus (people and things)."28

It did not allow a free play of mind; it was limited in this respect.

Therefore psychoanalytic and aesthetic aspects of criticism were ignored and could not flourish in this scenario. As a reaction against this strictness, 'Halqa Arbab-e-Zouq' a new literary movement came aspects of into being and consequently psychoanalytic and aesthetical 112I2

criticism came to the foreground, A close reading of the text and the

mind of the writer got importance, Kalimuddin Ahmad, Mohammad

Hassan Askri and Mira ji were the prominent figures of this movement.

Kalimuddin Ahmad was the only person who was against the

progressive thoughts and he opened his lips to break the idols in this

temple,27He was most suitable learned person having sound

knowledge of Western literature.

"Prof, Ahmad remarks that every progressive

goes to the same fountain-head (i.e, Marxism) and

no one is prepared to undergo the rigours of

finding out a fresh fountain. In Prof, Ahmad's

words, as the progressives desire to propagate the

views of others they are no better than brokers or

agents who sell the goods actually obtained from

others and since the ideas are borrowed Prof.

Ahmad sees no reason why credit should be given

to the agents when one can get to the origins.

Consequently, now the only thing to be analysed,

as he says, is ‘how’ the things has been said.”2®

It opened a new phase of criticism concerned with Freud's

Illustration of mind, conscious and subconscious, ego. Id, superego, all these terms got attention. Multiple meaning of the text were extracted the labyrinths were unfolded to enhance the understanding of the reader 113llJ

In psychological relationships, writers and artists

continued to follow the fine of Jean Jacques

Rousseau, William Wordsworth and Feodor

Dostoevsky who, by direct, self conscious

observation and imagination, had revealed many

aspects of man's nature, from delicate sensing to

depths of hidden motivation. Their understanding

that knowledge comes by way of sense

experience and that environment influences

people's behaviour was now beginning to be

confirmed by experimental psychology with its

1,29 demonstrations of conditioned reflexes.

We can trace the imprints of Freud’s theory of subconscious and Carl Jung's theory of collective consciousness in Mira ji’s two renowned books 1 mashriq aur maghrib k naghmay' (songs of east and west) and ‘iss nazm mein’ {in this poem). We find another aspect in

Mira ji's poetry and essays a desire for a nation and a nationalist thought as well.

“Mira ji lived and spoke in contention with a desire

for this kind of masculinity as the proper stance for

a nationalist man who wants a nation. His essays

and poetry intersect with the voicings of a

nationalist movement in India."30 1l)414

Under Freud s theory of Psychoanalysis Dadaism, surrealfsm

and impressionism were boomed. In the third decade of 20th century a collective venture of Rashid Jahan and Ahmad Afi namely Angaray’

{blazing coals, a collection of short stories) marks the advent of a new technique ‘stream of consciousness’. Progressive movement accelerated modernism; there were some drawbacks in modernism i.e. the main focus was on complicated abstract structure of works. It may lead to the disinterest of the reader.

But now postmodernism is in vogue and the relationship of the reader with the original meaning of the text is strong. Just because of under modem Urdu criticism, progressive criticism flourished in the start of twentieth century.

(Though progressive movement has made valuable editions in poetry, is short story, drama and essay writing, but its greatest achievement place in criticism. His second achievement is that he bestowed it right all of his literature, took part in developing the sense of criticism and work.) efforts are for the clear critical aptitude in every creative U5

But as for ‘Halqa Arbab-e-Zouq' is concerned, their main perspective to see and evaluate fiterature and write new criticism and literature on aesthetical individual effort And evaluate it on psychological grounds; both these formalistic and psychological approaches are borrowed from west.

Critics of Urdu criticism do not follow only one school of criticism, but they do their job according to the piece of literature, and from there, they apply different school of thoughts and criticism and extract the results.

if!#1i-it><£-

(The main quality of Eclecticism is that it doesn't let a critic to stick with develop. a particular ideology and never let a particular critical style to for A critic's individuality is not retained never devised a method himself rather employs different and various methods of others.)

David Daiches exploring the same thought in another way. A critic cannot evaluate a literary text without applying many critical approaches to that piece of art. 1 J6

'The total vision or something approximating it

comes onfy to those who learn how to blend the

insights yielded by many critical approaches.”33

We as far as Urdu criticism is concerned as I already describe,

that the influence of English criticism is much deep in the sense that

our critics and writers were deeply influenced by not only the culture of

Englishmen but also they were impressed by the English language and

by foliowing it Engfish literary criticism also.

"But It was Frye who in 'Anatomy of Criticism’

(1957), developed myth criticism into an elaborate

critical system in which anthropological,

psychological, semantic and critical ideas were

brought into an organic relationship,"34

These intellectuals started learning English criticism, their form and style, and the knowledge they got from this language may want to appiy in the practical form on evaluating Urdu literature. They made many experiments and got successful in their style.

Every literature of the world has myth and Urdu literature have its deep grounds. So evaluation on new critical perspective, many of

Urdu critics successfully adopted new techniques of English criticism. like Ehtsham Hussain, Kalimuddin Ahmad, Gopi Chand Narang, Dr.

Wazir Agha, Shamsur Rehman faruqi, Mohammad Hassan Askari, Dr.

Sohail Ahmad, Dr. Tehstn Firaqi, Muhayuddin Qadri Zor etc. 117

Myth criticism nourished in Urdu under the Impacts of Northrop Frye’s Anatomy of Criticism’

"Even Urdu criticism is not free from the possible

influence of Frye. Since 1960, following the

publication of Anatomy of Criticism (1957), Gian

Chand, Sardar Ali Jaferi, Taracharan Rastogi to

mention a few, have opened up new horizons in

Urdu literary criticism,

Under the Progressive Movement, Marxist and Sociological

criticism go through Urdu criticism and make their roots deeper, and evaluating Urdu literature in Marxist and Sociological perspective made

ft more valuable in twentieth century. (Marxist approach flourished under the thoughts of Lenin. Kari Marx and Engels), In Progressive writers conference 1936, this point was quoted and got Importance:

k&Usli 36* \j\s-f\JZjM

(The object of our organization is to liberate art and literature from the fatal grasp of orthodox and by making it representation of man's struggle, pains and pleasures, lead to bright future for which mankind is struggling in this age.) nsll8

This is the modern approach towards modernity, Weil, it is fact

that Urdu literature is written according to social and economic

structure of society and subsequently literary criticism evaluate

literature accordingly,

Freud. Kar) Mane philosophies as well as scientific criticism. aesthetical criticism, historical criticism, sociological and relationship between literature and society goes stronger than ever.

Furthermore on observing Marxist approach one name have quite importance which is Akhtar Hussain Ray Puri, he observed Urdu literature according to Marxist approach, the tension between upper and lower class, class difference as well as In socio economic perspective. This tradition goes in further readings.

But one thing is much important in the study of Urdu literary criticism and impacts of English criticism on Urdu that none of critics adopted one thought, they observe literature according to the conditions, circumstances and socio-economic conditions of the society and in the light of psychology. Ehtsham Hussain gave the Urdu criticism a scientific study of literature.

U J\£jt t

Jjb tAXi Jt

37VMatL6r 119

(He is the only critic who uses his principles in his practical criticism

whereas mostly people don't follow their own rules. That’s why here we

find a great sense of responsibility. The harmony of his thoughts and explicit style is prominent everywhere.)

Dr, Ibadat Brelvi and Dr. Mohammad Hassan are also scientific critics. They have good clear approach about socio-economic relationship with life; they are the followers of progressive movement.

Dr. Sayed Abdullah, a renowned name in Urdu criticism, his writing style is much different from other critics. Syed Waqar Azeem’s most of the critical work is concerned with short story. He is not progressive in his approach but to some extent he is scientific. Kalimuddin Ahmad has deep impacts of English criticism and highly impressed by the

English/westem literature, criticism and ideology. In twentieth century another colour of practical criticism can find easily in Urdu criticism and that is Feminism,

In short, major Urdu literary genres were flourished under the impacts of English literature and then subsequently Urdu criticism as well. New critical theories were popularizing in Urdu literary scenario like: Romanticism, Marxism, Formalism, Psychoanaiytic criticism,

Realism, Impressionistic criticism in short the evaluation of Urdu literature was started evaluating on scientific grounds.

The name of Mohammad Hassan Askari is welt known as a brilliant Urdu critic and a bridge between East and West. He is deeply 120lln

influenced by western criticism, but we can't say that he is a romantic

or Marxist or other types of criticism. He has a great knowledge of

western criticism and doing practical criticism he applied his knowledge

and defend his views as well.

Askari began writing criticism in the 1940s as an

enthusiastic interpreter of Urdu literary world of

modem European modernism, of the entire series

of formal developments from Baudelaire and the

impressionists to Joyce, Eliot and Lawrence, In a

series of brief essays contributed to the literary

magazine Saqi during the fate 1940s and 1950s,

and in a large number of longer works, Askari

explored the relationship of Urdu writing to the

literature of modern West and argued that the

former could no longer find its way except insofar

as it came to terms with the latter.*3®

Furthermore, Abdur Rehman Bijnori was a pure romantic critic, and to some extent Hall is also a psychological critic. He has a clear impression of socio-economic conditions. As far as, Azad is concerned, the same situation is there, his socio-economic conditions are also variable, he belongs to that age in which, political conditions of sub-continent were not stable, English literature was translated in local languages like: Urdu, Sanskrit, Bengali etc. he was influenced by that thought but no clear opinion can be made about his criticism. Whatever 121

he was impressionistic or Marxist but he has all the cotours of criticism,

but the impression is light. Hali and Azad are just touching these

aspects of writers / poets but they did not follow one critical approach.

But when we talk about Allama Shiblee Nomani, he had clear impacts

and thoughts about aesthetical criticism and impressionistic criticism.

He is concerned with social, cultural and moral values. Like Azad and

Hali he accepts western authority but not at the expense of his Persian and Arabic knowledge. Rather Eastern touch dominates in his work.

His best known critical work is ‘Sher-ul-Ajam’ Vol.4, where he compared the renowned urdu poets of 'Anees' and 'Dabeeri.39 Well, writing about Firaq Gorakhpuri, and Majnon Gorakhpuri, Raheed

Ahmad Siddiqi, we can say that they were the impressionistic critics.40

In a nutshell Mohammad Hassan Askari has both the colours of impressionistic and psychoanalytic criticism and making new grounds for new criticism as well.

In short Marxist, psychoanalytic, impressionistic, aesthetical and comparative criticism, flourished during colonial period and after the

English rule. These approaches directly make impacts on the writers / critics. They practically apply their knowledge, while evaluating a piece of literature, Shamsur Rehman Faruqi, Mohammad Hassan Askari,

Kalimuddin Ahmad and Dr. Wazir Agha and many other critics evaluated Urdu literature on the grounds of new criticism. *

*

References 122

References

1. Jan Crofton (ed), The Guinness Concise Encyclopedia,

Guinness Publishing Limited, London, 1993, 236

2. Abida Samiuddin, Encyclopedic Dictionary of Urdu Literature,

Vol.1, Global Vision Publishing House, New Delhi, India, 2007,

p293

3. Mohammad Sadiq, A History of Urdu Literature, Oxford

University Press, Delhi, 1984, p14

4, Ian Crofton (ed.), The Guinness Concise Encyclopedia,

Guinness Publishing Limited, London, 1993, p266

5. Catherine Keller, Michael Nausner, Marys Rivera (ed.), Post

colonial Theologies: Divinity and Empire, Chalice Press, USA,

2004, p36

6. Ania loomba, Colonialism / Post colonialism (2nd ed.); the new

critical idiom, Routledge Publishers, USA, 2005, p62

7. Marilyn Corrie, A Concise Companion to Middle English

Literature, Blackwell Publishing Ltd., UK, 2009, p4

8. Abida Samiuddin (ed.), Encyclopedic Dictionary of Urdu

Literature, Vol.1, Global Vision Publishing House, New Delhi,

India, 2007, p297

9. Ram Babu Saksena, A History of Urdu Literature, (2nd ed), M/S

Ram Narain Lai. Allahabad, India, 1940, p242

10.Mohammad Sadiq, A History of Urdu Literature, (2* ed.). Oxford

University Press, Delhi, 1984, p291 123

11.Frances W. Pritchett, Nets of Awareness; Urdu Poetry and rts

Critics. University of California Press, USA, 1994, pxvi

12, Lieut, Colonel G.F.I. Graham. The life and work of Syed Ahmad

Khan, William Blackwood and Sons, London, 1885, p311

13.David Leiyveld, Mashirul Hasan, Aligarh’s First Generation:

Muslim Solidarity in British India, Oxford University Press, New

Delhi, 2003, p207

14.Malik Ram, Hall, Sahitya Akademi, India, 1982, p17

15.S.C, Bhatt, Gopal K. Bhargava, Land and People of Indian

States and Union Territories: in 36 Volumes, Haryana, Kalpaz

Publications, Delhi. 2006, p148

16.Kaleemuddin Ahmad, Urdu Tanqeed Per Ek Nazar, Ishrat

Publishing House, Lahore. p1Q

17,M. Assadudin, The Annual of Urdu Studies, vol18, 2003, Deptt.

Of Languages and culture of Asia, University of Wisconsin,

USA, p63

18. Altaf Hussain Halt, Muqadama Sher-o-shairi, (ed. Dr. Waheed

Qureshi), Educational Publishing house, Ali Garh, 1988, p127

19.Dr. Sayyed Abdullah, Isharat-e-Tanqeed, Sang-e-meel

Publications, Lahore, 2000, p149

20.Ralph Russell, The Pursuit of Urdu Literature: A select History,

(New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1992), p121 21.Amaresh Datta, The Encyclopaedia of Indian LiteraturefvolumeI A to Devo), Sahitya Akademi, India, 1987, p315 m

22.Sayyid Abdu’l - Latif, The Influence of English Literature on

Urdu Literature, Forster Groom & Co., Limfted, London, 1924,

pi35

23. Frances W. Pritchett. Nets of Awareness: Urdu Poetry and its

Critics, University of California Press, USA, 1994, p162

24, Kelly Pemberton, Michael Nijhawan (ed.), Shared Idioms,

Sacred Symbols, and the Articulation of Identities in South Asia,

RoutJedge Publishers. New York, 2009, p31

25,Abida Samiuddin, Encyclopedic Dictionary of Urdu Literature,

Vol.1, Global Vision Publishing House, New Delhi, 2007, p297

26.K.M, George, Modem Indian literature, an anthology vo!\ II,

Sahitya Akademi. India, 1993, page 432

27.Qaiser Zoha Alam, Language and Literature: D/Vers Indian

Experiences, Atlantic Publishers and Distributors, New Delhi,

1996, p103

26.Ibid, p105

29.Caroline F. Ware, K M. Panikkar, J.M. Romem(ed.). History of

mankind: Cultural and Scientific Development, (VoI. IV The

Twentieth Century), George Allen and Unwin Limited, London,

1966, p1201

30.Geeta Patel, Lyrical Movements, historical Hauntings: On

Gender colonialism and Desire in Miraji's Urdu Poetry, Stanford University Press, California, 2001. p29 31,Aal Ahamd Sarwar, Tanqeedi Isharay, 4* ed.. Idara Farogh-e-

Urdu. Lakhnow, p202 125

32.Dr. Ibadat Brefvi, Urdu Tanqeed Ka Irtiqa, Anjuman Taraqi-e-

Urdu, Karachi, 1956, p477

33.David Daiches, Critical Approaches to literature, Longmans,

Green and Co. Inc. New York, 1956, p398

34.Mohft K. Ray, Studies in literary criticism, Atlantic Publishers and

Distributers, New Delhi, 2002, p218

35.Ibid

36.Khalil-ur-Rehman Azmi, Urdu Mein Taraqi Pasand Adbl

Tehreek, Educational Book House, Ali Garh, 2002. p40

37.Dr. Sharlb Radolvi, Jadeed Urdu Tanqeed: Asoof-o-Nazriat,(4th

ed.) Uttar Pardesh Urdu Academy, Lakhnow. 1994, p368

38.Aamir R. Mufti, Enlightenment in the Colony: the Jewish

Question and the Crisis of Postcolonial Culture, Princeton

University Press, USA, 2007, p16

39.Rubina Shehnaz, Urdu Tanqeed mein Pakistani Tassawur-r-

qomiat,(unpublished Ph.D. Thesis),National University of

Modern Languages, Islamabad, 2004, p55

40. Dr. Sharib Radolvi. Jadeed Urdu Tanqeed: Asool-o-Nazriat,(4th

ed.), Uttar Pardesh Urdu Academy, Lakhnow, 1994, p307 Chapter 4 Part 1 126

Chapter 4

Punjabi Criticism

1. History of the Punjab in Literary Perspective

Punjabi language has about one thousand years literary history.

After a short introduction about language first, will come to the literature

and discuss later in detail the Punjabi litefary criticism.

History shows that 'Aryans’, who came in this region, the Indus

valiey, Mohenjo-Daro (Sindh) and Harappa (Punjab) were the speakers

of ’Vedic’.1 the local were called Dravidians and their native language

was ‘Prakrit’.2 Furthermore while writing about Aryans and the local

inhabitants Ain-ul-Haq Farid koti discussed:

“The Prakrit on the other hand was based upon the

structure of the Pre-Aryan languages particularly the

Dravidian with borrowings from the Aryan speech.

From the very beginning it continued to serve as the

medium of expression by the common populace.

The Dravidians were cultured and lived a peaceful life, but as far as Aryans are concerned they were uncultured.

" the Aryans were perhaps not as

sophisticated...... culturally as the Harappans, like 127

many nomadic peoples they excelled at the art of war,"4

In old Punjab, 'Pashachi Prakrit' was the standard language of

communication. So Punjabi took its birth from Dravidian languages, it

has thousand years old history and tradition as well,

“The Punjabi was known as ‘Hlndvi’ to the old

Muslim poets of Punjab. The word ‘Punjabi’ has

been used for the first time by poet Hafiz

Barkhordar, The country was named ’Punjab’ by

the Muslim invaders. The Punjabi language was

evolved out of ’Apabhramsha1 in about A.D. 1000.

The earliest poetic contribution in Punjabi

available to us was composed by Sheikh Farid in

the twelfth century A.D."5

2. Different Religious as well as Literary

Movements in Punjabi Literature

But the first examples of written prose of clear understandable

language of today can be seen in the ‘Sermons of Nosha Ganj Bax’.

Every language has religious literature in its beginning, well, when

Aryans came here, they used Sanskrit language for their ’Vedas’, They

wrote ‘Rig Veda’ first which was written in Punjab. We can find linguistic relationship between Vedas and Punjabi but Sermons of 128

Nosha Ganj Bax were the first prose patterns of Punjabi language.

That was the time when Bhakti movement was in its peak in India:

“Like the protestant reformation In Europe in the

sixteenth century, there was the religious, social

and literary revival and reformation in India, but

notably in Deccan In the fifteenth and sixteenth

centuries. This religious revival was not

brahmanical in rts orthodoxy; it was heterodox in

its spirit of protest against forms and ceremonies

and class distinctions based on birth, and ethical

in its preference of a pure heart, and the law of

Jove, to all other merits and good works. This

religious revival was the work also of the people,

of the masses, and not of the classes."6

The first and foremost work of Punjabi language is of religious work. Baba Farid Ganj Shakr of 12th century is the first Punjabi poet in this regard. His language is still clear and well understandable even after 800 years and later many other Sufi poets made contributions in

Punjabi literature under Islamic impacts and for the preaching of Islam as well. These saints showed their love for God with their own behaviours that was in accordance with their preaching. They were the symbols of nobility and purity. Shah Hussain (1539-1599), a poet of

Bhakti moods. Sultan Bahu (1629-1691), Bulleh Shah, Waris Shah,

Mian Mohammad Bux and moulvi Ghulam Rasul Alampuri (poet of 129

Shahodi philosophy) followed the same path. Local people learned by

heart their preachings and these became myth with the passage of

time.

“The initial point of the evolution of the universe of

religion is myth-creation..,, man does not create

myth or symbol of his own volition. These

quantitative social objects are bom, develop and

die like natural objects and their place is taken by

new symbols and myths."7

After Nosha Ganj Bux romantic poetry took its birth with

Damodar’s Qissa Heer Ranjha in the period of Emperor Akbar, As we

discussed earlier in chapter 3. King Akbar’s period was ripe with

reference to literature, translations, music. Well, he was well aware of

art and literature and had good taste of it.

We find another change in Punjabi poetry when Peiu' wrote

'Mirza Sahiba’ in the form of epic.

"The Jangnama and Waran emerged as

specimens of epic and finally came the Mirza

Sahiba of Peiu which combines in it the elements

of romance, local traditions and shorter epic,”0 130

This fs the period when Sikh's religious book 'Aadi Garanth' was

compiled. Baba Nanak's preachings were compiled. He gave the

lesson of humanity to local people under the impacts of Bhagat kabir

't ZAu*C

(Kabira, your home is in the hands of plunderers, murderers. Why to

look sad because tit is for tat.)

Aii the Gosht’ and 'Gman\ introductory stanzas by Baba Nanak were compiled in Garanth.9 in the end of 17th and beginning of

eighteenth century Shah Murad started writing Ghazal in Punjabi but

no one followed his style and pattern and did not get popularity. Here

In Punjab local myths, local traditions were very much strong and deep

rooted as ciosely attached with their culture as well as traditions, rites

and rituais.

For centuries, Punjab had agrarian background. There was a trend to sit in 'ChopaF in villages, where local problems were solved and especially in evening people used to sing their local poetry in their native language to understand and to enjoy, So Qissa Heer Ranjha was much popular in Punjab, as well as outside the borders.

“Damodar Gulati first wrote the romantic narrative

poem (qissa) depicting the story of Heer and 13)

Ranjha. Damodar lived during the reign of Emperor Akbar."w

Most of the local Punjabi poets wrote this story in different

styles, Ahmad Gujjaris Heer ranjha is remarkable contribution in this

concern, and many followers followed his style.

3. The Role of Invaders Specially Mughal’s

As we know the Punjabi literature has about 800 years literary

history. During these years many invaders came here, a political

instability was always with this region. The lush green mountains and

fertile land of Punjab always invite invaders. These invaders came

here for robbery or some came here for rule. Nadir Shah Afshar.

Mehmood Ghaznavi, Ahmad Shah Abdali and many more before them

came here in this regard. Muslims ruled here about 700 year. Then the British came and colonized united India for their own benefits.

Before British, in Punjabi literature the Islamic themes in Muslim poetry were well established and iate after them in 16lh century the Sikh religious themes came in Punjabi literature with the birth of Sikh religion.

The eighteenth century was the most unstable century of the sub-continent; especially in Punjab the instability was prominent. The

MughaIs' days were numbered. East India Company was getting roots,

Nadir Shah Afshar and Ahmad Shah AbdaJi used to come here and rob m

the local masses. Punjabi Sufi poets mentioned theif plunder in their

poetry and it can be seen in folk literature also where poet is advising:

b UJO

(Eat and drink hurriedly even if u don’t desire, otherwise it will be

snatched away by Ahmad Shah Abdali,)

Political instability and faw and order conditions were not

dependable,1' Local masses especially female were not secure they

wore assaulted and it has been expressed as:

t yj ijf* J3 tJÿT

jt jr j

(Nadir came, tore the wrapping shawl and bowed down the heads of

fathers, even the straws of the streets are crying for this humiliation.)

But this time period was the golden time period in Punjabi literary history. The English came here and also tried to Christianise the local community with the help of missionaries, They published religious literature. Their main focus was Hindu and Sikh, because they knew tl very well that Muslims were difficult enough to make them change their religion. They were much emotional and enthusiastic about their religion, Because of these attempts to convert the local JJ3l]]

community, Muslims, In reaction gave more attention to their religion

and religious writings in Punjabi, Urdu.

Maharaja Ranjit Singh ruled over Punjab from 1801-1639. He

promoted Punjabi literature and did a great work of compilation of

Gurus' work in ‘Guru Garanth Sahib. Sikhs preferably opted to write in

Punjabi language and especially did marvellous contributions with reference to the 'Qasjda' poetry in praise of Maharaja Ranjit Singh in

19th Century. After the death of Maharaja Ranjit Singh, Punjab had to face political instability and then fell in the lap of the British. In these troubled times Punjabi writers wrote epics, like 'Nadir Shah di Var1

(Najabat), Chathian di Var (Peer Mohammad). Eighteenth century was the most ripened century in the sense of Punjabi literature. Ali Haider

Muftani, Bulleh Shah. Khawaja Fard Faqir and Waris Shah made marvellous contributions in Punjabi literature. Many of them wrote under Bhakti thought, because that was the central theme of poetry, of that time.

“In short it can be said that in Punjab in this period,

the Bhakti movement was in full swing.'13

These poets wrote under Bhakti impacts, and to some extent gave secular approach. As we said earlier, due to political instability the Sufi’s made their efforts to come close to other religion. That Sufis and local people had to show unity and that was the time, when Hindu,

Muslims and Sikh community did not want to remain colonized and 134l]4

they made joint efforts. Hindu and Muslims joint efforts resulted in

'mutiny' (1857), During mutiny the Muslims of Gogera (Distt. Sahrwal)

Ahmad Khan Kharal and his followers resisted against British rule and

created lots of hurdles for the British. Lots of Hindus and Muslims were

hanged and finally Punjab went under Queen Victoria’s rule and the

sub-continent became a colony of British rule. At that time Punjabi poets played their part in the awakening of Muslims. Local poets and writers wrote folk literature to honour the bravery of Ahmad Khan

Kharal in Heroic Ballads (Var), Dhola, and Mahiya and admired abundantly14.

Punjabi was the language of masses. Every movement either social or religious takes its birth from grass root level. These masses even can change the future of the nations with their struggle.

Furthermore as we said earlier that many heroic ballads were written in the praise of the local freedom fighters. In Punjab these ballads were in the form of 'Var1, and in Punjabi language.

“During late Mughal times, civil society took on a

regional and proto-national character. Sultan

Haider Ali, Tipu Sultan, the Jehad Movement, the

Firaizi's peasant and tribal constellations, and

individuals like Ahmad Khan Kharal resisted the

British East India Company's expansionism and

attitudes of racial superiority."15 135

4. East India Company and its Socio-Cultural

impacts on Punjab

When East India Company got hold over Punjab, the struggle

for freedom grabbed the attention of the intellectuals and they expressed the need for freedom in their writings in poetry and prose.

Before East India Company, the society was a combined society of

Hindu. Muslim and Sikh and the literature was directed towards humanity as every religion has promoted it. The main theme underlying every religious writings or that which flourished through every literature was 'love for humanity'. In Muslims, Baba Farid represented this theme

In ‘Saloks’ in 12,h century and many other Punjabi Sufi poets presented the same approach through their poetry. In Sikh religion. Gum Nanak

Dev Ji flourished the 'love for humanity' in their ‘Gurubani’s’ and other

Gums also stressed it. Bhagat Kabir gave and flourished human love in society and all of his efforts were for peace. They made a great contribution to Punjabi literature. With the arrival of the British, the combined social structure of Hindu. Muslim and Sikh was shaken, because the British had always tried to 'divide and rule* the colonized nations, it gave birth to different movements (detailed discussion has been done in 3rd chapter in accordance with the British rule).

In short many movements originated in this perspective. These socio-cultural movements did a lot to change the minds of the masses.

The ‘mutiny’, a collective effort of Muslims and Hindus, failed and 136

British got complete hold on Punjab and brutally nailed the disrupting

elements. In this context, they implanted their culture and language.

They flourished it through schools especially through

educational reforms like that of Lord Macaulay’s educational reforms,

They colonized not only the land, but annexed the minds of the nation as well. Back in 18th century Punjabi literature had already got its pinnacle. Ahmad Yaar Maralvi at that time wrote great poetic works in

Punjabi language like Qissa Heer Ranjha, Kima Malki, Sohni

Mahinwal, Sassi Punnu and many more.16 He also made critical comments on other contemporary poets. In this context we can say that he was the first Punjabi critic in this scenario.

"Ahmad Yar Maraivi (1768-1848) is the poet who

for the first time gave a critical and sarcastic

appreciation in poetic form of his predecessors."17

After the mutiny the struggle for independence started, the

British were successful in creating barriers and divisions among the locals. They had created a particular class of their favourites. From

1857 to 1907 after 50 years of joint but flop struggle of Hindus and

Muslims Quaid-e-Azam Mohammad Ali Jinnah founded Muslim

League.in 1907. During this period from 1907 to1947 lots of Punjabi poets attempted to write enthusiastic poetry in favour of Muslims and demanded an independent state for the Muslims of India, 137

'The Punjabi poets also wrote on national themes. Ghazal had appeared on the scene earlier but shorter poems in the style of Masnavi or

Qita Band also came in vogue. The revival of

Muslim nationalism followed with the translation of

Hall's Mussaddas by Ch. Shahab-ud-Din,"1® Part 2 138ll8

Part 2

Punjabi Criticism after Partition

These nationalist poets with the revival of Nationalism contributed for the achievement of a new Muslim state (Pakistan) and after the partition they composed poetry in praise of their homeland.

Punjab has been divided into two parts, Eastern Punjab (now in India where Sikh and Hindus have majority) and western Punjab (now in

Pakistan, a Muslim majority region). We will focus on criticism of

Western Punjab.

From beginning till mid nineteenth century no notable work of literary criticism in Punjabi can be seen in the scenario of Punjabi literature, except some biographical memoirs or in the writings of

Punjabi poets. But that was an embryonic stage.

Lots of the Punjabi writers of new stream came from the Urdu side of literature. So they were well aware of the current literary patterns and movements as well. The impact of the progressive movement can be seen in Punjabi literature in this regard. But it is fact that no literature of world can make the sphere of criticism worthwhile when the language and literature is not being taught in the school college level.19 The literary scholarship that came from Urdu and those writers who were well aware of Western literature, they made new experiments in Punjabi literature. 139

“In the history of Punjabi literature, the

disintegration of the progressive movement

caused a crisis not only on the creative level but

also in the field of criticism. A new phase of the

creative-critical activity came into existence with

the experimentalist poetry, which heralded

modernity in the annals of Punjabi literature."20

We have discussed that Punjabi literature entertained religious thoughts and 'love for humanity’. As far as literary criticism is concerned, some poets tried to praise and to negate the style of other poets. Prose took its birth late after the poetry.

“Two men turned their attention in the twenties to

writing a somewhat systematic criticism of Punjabi

poetry. Maula Bukhsh Kushta of Amritsar, himself

a poet of the Muslim tradition, wrote ‘Punjab de

Heeray’ (Gems of Punjab) in which he attempted

to give a brief sheet-roll of Punjabi poets with their

biographical data."21

Late after him Kushta s son Mohammad Afzal Khan compiled his work with devotion and love and published in 1955 named Punjabi

Shiran da Tazkira’ (The memoir of Punjabi writers). But after the

partition, Pakistan had to face two wars, in 1965 and later in 1971 (too

much nationalist Punjabi poetry was created and published in the love 140

of patriotism). The aftermaths of the war resulted in the death of progressive and secular approach in Punjabi poetry.

In the very beginning of Punjabi criticism we can find biographical memoirs in this regard. Bawa Budh Singh, Maola Bukhsh

Kushta, Dr. Mohan singh Diwana, Dr. Lajwanti Rama Krishna, Dr.

Faqir Mohammad Faqir, Akhtar Hussain Akhtar, Shafi Aqeel and many

other writers did their job well. These can be regarded as mile stones in Punjabi literary criticism. But as far as modern literary criticism is

concerned we will start it after the partition and will judge it on the

critical writings of the Pakistani Punjabi critics and their contribution in

Punjabi criticism as well.

No doubt these biographical memoirs are worthwhile but it is the

type of a light narrative and no memoirist judged the literary work on

scientific grounds in their memoirs.

•Early criticism in the form of memoirs

The poetic expression of criticism can be seen in earlier poetry,

like Ahmad Yar Maralvi, Mian Mohammad Bux, but after them when

this region was colonized by the British, many new forms of literature

were established especially in prose that widened the sphere of

literature. Many Urdu writers (many of them were Punjabi's) adopted

new styles of prose and poetry, consequently criticism has changed its 141

style and through this medium, Punjabi writers and critics adopted new

themes in prose and poetry as well as in literary criticism.

The earlier Punjabi criticism was in the form of memoirs (an

introduction about writer's biography and a short illustration of his poetry mostly in praise of his poetry. That was an initial stage and

these achievements were also the milestones for literary criticism.

Bawa Budh Singh is a pioneer of Punjabi criticism in this

regard. 22

“Bawa Budh Singh is really the founder, a pioneer

of modern literary criticism in Punjabi, but it is sad

to remark that he does not expound of follow any

philosophy or theory of criticism. Bawa Budh

Singh was evidently inspired to do this work by a

sense of patriotism and to place Punjabi poetry up

to the end of the nineteenth century in the modem

west-oriented context. It was an attempt to take a

measure of the Punjabi patrimony of over three

centuries from where evidently a new start based

on western concept had been taken in literary

creation in Bawa s own time."23

The earlier books of Punjabi criticism are only concerned with

the mystical tradition of Punjabi poets, like:

24 • 1Banbiha' Bol by Bawa Budh Singh 1925 142

* ‘Prem Kahanf by Bawa Budh Singh 1933 in Gurumukhi script then published in Pakistan in Shahmukhi script in 1988 25

• 'Punjabi Zuban da Adab tay Tarekh' by Abdul Ghafoor Qureshi, 1956

• ‘Punjabi Shairan da Tazkira' by Maula Bux Kushta. 1960

Many other books are also written on Punjabi language, history and Punjabi criticism, and we will discuss these works of criticism later.

It is noteworthy that Shaheen Karamat Ali also published a book on the critical analysis of the published Punjabi memoirs as welt as Punjabi history in 1997. Although it is a short description of critical work in the form of memoirs but contains a good detail in its own.

Although Baw Budh Singh did his job well but as an earlier pieces of literary criticism, their work is valuable and gives a brief and

concise detail about Punjabi classical poets.

It is fact that he is not a follower of any critical tradition, but the

pioneer of literary criticism in Punjabi literature. His books “Hans Chog'

(1913) and Koel Ko1 (1916) and ‘Banbiha Boi'26 were published, but

“Prem Kahant’ as its name is elaborating the whole love of Bawa Budh

Singh towards literary tradition, as well as he gave the reader a

glimpse about Punjabi poets of mystic tradition.

As far as Lajwanti's “Punjabi Sufi Poets' is concerned, it was

published in 1938 in English, but later in Pakistan ‘Majlis Shah

Hussain’ translated it in Punjabi from English and published it in 1966. 143

No doubt, this work is also valuable but as far as criticism is

concerned, no impacts of English criticism can be seen in this regard. It's only the biographical sketches of Sufi Poets.27

Abdul Ghafoor Qureshi's 'Punjabi Zuban da Adab tay Tareekh' is the very first attempt to compile the work of Punjabi writers in the form of memoir (published in 1956). He gave a brief detail about

contemporary social, political and mystic movements of his age

showing impacts of movements on the poetry as well. He divided it into

two parts; the first part having four periods of poetry is about the

Muslim contributions in Punjabi poetry. He defined the poets in ’Bhakti'

aspect, a prominent movement in the era of ‘Sufi* (mystic) poets. Then

he classified the poets in four periods according to their era and started

the Punjabi literature from Baba Farid Ganj Shakr and concluded at

Ahmad Rahi (a new voice in Punjabi poetry having cultural themes).

These four parts are as under:

• The first period starts from Baba Farid and ends at Mian Karim Ullah Ashiq. • Second period namely ‘Islamic religious period1 starts from Moulana Abdullah to Moulvi Ghulam Rasool, • Third period namely Waris Shah’s period’ from Hafiz Barkhordar to Mian Mohammad Bakhsh Khari.

old as well as new * Fourth and the last period which contains contemporary poets namely ' New Punjabi Literature' from Allah

Bakhsh Piara to Ahmad Rahi. 144

The second part is all about the contributions of Hindu and Sikh

poets. He discussed here 143 Muslim poets and 64 Hindu, Sikh poets.

So it’s the memoir of 207 poets and really a great achievement. He also wrote and paid word of thank to the publishers and the writers where from he took the references and material.28 The style of description is really good. His criticism is descriptive.

Another profound descriptive detail of Punjabi poets can be

seen in *Punjabi Shairan da Tazkira' written by Maula Bux Kushta

(published in 1960). Kushta discussed 244 poets and it is almost like

'Azad's' ‘Ab-e-Hayat’ (we discussed it earlier in chapter 3). Kushta

gave us a short introduction of Punjabi language, its formation and

impacts of Muslims on Punjabi language. Then from Baba Farid Ganj

Shakr. gave the detail about all the poets, their education, life and

works and examples from poetry. Somewhere he discussed the

qualities of that specific poet also. At that time comment about

contemporaries and other poets was meant only to praise the poet and

his poetry and the style of describing the poet and his poetry was really

in a systematic way.

In 1962, Prof. Qureshi Ahmad Qiladari published a book,

criticising the earlier works done by Punjabi writers about Punjabi

poets (Sufi as well as old traditional poets) from 1947-1960. The style

of criticism was totally descriptive in the form of memoirs. Prof.

Qiladari. compiled this work and his critical approach is excellent. He

did his best on doing this work giving detailed description about 145

previously published books, their approach, their themes, style and he was well aware of the mistakes of previous writers, so he mentioned them in his book.

Akhtar Hussain Akhtar's ‘Khilray motf is also a book on the same pattern (Published in 1971) having the description of 21 poets and other essays,

Hameed Ullah Shah Hashmi's ’Punajbi Adab di Mukhtasar

Tareekh' basically belongs to origin of Punjabi literature, giving short description of Punjabi literary movements, impacts of political movements of Punjab on Punjabi language as well as last chapter of this book contains the selected poets' work in accordance with their biography, a detailed work having a light touch of impressionistic criticism. On many pages he copied Akhtar Hussain Akhtar’s ’Khilray

Motir and took material from other earlier published books (without giving any reference).

These are really good contributions in Punjabi literary criticism.

But on the other hand from 1947 till 1986, no literary criticism was directed to Punjabi prose. It is a fact that after partition from 1947-1960 no remarkable achievement can be seen in prose/fiction, till the work of Nawaz'On the form of short stories) appeared namely ‘Donghian Shaman’ and then comes Anwar Ali’s Kalian Ittan Kalay Rof, Sajjad

Haider's play ‘Sooraj Mukhf. We can say that after 1960’s new trends, movements, thoughts in prose writings were established, The writings 146 of Nawaz, Anwar All. Sajjad Haider and many other writers contributed a tot in the sphere of Punjabi prose. New topics were introduced in

Punjabi short story and in Punjabi plays. Earlier Sajjad Baqar's Novel

'Hathh' was depicting the struggle for Pakistan.

After that, Punjabi criticism turned on a new leaf u nder the impacts of new literary movements and new literary thoughts which were established under British impacts. The Punjabi writer adopted new themes being influenced by new political and literary movements, then these topics come in the literary scenario. After that the critics evaluated the literature on new critical grounds. Before this the criticism of Punjabi literature was traditional. That was only about the

Sufi themes, no doubt, we can say that evaluation of classical text was not on the new grounds but only the formalistic approach was in.

Critics' main focus was to extract the poetic diction from the specific poets and was limited to evaluation of metaphor and satire and irony.

But the new era of Punjabi criticism is quite different. As new topics, new themes, new styles are established in Punjabi literature, consequently new evaluation standards of text based on scientific grounds under the impact of English criticism are formulated,

Now present Punjabi critic has great knowledge of current critical movements and theories of criticism and is practically applying all. while evaluating a piece of art. These learned critics evaluated the

Punjabi literary text according to new critical standards. A progressive 147

writer having knowledge of his society is a keen observer of social change, so his creation needs to be evaluated on the concerned grounds/standards- A good psychoanalytic writer having grasp on psychology and presenting complex characters and themes in his writings needs to be evaluated on psychological grounds and so on.

So a critic can observes alt these changes in creative writings of prose or poetry then he evaluates text in the perspective of new critical approaches. Now the poetry of Sufi poets is being evaluated under the new critical theories, and new critical horizons are opened through this,

•Najam Hussain Syed

In this context, Najam Husssain Syed's contribution in Punjabi criticism is remarkable. He is greatly influenced by the western thoughts having great knowledge of current critical developments. In his criticism we can find most of new trends of literary criticism. He is progressive in his approach and has introduced many new critical approaches in Punjabi criticism.

Najam's ‘Sadhari (The Directions, 1967) and other later books have new approaches of their own. Najam has nostalgic feeling for his past and representative of Punjabi revivalist of poetic genres. While doing practical criticism he evoked the Punjabi poetic tradition while maintaining his own direction. In Sedhari (The Directions, 1967) he 148

laid down the fundamentals of Punjabi criticism, describing it in accordance with the historic as well as social perspective. As a true critic, he evaluates classical literature in the context of underlying permanent themes and features of Punjabi poetry. He contributes

Punjabi criticism with such feelings and also evaluates the classical literature in the psychological respective of the poet. While writing about Bulleh Shah, in opening paragraphs he introduces poetic tradition and norms as a representative or upholder of the inner, he writes:

1/ ji/tjL

29 t4 — J

(Poetic tradition introduces itself to present poets through some distinct permanent characteristics of poetry as represented in old poets' writings. These poetic expressions are the representation of the inner feelings of the local masses.)

Najam has a deep touch of colonial and post colonial criticism.

Forwarding argument on classical poets he often discusses the issues of identity and culture and depicts the sufferings of local masses, a feature of post colonial criticism. The British had to face the most adverse resistance in Punjab. So their focus was to destroy the identity 149

of the Punjabis. Najam is a person who is wandering for his lost identity, These themes recur more visibly in his plays, Kafi's and other forms of poetry. He is always in quest of reviving his lost themes, norms as well as forgotten traditions. While asserting critical opinions on other writers/poets, he extracts the results by applying many

Western theories of literary criticism. It means he is well aware of current critical styles and manners, themes as well as critical traditions and has an excellent grasp on his subject. While discussing the psychological aspect of the poetry, he says:

c-ÿ b jus & j£fi& JI** jy jÿjth

\?jf j> jL'JÿJ. —

(It is quite evident over here that the pursuit of basic and ultimate end

of a poet of Punjabi tradition is not meaningless roaming of

imagination. It is an effort to give meaning to different aspects of daily

routine happenings— the more strong a poet’s relation is with the

queries arising out of life the more expressive his concern is.)

While evaluating Bulleh Shah he first as formalistic critic

focusing on diction, words, myth and form. We can justly say that 150

evaluation of literary text takes its inception on new grounds from

Najam. Where like a formalistic critic his main focus is text in itself and he extracts results with the heip of metaphor, irony, symbolism etc. But when he locates a strong relationship of poet’s efforts with the society he seems influenced by social considerations and aware of the cultural and social themes of society. He applies all the new criticism as well as

Marxist approach and tries to evaluate the piece of art somewhere he gives psychoanalytic criticism and goes to trace the original point from where the poet started thinking and started expressing himself with the help of poetry. He writes:

(Bulleh Shah played again, the game of life in his poetry; the direction in which he spent life, is the foundation of his poetry,)

Najam has almost all the shades of criticism; he provides the

analysis the piece of art by applying a combination of various theories

of practical criticism. He is also influenced by Derrida s deconstruction,

white analyzing Bulleh Shah he appears as an experienced

deconstructionist, he works as a lexicographer and pours out all the

underlying contradictions of the Kafi of Bulleh Shah. 15!

)/-ii1 /J-;”

JV&IPZ-*—VJVJ

4_- tf&iZi— -£-s\z*~£})4—)j\g?fy>

-ij} JvZ-fi— J&>J J fi1Z_

JWAJtfJJLa. Jiffs'Jiv?w1IB5 v’A£‘Wd?!x „v.vÿi*Jvi<£v_ÿj/t JJ

WL.,‘ # jWiIftJj:"4-J<ÿ

O'' jÿ?'1•‘-ÿ >'-----*— fv >> <* 32 > -iJi*>' JtJ&blXsJÿLÿxZ/HJ.

(Spin or otherwise you will never find time, go and make preparations for spinning. Father has tied the knot, you are not conscious yet. The 152

days are few, so leave the merriments. Only seven days are left to spend here. Spin or otherwise you will never find time. In the use of metaphors of spin, again, fetch and put, there is command as well as haste. If the lover comes home, all the adornments will be justified. If have some merits, he will applaud, otherwise you will weep bitterly,

Spin or otherwise you will never find time.

He has used common day to day diction, the first Kafi depicts the conflict of mother and daughter but here the voice of mother is quite harsh. Here she is not urging her to pay attention to spinning but her main focus is the worth of work.- The ornaments are symbolizing the acceptance of the lover’s command and to surrender in the unique coming time. Ornaments are the embellishment as well as the chains of the body.)

Evaluation of this style is really new under the impacts of new literary theories in this concern.

ii JvLs—u rJhjIJ At-

-c~ tiJXJ—JA vAo}

(- look, the symbol of red, while giving a glimmer of red colour changes the pleasure of union with the pain or bite of remorse. ‘Red’ 153ttl

symbolizes the both, the pain and the pleasure. What a man achieves, it depends on his struggle or guts.)

While analyzing author KafiT he as a psychologist analyze Bulleh

Shah's inner feelings with the help of his poetry. Like a pure critic having knowledge about all the technical terms of criticism, analysis the

Sufi (mystic) poets according to their themes and their inner feelings. but not in a traditional way for the interpretation of the outer and surface meanings of poetry but he goes deep in their works and finds scientifically the original meaning with the continuity of current international critical traditions.

Some times, he becomes a deconstructionist. When he analysis the Kafi ‘Mein kasumbra chun chun hari1 (I am weary of picking safflowers). 154

0'f>' y.--rJ? 4*}

-htfjs} V f'ÿjlÿLc-Jjij 4 *> Lr'j*iJl/*i-C- J'JXJ j

jtAMC-Jtr j&iL. iJjCÿVjfc.Jt*** AWkÿt«f-J #4 f/t JULfct> L-; 34 'ÿV%Z_l>

(The sound of rhythm (poet) is dying of weariness and boredom while the later verses seemed to be composed under the fright of adversity.

In the weariness of rhythm, there is the lurking shade of decision while in the fright of the verses there is the indication of falling on horns of a dilemma. The statement about rhythm seemed to sound others, white in the statement about verses he has talked to himself. Theme of the

‘Kafr is the union of inner and outer. Personal life and self experiences has been so expressed in words. Form of the Kafi has become the symbol and mystery of its subject. Bulleh Shah has discussed again and dilated upon the conflict of man's inner and outer.)

While analyzing another Kafi. he seems to be a psychoanalytic critic, and he is evaluating the Kafi ‘Meri bukal day which chor ni\

(There is thief in my cloak) he writes: 155

JJ

(Cloak is the symbol of inner loneliness of a lonely person.)

While writing this sentence he is more like an imagist finding imageries from Bulleh Shah's poetry and from images finding the whole truth, th e free play of Bulleh Shah's imagination, he imprisons the thoughts of Bulleh Shah and the irony he has expressed in his poetry.

Thief snatches away material treasures here he is depriving of inner peace and isolating the self as he is himself isolated from the society,

J 1Jjy \3>i Jl* f

36 I

(‘Bukal da chor1 denotes the grave falsity lying within. Shah has

reversely used that example to depict his new found truth. The trick of

turning the table round has deep stings. This hidden talent to extract

truth out of falsehood opens the eyes of the listener fully wide.)

One thing is very important that Najam s criticism is quite

different from others. He evaluates mystic poetry in accordance with 156

Socio-economic changes of society and depicts social change through the writings of these mystic poets. Finding imagery in Bulleh Shah's poetry, he writes:

(- does not tell merely as fabricated story rather presents it as enacted in a play.)

For the first time in Punjabi criticism, he judges classical literature in the socio-economic perspective and breaks the tradition of evaluating classical literature on mystic grounds. He flourishes new trends in Punjabi criticism as well. 'Sach Sada Abadi Kama' is said to be an achievement of new evaluation trends and gives fundamental grounds towards Marxism and finds o ut the historical perspectives from Bulleh shah's poetry. While making a detailed discussion on Mati

Qadam Karendi VaarÿDust is stepping out O friends) Najam evaluates it under the socio-economic background of the society in 18th century where workers/masses have no peace though heavily taxed but nothing even to pay it. They were bound slaves of the masters.

First he attempts to concentrate on meanings as an expert textualist. as an imagist. as an post modernist, he talks about 'said'

and 'unsaid' details about Bulleh Shah's era, where Mughal Kingdom

was standing on the props of masses. Najam originally extracts the 157

hidden voice of common man through Bulleh Shah’s ‘Kafr , and here he is successful.

Jij WJJU> JW LVfjMJ\jL- wViTJprOf JS"

(It s the duty of the masses to work hard and of the masters to enjoy the fruit of their labour and augment their strength and to rule over the workers with that strength.)

Then suddenly he comes to the poin t and while creating a relationship between past and present realises that centuries have gone by in the mist of time, but the socio-economic conditions of the layman and slaves are the same.

- JkOlTb" Jÿji Q&ijr T*> X~jii

t-i JU*' XA i— J;\j? b

v'i t*v'bLfCJp',-*Vjr'w!!> 1 JJ »> .* JV**'h#>jf ”zj**j*A 158

(The rulers have leisure in plenty. They use this leisure fully. In Lahore and other smaller cities, they have hundreds of beautiful mansions.

The poets, the writers, the singers, the musicians, the painters and numerous artisans are their servants. In gardens and orchards there are canals and fountains and a collection of flowers from different countries, There runs hedgerows around the gardens and guards stand at the doors. Pleasure is reserved for the rulers and the lords.

The life of workers and labourers is spent in maintaining and pruning those gardens and waiting for the spring. They are neither allowed to enter the garden and nor have leisure to enjoy spring.)

While writing about Buileh Shah'simagery, Najam writes:

_ Jt> f!> > blL&lkjjJkfo tt* it--'*k-i lf

< / <-J JCjji 40 tifiLV-Wfcn-ijW

(Buileh Shah has shown four pictures of the engagements of the

rulers. Two of them are of strength and state affairs and two of their

leisure and pleasure. In the first two the rulers appear in male role and

in the second two, the female aspect is more prominent. These four 159

little pictures are the mysteries of a big panorama and through them the male and female, the labour and leisure, the dawn and dusk alt activities of the lords come before our eyes.)

Najam finds out the underlying patterns of poetry and meanings with his own wisdom. He is well aware of the behaviours and thoughts of the rulers. That irony which Bulleh Shah is using in his 'Kaff, Najam is trying to reach that original thought and finally he remains successful in his quest.

t-wf fUIriPclHwa ic- jt efiLrjJ

[v" bbty J

1 J* ____4 hjt:s*L$JJ; fe J'/Jjir vT — dlf ivÿ'dts

(There are three points in Matt Paon Pasar’. Firstly, it means the

expansion of power and wealth, secondly, the state of rest and thirdly

there is hint of death. All together these three interpretations fully bring

to tight its meaning. The struggle to expand rule and their leisure, both 160

signify death. The rulers are busy in their futile efforts and busy in worshiping their own seif. World is bowing down before their splendour and authority. Bulleh Shah is asking his fellows to see this scene with their own eyes.)

He clearly brings out the Marxist perspective in Bulleh Shah's poetry. Well, Najam's criticism shows the historical perspective in

Buileh shah's Kafrs' and one thing is really dominant in his criticism that he starts analysing as a formalistic critic but suddenly supports his ideology as pure structuralist as well as like a true historian he evaluates literature in the light of current socio-economic structure of society of that age. It opens a new style of criticism which has all the shades of criticism. He exercises his potentials as a genuine critic and finds out the metaphors from poetry and opens the doors of multiple meanings with his keen observations.

One important aspect of his psychoanalytical criticism is that he applies the Freudian as well as Frye’s and Cart Jung's theories on text.

He elaborates:

42 1* f

(His verse unfolds the ways of society to the individual and brings to light the individual experiences before the society.)

While elaborating the Farid's metaphor of night': 161l6l

' L'W'li*4i 1jf'iJ 1 ij'*

j l4ÿ> JUJ£ jÿ1JifJ>Ck- AIf £

,*i_ ,»ÿ;y '-tf-Jj/** 4i

(‘Night1 is the darkness that all distinct manifestations of appearance are lost in it. In its dark womb life takes its inception. Night, subsiding the desire for the apparent and seeing, develops the longing for the unseeing and hidden.)

Well, he also finds pictography from Butleh Shah's poetry, finds imagery from his 'Kafi’s' and elaborates it in this style in the behaviours of Mughal Kings, but applies his thoughts, his themes on current rulers also. According to him:

t- jj\f * j\£a\-j£s M -4- S' nv j> juftjuv jI I#L /i J'tLfC- <4 jijft ‘tty t‘ S3 J\

£y JCJ *-ÿ L>*

jtf LJiTu

t~;/. :/ iij)JPb&y;£jcr*_j 162

V\

(It appears as Bulfeh Shah has drawn one or two such lines on the paintings of the slave painters that their whole picture unveils itself.

The real picture of lords and masters has become naked before the eye of the onlookers. Actually he has drawn only one line and that is

'Mati* soil. By this one word, the glimmer of the force, the noise of the weapons, the echo of the horses' hooves, the colour and fragrance of the flowers all has vanished. Every thing seems to be a toy of mud.

The pictures drawn by Bulleh Shah show the self indulgence and preoccupation of the rulers. The forces are content and busy in their preparation. Well, pleasure seeking engagements like enjoying flowers and roaming about has the same meaning as well as in twitching ones toes.)

When he describes:

(Salinity of lordship does not let love flourish calcification.) 163

Then Najam opens new horizons of criticism and another thing which is really important that he goes deep into the mind of poet and find original thought to complete his responsibility as a true critic- While elaborating fiaba Farid’s poetry, Najam goes deep in the poetry and tries to reach and discover the poet’s original message. Here he compares Buiteh Shah’s and Baba Farid’s style, and this comparison is really too impressive. When he says while discussing the Farid's

‘SaloK:

(Streets are muddy and beloved's home is far away and wilt get wet if go and if not, love will be lost.)

L IIZJ Jl'JbrLf* ...... t V Jt &f j> £~ rLi)— Jfit "AS i) Jt V // <£I fjt -If &/rVi- 164

(In these two lines the tussle of logic, depicted in words is divided equally. On little bits of Words, Voice seems to stay a while and then

gets lost In the labyrinths of thoughts. Shah Sahib has solved this

dualism with the ecstasy of courage. The passion that is found in

Farid’s verse of getting wet of cloak, here is found in the decay and

dismantle of the body. The verse that got warmth of meditation in

Farid, has become a blaze, a burning fire in the hands of Buileh Shah.)

When Najam is describing and opening the meanings of:

<7

{I need a lover.)

Then he makes an essential relationship of Heerwith Ranjha as a psychologist, having knowledge about local social behaviours, knowledge about local wisdom, well aware of old Punjabi feudal society, where a female has no worth, where the character of Heer appears as an iconoclast a breaker of social tradttions, where a female aches for her rights. Najam, commencing the evaluation of the inner meaning of this Kafi, in these words: 165

LJj]) Lr*I'vVvV- iJIH \}1{L &$c- jjjiJ'gLtsJ JhtJ *-b Jlb1yiyjUrjL/jl/<

(In the beginning lines there is a sigh of pain. Sigh of Heer, for her

need and for her right To take liberty for her rights and needs. This

sigh of grief is for new social forces emerging out of and fighting with

the old rites and traditions. It is for the emerging new thoughts and

flourishing of new ideas under the impact of these forces,)

There we come to know through these lines, that Najam has the

ability to find out new themes from classical poets, where everyone is

describing that Heer is a character who loved Ranjha and due to social

as well as domestic circumstances they did not met. Most of the critics portrayed her as a symbol of spiritual love, who is always pining for her

God. But here Najam draws new meanings when he writes:

J>;JJL'J*4J ’ 49

ti *m J

(Heer is a symbol of the breaking of the basic and most strong shackle of feudal society.) 166

As we know that Najam has ail the qualities of pure critic. So, with all the gloss of criticism, he also has feminist approach to judge the literary text and many times while discussing/commenting on classical literature, Najam's eye spies female's position in the society of old Punjab. When he makes a comparison of female's position in feudal and tenants he gives detailed description of the place of women.

According to him:

ji/zCt- UJJ yjfaZ-Jl:'

&bjjb >'JLL-)

0c*Jk- Ui 50

{For the agrarian tenants, the price of wedding is the beginning of domestic life and a means to give birth to new tenants and to proceed.

Women of workers not only manage their own homes but also of their masters. They are the servants of their males as well as the slaves of

their masters. Masters too. love their daughters but only as a sign of

their headship. In the houses of lords, the role of daughter is to cement

the families, to prop the falling headships to augment and nourish 167 blooming authorities. Women are tools, for the labourers to increase livelihood, and for the masters to increase power.)

That is the miserable plight of women folk belonging to all the strata of society. And through these sentences, he unveils this reality, where Heer is born and sees the social chains leading to injustice she shows a resistance on being used as a tool in old agrarian (male dominant) society. Najam describes:

Jtc bj[/\y __ M]

(Heer is not the daughter of a tenant, but is one of the masters, but she loves a labourer. It involves her in a conflict. She refuses to make her beauty and youth a tool to support the lordship.-this newly bom relationship demands and deserves a new society. If there is agrarian society then this relationship is not going to exist and vice versa.)

When Najam is trying to reach and unfold the mind of poet, suddenly he feels that in Punjab, from centuries, ‘scarf is a symbol of honour of a women but when an artist is saying: 168

”b Jj*' \r-

(Lover has loving eyes, but fair lady has red scarf.)

He is trying to open the new horizons of human continuity. Like a psychologist, he elaborates the inner feelings of the words. The metaphor of ‘Sanwaf and ’Gori as an eternal love:

il1J-* *1e_ ZJ Jr*j* ------J*' b&ji?

(The metaphors of Sanwal and Gori ‘the lover and beloved’, gives us a paintings of day and night. The darkness of night emerging from dying sun are the eyes of lover. The red colour on the horizon of the rising

Sun is the scarf of beloved By linking the wheel of time with the metaphor of love, Bulleh Shah has said that, love is the real essence of this age and time.)

Then describe the human solitude in these sentences: 169

\t+JILSiMj

(If there is no red scarf on the beloved then its clear that she is lost in her loneliness.)

But when Najam analysis the lKaff of Bulhh Shah, he elaborates the words of 'Heef, who wants to go with her ‘Ranjha', then he elaborates the meeting place of Heer and Ranjha, 'Bela'{ which may be called a bank of river). Najam describes:

S5

(The Bank of river symboiises the end of human habitat for Heer the journey from Chochak to the bank of river is the journey--of new life.)

In short, we can say that Najam defines classical poetry in new style where he analysis the poet’s own feelings in accordance with socio-economic conditions of society (as a Marxist critic) and being a feminist critic, he describes the inner feelings of women and women place in oid Punjab. While doing all this, his main focus is on the text itself and having realistic approach in this concern. No doubt the deconstruction of words, an effort to bring out the original thought, is 170

successful. But we can say it with authority that he is a true scholar

having his own wisdom: a learned person having deep knowledge of

new critical patterns prevailing in 1960's who introduces these theories

in practical criticism and makes a marvellous contribution in this

regard.

•Sharif Kunjahi

Sharif Kunjahi's ‘Jhatiari is a good effort in practical criticism

having impacts of English criticism. Especially its article ‘Sofian dt

Shairi‘{poetry of the mystics), where in the start he quotes Baba

Nanak's ‘Banf (Nanak Dukhia Sab Sansaar) is the basic point of Sufi

poetry having impacts of Bhakti movement, while evaluating mystic

poetry he judges the literature in socio-economic perspective as well

as analyses the psychology of the ‘Sufi’s'. In his opinion the socio¬

economic conditions were painting a very bad picture of common man:

‘jyj ifjjjo 56 " J JVv

(Who could dare to make this miserable world, a peaceful abode because of the self motivated laws of self governed emperors, lords, elites, and the feudal.) 171

And in this background no one has courage to raise a finger against the feudal cruel laws.

He makes the title 'Ranjha a spoiled child' and 'Hear a stubborn giii‘r of these two articles and discusses the history and social conditions of the society of Hear and Ranjha and presents the analysis of the inner thoughts of these two characters. It can be called an earlier attempt to understand literature on psychological grounds.

But when he is discussing Mian Mohammad Box's 'Saifuf

Malok1, like a psychologist his attempt is really appreciable, as he analyses the poet’s mind and digs out the basic reason for writing this

'Qissa'. He perceives it the fulfilment of unfulfilled desires,

£

(After reading Saiful Malook, it seemed that the life of Mian

Mohammad Bux was a blaze, an insatiable desire. In my opinion it is the longing for the love, he didn't receive in his childhood.)

He criticises the rites and rituals of the age of the poet, the chains and fetters that never let a man fulfil his desires and express his views. So he has to take aid of supernatural characters to express his inner feelings, in Kunjahis opinion: 172

]JJy'jJiL" ifjtf'L- 1tfj'*

Ltyj&*sb£ tj$J>J 4» >vt* (XV ir jljsL.J\J?L>)L* J/c/UsJaX S8fj

(Pains of the world forces people to seek happiness. The wrong ways of leading life in the world do no let happiness reach the masses.

That’s why people in East especially are mostly introvert and preoccupied with their inner self. The fairy tales are the outcome of this preoccupation of the self. A chained man and fettered self finds escape and pleasure in free roaming of imagination.)

Well, Kunjahis style is simple, he interprets literature on psychological grounds, as well as has a slight touch of Marxism (while evaluating the Sufi’s character) but his criticism is mostly a record of self impressions i.e., impressionistic. It’s really a bird’s eye view about some classical poets.

•Hussain Shahid

In 1972, Hussain Shahid's ’Pooma/ was published, when

Punjabi criticism in Pakistani Punjab was in embryonic stage. Only

Najam Hussain Sayed and Sharif Kunjahi's practical criticism was 173 worth while because both of these critics assessed literature on new technical grounds and opened the new horizons for new critics. This evaluation of literature on new critical theories was a new experience and they detached themselves from traditionat critical patterns.

Then Hussain Shahid ventures to judge literature on new grounds. One of his articles 'Shah Hussain di Art Gallery1 is remarkable achievement in this concern. Here he judges Shah Hussain's work like a pure critic having knowledge about aesthetics and as an aesthetics! critic he makes justice with Shah Hussain's poetry. His comparison of

Shah Hussain's artistic style with Milton is really a good effort and praiseworthy in this regard. He focuses on classical poetry but evaluates it on new grounds.

While criticizing on Sahiba’s character, he like a moral critic opens the new thought about Sahiba. He clearly describes the contradictory thoughts of Sahiba where the critic is well aware of local culture as well as the psychology of the Sahiba. That time the role of beloved is not dominant but a strong sisterly role is dominant in

Sahiba s mind. Hussain Shahid analysis the psychology of Sahiba and brings out the results positively, The contradictory characters always attract critics as well as readers, But Hussain Shahid paints her character as a sister's character, which is more dominant than the beloved, 174

LZ_ WVU'’

£_ JcÿZ- C

(Sahiba proved to be a daughter and also a beloved. In a desire to become wife and mother, she eloped with Mirza but basically she was only a sister. When there was a conflict of this sister with her other roles and guise, the sister annihilated all others.)

It's a critical appreciation of the Sahiba's inner thoughts and finally the role of sister wins and she deceives her lover and herself too.

•Arif Abdul Mateen

Another remarkable example of feminist criticism is Arif Abdul

Mateen’s article Trinjari (published in his book Parakh Parchol’) he

judges Ahmad Rahi’s book 'Trinjari with feminist approach. Another

aspect of this article is that he assesses it in post colonial perspective

and how British rule left lasting impacts on the society. He writes: 175

w J'JVJuj " j/ »yÿ'JtjjjfciXJ/C/tyi if—jcb%i if jjjtJjl) jC:>» JA~J:U j£&) JJj/w — <-> b/Jrÿ <_;J/ JF?I J'JiJtJ'yXJl

«-»bl/UKf/ 4'i/OÿÿÿSaLiJ/ 60 J-

(The social structure we got from the British as legacy was feudal system, — Feudal lords not only make the peasants' the prey of their plunder, but also grind their wives in the mill of cruelty. Then give the society, the social philosophy that presents women as helpless creature, having no rights. Who is like a toy with which a male plays as he likes and breaks when he wills.)

These lines open the doors of new horizons of female's life as well as how socially female is being harassed from years. On judging

Ahmad Rahi s Trinjari he writes:

61 176

{Male announces his superiority by opting for the duty of earning livelihood and appoints female as subordinate by allotting duties of hearth and household chores to her.)

So in this respect we can say that Arif, being aware of social conditions and female psychology extracts female perspective from

'Trinjan' where Arif has new thoughts and knowledge about critical theories of literature, he evaluates it under feminist criticism.

•Dr. Asiam Rana

For the first time in Punjabi criticism Dr. Asiam Rana judges prose with the help of new critical theories in 'Rang Sang1. Before him all the work of criticism was limited to analysis of classical poetry. It's really a tremendous effort in this concern that he chooses the new

topics of new trends, while in first five articles he discusses five poets

upholder of new trends and he titled them according to their poetry.

You can say that he made beautiful sketches of these poets poetry

through the titles and guides many leading prose writers as well. He

judges Punjabi prose writer Riffat's short story book Opri Kuri with

the tool of psychoanalytic criticism as well as feminist criticism.

Through his psychoanalysis, he brings out the writer from her stories. 177

JfcL!7V_ jJJ,b£*-> J.=» -'uv«v*2-o/Q*&sf aIMP b •z-i*’’ ij-'Z-jfs-iUJÿW*/

(We tried to understand the tussle with reference to the two characters

of Riffat and Riffi and got the point that the two characters meet in the end and so the balance of her personality is maintained.)

Well, writing about Riffat, Dr.Aslam Rana’s style is sometimes explanatory, but he has knowledge and wisdom of his age, current

literary and critical theories as well as has a grasp on evaluating any

piece of art. Here he applies moral theory of criticism and feminist

criticism. When he evaluates it as:

o*;y \

63

(In male chauvinistic society, where the male has upper hand, female

psyche has been shaped in a particular mould. Riffat is not asking to J78

break this mould/pattern, rather she is only depicting the pains arising due to this pattern of life. And so she enters the world of realistic writers.)

In this way we can easily understand that Dr.Aslam Rana’s style is simple but he applies new theories of criticism on Punjabi literature.

Especially he evaluates literature as a structuralist critic as well as has feminist approach and psychoanalytic approach can be found deep in his criticism, When he evaluates Mian Mohammad Bux's 'Saiful

Malook in his book 'Ramz Rawaif he gives us detailed description of

Mian Mohammad Bux’s life and his psychology. Then in the light of

Mian Mohammad Bux's personality he gives new critical approaches to

Punjabi criticism. So we can say that Dr.Aslam Rana is an impressionistic critic, abreast of new critical theories.

* Dr. Shahbaz Malik

Dr. Shahbaz Maliks 'Nataray1 is another remarkable achievement. While evaluating Munir Niazi, he makes a beautiful comparison of the imagist poets of France with MunirNiazi and other's, while he is trying to read the poet's mind, he evaluates Munir in his

socio economic perspective as well as psychological. 179

Jtijy;tfjsJ'j&t- jyf'i-ij?

1J>’ /UJw/U'A-

(An imagist poet is a poet of ‘inner self, tn this reference if we symbolise Munir's Body as society and the sound of his foot steps as the inhabitants, then the personality of Munir becomes the representative of society.)

•Dr. Sarfraz Hussain Qazi

Dr. Sarfraz Hussain Qazi writes 'Navi Nazm' where he chooses many poets of new trends and judges Punjabi poetry under new critical

theories. No doubt he tries his best on applying them practically on

Punjabi literature. It's a notable effort of evaluating literature on new

grounds. He applies many theories of criticism on evaluating Munir

Niazi’s poetry. But it can be said with authority that some time he de

trackes from his goal especially while evaluating Najam Hussain Sayed

and Afzal Ahsan Randhawa.

•Dr. Ismat Ullah Zahid

Dr.lsmat Ullah Zahid's Adab Samandar1 is another type of

impressionistic and textual criticism While in his essays on various

classical poets, he seems to be a moral critical as well as formalistic. 180

Another aspect of Dr.lsmat Ullah Zahid's criticism is really new in Punjabi criticism which is post colonial criticism, while evaluating

Mouivi Ghulam RasoolAlampuri’s 'Dastan Amer Hamza' and Ahsan al

Qassas', he deeply elaborates Mouivi Ghulam Rasool Alampuri's piece of art in socio-economic as well as post colonial context. When he writes:

/ JJ 1857" J-lr iji

gp? Jiit f. -iJU

Jy/Jf f

J*,L /yj >6J i* jy is J»Vc 6i

(At the time of failure of freedom fight in 1857. he was hardly eight years old. He saw the miserable plight of Muslims after that, both in the social and political context in his youth. He was the first Punjabi poet who used the word 'Marhooma' 'deceased1 for the nation. We do

think about it because a poet cannot remain isolate from the social and

political behaviours of his age. He was conscious of the fact that

Muslims had fallen from high place because of their bad performance 1S1l3l

and wrong policies. If they be able to develop piety like that of Prophet

Yousaf and valour like that of Hazrat Hamza, they could achieve their lost dignity and destination.)

Well, Dr. Zahid has deep knowledge about current critical theories and technically he is well aware of contemporary movements, so, he also evaluates literature in the light of psychology. He analyses the mind of Mian Mohammad Bux, there he seems a very good observer as well as an experienced psychoanalytic critic. When he writes:

ji£JoAL?J?jU jyJsJj

t S' L*,

{From the psychological point of view, it may be possible that Mian

1 Sahib had sought his happiness in the imaginative world by becoming

Saiful Malook’ and getting access to ‘Badiul Jamal’.)

Dr, Zahid has another shade of criticism, that he extracts the

moral aspect from Mian MohammadBux’s Saiful MaloK. Writing about

Mian Mohammad Bux’s ‘Saiful Malott he expresses his thoughts in

these words: 182

& st<ÿ>uj jJÿvTy jfL-HyJ-' J J\£14_(ÿJ/Xc>Jfii- Z-Jft* JtJtwÿÿUjl> tsOiÿ' i-tf " 1ÿ4— 1 *(c-ÿZ-1J>> j/U*

(Mian sahib was the first poet who in his master piece 'Saifui Malok' has thrown more light on this aspect. And while highlighting the moral aspects, instead of personal life, he has explained those aspects of morality that has positive impacts on individual as well as collective social life.)

Well writing about Munir Niazi’ Dr. Zahid makes a marvellous

achievement by the analysis of the poet's mind with his knowledge,

now Dr. Zahid seems a psychoanalytic critic as well as post colonial

critic. He writes:

£ji j'JM JW j-llu — CJ«— w JWÿ''* Lji’Jc>-4JL-4-/-JU*-JA£ "bjw 183

(Why Munir Niazt has such attitude towards life. It is a fact that when Munir Niazi was in his prime age, the demand for the independence of the subcontinent was at its full swing. Against the

British atrocities and suppression, frequently they had to sacrifice lives.

The massacre initiated with the announcement of freedom, changed the human habitat into a jungle. These were the circumstances seen by the sensitive eye of Munir.--He honestly guised it in poetry what he had seen with his eye.)

So, we can say that Dr. Zahid evaluated Punjabi literature in the light of new critical theories and especially in the psychoanalytic and post colonial perspective and definitely very much successful in his criticism.

•Zafar Lashari

Zafar Lashari, a writer and critic of Saraiki tone gives a new

touch to Khawaja Farid's poetry. On extracting naturist aspect from

Khawaja Farid’s kafi while making a comparison of Khawaja Farid's

poetry with Wordsworth and Boudlieris poetry.

/ \) jtf/ IW &

<9 1*4

(If you see the renowned naturalist poet Words Worth and French poet

Boudlier's poetry, there we experience the presence of a spirit, which also ties in the rhythmic tones of Kafr of Khawaja Farid, who disclosed the mysteries of nature,)

He judges Khawaja Farid’s poetry under the impacts of colonial period where he discusses the Khawaja Farid’s era and British Raj.

Prof. Syed Masood Hussain

Prof. Syed Masood Hussain's Sharr di Afaqi Alamat— Kedo' is really a beautiful example of comparative criticism where we see

how writer made comparison of Wans Shah's Heir's character with

1Kedo‘ with the Shakespeare’s renowned character which he painted in

his 'Othello1. Milton’s satan but elaborates it as a symbol of evil.

Uj 1 \rijJ 1 b --"fclUfgSkS'l I

(‘Ayago’ Shakespeare's embodiment of sin is introduced in the very

first scene of the play, and from his dialogue shrewdness and

cunningness is explicit. He is deceiving Rodrigo’, In the same way

when ‘Kardo’ comes before us, he grabs all our attention.) 185

And he writes:

J\t J Jtw!£- V$MJ£ ” 7\, -u-JP* If'jLyJÿrÿ t<}jf (‘Kaido’ also resembles-----‘Tartof. In the international literature, Kaido, Tartof, Ayagojblees. Satan,------Mephistopheles are the universal symbols of evil.)

•Azra Waqar

Azra waqar’s attempt of describing female element in Waris

Shah’s ‘Heer\ she comes before us as feminist critic and have a deep thought about social back ground of Waris shah's era. To some extent she has Marxist approach. She elaborates it as:

tJLvJl1Female£_Male ,*ju”

divj' UJIt bjijt

L vi-J-'j —J-A

JJ Ju jy i-y t*Z— Jyjw jy 74 186

(The male and female parts of life work together. If a particular part dominates, the other part comes before it to balance. When male kings are atrocious and cruel, murders become frequent. And when the subordinates of the lords are snatching away and --replacing the fertile land with the barren, like the brothers of Ranjha. Then Ranjha has to take care of Heer and Waris has to give the bridle of life in the hands of

Heer.)

Here we can see that she appraises Waris shah's Heer in

Marxist context where all the powers were with the emperors and local masses were in great trouble. But here Heer is a symbol of new thoughts, new trends. And through this article her main focus is on the character of Heer,

•Dr. Nabila Rehman

A research as well as critical analysis of Pir Fazal Gujratis poetry has

been done by Dr. Nabila Rehman (Published in 1998) namely ‘Hussan

Jamal Ghazal Da'. She has all the qualities of psychoanalytic as well

as aesthetical critic. But the impact of psychoanalytic critic is more

deep than other, while writing about Pir Fazal's poetry she makes

remarkable achievement and evaluates it on new modem critical

grounds. She judges it in these words. 187

j y JV !>JÿJ -j*$

1ji*t SSiA jlu;iyjcÿr 4-itjy/W

71 -

(Pir Fazal has all the words to express every sort of feeling of the inner

and the outer. He gives the robe of words to all the experiences of the self, beautifully and meticulously. He is such an artiest who can shape in words most of the aspects of life, the inner passion of a man, his

feelings and even the shadow of thoughts. The saying that gives words

to feelings, thoughts and passions definitely stays at some point.., the

point that balances the self).

She is well literate person that she has the knowledge of old poetic

traditions and she judges Pir Fazat's poetry in accordance with Aristotle

concept of tragedy and makes a good comparison of Pir Fazal’s

tragedy with Keats, Shelly, etc. She evaluates his tragedy in social

perspective. 188

w (Abstract) j; vVÿJtw'k1 **- -v-ÿVi*Jt’v1wi- O' 76 ‘>*1ÿ>'V

(Infact pain is an abstract thing because man always stands at the cross road of atrocity and power. That he finds no courage in him to face the contradictions and adversities of life).

Having deep knowledge about Pir Fazal's socio-economic conditions as well as political conditions, she evaluates his poetry under these aspects and gives the results with authority.

She is conscious of Pir Fazal’s patriotism and nationalism reflected in his poetry. She digs out the social, political and cultural especially the atrocities of Martial Law realistically, For the very first time Dr, Nabila has disclosed this Marxist approach in his poetry.'7

•Prof. Samiullah Qureshi

Prof. Samiullah Qureshi’s ‘Lekhay Jokhay has impacts of

English criticism and he deeply introduced English criticism in Punjabi and his effort is really appreciable. Qureshi’s style is really new in this concern, where he compares Heer Waris Shah with Greek mythologies and the characters of ,Peelu's’ Mirza Sahiba on psychological grounds

While Najam Hussain Sayed's plays on Marxist grounds and describes m

the Romantic Movement with its origins and complications, Here he make a strong relationship between Q/ssa Heer Ranjha and characters of Homer's Iliad.

But his criticism seems more impressive when he discusses

Najam Hussain Sayed. Then we can understand his approach towards literature as an experienced literate Marxist critic. Well, observing his criticism we feel that he applies psychoanalytic theory and finds out

Najam’s own character through psychoanalysis. He analyses NajanVs plays in socio-economic perspective. So on the other hand he appraises Najam's plays under colonial and post coloniat impacts, while judging on psychological grounds (on social psychology) having romantic approach Qureshi writes:

JLJJk\i ijjWjiiij\sdL- catharsis y 0 h J * catharsisill* Z_ •xfc T* 1

(Najam Hussain Sayed has heralded the glimmer of the upcoming possibilities through these two plays, This is not only the catharsis of this great playwright but it's the forceful and ensuing catharsis of his

Punjabi society.) 190

While elaborating NajanYs own psychology, he writes;

O 'i0 L-*bJ tvjfjt - Uo*JlT J JjJC:iijf c~ hJl

* -4ÿ # Jy'>Jjy f £_ L

(Najam Hussain Sayed is such a playwright of Punjabi, who whenever writes a play, links himself with that part of ones personality that is the spectator himself. And so he himself becomes a powerful character of his plays. He tries for some characters of his pfays to collaborate their outer seeing and inner happenings.)

•Dr. Dilshad Tiwana

She is a pure fumiest critic having a pure psychoanalytical as well as

Marxist approach. She evaluates female short story writers in these aspects and extracts the results. She denotes the name ‘Punjabi

Kahani Kama1 to this book and evaluates leading female Punjabi short story writers. Being a female she opts to judge the work of female

writers and extracts the feelings that how mate dominant society oppresses the females and how pain becomes the part of their lives.

While evaluating Farkhanda Lodhi’s short story book Channay Day

Ohlay1. When she judges its on Marxist grounds she describes. 191

t-fy&e-yj&Jaj;i'£ljU Widjf !ÿ>,vWsJt}J\jfaifoi-df'h/'ÿL

(In her short story she paints a realistic picture of society where law is in the hand of the rich. If some wrong is done by the rich, no one can raise a figure on them. No one can imagine how they buy law with weatth. This fiction is a fact).

While giving a brief introduction and manifesting pure feminist approach she evaluates Naila Safdar's short stories book Mangti1 published in 1991 she writes.

1Jl/ZjliJl.' Jlji'JL>JJVUljt-ij 1

(Niala Safdar in her stories has not only painted the picture of the pain and sorrows of woman but also has suggested the cure. She has taught woman the knack to lead life, symphonized with herr given new life and courage to her. In these stories the truth and facts of life are frequently manifested). i

References References

1- Mohammad Asif Khan, Punjabi Boii da Pachhokar, Pakistan

Punjabi Adbi Board, Lahore, 1996, p86

2- Ref: Mohammad Asif Khan, Punjabi Boli da Pachhokar,

Pakistan Punjabi Adbi Board, Lahore, 1996, p106 3- Ainul Hag Faridkoti. Pre-Aryan Origins of the Pakistani

Languages, Orient Research Centre, Lahore, 1992, p21

4- William J. Duiker, Jackson J. Spielvogel. World History, VoL 1,

ed.5, Thomson Learning Inc,, USA, 2006, p42

5- Dr Surinder Singh Kohli, History of Punjabi Literature, National

Book Shop, New Delhi, 1993, p4

6- Karan Pechilis Prentiss, The Embodiment of Bhakti, Oxford

University Press, New York, 1999, p25

7- Tejwant Singh Gill (ed.), Sant Singh Sekhon: Selected writings,

Sahitya Akademi, 2005, p515

8- Rafique Akhtar, Pakistan Year Book. East and West Pub, Co.,

Lahore, 1985. p172

9- Grierson on Punjabi , Institute of Punjabi Language and

literature, Lahore, 2001, p16

10- Amresh Datta, Encyclopaedia of Indian literature (volume 2,

Devraj to Jyoti), Sahitya Akademi, New Delhi, 2005, p1567

11- Saeed Bhutta (Ed.) , Sanjh Vichar, A. H. Publishers, Lahore,

1997, p504

12- Shahbaz Malik. Punjabi Adbi Jaizay, Taj Book Depot, Lahore,

1989. p31 193

13- Dr. Surinder Singh Kohii, History of Punjabi Literature. National

Book Shop, New Delhi. 1993, p20

14- Saeed Bhutta (Ed.) , Sanjh Vichar, A. H. Publishers, Lahore.

1997, p166

15- Amyn B. Sajoo (ed.). Civil Society in the Muslim World:

Contemporary Perspectives. !.B. Tauris & Co. Ltd., London,

2004, p278

16- Qureshi Ahmad Husain Ahmad Qiladari, Punjabi Adbiat da

Tehqtqi Mutalia, Maktaba Meri Library. Lahore, 1975. p365

17- Rafique Akhtar (ed,), Pakistan Year Book, East and West

Publishing Co., Lahore, 1985, p172

18- Rafique Akhtar (ed.), Pakistan Year Book, East and West

Publishing Co., Lahore, 1985, p173

19- Shafqat Tanveer Mirza, Punjabi Tanqeed aur Dosray Mazamin,

A.H, Publishers, Lahore, 2000, p35

20- Jasbir Singh Ahlowalia, Punjabi literature in Perspective: A

Marxist Approach, Kaiyani Publishers, Ludhiana, 1973, p41

21- Tejwant Singh Gill, Sant Singh Sekhon: Selected writings,

Sahitya Akademi, 2005, p503

22- Dr. Inam ul Haq Jawed, Punjabi Adab da Irtiqa. Akadmi Adbiat,

Pakistan, Islamabad p286

23-Tejwant Singh Gill (ed.), Sant Singh Sekhon: Selected writings,

Sahitya Akademi. 2005, p504 194

24- Shaheen karamat Ali, Punjabi Zuban baray Tazkaryan tay

Tarekhan da Tanqeedi Jaiza, Aziz Publishers, Lahore, 1997.

p15

25- Dr. Inam ul Haq Jawed, Punjabi Adab da Irtiqa, Akadmi Adbiat,

Pakistan, Islamabad p 286

26- Shaheen karamat Ali, Punjabi Zuban baray Tazkaryan tay

Tarekhan da Tanqeedi Jaiza, Aziz Publishers, Lahore, 1997,

p15

27- Ibid p22

28- Abdul Ghafoor Qureshi, Punjabi Zuban da Adab Tay Tarekh,

Taj Book Depot, Lahore. 1956, p13

29- Najam Hussain Sayyed, Seedhan. Rut Lekha Temple Road,

Lahore, ed. IN, 2000, p6

30- Ibid p8-9

31- Ibid p12

32- Ibid p 13-14

33- Ibid p14

34- Ibid p15-16

35- Ibid p 17

36- Ibid p 18

37- Ibid p 20

38- Najam Hussain Sayed, Sach Sada Abadi Kama, Suchet Kitab

Ghar, Lahore, (ed. 2)2007, p 21

39- Ibid

40- Ibid m

41- Ibid 24-25

42- Najam Hussain Sayyed, Seedhan, Rut Lekha Temple Road,

Lahore, ed. Ill, 2000, p23

43- Ibid p 30

44- Najam Hussain Sayed, Sach Sada Abadt Kama, Sachet Kitab

Ghar, Lahore, (ed, 2)2007, p24

45- Ibid p 28

46- Najam Hussain Sayyed, Seedhan, Rut Lekha Temple Road

Lahore, ed. Ill, 2000, p24-26

47- Najam Hussain Sayed, Sach Sada Abadl Kama, Suchet Kitab

Ghar, Lahore, (ed. 2)2007r p29

48- Ibid

49- Ibid p31

50- Ibid p 30

51- Ibid p 32

52- Ibid p 39

53- Ibid p 40

54- Ibid p 41

55- Ibid p 42-43

56- Sharif Kunjahi, Jhatian, A H. Publishers, Lahore, (Ed. 3) 1995

p35

57- Ibid p79

58- Ibid p81

59- Hussain Shahid, Pornay. Aziz Publishers, Lahore, ed.3, 1991,

pl05 196

60- Arif Abdul Mateen, Parakh Parchol. Technical Publishers,

Lahore, ed, 4th F 1993, p206

61- ibid p207

62- Dr, Aslam Rana, Rang Sang, Aziz Publishers, Lahore, 3fd ed,

1991, p125

63- Ibid p128

64- Dr, Shahbaz Malik, Nataray, Taj Book Depot, Lahore, 1979,

p213*214

65- Dr. fsmat ullah Zahid, Adab Samandar, A. One publishers,

Lahore, p206-207

66- Ibid p222

67- Ibid p227

60- Ibid p293-294

69-Zafar Lashari, Khawaja Farid day Taleemi Nazriat, Pakistan

Punjabi Adabi Board, Lahore, 1995, p48

70- Naheed Qadir. Sanjh Surat, (ed. Saeed Bhutta), A.H.

Publishers, Lahore, 1997, p226

71- ibid p219

72- Prof, Sayed Masood Hussain, Sanjh Wichar, (ed. Saeed

Bhutta), A.H, Publishers, Lahore, 1997. p623

73- Jbid

74- ibid p630

75-Dr. Nabita Rehman, Husan Jamal Ghazal Da, Fazil Paper

Products, Urdu Bazar Lahore, 1998, p1G6

76-lbid. p1O0 197t9

77-Ibid, p9

76- Prof Sami Utlah Qureshi, Lekhay Jokhay, Pakistan Punjabi

Adabi Board, Lahore, p150

79- ibid, p147

80-Dr. Dilshad Tiwana, Punjabi Kahani Kama. Bazm-e-Faqir

Pakistan. 2004, p47

81-Ibid, p70 Conclusion 198

Conclusion

Literary criticism is a technical evaluation of literature, in which a literary critic applies different theories of criticism on a specific piece of art to extract underlying meanings, themes and motifs to make a fair judgment on literary text. Literary criticism is a free play of critics own genius but well defined exploration and assessment of literature according to certain set pattern and intellectual standards. It aims at not only extracting the beauty, but also an art of establishment as well as application of principles to distinguish merit from demerit with explanation of the reasons behind the creation to reach and recreate that spiritual atmosphere from where the writer has taken the ideas.

In pre literature cultures, the composition of song was a process in which discussion and comments took the form of criticism, where passions played an important part because aesthetic reaction implies preference and preference implies criticism. That pre-literature culture may be described as musical culture where criticism may be evaluated on poetic grounds.

Criticism starts from the Greeks, and their modes of thought and argument, means of analysis and dissection shaped up the later approaches to literature and criticism. At that time, literature was not evaluated on technical grounds, but admiration of works in varied styles was considered suffice. What is expected from a text is to exhibit harmony, proportion and arrangement appropriate and suitable in 199

effecting a special emotional and cognitive response in the audience. It

seems to be valid in all the periods.

Plato was the first critic who put his critical ideas in a systematic

way in his dialogues. He created the theory of ideas, where he gave

moral, psychological reasons for the deportation of poetry from his

ideal state. Later Aristotle rejected Plato's “Theory of Ideas" and

manifested his own theory of imitation (mimesis) and the main task left

for Aristotle was to redeem the art of poetry from Plato’s aberrant moral

attacks. Plato’s focus was on wisdom and reality but Aristotle gave

poets a better place, that they were imitating nature and united poetry

with other fine arts. He pleaded for the need to have emotional outlet.

Romans contributed their critical approach to the main stream in the

shape of concept of ‘sublimity’ by Longinus and Horace added ‘teach

and delight'.

Later in 16th century, puritans attacked p oetry on emotional

grounds. And Sir Philip Sidney was there to counter their attacks and

demonstrated the function and nature of poetry as 'representing,

counterfeiting and figuring forth, a speaking picture’ to begin formally literary criticism in England. Up till then, only moral perspective was the standard for judgment of literary text.

With the passage of time different theories of literary criticism flourished and grabbed the critic's attention. With the age of science and reason evaluation of text on scientific grounds commenced, where the piece of art was being judged in concern with psychological impressions inherent in it, applying the theories of Freud. Jacques 200

Marie £mile Lacan, Carl Jung, etc. and with the new found understanding of age, of the socio-economic and political prevailing conditions after the inception of Marxism gave even newer directions to criticism. Furthermore the concepts of Ferdinand de Saussure and

Jacques Derrida also when adopted opened new ways of understanding the linguistic patterns underlying the text giving rise to the theories of Structuralism. Post Structuralism and Deconstruction.

And there seemed no end to new addition in the field of criticism.

All these theories are substantially different from each other but all work well, and the critic's job is to apply the appropriate theory on a literary piece of art to judge the work in accordance with the text, psychology, age, socioeconomic conditions, the way of structuring that art and deconstructing as well. These theories made tremendous contributions towards English literary criticism, enriching and developing it fully. When the British colonized the sub-continent, they imposed their own culture, the language, the literature and the modes of argument and analysis, marginalizing the colonized culture and literatures of the subcontinent. As colonized language Urdu and

Punjabi both had to adopt largely and absorb deeply the English thoughts, ideas. Before partition Azad, Shiblee and Hali in collaboration with Sir Sayed, implanted English literary trends in Urdu in the form of translations to give birth to a new critical mind in Urdu, they were the herald of this new changed critical thought and the tradition. The

English themselves were consciously trying to inject their culture, art 201

and literature especially in Punjab to prolong and strengthen their hold

over colonized people. In this scenario when the rulers were forcing

their literature, and Urdu, the first victim, had fallen fiat and bowed

down before the literary onslaught, Punjabi was bound to be the next to

accept the change, it had no choice ,no exception. Willy nilly it opened

its bosom for the new change, welcoming it and absorbing it

thoroughly.

Ultimately English critical theories under the powerful impact of

imperialism started handing over their legacy to Urdu and Punjabi

criticism. Urdu writers got directly involved themselves in the

translations and later Punjabi writers also evolved literary theories from English similarly.

Historically Ahmad Yar Maralvi and Mian Mohammad Bux made

initial efforts in Punjabi criticism, they criticized certain poets in their

poetry though it was not in a systematic way but quite a valuable

footing for the coming critics. The contributions of Bawa Budh Singh,

Dr. Lajwanti Ram Krishan, Dr. Banarsi Das Jain, Dr. Mohan Singh

Diwana and Moula Bux Kushta are also remarkable. They are the

pioneers of Punjabi criticism and gave it a fundamental basis. No

prominent impacts of English criticism are traced before partition. All

prominent trends and theories took shape after 1947. In India Prof.

Pritam Singh, Prof. Kishan Singh, Shamsher Singh Ashok, Wanjara

Singh Bedi, Harnam Singh Shan and Oshu had done marvelous critical interpretations taking in consideration the English impacts. 202

We have specified our period of research (1947-2005) to discuss in the thesis. So we have to concentrate only on Pakistani

Punjabi critics. Najam Hussain Sayed is the harbinger, he is the first who focuses on English critical thoughts, and flourishes them in his writings. We have discussed many critics who have other shades of

English criticism, not in totality but in some form. Our object, here has been to trace the deep impacts of English criticism on Punjabi criticism borrowed from the west consciously or unconsciously, intentionally or unintentionally. After discussing English. Urdu and Punjabi criticism in literary and historical perspectives we have come to the conclusion that there are marked impacts of English criticism on Punjabi criticism.

Urdu and Punjabi writers both have tried to maintain their individuality resulting in an amalgam of English and local traditions, literary as well as critical. These English impacts are clearly manifested in Urdu and Punjabi criticism. Certain critics scrupulously follow the set rules and patterns of the English; some has slight touch and influence in their writings and some others have deeply integrated the English critical trends. That is largely due to the legacy of colonialism and

British imperialism in India and partly because the general scenario of the world change initiates certain general responses and similar reactions. If a particular state of affairs, conditions, circumstances or action in the west is igniting a certain reaction that particular state of affair in the east will definitely generate the same response because human beings all over the world feel, think, behave and react mostly in 203

the same way. When in the west, deplorable socio-political and

economic conditions cause unrest and frustration in the masses, making people more and more conscious of the class discrimination on the basis of social status: they look for some relief and grab Marxism as answer to the riddle. It affects all human activities including art and literature and consequently it influences the cannons of criticism. Same social discrimination in the sub-continent stimulates same reaction and ultimately it makes people seek solution and repose in Marxism that later becomes the precursor of Marxism in Punjabi criticism. Though the theme of the social and economic oppression of the working class by ruling class has been discussed by many earlier Punjabi writers like, Bulleh Shah, Shah Hussain and more, but in criticism it has been

interpreted in Marxist perspective in1960’s, when Najam Hussain

H Sayed contributes in the form of his book Sedhan" { The Directions),

1967).

When women in the west raised slogans for their emancipation

and freedom from male chauvinism and bondage laid the foundation of

feminism they got representation and voice first in English literature

and the English criticism and later with other trends it gets place and

appreciation in Punjabi literature and criticism. So is the case with

modernism, structuralism, post structuralism, deconstruction,

colonialism, post colonialism, etc. One by one they find recognition in

English literature and through the filter of colonialism consequently in

Punjabi literature and criticism. Presently, as the world is becoming a 204

global village because of the advancement in the field of communication, the inception of theories and their induction in literature or subsequent acceptance or rejection in criticism is prompt and instantaneous. All critical theories spark quick and instant response from all over the world. There is no need of mechanical conduit of colonialism.

Going a little behind, in this twentieth century, a more blessed and fertile century, criticism is no more restricted to moral and judicial evaluation of literature. The scale is tilted towards impressionism, textual, biographical standards of judgment or sometimes more complex theories are introduced for a proper technical study of literature and more critical interpretations. Many other aspects are given weight Along with the old trends that are revived with full strength, it blooms formalism or Marxism, develops structuralism or post structuralism, encourages deconstruction or psychoanalytical probing, flourishes feminist perspective or colonial background etc. All these trends are represented in critical evaluation and analysis.

Sometimes one critic exhibits all these aspects or colours of criticism.

or one trend is manifested in ail prominent critics. Critics use different tools of evaluation to dissect a piece of art to bring out the inherent

virtues or to affix the troubleshooters hidden in the piece of art.

Sometimes they employ Marxism, sometimes feminism and sometimes

psychoanalytical tools help to solve the riddle. Other modern scientific

trends of evaluating literature are also much important like. Darrida’s' 205

deconstruction, post colonialism, structuralism and post structuralism as well. All have their importance as make the criticism rich and diverse by providing multiple interpretations. Even old evaluations are reviewed in the modern perspectives. Now. in this multidimensional age we cannot ascribe one trend as a trend of the age rather all old and new trends are currently in vogue and well represented in English criticism and also in Punjabi criticism,

A Punjabi critic uses different litmus test to perceive different elements. For example Najam Hussain Sayed while evaluating classical literatures on new critical grounds or from new perspective locates the strong relationship of the poet with the society and applied

Marxist theory to his tone, .rhythm, assertions and socio-economic conditions of the society. The themes here he chooses, are unique imbued in original Punjabi accent and tone, casting far reaching impacts on reader as well. We feel that he has a formalistic approach

and evaluation of “text as in itself becomes more important for him.

We can find almost all the colours of criticism in his writings, he works

simultaneously as a feminist, a psychoanalytical critic dismantling text

as a deconstructionist and structuralist. Well aware of post colonial

discourse who is tracing impacts of post colonialism from the writings

of Punjabi literature. He has thoroughly imbibed the whole spirit of

critical analysis.

The critical approach which unfolds the inner, the muffled

musings of mind and heart may be seen in Sharif Kunjahi's "Jhatian . 206

where he reveals mysticism in poetry in a socio-economic perspective.

He has a slight Marxist approach, where he is struggling against and combating the cruel feudal laws. Kunjahi evaluates classical literature in psychological perspective as well. He unfolds the writer’s mind with the help of his created characters in connection with underlying psychological aspects as well as sociological aspects, to some extent we can say that he Is an impressionistic critic giving a bird's eye view about classical literature. Another impressionistic critic Dr. Aslam

Rana evaluates literature as a feminist critic. But sometimes his criticism moves along as a stucturalist as well as psychoanalytic approaches towards literature.

As far as Dr. Shahbaz Malik is concerned, we can say that

Malik’s judgment is remarkable in comparing Muni; Niazi with the imagist poets of France and finds out the underlying elements of poetic tradition as well as applies different theories of criticism to evaluate the text. Another noticeable comparison of the artistic style of ‘Shah

Hussain' with Milton is really a good achievement of Hussain Shahid in his book namly ‘Poomay'. In his criticism we can see the shades of psychoanalytic criticism as well as aesthetical criticism. As a Naturist critic Zafar Lashari compares the poetry of ’Khawaja Famed' with

Wordsworth and Boudiier and finds out the underlying elements of

‘Khawaja Famed's' era in post colonial perspective. Dr. Nabila Rehman compares Pir Fazal's' poetry in accordance with Aristotle's concept of tragedy with Keats, Shelly, etc. in socio-economic perspective. 207

Another aspect of literary criticism can be seen in Arif Abdul

Mateen's 'Parakh Parchol’, where he passes his judgments on Ahmad

Rahi’s Tarinjari’m feminist as well as Post Colonial perspective.

Dr, Ismat Ullah Zahid makes his remarkable judgments on the

text of Maulvi Ghulam Rasul Alampuri's "Dastan Ameer Hamza" and

HAhsan-ul-Qassas". He judges the text by applying different theories of

criticism, especially in post colonial, psychoanalytical and Marxist perception.

As a feminist. Punjabi critic feels his responsibility to depict the

plight of the women folk in the society like Najam Hussain Sayed, Azra

Waqar, Dr Aslam Rana and Hussain Shahid, Psychoanalytic critic

provides new interpretations of literary text. He discusses and reveals

the hidden meaning of text with the study of the writer's inner mind.

This discourse come from the researchers but firstly best adapted in

the judgment of literary text by I.A.Richards. The study of conscious

and subconscious takes great importance in the evaluation of literary

text. The construction of plot, the characters, action and reactions of

the created characters have been explained with the help of the study

of subconscious repressions as well. As a psychoanalytic critic the

conscious and the unconscious is discussed by Najam Hussain Sayed, Sharif Kunjahi, Hussain Shahid . Dr. Ismat ullah Zahid, Dr. Aslam Rana Dr. Nabila Umer and Dr. Dilshad Tiwana. As a Marxist he is content to

evaluate in a true socio-economic perspective like Najam Hussain

Sayed. Sharif Kiunjahi, Hussain Shahid, Dr. Aslam Rana, Dr. Ismat 208

ullah Zahid, Dr. Nabila Umer and Dr. Dilshad Tiwana. As a colonial and post colonial critic, the sorrows and the sins, the silence hopes and grim future catches his attention like Najam Hussain Sayed, Sharif

Kunjahi, Dr Ismat ullah Zahid, Arif Abdul Mateen. And somewhere deconstruction makes him focus on bringing to surface the underlying irreconcilable contradictions of a text like Najam Hussain Sayed.

We have discussed these important English trends being manifested in Punjabi criticism and their strong impacts. We cannot claim that Punjabi critics have read English criticism and then borrowed the material but there are clear indications that most of them are well familiar and well versed in English criticism. Whether consciously or unconsciously they have trodden the same foot steps and utilized their knowledge fully. In the post colonial period and even after partition, the

shadows of its irresistible impacts are still looming the sky of Punjabi

criticism. It seemed inevitable to shatter the shackles that are getting

stronger day by day.

So far as the evaluation of literary text in Punjabi literature is

concerned, as we find that mostly renowned critics are opting for new

trends and theories of English criticism and applying them on modern

as well as classical text.

We have skimmed all the English impacts in different prominent

Pakistani critics and come to the conclusion, that Punjabi criticism has

been thoroughly revived according to the pattern of English criticism. 209

Now evaluating literature on new grounds is taking root and in the times to come, it will fully assimilate these critical trends and make them its part. It is not blame or a blur rather an added feather in its cap.

As Punjabi critics have assimilated modem English critical trends in letter and spirit integrating their modes of thoughts and arguments writing styles, means of analysis and dissection in their own critical traditions. Almost all the in vogue modem prevalent trends in criticism have been incorporated in the present Punjabi literary critical traditions. Even though little work is done in the field of literary criticism but done well. Punjabi critic is well equipped for evaluation as retains the old tools of criticism with the new to dismantle the psychological, linguistic and social barriers to understand and judge the piece of art. It is quite fair to say that the impacts of English criticism on Punjabi

criticism are evident- s

Bi l 210

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