Copyright is owned by the Author of the thesis. Permission is given for a copy to be downloaded by an individual for the purpose of research and private study only. The thesis may not be reproduced elsewhere without the permission of the Author. The Tool and Instrument of the Military? The Operations of the Military Service Tribunals in the East Central Division of the West Riding of Yorkshire and those of the Military Service Boards in New Zealand, 1916-1918 A thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in History at Massey University David Littlewood 2015 i Abstract The Military Service Acts that implemented conscription in Great Britain and New Zealand during 1916 permitted appeals for exemption to a Military Service Tribunal or Military Service Board respectively. Although claims lodged on the grounds of hardship or occupation were by far the most common, historians have overwhelmingly focused on that distinct minority of individuals who cited conscientious objections. Furthermore, there has been no attempt to compare the structure, or the workings, of the exemption systems in these two countries. By employing a ‘British World’ approach, this thesis compares the operations of the Tribunals in the East Central Division of the West Riding of Yorkshire with those of the Boards across New Zealand. It investigates the relationship between the appeal bodies and their respective governments and militaries, to assess how far each claim was judged on its merits. It also analyses the appointment of personnel and the attitudes that the Tribunal and Board members adopted during their hearings. Finally, this thesis considers the proportion of men who appealed, or were appealed for, and the likelihood of them receiving a favourable verdict. The operations of the Tribunals and the Boards exhibit some striking differences. Large numbers of Tribunals were established with diverse and locally chosen memberships, whereas the personnel for the handful of Boards were appointed according to a prescribed formula. Moreover, the Tribunal members received a plethora of ambiguous directions, which, when combined with a tendency to prioritise the needs of their communities, led to significant inconsistencies of procedure and decision. In contrast, the New Zealand Government exerted strong centralised control, an approach that coincided with the Board members’ desire to achieve uniformity. Despite these significant discrepancies, appellants in both the East Central Division and New Zealand were more likely to be awarded some period of relief from military service than to have their conscription simply confirmed. ii Acknowledgements Although the title page states this thesis is by ‘David Littlewood’, it simply would not exist in its current form without assistance. My greatest debt is to my wife, Kat, whose love and support always make me feel incredibly lucky. Family members have been behind me throughout and I particularly want to thank my Dad for his tireless efforts obtaining sources for me in the UK. Every PhD candidate requires quality supervision and in this regard I have been exceptionally fortunate. Associate Professor James Watson has done so much for me during my postgraduate career, while Dr John Griffiths has been essential to developing the comparative aspect of this thesis. My colleagues in the School of Humanities have given great encouragement, none more so than Associate Professor Kerry Taylor, who has always demonstrated tremendous faith in my abilities. I would also like to single out Dr Geoff Watson, Professor Glyn Harper, and Sharon Cox for their invaluable advice. The staff of the Document Supply Service showed remarkable patience with my many requests. Massey University has been extremely generous with its financial support, which played a vital role in giving me the time to undertake such detailed research. I have experienced dedicated assistance at all of the repositories listed in the bibliography. However, a special mention must go to the staff at the Huddersfield Local Studies Library and Kirklees Archives, who managed to locate several previously undiscovered treasures on my behalf. This thesis is dedicated to the individuals who engaged with the British and New Zealand exemption systems. While some of their sentiments may appear strange or even distasteful to a modern audience, they are surely best viewed as quintessentially human responses to a time of great uncertainty. I only hope all those involved would agree with at least part of what I have to say. David Littlewood, 2015 iii Contents Page No. Abstract ii AcknowledgeMents iii List of Charts v Abbreviations vi Map One County of the West Riding of Yorkshire viii Map Two New Zealand Provincial Districts ix Introduction 1 Chapter One Setting the Boundaries: 16 The Framework of the Exemption Systems Chapter Two Judges and Juries: 63 The Staffing of the Exemption Systems Chapter Three Independence or Compliance?: 98 The Autonomy of the Appeal Bodies Chapter Four Holding the Balance: 152 The Attitudes of the Members Chapter Five Willing and Eager to Go?: 191 The Appellants Chapter Six Those Troublesome Few: 228 The Treatment of Conscientious Objectors Chapter Seven Work or Fight: 261 The Verdicts Delivered Conclusions 285 Bibliography 293 iv List of Charts Page No. 1. Total and Status of New Zealand Appellants 200 2. Appellants as a Proportion of Eligible Population in British Districts 201 and New Zealand 3. Representation of Occupational Classes Amongst New Zealand 209 Appellants 4. The Boards’ Verdicts in Appeals Lodged by Conscientious Objectors 252 5. Positive ‘Concrete Verdicts’ as a Proportion of All Verdicts Delivered 266 6. Types of ‘Concrete Verdict’ Delivered by the Division’s Tribunals 267 7. Positive ‘Concrete Verdicts’ Plus Dismissals with Time as a 268 Proportion of All Verdicts 8. Sample ‘Concrete’ Verdicts Delivered by the Boards 277 9. Sample ‘Concrete Verdicts’ Compared to All ‘Concrete Verdicts’ 279 Delivered by the Boards v Abbreviations AG Ashburton Guardian AJHR Appendices to the Journals of the House of Representatives ANZ Archives New Zealand AP Sir James Allen Papers AS Auckland Star AsqP Papers of Herbert Henry Asquith ATL Alexander Turnbull Library BC Barnsley Chronicle BI Barnsley Independent BLTF Birstall Local Tribunal Files BN Batley News BodL Bodleian Library C Colonist CA Calderdale Archives CSG Cleckheaton & Spenborough Guardian CVG Colne Valley Guardian DDN Dewsbury District News DEN Dannevirke Evening News DR Dewsbury Reporter ECAT East Central Division Appeal Tribunal EP Evening Post FS Feilding Star FUA Farmers’ Union Advocate GRA Grey River Argus GT Goole Times HBT Hawke’s Bay Tribune HC Huddersfield Chronicle HE Holmfirth Express HEx Huddersfield Examiner HHP Harris Hoyle Papers HNS Hawera & Normanby Star H of C House of Commons H of L House of Lords HORP Herbert Otto Roth Papers (Biographical Notes) ILP Independent Labour Party KA Kirklees Archives LA Leeds Archives LGB Local Government Board MARO Munitions Area Recruitment Officer ME Marlborough Express MES Manawatu Evening Standard MP Member of Parliament MW Maoriland Worker NEB National Efficiency Board NZG New Zealand Gazette NZH New Zealand Herald NZPD New Zealand Parliamentary Debates vi NZS New Zealand Statutes NZT New Zealand Times ODT Otago Daily Times OO Ossett Observer P Press PBH Poverty Bay Herald PCE Pontefract & Castleford Express PH Pahiatua Herald ST Southland Times TBL The British Library TH Taranaki Herald TNA The National Archives W Worker WC Wanganui Chronicle WDT Wairarapa Daily Times WE Wakefield Express WSHC Wiltshire and Swindon History Centre WT Waikato Times vii Map One: County of the West Riding of Yorkshire Source: West Riding County Council, West Riding of Yorkshire County Services Handbook, Wakefield: West Riding County Council, 1965. viii Map Two: New Zealand Provincial Districts Source: W.H. Oliver, The Story of New Zealand, London: Faber and Faber, 1960, pp. 54-55. ix Introduction On 7 October 1916, Albert Walker, a blanket raiser from Dewsbury, explained why he should be exempted from conscription into the British Army. He was the sole support of his father, who had been injured in a textile mill accident, and a sister who looked after the family home. Three of his brothers were serving with the forces and two others had recently been called up. In view of this precarious domestic situation, and the sacrifices made by his family, Walker was granted a conditional exemption.1 Seven months later, Charles Sneddon made a similar plea at Hawera in New Zealand. As well as owning an 897-acre farm, he was working his father’s property 12 miles away, which carried 400 breeding ewes and 40 head of cattle. The proceeds from these two holdings provided for his mother and father, who were aged 80 and 71 respectively. On the strength of this testimony, Sneddon was awarded sine die (indefinite) relief from military service.2 Although they both had to renew their claims in the years that followed, Walker and Sneddon were successful in obtaining further exemption and thereby spent the rest of the Great War at home.3 These accounts exemplify a critical aspect of recruitment in Britain and New Zealand, but one that has not been fully analysed by historians. While a plethora of studies have discussed why so many men decided to volunteer, the experiences of those who were called up under conscription have received relatively little scrutiny.4 Even when the implementation of the respective Military Service Acts has been investigated, scholars have usually focused on only the distinct minority 1 Batley News, 14 October 1916, p. 7. 2 Hawera & Normanby Star (HNS), 19 May 1917, p. 2, 15 June 1917, p. 5 and 16 October 1917, p. 5; Wanganui Chronicle, 21 May 1917, p. 4. 3 HNS, 7 June 1918, p. 5. 4 John Morton Osborne, The Voluntary Recruiting Movement in Britain, 1914-1916, New York: Garland, 1982, pp. 73-105; Catriona Pennell, A Kingdom United: Popular Responses to the Outbreak of the First World War in Britain and Ireland, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012, pp.