INSPECTION, TESTING, AND MONITORING OF BUILDINGS AND BRIDGES EDITED BY PAUL ZIEHL AND JUAN CAICEDO Inspection, Testing, and Monitoring of Buildings and Bridges

ISBN: 978-1-60983-198-1

Cover Design: Duane Acoba

Publications Manager: Mary Lou Luif

Project Head: Sandra Hyde

Project Editor: Daniel Mutz

Typesetting: Amy O'Farrell

COPYRIGHT © 2012

â Published by the International Code Council

ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. This publication is a copyrighted work owned by the National Council of Structural Engineers Associ- ations (NCSEA). Without advance written permission from the copyright owner, no part of this book may be reproduced, distrib- uted, or transmitted in any form or by any means, including, without limitation, electronic, optical, or mechanical means (by way of example, and not limitation, photocopying or recording by or in an information storage retrieval system). For information on per- mission to copy material exceeding fair use, please contact: ICC Publications, 4051 West Flossmoor Road, Country Club Hills, IL 60478. Phone 1-888-ICC-SAFE (422-7233).

The information contained in this document is believed to be accurate; however, it is being provided for informational purposes only and is intended for use only as a guide. Publication of this document by the ICC should not be construed as the ICC, NCSEA, or the authors engaging in or rendering engineering, legal or other professional services. Use of the information contained in this book should not be considered by the user to be a substitute for the advice of a registered professional engineer, attorney or other profes- sional. If such advice is required, it should be sought through the services of a registered professional engineer, licensed attorney or other professional.

Back cover photo (lower left) courtesy of K.C. Ward, Inc.

First Printing: May 2012

PRINTED IN THE U.S.A. PREFACE

This book addresses both applications and emerging technologies related to the inspection, testing, and monitoring of structures and structural systems. It covers a variety of topics by recognized experts in their respective fields. These topics include the evaluation and remediation of corrosion and fire damage, load testing, nondestructive evaluation, and long-term monitoring. The orga- nization of the book proceeds from primarily visual inspection and evaluation of structures to more in-depth analysis procedures. Many materials are addressed, including reinforced concrete, structural steel, timber, masonry, and fiber-reinforced polymers. The book is intended as a helpful reference for engineers who are routinely faced with complex evaluation requirements. For this rea- son, illustrative figures are included as well as a significant number of references at the conclusion of each chapter for further reading and information.

iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The help of Dr. Tim Mays in the coordination of this project is greatly appreciated. We also wish to acknowledge the help of Jeanne Vogelzang, JD, CAE, at NCSEA and Sandra Hyde, PE, at ICC. Paul Ziehl would like to thank his wife, Michele, for her continuous en- couragement and support. The National Council of Structural Engineers Associations (NCSEA) acknowledges the hard work of the NCSEA Publications Commit- tee. This group consists of individuals from many backgrounds, including consulting, engineering, research, education, design, and private practice. Individuals who serve on the NCSEA Publications Committee include: Timothy W. Mays, PhD, PE, Chairman Roberto Leon, PhD, PE Clem McCarey, PE C. Michael Donoghue, PE Chun Lau, PE Jon P. Kiland, SE, SECB John Finke, PE The authors would like to acknowledge the contributions of Drs. Engelhardt and Fowler to Chapter 10.

iv ABOUT THE AUTHORS

This book was coordinated by Dr. Paul Ziehl, PE, of the University of South Carolina. Dr. Ziehl obtained his Bachelor of Science de- gree at California Polytechnic State University, San Luis Obispo, and his Master of Science and Doctor of Philosophy degrees at the University of Texas at Austin. He has substantial background in both building and bridge design and analysis. He is a member of the American Concrete Institute and the Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute and serves on several ACI technical committees, includ- ing ACI 437: Strength Evaluation of Existing Concrete Structures and ACI 335: Composite and Hybrid Structures. He is an Associate Professor at the University of South Carolina where he teaches graduate courses in Prestressed Concrete Design, Advanced Rein- forced Concrete Analysis and Design, and Composite Materials for Civil Applications in addition to an undergraduate course Rein- forced Concrete Analysis and Design. He has particular interest and expertise in nondestructive evaluation, full-scale experimental characterization, seismic design and detailing of prestressed and reinforced concrete structures, numerical modeling and simulations, and structural health monitoring. Dr. Ziehl has served as an investigator on more than 30 sponsored research projects and has authored over 100 publications, including journal articles, conference proceedings, book chapters, and research reports. He has pro- fessional registration in four states and maintains active status in South Carolina and Texas. He and Michele are the proud parents of David, Zachary, Michael, Theresa, and Bernadette.

Mr. William Barna, PE, is a graduate of The Citadel, from which he received his Bachelor of Science degree in Civil Engineering. Throughout his 12 year career, Mr. Barna has accumulated extensive experience in the design and inspection of waterfront facilities for numerous Departments of Transportation and government agencies, with particular emphasis on both above-water and below-water bridge inspection. He is experienced in SCUBA diving and is a trained ADCI Surface-Supplied Air Diver. He has worked in various haz- ardous conditions including poor visibility, strong currents, and high altitudes. He also has a vested interest in nondestructive testing and hydrographic surveying. Currently, Mr. Barna is a Registered Professional Engineer in South Carolina, Alaska, and New York.

Mr. Jonathan P. Carroll, PE, received his education at Ohio University with a Bachelor of Science degree in Civil Engineering. Mr. Carroll has been involved in the transportation and structural field for nearly a decade and has accumulated extensive experience in bridge design and inspection. He has prepared designs for numerous Departments of Transportation and local municipalities, which have included multi-span, multi-lane, curved, and straight bridges over water and urban expressways. He has also conducted above-water and below-water structural inspections on numerous bridges, overhead signs, and marine structures. His bridge inspec- tion experience includes the NBIS inspection of bridges comprised of concrete deck slabs, post-tensioned slabs, concrete beams, post/prestressed concrete girders/boxes, steel girders, steel box caps, cable-stay spans, and steel trusses. He is a certified SCUBA diver with surface-supplied diving experience as well. Currently, Mr. Carroll is a Registered Professional Engineer in Florida, Georgia, North Carolina, Ohio, and South Carolina.

Mr. James K. O’Connor, PE, is the Regional Manager of Collins Engineers, Inc., in Charleston, South Carolina.

Carl J. “Chuck” Larosche has over 25 years of experience in consulting services for the preservation and restoration of historic and existing structures, structural design, and the investigation and evaluation of existing structures and materials. He has successfully combined his broad background with his knowledge of material behavior in existing structures to provide insight and knowledge in the area of masonry, concrete, and steel evaluation, including strengthening and repair of these materials. Prior to his en- gineering career, Mr. Larosche worked in the construction field for 14 years. Mr. Larosche then worked 10 years in bridge design, con- struction, and maintenance for the Texas Department of Transportation (TxDOT). Upon receiving his Master of Science degree in from the University of Texas at Austin, Mr. Larosche founded his own firm: Sparks, Larosche & Associates.

Since 2004, Mr. Larosche has been a Principal of Wiss, Janney, Elstner Associates Inc. (WJE). He is also Chair of ACI Committee 437: Strength Evaluation of Existing Concrete Structures, and Sub-committee Chair of ACI 562: Evaluation, Repair and Rehabilita- tion—Structural Analysis, and Secretary of ACI Committee E702: Designing Concrete Structures. Mr. Larosche is currently a Licensed Professional Engineer in Texas, Missouri, Oklahoma, Colorado, New Mexico, and Arizona.

Scott Hancock, PE, obtained his Bachelor of Science and Master of Engineering degrees at the University of Florida. He has substan- tial background in , construction-materials testing, special inspections, and forensic investigation of structure distress. He has directed development of a web-based special inspection and construction materials test reporting system that com- plies with International requirements. The system receives input of tests and observations from the field, allows on-line review, allows identification and tracking of discrepancies to resolution, and presents reports to clients on the web. He is currently a Technical Principal and Vice President with S&ME, Inc., a southeast regional engineering consulting firm with approximately 1,000 em- ployees. In this role, he is responsible for providing technical support to engineers throughout the company. He has practiced for over 30 years and maintains professional registration in North Carolina, Virginia, and Tennessee.

Edward Deaver received his Bachelor of Science degree at the University of South Carolina. He is a Technical Services Engineer for Holcim (US) Inc. He is also a member of ASTM Committees C09.40: Ready Mix Concrete, C09.64: Nondestructive and In-Place Test- ing of Concrete, C09.49 Pervious Concrete, C09.23: Chemical Admixtures for Concrete, and C09.21: Light Weight Aggregates, as well as a member of ACI and ASCE. He has completed construction projects in nuclear, chemical, and pulp and paper in actual construction v capacity and has provided technical support for dam, airport and highway construction during his career that began in 1979 with Daniel International Corporation. Jon Knights, BSc, MSc, CEng, MIMMM, CSci, AMICT, is a Principal Materials Engineer within the Asset Management and Engi- neering Group at Halcrow Group Limited (UK). Jon has extensive expertise in all areas of concrete technology, specializing in condi- tion assessment and durability design and specification of concrete in aggressive marine environments, including the production of durability audits and planning strategies for numerous structures in the UK and overseas. Jon also has experience in forensic engi- neering investigation and expert witness services in concrete technology and production. He was lead author for the recent CIRIA pub- lication C674: “Use of Concrete in Maritime Engineering—A Good Practice Guide.” Jeremy Ingham, BSc, MSc, DipRMS, CEng, MInstNDT, EurGeol, CGeol, CSci, FGS, FRGS, FRMS, MIAQP, is a Senior Materials Engineer with Halcrow Group Limited (UK). He provides consultancy and investigation services for construction projects worldwide, in- volving materials technology, service-life prediction, and asset management planning. His commissions range from pre-construction advice and quality control during construction to condition surveys of existing structures, failure investigation, and expert witness ser- vices. He has a particular interest in forensic engineering, including assessment of fire-damaged structures. He was co-author of Con- crete Society Technical Report TR68, “Assessment, Design and Repair of Fire-damaged Concrete Structures” and is a Member of the Editorial Advisory Panel for the Proceedings of Institution of Civil Engineers journal Forensic Engineering. An advocate of the applica- tion of microscopy to construction materials investigation, he is Chairman of The Concrete Society’s Petrography Working Party and author of Geomaterials Under the Microscope—A Colour Guide. Dr. Brian Kukay, PhD, obtained his Bachelor of Science and Master of Science degrees at Montana Tech of The University of Montana. He obtained his Doctor of Philosophy degree at Utah State University. He has industry experience with commercial construc- tion and civil/environmental consulting firms. He is a member of the American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE) and the Forest Prod- ucts Society (FPS). Currently, Dr. Kukay serves on the ASCE/SEI Timber Bridge Committee. He is an Assistant Professor at Montana Tech of The University of Montana where he teaches courses in Wood Analysis and Design, Reinforced Concrete Analysis and De- sign, and Steel Analysis and Design in addition to courses in Structural Analysis and Design and Statics. He has a particular interest and expertise in the destructive and nondestructive testing of wood and concrete structures, including post-fire assessments and long-term bridge monitoring, and he has authored journal articles and conference proceedings on the topics. Dr. Kukay continues to enjoy collaborations with the Western Transportation Institute and the National Forest Products Laboratory. Dr. Robert H. White obtained his Bachelor of Science degree at Pennsylvania State University, Master of Science degree at Oregon State University, and Doctor of Philosophy degree at University of Wisconsin-Madison. His major areas of expertise pertain to the fire performance of wood products. He is a member of the Forest Products Society, National Fire Protection Association, International As- sociation of Fire Safety Science, and ASTM International. He is currently chairman of ASTM Subcommittee E5.22 on Surface Burning and was chairman of ASTM Subcommittee D7.07 on Fire Performance of Wood. In recognition of his activities in ASTM, he was awarded the L.J. Markwardt Award from Committee D07 on Wood in 2008 and the ASTM International Award of Merit and accompany- ing title of fellow in 2009. He has been at the USDA, Forest Service, Forest Products Laboratory since 1975 when he joined the fire re- search staff as a wood scientist. From 1991 to 2005, he was Project Leader of the fire research work unit and continues to serve as the team leader for the fire research program at FPL. Research activities have included charring rate of solid sawn and composite wood products, use of fire-resistive coatings or gypsum board as protective membranes, fire resistance of engineered wood products and other wood assemblies, fire performance of fire-retardant-treated wood products, and flammability of individual plants. Dr. White is the author or co-author of more than 90 articles or publications on the fire performance of wood products. Frank E. Woeste, PE, PhD, is a wood construction and engineering consultant. Frank conducted wood engineering research and taught wood design courses throughout his 26-year tenure at Virginia Tech University in Blacksburg, Virginia. A list of his current com- mittee involvement and publications can be viewed at: www.woodscience.vt.edu/resumes/woeste1101.pdf. He can be contacted by e-mail: [email protected] Matthew Sherman, PE, obtained his Bachelor of Science degree from Cornell University and his Master of Science degree from The University of Texas at Austin. He has worked in the construction and engineering fields for over 15 years. His specialties include evalu- ating existing structures, concrete repair, concrete materials, and nondestructive testing. He is a member of the International Concrete Repair Institute where he is active on the Corrosion and Evaluation Committees, and is also a member of the American Concrete Insti- tute where he serves on the Membership Committee and assists the Evaluation Committee. He has written and lectured frequently on issues concerning concrete and nondestructive testing. He is an Associate Principal at Simpson Gumpertz & Heger, Inc. (SGH) and is a registered Professional Engineer in Massachusetts, Indiana, Kentucky, and Illinois. Dr. Gustavo Tumialan, PE, is a in the Boston office of Simpson Gumpertz & Heger, Inc. (SGH). He works in the in- vestigation, evaluation, and repair of concrete, masonry, and steel structures of all types. His expertise includes structural condition ap- praisal, in-situ strength evaluation, rehabilitation engineering, and preparation of contract documents for remedial work. He received his Bachelor of Science degree in Civil Engineering from the Pontificia Universidad Catolica del Peru, and his Master of Science and Doctor of Philosophy degrees in Civil Engineering from the Missouri University of Science and Technology (formerly University of Mis- souri-Rolla). Dr. Tumialan is a member of the American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE), the American Concrete Institute (ACI), and the American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC). He is member and Secretary of ACI Committee 437: Strength Evaluation of Con- vi crete Structures, a member of ACI Committee 440: FRP Composites and Chairman of Sub-committee 440M: Masonry Strengthening, and a member of ACI Committee 562: Evaluation, Repair, and Rehabilitation of Concrete Buildings. He has authored over 50 publica- tions, including journal articles and conference proceedings, and presented various technical papers on evaluation and rehabilitation of structures. He has professional registration in the United States and Peru.

Dr. Nestore Galati, PE, obtained his Bachelor of Science and Doctor of Philosophy degrees at the University of Lecce in Italy, and his Master of Science degree at the University of Missouri-Rolla. He has substantial background in the area of retrofitting of masonry and retrofitting and in-situ load testing of reinforced concrete structures (building and bridges). He is a member of the American Concrete Institute and serves on several ACI technical committees, including ACI 437: Strength Evaluation of Existing Concrete Structures and ACI 440: Fiber-Reinforced Polymer Reinforcement. He is Senior Design Engineer at the Strengthening Division of Structural Group Inc. in Hanover, Maryland, USA. His responsibilities include generating innovative designs for new construction and repair, hands-on engineering, and providing strong support channels with operations, sales, and estimating.

Dr. Galati was previously research engineer at the Department of Civil, Architectural and Environmental Engineering at the University of Missouri-Rolla. Dr. Galati conducted research in the field of civil infrastructure renewal, including construction materials, their struc- tural performance, and field application. Through his academic and professional activities, he has obtained experience in concrete and advanced composites-based systems as the principal investigator of projects sponsored by federal and state agencies, and private in- dustry. Dr. Galati has participated in many international workshops and conferences and had the opportunity to present and publish a variety of technical papers in the field of infrastructure retrofitting. He authored and co-authored 70 refereed journal and conference publications in addition to 24 technical reports to sponsors.

Dr. Antonio Nanni, PE, is a structural engineer interested in construction materials, their structural performance, and field application. His interests are in the field of civil infrastructure sustainability and renewal. In the past 25 years, he has obtained experience in con- crete and advanced composites-based systems as the principal investigator of projects sponsored by federal and state agencies, and private industry. He has advised over 50 graduate students pursuing MSc and PhD degrees. Dr. Nanni has maintained a balance be- tween academic and practical experience and is a registered PE in Italy, Florida, Pennsylvania, Missouri, and Oklahoma. He is an ac- tive member in the technical committees of ACI (Fellow), ASCE (Fellow), ASTM, and TMS. In 2004, he was elected Founding Fellow of the International Institute for FRP in Construction (IIFC). He was the founding Chair of ACI Committee 440: Fiber Reinforced Polymer Reinforcement and former Chair of ACI Committee 437: Strength Evaluation of Existing Concrete Structures. Dr. Nanni has served on the Executive Committee of ASCE Materials Division and is the Editor-in-Chief of the ASCE Journal of Materials in Civil Engineering. He co-authored a book and edited a second one on the subject of FRP reinforcement for concrete, and he co-edited the proceedings of several international symposia and workshops on the same subject. He has authored over 150 refereed journal papers and was recipi- ent and co-recipient of several national and international awards, including the 2005 President’s Award for Research and Creativity, University of Missouri System. Dr. Nanni received his degrees from the University of Miami (PhD), University of Witwatersrand, South Africa (MSc), and University of Bologna, Italy (BSc, magna cum laude).

Mr. Scott P. Aschermann, PE, is the Chief Testing Engineer for Bridge Diagnostics, Inc. and is involved in testing and monitoring pro- jects throughout Asia, the Middle East, and North America. His interests include acquisition, management, and execution of test- ing/monitoring projects; managing the production of BDI’s Structural Testing Systems (BDI-STS); sales and marketing; and new product development. He has been involved in the testing of approximately 350 structures and the production of hundreds of BDI STS systems, which are used throughout the world for structural live load testing. In addition to the above, he is also involved in the design and field implementation of new BDI data-acquisition equipment and sensor lines. This involvement gives him the unique ability of adapting off-the-shelf instrumentation for uncommon measurements and data collection requirements. This has been done success- fully on bridges, buildings, dams, cranes, and many other types of heavy civil structures.

Dr. Fabio Matta obtained his degrees in Civil Engineering from the University of Padova, Italy (BSc and MSc), and the Missouri Univer- sity of Science and Technology (PhD). He is an Assistant Professor in the Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering at the University of South Carolina. His research interests are in the areas of advanced composite systems for internal reinforcement of con- crete, sustainable material systems and technologies for new construction and rehabilitation, crashworthy design of structures, and monitoring and assessment of constructed facilities. He has published over 40 papers in refereed journals and conference proceed- ings, and several articles in professional magazines and reports to sponsors. Dr. Matta was the runner-up for the 2006 ASCE/CERF Pankow Award for Innovation and finalist for the 2006 Construction Innovation Forum NOVA Award for Outstanding Innovation in Con- struction. He is also one of the three main contributors to the AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Guide Specifications for GFRP-Reinforced Concrete Bridge Decks and Traffic Railings, published in 2009. Dr. Matta is a member of the American Concrete Institute (ACI), the American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE), Engineers Without Borders (EWB-USA), the International Institute for FRP in Construc- tion (IIFC), and the Society for Experimental Mechanics (SEM). He serves as an Associate Member of ACI Committee 440: Fiber Rein- forced Polymer Reinforcement, and Associate Editor of the ASCE Journal of Bridge Engineering.

vii TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION...... 1 CHAPTER 2: GENERAL INSPECTION OF BUILDINGS AND BRIDGES ...... 3

Section A: Bridge Inspection ...... 3 Introduction...... 3 National Bridge Inspection Program ...... 3 Bridge Components ...... 4 Bridge Inspection Fundamentals ...... 8 Field Inspection ...... 10 Inspection Reporting ...... 13 Bridge Load Rating ...... 14 Conclusion ...... 15 References ...... 15 Section B: Building Inspection ...... 17 Introduction ...... 17 Preliminary Investigation ...... 17 Background, Note Taking ...... 18 General Visual Assessment...... 18 Section C: Materials Evaluation ...... 25 Concrete ...... 25 Steel ...... 27 References ...... 30 CHAPTER 3: VISUAL FIELD EVALUATIONS OF IN-PLACE CONCRETE IN STRUCTURES . . . 31 Introduction...... 31 Shrinkage ...... 31 Cracking ...... 31 Air-entrained Concrete ...... 35 Concrete Discoloration ...... 36 Foundation and Subgrade Failure ...... 37 Conclusion ...... 38 References ...... 38 CHAPTER 4: CORROSION OF MARINE STRUCTURES ...... 39 Introduction...... 39 Coastal Environment ...... 39 Coastal Structures ...... 40 Overview of Deterioration Processes ...... 42 Inspection of Marine Structures ...... 47 Monitoring ...... 54 Repair and Restoration...... 55 References ...... 57

ix TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER 5: FIRE DAMAGE OF CONCRETE, MASONRY, AND STEEL STRUCTURES . . . . . 59

Introduction...... 59 Investigation of Fire-damaged Structures ...... 59 Concrete ...... 61 Masonry ...... 67 Steelwork...... 68 References ...... 69 CHAPTER 6: FIRE DAMAGE OF WOOD STRUCTURES ...... 73

Introduction...... 73 Fire Damage and Thermal Behavior of Wood ...... 74 Structural Behavior and Residual Properties of Wood...... 75 Direct Determination of Fire-damaged Timbers ...... 76 Direct Determination of Dimensional Lumber and Composite Wood Products...... 77 Repair of Fire-damaged Members ...... 79 Fire-damaged Connections ...... 80 Smoke Damage ...... 80 Conclusion ...... 81 References ...... 81 CHAPTER 7: NONDESTRUCTIVE TESTING ...... 85 Introduction...... 85 Concrete ...... 86 Masonry ...... 93 Steel/Metals ...... 95 Wood ...... 97 References ...... 99 CHAPTER 8: LOAD TESTING OF REINFORCED CONCRETE BUILDINGS ...... 101

Introduction ...... 101 Evaluation of the Structure ...... 101 Load Application and Instrumentation ...... 105 Load-test Procedures ...... 112 Interpretation of Results ...... 117 Case Studies ...... 118 References ...... 125 CHAPTER 9: DIAGNOSTIC LOAD TESTING OF BRIDGES ...... 127

Introduction ...... 127 Description of a Bridge Load Rating ...... 127 Diagnostic Testing and the Integrated Approach ...... 128 Determining If a Bridge Should Be Load Tested ...... 129 Project Development ...... 129 Field Bridge Load Testing...... 133 Data Acquisition...... 133 Analytical Model Improvement ...... 140 x TABLE OF CONTENTS

Load Rating ...... 151 References ...... 156 CHAPTER 10: RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT OF STRUCTURAL ASSESSMENT METHODS ...... 157

Introduction ...... 157 Loading Methods ...... 157 Measurement Technologies ...... 157 Bridge Applications ...... 160 Building Applications ...... 167 References ...... 168

xi