Residential Rehabilitation Inspection Guideline

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF HOUSING AND URBAN DEVELOPMENT Re s i d e n t i a l Rehabilitation Inspection Guide

U.S. Department of Housing Office of Policy Development and Urban Development and Research

Residential Inspection

Prepared for the U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development Office of Policy Development and Research by the National Institute of Building Sciences, Washington, D.C. under Contract C-OPC-21204

February 2000 Residential Inspection

PATH (Partnership for Advancing Technology in Housing) is a new private/public effort to develop, demonstrate, and gain widespread acceptance for the "Next Generation" of American housing. Through the use of new and innovative technologies the goal of PATH is to improve the quality, durability, environmental efficiency, and affordability of tomorrow's houses.

Initiated at the request of the White House, PATH is managed and supported by the U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development. In addition, all Federal Agencies that engage in housing research and technology development are PATH part- ners, including the Department of Energy, the Department of Commerce, the Environmental Protection Agency, and the Federal Emergency Management Agency. State and local govern- ments and other participants in the public sector also are part- ners in PATH. Product manufacturers, home builders, insurance companies, and lenders represent private industry in the PATH partnership.

To learn more, please contact: PATH, Suite B133, 451 Seventh Street, S.W., Washington, D.C. 20410; fax 202-708-4250; e-mail [email protected].

The statements and conclusions contained in this publication are those of the National Institute of Building Sciences and do not necessarily reflect the view of the Department of Housing and Urban Development. The Institute has made every effort to verify the accuracy and appropri- ateness of the publication's content. However, no guarantee of the accuracy or completeness of the information or acceptability for compliance with any industry standard or mandatory requirement of any code, law, or regulation is either offered or implied. Residential Inspection iii

Foreword

An important factor in making the best use of our nation’s housing stock is accurately assessing the condition, safety, usefulness, and rehabilitation potential of older residential buildings. The Residential Rehabilitation Inspection Guide provides step-by-step technical information for evaluating a residential building’s site, exterior, interior, and structural, electrical, plumbing, and HVAC systems.

First published by the U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development in 1984 as the Guideline on Residential Building Systems Inspection, the guideline has found widespread use and acceptance among architects, engineers, builders, realtors, and preservationists.

Now, for the Partnership for Advancing Technology in Housing (PATH) program, the guideline has been updated and expanded to include current assessment techniques and standards, information about additional building materials, and a broader coverage of hazardous substances and the effects of earthquakes, wind, and floods. HUD is pleased to reissue this important and time-tested publication, knowing that it will prove a valuable resource for preserving and reusing our nation’s building stock.

Susan M. Wachter Assistant Secretary for Policy Development and Research iv Residential Inspection Residential Inspection v

Acknowledgments

The National Institute of Building Sciences (NIBS) produced the original edition of this guideline for the U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development in 1984. It was written by William Brenner of Building Technology, Incorporated, with supplementary material and photographs provided by Richard Stephan, Ken Frank, and Gerard Diaz of the University Research Corporation. Technical reviewers were George Schoonover, Eugene Davidson, Joseph Wintz, Richard Ortega, Nick Gianopulos, Robert Santucci, James Wolf, and Thomas Fean.

This revised edition of the guideline was produced in 1999 by NIBS and updated and expanded by Thomas Ware and David Hattis of Building Technology, Incorporated. Technical reviewers were William Asdal, Neal FitzSimons, Wade Elrod, Hal Williamson, Paul Beers, John Bouman, Raymond Jones, Dan Kluckhuhn, Joe Sherman, William Freeborne, and Robert Kapsch. The graphic designer was Marcia Axtmann Smith. Selected illustrations are excerpted with permission from The Illustrated Home by Carson Dunlop & Associates (800-268- 7070) and the material in Appendix C is used with the permission of the National Association of Homebuilders. William Brenner directed the project for NIBS and Nelson Carbonell was the HUD project manager. vi Residential Inspection Residential Inspection vii

Table of Contents Foreword ...... iii Acknowledgments ...... v Introduction ...... 1 1—Site ...... 3 1.1 Drainage ...... 3 1.2 Site Improvements ...... 6 1.3 Outbuildings ...... 9 1.4 Yards and Courts ...... 9 1.5 Flood Regions ...... 9 2—Building Exterior ...... 10 2.1 Foundation Walls and Piers ...... 10 2.2 Exterior Wall Cladding ...... 10 2.3 Windows and Doors ...... 12 2.4 Decks, Porches, and Balconies ...... 14 2.5 Pitched Roof Coverings ...... 16 2.6 Low-Slope Roof Coverings ...... 18 2.7 Skylights ...... 19 2.8 Gutters and Downspouts ...... 20 2.9 Chimneys ...... 22 2.10 Parapets and Gables ...... 23 2.11 Lightning Protection ...... 23 3—Building Interior ...... 24 3.1 Basement or Crawl Space ...... 24 3.2 Interior Spaces, General ...... 26 3.3 Bathrooms ...... 29 3.4 Kitchens ...... 30 3.5 Storage Spaces ...... 31 3.6 Stairs and Hallways ...... 32 3.7 Laundries and Utility Rooms ...... 32 3.8 Fireplaces and Flues ...... 32 3.9 Attics and Roof Truss and Joist Spaces ...... 33 3.10 Whole-Building Thermal Efficiency Tests ...... 35 3.11 Sound Transmission Control Between Dwelling Units ...... 36 3.12 Asbestos ...... 36 viii Residential Inspection

3.13 Lead ...... 37 3.14 Radon ...... 38 3.15 Tornado Safe Room ...... 38 4—Structural System ...... 39 4.1 Seismic Resistance ...... 39 4.2 Wind Resistance ...... 40 4.3 Masonry, General ...... 41 4.4 Masonry Foundations and Piers ...... 44 4.5 Above-Ground Masonry Walls ...... 48 4.6 Chimneys ...... 53 4.7 Wood Structural Components ...... 54 4.8 Iron and Steel Structural Components ...... 58 4.9 Concrete Structural Components ...... 61 5—Electrical System ...... 62 5.1 Service Entry ...... 62 5.2 Main Panelboard (Service Equipment) ...... 63 5.3 Branch Circuits ...... 66 6—Plumbing System ...... 69 6.1 Water Service Entry ...... 69 6.2 Interior Water Distribution ...... 71 6.3 Drain, Waste, and Vent Piping ...... 73 6.4 Tank Water Heaters ...... 76 6.5 Tankless Coil Water Heaters (Instantaneous Water Heaters) ...... 78 6.6 Water Wells and Equipment ...... 78 6.7 Septic Systems ...... 80 6.8 Gas Supply in Seismic Regions ...... 81 7—HVAC System ...... 82 7.1 Thermostatic Controls ...... 82 7.2 Fuel-Burning Units, General ...... 84 7.3 Forced Warm Air Heating Systems ...... 87 7.4 Forced Hot Water (Hydronic) Heating Systems ...... 88 7.5 Steam Heating Systems ...... 94 7.6 Electric Resistance Heating ...... 96 7.7 Central Air Conditioning Systems ...... 97 7.8 Central Gas-Absorption Cooling Systems ...... 100 7.9 Heat Pumps ...... 100 Residential Inspection ix

7.10 Evaporative Cooling Systems ...... 101 7.11 Humidifiers ...... 103 7.12 Unit (Window) Air Conditioners ...... 103

7.13 Whole House and Attic Fans ...... 103 Appendix A—The Effects of Fire on Structural Systems ...... A-1 Appendix B—Wood-Inhabiting Organisms ...... B-1 Appendix C— Life Expectancy of Housing Components ...... C-1 Appendix D—References ...... D-1 Appendix E—Inspection Record ...... E-1

List of Figures 4.1 Assessing Structural Capacity ...... 39 5.1 Assessing Electrical Service Capacity ...... 63 6.1 Assessing Water Supply Capacity ...... 70 6.2 Assessing DWV Capacity ...... 74 6.3 Assessing Hot Water Heater Capacity ...... 75 6.4 Assessing Well Capacity ...... 79 6.5 Assessing Septic Capacity ...... 80 7.1 Assessing Heating and Cooling Capacity ...... 83 x Residential Inspection Residential Inspection 1

Residential Inspection Guideline

Introduction Conducting the � Inspect the structural, electri- On-Site Inspection cal, plumbing, and HVAC sys- The Residential Inspection Guide- tems in accordance with Chap- l i n e is designed to help evaluate Once at the site, conduct a brief ters 4, 5, 6, and 7. Use the tests the rehabilitation potential of walk-through of the site and the described in each chapter as small residential buildings and building. Note the property’s necessary. Record the size, structures. It may be used by overall appearance and condition. capacity, and other relevant contractors, builders, realtors, If it appears to have been well information about each system home inspectors, and others with maintained, it is far less likely to or component as needed. a basic knowledge of building have serious problems. Note the While most inspections consist of c o n s t r u c t i o n . building’s style and period and observing, measuring, and testing try to determine when it was When used in conjunction with building elements that are ex- built. Next, examine the quality of the local building code, the guide- posed to view, there are condi- the building’s design and con- line can assist in identifying un- tions that require the removal of struction and that of its neighbor- safe or hazardous conditions and some part of the building to ob- hood. There is no substitute for uncovering functional deficiencies serve, measure, or test otherwise good design and sound, durable that should be corrected. It does concealed construction. Such in- construction. Finally, assess the not establish rehabilitation stan- trusive inspections require some bu i l d i n g ’ s functional layout. Does dards or address construction, demolition and should be per- the building “work” or will it have operation, and maintenance costs. formed only with the permission to be significantly altered to make of the owner and by experienced, it usable and marketable? qualified mechanics. Preparing Look for signs of dampness and The building inspection forms in for the Inspection water damage. Water is usually a Appendix E may be copied for use building’s biggest enemy and a Before visiting the site, check with during on-site inspections. Record dry building will not have prob- the local jurisdiction to determine: general building data and site lay- lems with wood decay, subter- outs, elevations, and floor plans � the site’s zoning, setback, ranean termites, or rusted and first. This information will form height, and building coverage corroded equipment. the basis for later rehabilitation requirements, grandfathered decisions. Then record the size, uses and conditions, proffers, After completing the initial walk- capacity, and condition/needed liens, and applicable fire through, begin the formal inspec- repairs information for each regulations. tion process: building component. This will � Inspect the site, building exte- � if the site is in a seismic zone. highlight what needs to be rior, and building interior in � if the site is in a hurricane or repaired or replaced. accordance with Chapters 1, 2, high tornado-risk region. and 3. Use the tests described The inspection may be completed � if the site is in a flood plain or in Chapters 2 and 3 when in one visit or over several visits, other flood-risk zone. appropriate. Record pertinent depending on the property’s con- � if there is any record of information as needed. dition, the weather, problems of hazards in the soil or water on access, and the need for testing or or near the site. expert help. 2 Residential Inspection

More Information from the Federal Emergency Management Agency. Appendix A provides information on assessing the effects of fire on When inspecting a building locat- wood, masonry, steel, and con- ed in a region of high seismic crete structural systems. Appendix activity or in a hurricane re g i o n , B can be used as an aid in the additional information on vulnera- identification of wood-inhabiting bility assessment and retrofit molds, fungi, and insects. Appen- options can be found in Is Your dix C lists the average life expect- Home Protected from Earthquake ancies of common housing materi- Di s a s t e r ? and Is Your Home Pro- als, components, and appliances. tected from Hurricane Disaster? Appendix D provides ordering and Both documents are available Internet access information for the from the Institute for Business and publications and standards refer- Home Safety or can be viewed full enced herein as well as a listing of text online at http://www.ibhs.org. applicable publications on building For those interested in working assessment, energy conservation, with local officials to make build- and historic preservation. ing codes more amenable to reha- Use the Secretary of the Interior’s bilitation work, see the U.S. Standards for Rehabilitation when Department of Housing and Urban dealing with historic properties. Development's Nationally Applic- They are available full text online able Recommended Rehabilitation at http://www2.cr. nps.gov/tps. Pr o v i s i o n s .

When a property is rehabilitated for resale or when a contractor or builder is rehabilitating a property for its owner, consider using the Residential Construction Perform- ance Guidelines. These were developed by the National Association of Home Builders’ Remodelers Council, Single Family Small Vol- ume Builders Committee.

When assessing the tornado risk at a site, consider using Ta k i n g Shelter from the Storm: Building a Safe Room Inside Your House, available from the Federal Emer- gency Management Agency (FEMA).

When assessing the flood risk at a site and before undertaking any applicable rehabilitation measures, consider using Design Man- ual for Retrofitting Flood Prone Residential Structures, available Residential Inspection 3

Lead. Consider checking for the additions to a building or out- 1 presence of lead in the soil, which building. These documents should Site can be a hazard to children play- be carefully examined to deter- ing outdoors and can be brought mine their impact. Begin the rehabilitation inspec- indoors on shoes. Lead in soil can Accessibility. When universal tion by thoroughly examining the come from different sources such design is a part of a rehabilita- property’s drainage, site improve- as discarded lead-based paint, tion, consult the HUD publication ments, and outbuildings. Al- lead-based paint chips near foun- Residential Remodeling and Uni- though their condition may have dations from when exterior walls versal Design for detailed infor- a profound impact on the total were scraped and painted, leaded mation about parking, walks, and costs of the rehabilitation pro- gasoline (now banned) on drive- patios. ject, they are often overlooked or ways where car repairs were not fully considered in the initial made, leaded gasoline from car building assessment. Tree exhaust, and old trash sites where 1.1 removal, the replacement of side- lead-bearing items were discard- Drainage walks and driveways, and the ed. Check the site for evidence of repair of outbuildings can add any of these conditions and if Observe the drainage pattern of substantially to rehabilitation found, consider having the soil the entire property, as well as expenses and may make the dif- tested for lead content. that of adjacent properties. The ference between a project that is ground should slope away from Wildfires. In locations where economically feasible and one all sides of the building. Down- wildfires can occur, some juris- that is not. spouts, surface gutters, and dictions have requirements for drains should direct water away Earthquake. Check the slope of hydrant locations and restrictions from the foundation. Check the the site. Buildings constructed on on the use of certain building planting beds adjacent to the slopes of 20 degrees or more materials as well as restrictions foundations. Plantings are often should be examined by a structur- on plantings close to a building. mounded in a way that traps al engineer in all seismic regions, Check with the local building offi- water and edging around planting including regions of low seismic cial and the fire marshal for such beds acts like a dam to trap activity. See Section 4.1, Seismic requirements. - Resistance. water. Most problems with mois Building Expansion. If a rehabili- ture in basements are caused by Wind. If the site is in a hurricane tation project includes expanding poor site drainage. or high wind region, it should be a building or outbuilding, an The ground also should slope examined for loose fences, tree assessment of the site for this away from window wells, outside limbs, landscaping materials such work is critical. There is also a basement stairs, and other area- as gravel and small rocks, and complementary need to examine ways. The bottom of each of other objects that could become zoning regulations to establish these should be sloped to a drain. windborne debris in a storm. See allowable coverage and setbacks. Each drain should have piping Section 4.2, Wind Resistance. The use of available land may be that connects it to a storm water restricted by coverage and set- Floods. Five major flood-risk drainage system, if there is one, back requirements that define the zones have been established to or that drains to either a dis- areas on the site that can be used define where floods occur, and charge at a lower grade or into a for new construction. special flood resistance require- sump pit that collects and dis- ments have been created for each Site Restrictions. Ho m e o w n e r perses water away from the build- zone. Check with local authorities. association bylaws and deed cov- ing. Drains and piping should be See Section 1.5, Flood Regions. enants sometimes include require- open and clear of leaves, earth, ments that can affect changes or and debris. A garden hose can be 4 Residential Inspection

and catch basins should be such that if they became blocked and overflowed no significant damage will occur and that any resultant ice conditions will not pose a danger to pedestrians or vehicles. The design of surface drainage systems is based on the intensity and duration of rain storms and on allowable runoff. These conditions are usually regulated by the local building code, which can be used to check the adequacy of an existing surface drainage system.

In some locations, especially where slopes lack vegetation to slow water flow, it may be possible to reduce rehabilitation costs by diverting rainwater into a swale at or near the top of the slope and thereby reduce the amount of rainwater runoff han- dled by a surface drainage system. This swale, of course, must be within the property on which the building is located.

The ground beneath porches and other parts of a building that are supported on piers should be examined carefully. It should have no low areas and be sloped so that water will not collect Poor site drainage leads to a variety of problems, in this case a wet basement. there.

Water from the roof reaches the ground through gutters and down- used to test water flow, although collects and disposes of rainwater spouts or by flowing directly off its discharge cannot approximate runoff. There are two general roof edges. Because downspouts storm conditions. types of surface drainage sys- create concentrated sources of tems: an open system consisting Where a building is situated on a water in the landscape, where they of a swale (often referred to as a hillside, it is more difficult to discharge is important. Down- ditch), sometimes with a culvert slope the ground away from the spouts should not discharge where at its end to collect and channel building on all sides. On the high water will flow directly on or over water away, and a closed system ground side of the building, the a walk, drive, or stairs. The down- consisting of gutters with catch slope of the ground toward the spouts on a hillside building basins. Combinations of the two building should be interrupted by should discharge on the downhill are often used. The locations and a surface drainage system that side of the building. The force of layout of culverts, gutters, drains, Residential Inspection 5

water leaving a downspout is sometimes great enough to damage the adjacent ground, so some protection at grade such as a splash pan or a paved drainage chute is needed. In urban areas, it is better to drain downspouts to an underground storm water drainage system, if there is one, or underground to discharge at a lower grade away from buildings.

Water that flows directly off a roof lacking gutters and downspouts can cause damage below. Accordingly, some provision in the landscaping may be needed, such as a gravel bed or paved drainage way.

When a sump pump is used to keep a building interior dry, the Where a building is situated on a hillside, swales can be used to direct surface water away discharge onto the site should be from the foundation. located so that the discharge drains away from the building and does not add to the subsur- face water condition the sump pump is meant to control.

The site should be examined overall for the presence of springs, standing water, saturated or boggy ground, a high water table, and dry creeks or other seasonal drainage ways, all of which may affect surface drainage. It is especially important to inspect the ground at and around a septic system seepage bed, seepage pit, or absorption trenches. See Section 6.7.

Settled backfill allows water to collect next to the foundation wall and penetrates into the basement. 6 Residential Inspection

1.2 cutting down the tree can lead outlets should be properly cov- to rotting of the roots and ered and protected from mois- Site Improvements subsequent settling of the ture penetration. Well-maintained landscaping and f o u n d a t i o n . � Paved areas. Inspect all walks, other site improvements are im- Observe the solar shading drives, and patios for their portant for the enjoyment, resale, characteristics of all site plant- condition and to make sure or rental value of a property. In- ings. Do they provide protec- paved areas immediately adja- spect the following: tion from the summer sun and cent to a building are sloped � Plantings. Note the location allow the winter sun to warm away from building walls. and condition of all trees and the building? Large deciduous Paving that is not sloped to shrubbery. Those that are over- trees located to the south and drain water away from a build- grown may need pruning or west of a building can do both, ing should be replaced. Inspect trimming; in some cases they and a special effort should be paving for cracks, broken sec- may be so overgrown that they made to retain and protect tions, high areas, low areas will have to be removed. When such trees where they exist. that trap water, and tripping trees or shrubbery exhibit dis- � Fences. Fences are usually hazards. ease or infestation, consult a installed to provide physical or Paved areas that are made of qualified expert. Removing visual privacy. Examine their concrete and are in poor condi- large trees may require special plumbness and overall condition may have to be replaced. expertise and can be particu- tion. Inspect wood fences for Concrete cannot be repaired by larly costly. signs of rot or insect infesta- resurfacing with a thin layer of Check where overhanging tion and inspect metal fences more concrete. Concrete branches may interfere with for rust. Inspect all gates and repairs in climates where freez- the chimney’s draft, damage their associated hardware for ing occurs should be no less utility wires, or deposit leaves proper fit, operation, and clear- than three inches thick. Where and twigs in roof gutters and ance. Fences are often addres- there is no freezing weather, drains. sed in homeowner association repairs that are two inches Trees and shrubbery that bylaws and deed covenants. thick may be used. Cracks in are very close to exterior walls These should be checked and concrete should be cut open or roofs can cause damage that their requirements, if any, and sealed with a flexible is sometimes severe, and they compared to existing condi- sealant compound, which will can make it difficult to make tions or used for the design of extend its service life albeit not inspections, do maintenance, a new or replacement fence. improve its appearance. Where and make repairs. Branches in Pay special attention to fence there is a difference in eleva- these locations will need to be locations and property lines. tion in a walk or drive that cre- pruned back. � Lighting. Examine outdoor ates a tripping hazard, the Tree roots under paving and lighting elements to determine higher portion of concrete may stairs can cause damage that is their condition and functional be ground down to the level of sometimes severe. Roots are safety. Turn site lighting on, the lower portion, although the usually exposed near the sur- preferably at night, to check its grinding will change the face and will need to be cut operation and to determine if appearance of the concrete. back. the light is adequate for its Sunken areas of concrete pav- Tree roots can heave foun- purpose. Exposed wiring that is ing result from failure of the dations and may cause crack- not UV- and moisture-resistant subbase. For sidewalks it may ing by pushing against foun- should be replaced. Under- be possible to lift up sections dations from the outside. If ground wiring should be type of the paving between con- tree roots are under a footing, UF. Fixtures, switches, and struction joints, add to and Residential Inspection 7

compact the subbase to the 965 mm) above the edges of related drains should be exam- proper elevation, and replace the stair tread. Shake all rail- ined closely following a reason- the paving sections. ings vigorously to check their ably heavy rain to make sure Failed or sunken areas of stability and inspect their fas- they are working properly. If asphalt drives and walks usual- tenings. Stairs that are more they are not discharging water, ly should be resurfaced or than 30 inches (760 mm) the drains should be cleaned replaced. Sealing asphalt pav- above the adjacent grade and out and observed again in the ing extends its life. Examine walks located more than next rain. Failure to drain the paving to determine when 30 inches (760 mm) above the should be remedied by excavat- sealing is needed. Check as- grade immediately below ing behind the wall, replacing phalt drives and walks for low should have guards not less the drainage material and dam- areas that hold water and than 36 inches (915 mm) high aged drainage piping, and freeze in cold climates. Low and intermediate rails that will backfilling. In all but the driest areas in asphalt paving can be not allow the passage of a climates, improper drainage of brought to level with an as- sphere 4 inches (100 mm) in water from behind a retaining phalt overlay. diameter. Check wooden steps wall can cause the wall to fail. Brick or stone patio paving for proper support and Check for bowing (vertical should be set either on a con- strength and for rot and insect bulges), sweeping (horizontal crete slab in a mortar bed with infestation. Inspect steel stairs bulges), and cracking in retain- mortar joints or in a sand bed for rust, strength, and attaching walls that can be caused by that is laid on earth or on a ment. Deteriorated stairs water pressure. Bulging can concrete slab. Mortar joints can should be repaired or re- also be a result of inadequate be tuck pointed and loose placed. Stair treads should be strength to resist the load of bricks or stones can be reset in as level as possible without the earth behind the wall. a new mortar bed. Pavers set in holding water. It is preferable Bowing and sweeping failures sand can be taken up easily, that stairs in walks on site that may be correctable if found sand added or removed, and are accessible to the general early enough and if the cause the pavers replaced. public have at least three ris- is poor drainage. When considering the repair ers. Stair riser heights and Check for other failures of or replacement of such site ele- tread depths should be, retaining walls. Failure by over- ments, pay particular attention respectively, uniform. turning (leaning from the top) to existing property lines and � Retaining walls. Inspect the or sliding may be caused by easements. construction and condition of inadequate wall strength. In The maintenance, repair, retaining walls. Retaining walls addition, water behind a wall and replacement of sidewalks, more than two feet in height can create moist bearing, espe- drive aprons, and curb cuts at should be backed with drain- cially in clay soils, and con- the street may be the responsi- age material, such as gravel. tribute to sliding. Retaining bility of the local jurisdiction. There should be drains at the walls also fail due to settling Check the property’s deed or bottom of the drainage materi- and heaving. The former consult local authorities. al. The drains should discharge occurs whenever filled earth St a i r s . Inspect the condition of water either at the end of the below the wall compacts soon exterior stairs and railings wall or through pipes set in the after the wall is built, or when using the current building wall itself. These drains and wet earth caused by poor code as a guide. Every stair the drainage material behind drainage dries out and soil with more than three steps the wall relieve the pressure of consolidates at any time in a should have a handrail located ground water on the wall. If wall’s service life. Poor drain- 34 to 38 inches (865 to possible, weep holes and age contributes to failure in cold climates by creating 8 Residential Inspection

Failing retaining walls more than two feet in height should be inspected by a structural en g i n e e r . � Buried oil tanks. Buried ferrous metal oil tanks are common on older properties that have buildings or domestic water heated by oil. The presence of a buried oil tank usually can be determined by finding the fill pipe cover on the ground and the vent pipe that extends above ground to a height of at least four feet. Abandoned and very old buried ferrous metal oil tanks are an environmental hazard. If such a buried tank is located on the property, the soil around it should be tested by a qualified environmental engineer for the presence of oil seepage. If leaking has occurred, the tank and all conta- minated soil around it must be removed. If leaking has not occurred, it may still be a potential problem. Even if a tank is empty, it still may have residual oil in the bottom that is a pollutant. Strong consider- ation should be given to removing the tank or filling it with an approved inert material after pumping out any old residual oil. � Aerials. On-site installations of The outward movement of the upper part of this retaining wall can be halted only by structural reinforcement. Simply patching the crack will not solve the problem. aerial masts either from the ground or mounted to a tree or building should be assessed for structural stability, espe- heaving from frozen ground. small, low walls of concrete or cially in high wind areas. Both overturning and sliding masonry, and heaving may be may be stabilized and some- controlled by proper drainage. times corrected if the amount Significant failure of any kind of movement is not extreme. usually requires rebuilding or Settling may be corrected on replacing all or part of a wall. Residential Inspection 9

1.3 Such requirements may affect the reuse of the property and their Outbuildings implications should be under- Examine detached garages, stood before the property is storage sheds, and other out- altered or purchased. buildings for their condition in the same way that the primary building is inspected. Check each 1.5 outbuilding’s water shedding Flood Regions capability and the adequacy of its The Federal Emergency Manage- foundations. On the interior, look ment Agency and the National for water staining on the roof or Flood Insurance Program have walls. Wood frame structures established and defined five should be thoroughly inspected major flood-risk zones and creat- for rot and insect infestation. ed special flood resistance re- Check also that all doors function quirements for each. properly and that doors and windows provide adequate weather Improperly designed grading and protection and security for the drainage may aggravate flood building. Make sure that small hazards to buildings and cause outbuildings have sufficient runoff, soil erosion, and sedimen- structural strength to sustain the tation in the zones of lower flood applicable wind loads or seismic risk, the Interflood Zone, and the forces. Non-Regulated Flood Plain. In these locations, local agencies If the site is in a hurricane or may regulate building elevations high-wind region, check all out- above street or sewer levels. In buildings for their ability to resist the next higher risk zones, the a storm without coming apart and Special Flood Hazard Areas and becoming windborne debris. the Non-Velocity Coastal Flood Consider consulting an engineer. Areas (both Zone A), the elevation of the lowest floor and its struc- 1.4 tural members above the base flood elevation is required. In the Yards and Courts zone of highest flood risk, the In urban areas, two or more Coastal High Hazard Areas dwelling units may share a yard (Velocity Zone, Zone V), addition- or court to provide light and ven- al structural requirements apply. tilation to interior rooms. The Check with local authorities to adequacy of the light provided is determine if the site is in a flood- a function of the dimensions of risk zone. If it is, check with local the yard or court, as well as the building officials. Higher stan- color of surrounding walls. Check dards than those set by national these characteristics, as well as agencies have been adopted by zoning and building and housing many communities. code requirements pertaining to light, ventilation, and privacy screening for yards and courts. 10 Residential Inspection

fire marshal, or both, for detailed These materials are designed to 2 information. serve as a weathertight, decorative skin and, in warm climates Building Exterior Additional information on the should be light in color to reduce evaluation and treatment of his- After the site inspection has been heat absorption. Inspect exterior toric building exteriors is present- completed, systematically inspect claddings as follows: ed in the Secretary of the Inter- the building’s exterior for its con- ior’s Standards for Rehabilitation, � Exterior wood elements. dition and weathertightness. available full text online at Inspect all painted surfaces for Begin either at the foundation http://www2.cr.nps.gov/tps. peeling, blistering, and check- and work up or begin at the roof ing. Paint-related problems and work down. Examine the When universal design is a part of may be due to vapor pressure - quality and condition of all exteri a rehabilitation, consult HUD pub- beneath the paint, improper or materials and look for patterns lication Residential Remodeling paint application, or excessive of damage or deterioration that and Universal Design for detailed paint buildup. Corrective mea- should be further investigated information about entrances, sures for these problems will during the interior inspection. doors, and decks. vary from the installation of Determine the building’s architec- moisture vents to complete tural style and note what should paint removal. Mildew stains be done to maintain or restore its 2.1 on painted surfaces do not integrity and character. See Foundation Walls hurt the wood and may be Chapter 4 for assessing structural and Piers cleaned with a mildew components of the building. remover. Foundation walls and piers in In regions of medium to high All wood elements should small residential buildings are seismic activity, buildings with be checked for fungal and usually made of masonry and irregular shapes (in either plan or insect infestation at exposed should be inspected for cracking, elevation) may be especially vul- horizontal surfaces and exteri- deterioration, moisture penetra- nerable to earthquakes. Examine or corner joints, as specified tion, and structural adequacy. See the building for such irregulari- for wood structural compo- Sections 4.3 and 4.4. Wood posts ties, and if present, consider con- nents in Section 4.7. and columns and concrete foun- sulting a structural engineer. Check the distance between dations and piers should be the bottom of wood elements In hurricane regions, examine inspected in accordance with and grade. In locations that screen and jalousie enclosures, Sections 4.7 and 4.9. have little or no snow, the dis- carports, awnings, canopies, tance should be no less than porch roofs, and roof overhangs six inches. In locations with to determine their condition and 2.2 significant, lasting snow, the the stability of their fastenings. Exterior Wall Cladding bottom of wood elements Then examine the following four Exterior walls above the founda- should be no less than six critical areas of the exterior to tion may be covered with a vari- inches above the average snow determine their condition and ety of materials, including wood depth. strength: roofs, windows, doors, siding or its aluminum and vinyl � and garage doors. Aluminum and vinyl siding. substitutes, wood or asbestos Aluminum and vinyl siding In locations where wildfires can cement shingles, plywood with may cover up decayed or occur, some jurisdictions have and without a medium density insect-infested wood but restrictions on the use of flamma- (plastic) overlay, stucco, brick or otherwise are generally low ble exterior materials. Check with stone masonry, and an exterior maintenance materials. Check the local building official or the insulation and finish system. for loose, bent, cracked, or Residential Inspection 11

A second layer of shingles has filled the former gap between roof and zsiding, causing the siding to deteriorate. Shingles are cupped and beginning to fail as well.

The stucco is beginning to erode on this structure due to a poor roof drainage detail. A longer scupper would solve this problem.

broken pieces. Inspect all caulked joints, particularly around window and door trim. Many communities require aluminum siding to be electrically grounded; check for such grounding. � Asbestos cement shingles. Like aluminum and vinyl siding, asbestos cement shingles may cover decayed or insect- infested wood. Check for loose, cracked, or broken pieces and inspect around all window and door trim for signs of deterioration. � Stucco. Check stucco for cracks, crumbling sections, and areas of water infiltration. Old and weathered cracks may be caused by the material’s initial shrinkage or by earlier building settlement. New, sharp cracks may indicate movement behind the walls that should be investigated. Refer to Section 4.5 for problems with masonry walls. It is difficult to match the color of stucco repairs to the original stucco, so plan to repaint surrounding stucco work where sections are mended. 12 Residential Inspection

Brick or stone veneers. Exterior walls of older buildings protected from the weather. Inspect veneers for cracking, usually contain no thermal insula- These doors should be rated mortar deterioration, and tion. Examine behind the cladding for exterior use. spalling. Refer to Sections 4.3 when possible to determine the In warm climates, jalousie and 4.5 for the inspection of presence of insulation, if any, and doors may also be in use. Check above-ground masonry walls. assess the potential for insulating these doors to make sure the Exterior insulation and finish the exterior walls. louvers close tightly and in uni- son for weathertightness. systems (EIFS). EIFS, also Where mildew and mold are evi- Some buildings use glass known as synthetic stucco, has dent on exterior cladding or framed doors of fixed and been in widespread residential where interior walls are damp, operable panels that have use since the early 1990s. It there is the possibility that con- wood, vinyl-covered wood, and generally consists of the follow- densation is occurring in the aluminum frames. Check the ing product layers (moving out- walls. Moisture problems general- track of these sliding doors for ward): insulation board, mesh ly occur in cold weather when dents, breaks, and straight- and base coat layer, finish coat, outside temperatures and vapor ness. Check the glides of oper- and sealant and flashing. pressures are low and there are a able panels for wear and check EIFS was originally designed number of water vapor sources the sealing of fixed panels for as a nondraining water and within the building. The presence weathertightness. Note the moisture barrier system. A of moisture may be a result of an degree of physical security drainage-type EIFS that allows improperly installed or failed offered by doors and their water and moisture to pene- vapor barrier, or no vapor barrier locksets and pay special atten- trate the surface and then at all. If condensation is suspect- tion to pairs of hinged and drain away has been developed ed, an analysis of the wall sec- sliding doors. more recently. Most existing tion(s) in question should be Doors also should be EIFS in residential applications made. This analysis will provide inspected for the exterior con- is installed over wood framing the information necessary to dition of their frames and sills. and is of the nondraining type. make the needed repairs. Water leakage and consequent Check doors that are not pro- rotting of the wood framing tected from the weather for the have become serious problems 2.3 presence of essential flashing in many installations, especial- Windows and Doors at the head. ly at wall openings such as Glazing on exterior doors windows and doors, where Windows and doors are the most should be examined as de- inadequate flashing details can complex elements of the build- scribed in the following section allow water seepage into the ing’s exterior and should be on windows. The interior condi- wall interior. inspected from the outside as tion and hardware of exterior Manufacturers of EIFS differ follows: doors will be examined during in their installation methods. � Exterior doors should be the interior inspection. Inspecting existing EIFS is diffi- examined for their condition, In hurricane regions, check cult because it is a proprietary overall operation and fit, and exterior doors, and especially product and there are no stan- for the functionality of their double doors, for the presence dard construction details. Use hardware. Door types include of dead-bolt locks with a throw a trained specialist to check hinged, single and double length of no less than one inch. for concealed water damage doors of wood, steel, alu- � Windows should be inspected and rot. minum, and plastic with and for the exterior condition of without glazing. Check wood their frames, sills and sashes, and plastic doors that are not and for overall operation and Residential Inspection 13

older sashes should be examined especially carefully since this is often the most vulnerable part of the window and its repair is time consuming. Examine glazing tapes or strips around glass panels in steel or aluminum sashes for signs of deterioration such as hardened sealant or poor fit. Check metal sashes for weep holes that have been blocked by paint, sealant, or dirt. Weep holes are usually easy to clean. Check windows that are not protected from the weather for the presence of essential flashing at the head. For windows close to the ground or easily accessible from flat roofs, note the degree of physical security provided by the windows and their locks. In hurricane regions, check all windows and glass doors that are not protected by shutters to determine if they have been tested for impact resistance to windborne debris. If they have not been so tested, determine if plywood panels can be installed for their protection at the time of a hurri- The glazing putty in this window is deteriorated in some locations. Repairs will be time cane warning. consuming. � Weather stripping. Window and door weather stripping is generally of three types: metal, fit. The interior condition and (steel or aluminum) wood. foam plastic, or plastic strip- hardware of windows will be Window types are double hung, ping. Check each type for fit. examined during the interior single hung, casement, hori- Check metal for dents, bends, inspection. There are eight zontal sliding, projected out or and straightness. Check foam types of windows and six types awning, projected in, and fixed. plastic for resiliency and plas- of frame material in general In addition to these, there are tic stripping for brittleness and use in residential buildings. jalousies: glass louvers on an cracks. Make sure the weather Frame materials are plastic, aluminum or steel frame. stripping is securely held in aluminum, steel, wood, plastic- The glazing compound or place. clad wood, and metal-clad putty around glass panels in 14 Residential Inspection

Shutters. Window shutters are unfold operable awnings and glazed panes in a wide variety generally of two types: decora- note the ease of operation. If of styles. Check wood and tive and functional. Decorative an awning is used for sun con- hardboard for rot and water shutters are fixed to the exteri- trol, assess its effectiveness damage, check hardboard for or wall on either side of a win- and its effect on energy con- cracking and splitting, check dow. Check the shutter’s condi- servation. steel for rust, check glass fiber tion and its mounting to the � Storm windows and doors for ultraviolet light deteriora- wall. Functional shutters are should be examined for operation, and check aluminum for operable and can be used to tion, weathertightness, overall dents. close off a window. Assess the condition, and fit. Check the In hurricane regions, exam- adequacy of these shutters for condition of screen and glass ine garage doors, especially their purpose: privacy, light inserts; if they are in storage, single doors on two-car gar- control, security, or protection locate, count, and inspect them. ages, to determine if the against bad weather. Check Check also to determine if the assembly (door and track) has their operation and observe weep holes have been blocked been tested for hurricane wind their condition and fit. by paint, sealant, dirt, or other loads or has been reinforced. Shutters close to the ground substances. Opening weep � Safety Glazing. Gl a z e d can be examined from the holes is usually easy to do. entrance doors including storm ground. Shutters out of reach � Garage doors should be exam- doors, sliding glass patio doors, from the ground should be ined for operation, weather- and glazing immediately adja- examined during the interior tightness, overall condition, cent to these doors, but exclud- inspection when windows are and fit. Doors without motors ing jalousie doors, should be examined. should be manually opened fully tempered, wire, or lami- In hurricane regions, check and closed. Doors with motors nated glass or an approved shutters to see if the shutter should be operated using each plastic material. In addition, manufacturer has certified of the operators on the system glazing adjacent to any surface them for hurricane use. If they (key lock switch or combina- normally used for walking provide protection to windows tion lock key pad where con- must be safety glazing. Safety and glass doors, determine if trol must be accessible on the glazing is a building code they have been tested for exterior, remote electrical requirement that applies to impact resistance to windborne switch, radio signal switch, or both new and replacement debris. photoelectric control switch). glazing. Awnings. Windows and glazed Check the operation for exterior doors sometimes have smoothness, quietness, time of 2.4 awnings over them, usually for operation, and safety. Check sun control, but sometimes for for the presence and proper Decks, Porches, and decoration or protection from operation of the door safety Balconies the weather. Awnings are usu- reversing device. Observe Decks, porches, and balconies are ally made of metal, plastic, or exposed parts of the installa- exposed to the elements to a fabric on a metal or plastic tion for loose connections, greater extent than most other frame. Some are fixed in place, rust, and bent or damaged parts of a building and are there- while others are operable and pieces. fore more susceptible to deterio- can be folded up against the Garage doors are made of ration. Inspect for the following: exterior wall. Check the condi- wood, hardboard on a wood tion of awnings. Assess the frame, steel, glass fiber on a � Condition. Examine all porch, adequacy of the attachment to steel frame, glass fiber, and deck, and balcony supports for the exterior wall. Fold up and aluminum. All come with signs of loose or deteriorated Residential Inspection 15

components. See Section 4.7 for the inspection of wood structural components. Mas- onry or concrete piers should be plumb and stable; check them in accordance with Sec- tion 4.4. Make sure that structural connections to the building are secure and protected against corrosion or decay. Examine porch floors for signs of deflection and deterioration. Where the porch floor or deck is close to the level of the interior floor, look for signs of water infiltration at the door sill and check for a positive pitch of the porch floor or deck away from the exterior wall. Exterior railings and stairs. Inspect the condition of all exterior stairs and railings. Every stair with more than The joint between the two parts of this support creates a hinge that can affect the roof three steps should have a structure. handrail located 34 to 38 inches (865 to 965 mm) above the edges of the stair tread. Shake all railings vigorously to check their stability, and inspect their fastenings. Most codes for new construction require that porches, balconies, and decks located more than 30 inches (760 mm) above the ground have guards not less than 36 inches (915 mm) high and intermediate rails that will not allow the passage of a sphere 4 inches (100 mm) in diameter. Check wooden steps for proper support and strength and for rot and insect infestation. Inspect steel stairs for rust, strength, and attachment. Deteriorated stairs A rotted corner post on a screened porch. In this case, the rotted section of the post and a should be repaired or re p l a c e d . small section of the floor beneath it were removed and replaced with sound wood. 16 Residential Inspection

Stair treads should be as level as possible without holding water. Stair riser heights and tread depths should be, respectively, uniform.

2.5 Pitched Roof Coverings Pitched or steep sloped roofs are best inspected when direct access is gained to all their surfaces. Use binoculars to inspect roofs that are inaccessible or that cannot be walked on. Look for deteriorated or loose flashing, signs of damage to the roof covering, and valleys and gutters clogged with debris. Carefully examine exterior walls and trim for deterioration beneath the eaves of pitched roofs that have no overhang or gutters. There are four categories of pitched roof covering materials and their Vulnerable roof areas condition should be checked as follows: � Asphalt shingles. Asphalt or “composition” shingles have a replaced with new flashing at 2.8) or present, make sure it service life of about 20 years the second layer. extends three feet beyond the for the first layer and about 15 Check the roof slope. A plane of the interior face of the years for a second layer added slope of 4 in 12 or steeper is exterior wall below for a low- over the first layer, depending referred to as normal. A slope slope roof and two feet for a on their weight, quality, and of between 3 in 12 and normal-slope roof. exposure. When they begin to 4 in 12 is referred to as low. � Wood shingles or shakes. This lose their granular covering No asphalt shingle roof should type of covering has a normal and start to curl they should be less steep than 3 in 12. If life expectancy of 25 to 30 be replaced. No more than two the roof has a normal slope, years in climates that are not layers of asphalt shingles check the underlayment if pos- excessively hot and humid, but should normally be in place at sible. It should be at least a durability varies according to any one time. If a second layer single layer of 15-pound (6.8 wood species, thickness, the of asphalt shingles has been kg) asphalt saturated felt. Low- slope of the roof, whether applied, check to see if all the slope roofs should have at shingles are made of heart- flashing materials (galvanized least two such felt layers. If ice wood, and whether they have steel, aluminum, rubber) in the dam flashing at overhanging been periodically treated with first layer were removed and eaves is needed (see Section preservative. Shakes are hand- Residential Inspection 17

This slate roof should be carefully investigated since it has a makeshift repair. Other problems include the chimney, which is too low, and the vent pipe, which is too narrow.

split on at least one face and � Metal roofing. Metal can last are three basic seam types— either tapered or straight. 50 years or more if properly batten, standing, and flat—as Shingles are sawn and tapered. painted or otherwise main- well as flat and formed metal Check the roof slope. The min- tained. Metal roofs may be panels. Snow guards are need- imum slope for wood shingles made of galvanized iron or ed on steeper slopes and in is 3 in 12 and the minimum steel, aluminum, copper, or locations with heavy, long- slope for shakes is 4 in 12. As lead; each material has its own lasting snow, bracket and pipe wood shingles and shakes age, unique wearing characteristics. snow guards also may be nec- they dry, crack, and curl. In Inspect metal roofs for signs of essary. Low-slope metal roofs damp locations they rot. rusting or pitting, corrosion that are coated with tarlike Replace them when more than due to galvanic action, and material are probably patched one-third show signs of deterio- loose, open, or leaking seams or have pin holes and cannot ration. These materials are easi- and joints. The slope of metal be counted on to be leak-free. ly broken. They should not be roofing can be from one-half If the roof is historic or rela- walked on during the inspec- inch per foot (1:24) to very tively complex, consult a metal tion. If the roof is historic or steep. The types of metal, roof specialist. relatively complex, consult a seams, and slope determine wood roofing specialist. the construction details. There 18 Residential Inspection

� Slate, clay tile, and asbestos should be non-corroding. All of cement shingles; it should be cement shingles. These roof these roof coverings are brittle removed with a cleaner to pre- coverings are extremely materials and easily broken, vent capillary water leaks. durable and, if of high quality and should not be walked on Slate, clay tile, and asbestos and properly maintained, may during the inspection. Use shingles should be repaired or last the life of the structure. binoculars to look for missing, replaced by a qualified roofer. Check the roof slope. The mini- broken, or slipping pieces. Examine the underside of the mum slope for roofs of these Slate is particularly susceptible roof later during the interior materials is 4 in 12. Slate shin- to breakage by ice or ice dams i n s p e c t i o n . gles should be secured by cop- in the winter, and should per nails except in the very dri- therefore be especially well est of climates; look at the drained. Snow guards are need- 2.6 underside of the roof sheath- ed on steeper slopes, and in Low-Slope Roof Coverings ing in the attic or check the locations with heavy, long- nails on broken shingles. Nail lasting snow, snow guards also A roof that is nearly level or heads should be covered with may be necessary. Moss will slightly pitched is called a low- sealant. Nails for tile roofs sometimes grow on asbestos slope roof. No roof should be

The built-up roof and flashings in this photograph are in poor condition. Patching may work temporarily, but the roof and flashings should be replaced. Residential Inspection 19

dead level flat; it must have at of their drainage. Because built- coating should be reapplied least a slight slope to drain. up roofs are composed of sev- periodically. Check carefully Problems in low-slope roofs are eral layers, they can contain for surface degradation on an common and more difficult to moisture in the form of water unprotected roof and fading of diagnose than pitched roof prob- or water vapor between layers. the coating on a protected lems because the path of water Moisture not only accelerates roof. Check also for signs of leakage through flat roofs is often deterioration, it can also leak water ponding and poor quite hard to trace. Look for signs into a building. Look for crack- drainage. of ponded water due to either ing, blistering, alligatoring, and � Roll roofing. Roll roofing con- improper drainage or sagging of wrinkling, all of which may indi- sists of an asphalt-saturated, the roof deck. If the cause is a cate the need for roof replace- granule-covered roofing felt sagging deck, it should be struc- ment or repair. Consult an that is laid over the roof deck. turally corrected before it wors- experienced roofer for a further It can only provide single- or ens. Low-slope roofs are expensive evaluation if you are in doubt. two-ply coverage. Inspect roll to repair, so extra care should be Test: An infrared or nuclear scanner roofing for cracking, blistering, taken in their examination. can be used to detect areas of mois- surface erosion, and torn sec- Inspect the flashing and joints ture in built-up roofs. Once located, tions. Seams are the most vul- around all roof penetrations, these areas can be more thoroughly nerable part of roll roofing, and including drains, soil stacks, checked with a moisture meter or a should be carefully checked for nuclear meter. Such tests must be chimneys, skylights, hatchways, separation and lifting. Also performed by a trained roofing antenna mountings, and other check for signs of water pond- inspector and are normally used to roof-mounted elements. Note if ing and poor drainage. determine areas that need replace - metal flashings need painting or ment on very large roofs. � Metal roofing. See Section 2.5. reanchoring and if asphaltic or � The underside of the low-slope rubber flashings are brittle or Single-ply membrane roof should be examined during cracked. Check parapet wall caps roofing. A single-ply mem- the interior inspection. If it is and flashing for signs of damage brane roof consists of plastic, inaccessible, look for signs of due to wall movement. modified bitumen, and synthetic rubber sheeting that is laid water leakage on interior ceilings Examine all portions of the roof over the roof deck, usually in a and walls. covering. Look for signs of previ- single ply and often with a top ous repairs that may indicate coating to protect it from ultra- 2.7 trouble spots. There are four cate- violet light degradation. Single- gories of low-slope roof covering ply roofs are installed in three Skylights materials and they should be basic ways: fully adhered, From the exterior, check all sky- inspected as follows: mechanically attached, and lights for cracked or broken glaz- � Built-up roofing. Built-up roofs loose laid with ballast. If prop- ing material, adequate flashing, are composed of several layers erly installed and properly and rusted or decayed frames. of roofing felt lapped and maintained, a single-ply roof Skylights will be checked again cemented together with bitumi- should last 20 years. Roof pen- during the interior inspection. nous material and protected by etrations and seams are the Leaking skylights are common. a thin layer of gravel or crushed most vulnerable parts of sin- Replacement skylights must com- stone. Built-up roofs vary great- gle-ply membrane roofing and ply with the building code. ly in life span, but those used in should be carefully checked. residential buildings usually The material is also susceptible last about 20 years, depending to ultraviolet light deteriora- on their quality, exposure, num- tion. A protective coating can ber of plies, and the adequacy be used to protect it, but the 20 Residential Inspection

The gutters on this low-slope roof are deteriorating largely because of the accumulated detritus that they hold. They should be inspected and cleaned periodically.

2.8 through a building’s interior. considered the minimum width Drainage without gutters and except on the roofs of canopies Gutters and Downspouts downspouts can damage the exte- and small porches. Make cer- Buildings with pitched roofs can rior wall with overflow. If the roof tain all gutters are clean and have a variety of drainage sys- has no gutters and downspouts slope uniformly, without low tems. With a sufficient overhang, or interior downspouts, carefully areas, to downspouts. If there water can drain directly to the examine the exterior walls for is a screen or similar device to ground without being intercepted signs of water damage. prevent anything but water from flowing into the gutter, at the roof edge. See Section 1.1. Gutter and downspout materials - check its condition, fit, and Usually, pitched roofs end in gut are usually galvanized steel, alu- position, to be sure water real- ters that are drained by down- minum, copper, or plastic. spouts. ly can enter the gutter. Check � Gutters should have a mini- gutters without screens or sim- Low-slope roof drainage is accom- mum ratio of gutter depth to ilar devices to be sure that bas- plished in one of three ways: width of 3 to 4; the front edge ket strainers are installed at without gutters or downspouts, should be one-half inch each downspout. Check the with gutters and downspouts, or (13 mm) lower than the back physical and functional by downspouts that go down edge; and four inches is Residential Inspection 21

condition of all gutters. Joints should be soldered or sealed with mastic. Also examine the placement of gutters: the steeper the roof pitch, the lower the gutter placement. On roofs with lower slopes make sure gutters are placed close to the roof’s surface. Hangers should be placed no more than three feet apart. Where ice and snow are long lasting, hangers should be placed no more than 18 inches (460 mm) apart. Wherever a gutter is exposed, check the strength of its fastening to the roof fascia or building exterior. Rusted fasteners and missing hangers Eave protection against ice dams should be replaced. � Ice dams can form on pitched roof overhangs in cold climates subject to prolonged periods of freezing weather, especially those climates with a daily average January temperature of 30 ºF (-1 ºC) or less. Heat loss through the roof and heat from the sun (even in freezing temperatures) can cause snow on a roof to melt. As water runs down the roof onto the overhang, it freezes and forms an ice dam just above the gutter. The ice dam traps water from melting snow and forces it back under the shingles and into the building’s interior. Check the edge of the roof overhang for evidence of ice dams and observe the eaves Dormer gutters improperly discharging onto the roof and soffit for evidence of deterioration and water damage. Check gutters and the immediately adjacent roofing for the presence of electrical de-icing cables, which may be evidence 22 Residential Inspection

of an ice dam problem. When lower gutters through down- Flues should not be smaller in the interior inspection is made, spouts. size than the discharge of the check the inside of exterior Occasionally, wooden gut- appliance they serve. The mini- walls and adjacent ceilings for ters and downspouts are used, mum flue area for a chimney con- signs of water damage. If the usually in older or historic res- nected to a fireplace is normally house has an attic, check the idences. They may be built 50 square inches (320 cm2) for underside of the roof deck at into roof eaves and concealed round linings, 64 square inches exterior walls for signs of by roof fascias. Wooden gut- (410 cm2) for rectangular linings, water damage. ters are especially susceptible and 100 square inches (650 cm2) Downspouts should be to rot and deterioration and for an unlined chimney. Be checked for size. Seven square should be carefully checked. extremely cautious about unlined inches is generally the mini- Pitched roofs in older build- chimneys; check the local build- mum except for small roofs or ings may end at a parapet wall ing code. Flues should extend a canopies. Check downspout with a built-in gutter integrated minimum of four inches above attachments; there should be with the roof flashing. Here, the top of a masonry chimney. attachments or straps at the drainage is accomplished by a The height between adjacent flues top, at the bottom, and at each scupper (a metal-lined opening in a multiple flue chimney with- intermediate joint. Check through the parapet wall that out a hood should vary approxi- straps for rust, deformation, discharges into a leader head mately four inches to avoid down- and failed or loose fasteners. box that in turn discharges to drafts. The same is true of a Check the capacity of the a downspout). Check the leader chimney with a hood unless a drainage system. At least one head box to be sure it has a withe of masonry completely sep- downspout is usually needed strainer. Check the scupper for arates every flue. deterioration and open seams for each 40 feet (12 m) of gut- Masonry chimneys without hoods and check all metal roof flash- ter. For roofs with gutters, should have stone or reinforced ings, scuppers, leader head make sure that downspouts are concrete caps at the top. Cement boxes, and downspouts to clear and that they discharge washes with or without reinforc- make certain they are made of so water will drain away from ing mesh are also used, but they similar metals. the foundation. See Section 1.1. are the least durable. Some For low-slope roofs without masonry chimneys have hoods gutters, interior downspouts 2.9 over the flues. Hoods on masonry cannot be examined from the chimneys consist of stone or rein- roof, but check that basket Chimneys forced concrete caps supported strainers are in place. During Chimneys should project at least on short masonry columns at the the interior inspection, examine two feet above the highest part of perimeter of chimney tops, or areas through which interior a pitched roof and anything else sheet metal caps supported on downspouts pass for signs of that is within 10 feet (3 m). A short sheet metal columns. The water damage. chimney should project at least height of a hood above the top of On buildings with multiple three feet from its penetration the highest flue should be at least roofs, one roof sometimes from the roof (required minimum 25 percent greater than the nar- drains to another roof. Where heights may vary slightly). Check rowest dimension of the flue. that happens, water should not the local building code. If the Check the condition of chimney be discharged directly onto chimney is not readily accessible, tops and hoods. If a cement wash roofing material. Check to be examine what you can with binoc- is not properly sloped or is exten- sure that water is always ulars from the highest vantage sively cracked, spalled, or dis- directed to a gutter and that point you can find. higher gutters discharge to plays rust stains, it should be replaced. Reinforced concrete Residential Inspection 23

caps and stone caps with minor than two inches and not more height. A Class I lightning protec- shallow spalling and cracking than eight inches above the enclo- tion system consists of lightning should be repaired. Those with sure top. rods located on the roof and on extensive spalling or cracking projections, such as chimneys; If the chimney is prefabricated should be replaced. Sheet metal main conductors that tie the metal and not encased, check the hood caps with minor rust or cor- lightning rods together and con- adjustable flashing at the roof to rosion should be repaired, but if nect them with a grounding sys- be sure it is tightly sealed to the rust or corrosion is extensive, tem; bonds to metal roof struc- chimney, preferably with counter- replacement is needed. tures and equipment; arresters to flashing, and check for the pres- prevent powerline surge damage; Metal spark screens are some- ence of a stack cap. and ground terminals, usually times used on wood and coal- rods or plates driven or buried in burning fireplace chimneys. the earth. Lightning protection Check the condition and fit of 2.10 systems should be examined by a spark screens. Dirty or clogged Parapets and Gables certified technician. screens adversely affect draft and In seismic zones, check the should be cleaned. Using Appendix D, consult the bracing of masonry parapets and following sources for technical Where a masonry chimney is gables. Consider consulting a information about lightning located on the side of a pitched structural engineer to determine protection systems: roof, a cricket is needed on the the need for additional bracing or higher side to divert water around strengthening. � Lightning Protection Institute, the chimney. Check the cricket to Installation Code, LPIB175. be sure that its seams are water- � National Fire Protection tight, that it is properly flashed 2.11 Association, NFPA 780, into the chimney and roofing, and Lightning Protection Standard for the Installation of that it extends the full width of Lightning Protection Systems. Lightning is a problem in some the chimney. � Underwriters Laboratories, Inc., locations. Check the local build- In seismic zones, check the bracing code. Lighting protection may UL 96, Lightning Protection ing of masonry chimneys from be required to prevent powerline Components and UL 96A, the top of the firebox to the cap, surge damage to electrical service, Installation Requirements for and particularly the portion pro- telephone service, or radio and Lightning Protection Systems. jecting above the roof. Consider television leads; to protect tall consulting a structural engineer trees close to buildings; or to pro- to determine the need for addi- tect an entire building. tional bracing or strengthening. A lightning protection system is If the chimney is prefabricated an interconnected aggregation of metal encased in an exterior lightning rods, bonding connec- chase of siding, check the chase tions, arresters, splicers, and top to be sure it is properly inter- other devices that are installed on locked with the metal chimney’s a building or tree to safely con- counterflashing so that the as- duct lightning to the ground. sembly is watertight. Also check Lightning protection components the chase top for slope: water and systems are identified by should drain off the enclosure. Underwriters Laboratories in Check for the presence of a termi- three classes. Class I includes nal metal rain cap and make cer- ordinary buildings (including resi- tain the flue terminates not less dences) under 75 feet (22 m) in 24 Residential Inspection

3 Building Interior Following the inspection of the site and the building’s exterior, move indoors and systematically inspect all interior spaces, including basement or crawl space, finished rooms, halls and stairways, storage spaces, and attic. Begin either at the lowest level and work up or at the attic and work down. Examine the overall quality and condition of the building’s construction and finish materials. If the interior has unique woodwork or other stylistic features, consider how these may be incorporated to best advantage in the building’s reuse. Look for patterns of water damage or Clues to water problems in basements material deterioration that indicate underlying problems in the structural, electrical, plumbing, or HVAC systems. These systems will be inspected separately after the interior inspection has been co m p l e t e d .

When universal design is a part of a rehabilitation project, consult HUD publication Re s i d e n t i a l Remodeling and Universal Design for detailed information about doors, kitchens, bathrooms, laundry areas, closets, stairs, windows, and floor surfaces.

3.1 Basement or Crawl Space The basement or crawl space is often the most revealing area in An uncovered earth floor in a crawl space can significantly increase moisture within the the building and usually provides building. a general picture of how the building works. In most cases, the structure is exposed Residential Inspection 25

the building is poor, the crawl space floor should not be below the elevation of the exterior grade. If the basement or crawl space is merely damp or humid, the cause simply may be lack of adequate ventilation, particularly if the crawl space has an earthen floor. Check the ventilation. By measurement and calculation, compare the free area of vents with the plan area of the crawl space. The free vent area to crawl space area ratio should be 1 to 150 in a crawl space with an earthen floor and 1 to 1,500 in a crawl space with a vapor barrier of one perm or less over the earthen floor. If Termite infestation is most common in basements and crawl spaces, particularly near the calculated ratio is less, con- foundation walls. Probe all suspect areas thoroughly. sider adding ventilation, particularly in hot and humid cli- overhead, as are the HVAC distri- If moisture appears to be com- mates, and especially if mois- bution system, plumbing supply ing through the walls, re-exam- ture is present. and DWV lines, and the electrical ine the roof drainage system Check the location of the branch circuit wiring. and grading around the exteri- vents through the foundation or � Moisture. One of the most or of the building (the problem exterior wall. There should be common problems in small could be as simple as a clogged one vent near every corner of residential structures is a wet gutter). Recheck the sump the crawl space to promote basement. Examine walls and pump, if there is one, to be complete air movement. Check floors for signs of water pene- sure the discharge is not vents for screens. They should tration such as dampness, draining back into the base- have corrosion resistant mesh water stains, peeling paint, ment. Look for unprotected or in good condition with maxi- efflorescence, and rust on poorly drained window wells, mum 1/8-inch (3.2 mm) open- exposed metal parts. In fin- leaking exterior faucets, and ings. If the ventilation appears ished basements, look for signs of leakage in the water to be inadequate and additional rotted or warped wood panel- supply line near the building. vents cannot be cut in the ing and doors, loose floor tiles, See Section 6.2 for water dis- foundation or exterior wall eco- and mildew stains. tribution system problems. If nomically, consider adding a Determine the source of any foundation walls are cracked, vapor barrier and mechanical moisture that may be present. examine them in accordance ve n t i l a t i o n . It may come through the walls with Section 4.4. � Fungal and insect infestation. or cracks in the floor, or from Check the elevation of an Look for signs of fungal backed-up floor drains, leaky earthen floor in a crawl space growth on wood, particularly in plumbing lines, or a clogged If the water table on the site is unventilated crawl spaces. air conditioner condensate line. high or the drainage outside 26 Residential Inspection

Inspect all foundation walls, � Locate the access to the � Walls and ceilings. Check the piers, columns, joists, beams, crawl space, check that it is general condition of all sur- and sill plates for signs of ter- large enough for a person to faces, ignoring cosmetic imper- mites and other wood inhabit- enter, observe the interior of fections. Look for cracks and ing insects in accordance with the crawl space, and if mechan- peeling paint or wallpaper. Section 4.7. Also see Appendix ical equipment is located Note signs of exterior water B, Wood Inhabiting Organisms. inside, check that access is penetration or interior leakage. Thermal insulation. Examine large enough for any required Whenever possible, probe the amount and type of insu- maintenance. behind wallpaper, paneling, lating material, if any, above ceiling tiles, and other coverings for problems that may unheated basements and crawl 3.2 spaces. Determine the amount have been concealed but not of insulation required for the Interior Spaces, General corrected. Look for sags and bulges in space and whether additional This section deals with inspection old plaster work. Gently tap insulation can or should be procedures that are common to and push on the plaster; if an added. Check for adequate all interior spaces, including fin- area sounds hollow or feels vapor barriers. ished attics and basements. flexible, it is a good indication Structural, electrical, plumb- Examine the following elements that the plaster has separated ing, and HVAC systems. and conditions of interior spaces: from its backing. If such areas Understand enough about the layout of each system to make an informed inspection of the remainder of the building’s interior. A more complete assessment of these systems will be performed later. � Note the type of structural sy s t e m (wood frame, masonry bearing wall, etc.). Locate main support columns and posts, major beams, and bearing walls. � Find the main electrical panel box, if it is in the basement, and note how the branch circuits are generally distributed. Note also the type of wiring that is used. � Trace the path of the main water supply line and check the composition of all piping materials. � Observe the general loca - tion of the heating/cooling unit, if it is in the basement, and the general layout of the HVAC distribution system. Interior clues to structural problems Residential Inspection 27

are found, it may be best to Large wall and ceiling cracks paneling is obviously not origi- replaster or overlay the wall or may indicate structural nal, try to look behind it to ceiling with wallboard. problems. See Sections 4.3 see what problems may be Wall and ceiling cracks are through 4.5 for cracks associ- covered up. usually caused by building set- ated with masonry wall prob- Lift suspended ceiling pan- tlement, deflection, warping of lems and Section 4.7 for cracks els and observe above them. wood structural elements, or associated with structural Check the condition of the small seasonal movements of wood framing problems. original ceiling, if any. Tiled building components due to Inspect drywall-covered ceilings should be examined temperature and humidity vari- walls and ceilings by checking similarly. On top floors, in- ations. Seasonal movements for nail popping, joint cracks, spect for ceiling penetrations will make some cracks regular- and other signs of deteriora- that may form thermal bypass- ly open and close; these may tion or failure, such as rust es to the unconditioned spaces be filled with a flexible, paint- stains at fasteners and corner above. able sealant, but otherwise can- beads. � Exterior walls. In buildings not be effectively repaired. Examine paneled walls by built after 1960, try to deter- Cracks due to settlement, de- pushing or tapping on the pan- mine if the exterior walls are flection, or warping can be eling to determine if it is se- insulated and contain a vapor repaired if movement has curely attached. Look for de- barrier. Vapor barriers should stopped, as is often the case. lamination of veneers. If the be placed on the interior side of the insulation in cold climates and on the exterior side of the insulation in warm, moist climates. � Floors. Examine the floor’s finish or covering. Inspect hardwood floors to determine if they will need cleaning or sanding. If sanding is required, be sure to check (by removing a floor register or piece of baseboard trim) how much the floor thickness has been reduced by previous sandings. Too much sanding will expose floor nails and, if present, tongue-and-groove joints. Inspect resilient floors and carpeting for their overall condition and quality. If they are to be replaced, check that their floor underlayment is sound. If the floor feels springy, sagging, or unstable, inspect it in accordance with Section 4.7. Check the heating source in every room. This particular heater, when tested, was operable and safe. 28 Residential Inspection

Interior doors. Inspect the con- The test should be performed by an not have bars or grilles unless dition of doors and door experienced technician. they are releasable from inside frames including the interior of Test: Water penetration through win- without a key, tool, or special entrance doors and storm dows and doors can be checked by knowledge. doors. Check hardware for fin- the test method described in ASTM � Closets. Inspect all closets for ish, wear, and proper function- E1105, Standard Test Method for condition and usability. It is ing. Binding doors or out-of- Field Determination of Water Pene- best that they have a clear square frames may indicate tration of Installed Exterior Windows, depth of at least 24 inches building settlement. See Curtain Walls, and Doors by Uniform (610 mm). Check all shelving or Cyclic Static Air Pressure Differ- Section 4.4. and hanging rods for adequate ence. The test should be performed Windows. Inspect window sash bracing. Check for proper type by an experienced technician. and frames for damage and and location of closet light fix- deterioration. Operate each Consider window-related code tures; lights positioned close to window, including storm win- requirements for natural light, shelves present both a haz- dows and screens, to determine ventilation, and egress capabili- ardous condition and an smoothness, fit, and apparent ty. Most codes require the impediment to the use of weathertightness. Pay particu- following: shelves. lar attention to casement win- � Natural light. Habitable � Trim and finishes. Examine dows. When open they are easi- rooms should be provided with baseboards, sills, moldings, ly damaged by wind and hinge natural light by means of exte- cornices, and other trim for damage may keep them from rior glazed openings. The area missing or damaged sections closing properly. Also carefully required is a percentage of the or pieces. Replacement trim check casement operating hard- floor area, usually eight per- may no longer be readily ware to be sure it operates cent. obtainable, so determine if smoothly and easily. Note the � Ventilation. Habitable rooms trim can be salvaged from type and condition of glass in should be provided with opera- more obscure locations in the each window and assess its ble windows. Their required building. effect on energy use. If possi- opening size is a percentage of � Convenience outlets and light- ble, determine if the window the floor area, usually four per- ing. Look for signs of inade- has a thermal break frame. cent. A mechanical ventilation quate or unsafe electrical ser- Check for the presence and system can be provided in lieu vice as described here and in adequacy of security hardware. of this requirement. Chapter 5. Generally speaking, Examine the functioning of each wall should have at least sash cords and weights in older � Egress. Every sleeping room one convenience outlet and double hung windows. Open and habitable basement room each room should have one windows above the ground should have at least one opera- switch-operated outlet or over- floor (or others not fully in- ble window or exterior door for head light. Examine the condi- spected from the outside) and emergency egress or rescue. tion of outlets and switches check their exterior surfaces, Egress windows should have a and feel them for overheating. frames, sills, awnings, and minimum net clear opening of Make sure they are mounted shutters, if any. 5.7 square feet (0.53 m2), with a clear height of at least 24 inch- on outlet boxes and that light Test: Air infiltration through windows es (610 mm), a clear width of at fixtures are securely attached and doors can be checked by the test least 20 inches (510 mm), and a to walls or ceilings. method described in ASTM E783, sill height not more than 44 Operate switches and look Standard Test Method for Field inches (1120 mm) above the for dimmed or flickering lights Measurement of Air Leakage Th r o u g h that indicate electrical prob- Installed Windows and Doors. floor. Emergency egress or res- cu e windows and doors should lems somewhere in the circuit. Residential Inspection 29

The electrical system will be re- fault interrupters (GFIs) in the cleaning ability, especially if it examined more thoroughly outlets. See Chapter 5. is a water-saving fixture. later in the inspection. Also Check the condition and Pressure assisted toilets use check the light switches for operation of all switches, out- water pressure to compress air sparks (arcing) when switches lets, and light fixtures. in a tank that makes the 1.5 to are turned on and off. Switches If there is an exhaust fan, 1.6 gallon (5.7 to 6 L) flush very that are worn should be check its operation. It should be effective in cleaning the fixture replaced. properly ducted to an attic vent bowl and preventing buildup in � HVAC source. As described or the building’s exterior. the soil pipe. Operate the toilet. here and in Chapter 7, locate � Plumbing. Examine all exposed Listen for excessive noise from the heating, cooling, or venti- plumbing parts for leaking or vibration due to loose pieces of lating source for every room. If signs of trouble or deteriora- equipment, check for leaks, and there is a warm air supply reg- tion. Inspect the lavatory for look for rust on the tank and ister but no return, make sure secure attachment and sup- pi p i n g . doors are undercut one inch port. Check the operation of all Check for a faulty shower (25 mm) for air flow. fixtures and decide which fix- pan by covering the shower With the HVAC system acti- tures and trim should be drain tightly and filling the vated, check the heat source in replaced. shower base with about an each room and make sure it is Check the condition of all inch of water. Let stand for at functioning. The HVAC system plumbing fixtures by examin- least an hour, if possible. Look will be more completely exam- ing for chipping, scratches, for signs of water leakage on ined later in the inspection. mold, stains, and other defects. the ceiling below. The presence of excessive sealant around the � Skylights. Examine the under- Check the condition and shower base or drain may indi- sides of all skylights for signs operation of the lavatory, toi- cate attempts to remedy a of leakage and water damage. let, tub, and shower. shower pan leak by preventing Inspect skylight components A common problem in bath- water from reaching the pan. for damage, deterioration, and rooms is leakage around tubs This is only a temporary solu- weathertightness. Operate and showers. If possible, in- tion and the pan should be openable skylights to deter- spect the ceiling below each properly repaired. mine their smoothness of oper- bathroom for signs of water If there is a medicine ation, fit, and apparent weath- damage or recent patching and cabinet, check its condition ertightness. painting. Whirlpool baths should be and check its door fit and operated for at least 20 min- operation. 3.3 utes. Check how well a con- � Tub and shower enclosures. Bathrooms stant water temperature is Check the condition, fit, and maintained. Examine jets for operation of tub and shower Examine bathrooms in accordance evidence of mold and mildew enclosures. Note whether any with the procedures for other and determine if the piping glazing is safety glazing, as interior rooms, and additionally should be flushed out. required by the building code inspect: Determine the flushing for new installation and � Electrical service. Wherever capacity of the toilet. If it is replacement. possible, switches and outlets not a water-saving fixture, con- � Ceramic tile. Look for dam- should not be within arm’s sider replacing it with a water- aged or missing tiles, or tiles reach of the tub or shower. saving toilet with a 1.6 gallon that have been scratched, pit- Consider installing ground (6 L) flushing capacity. Operate ted, or dulled by improper the toilet. Assess its bowl cleaning. Check the condition 30 Residential Inspection

3.4 Kitchens Examine kitchens in accordance with the inspection procedures for other interior rooms, and additionally inspect: � Counters and cabinetry. Check countertops for cracks or food traps and examine kitchen cabinets carefully for signs of vermin infestation. Look for missing, broken, or damaged hardware and cabinet parts. Check doors and drawers for fit and smooth operation, and wall cabinets for secure attachment. Com- pare the cost of replacement to the cost of reconditioning. � Electrical service. De t e r m i n e the adequacy and safety of electrical service to the kitchen, as described here and in Chapter 5. As a guide, new residential buildings are usually required to have a ground fault inter- rupter (GFI) of at least one 20 amp/120 volt circuit in all outlets over a countertop used for portable kitchen appliances. Separate circuits are also required for each major appliance as follows: This kitchen cabinetry is plain but adequate. Refrigerator 20 amp/120 volt Dishwasher 20 amp/120 volt of all grouted and caulked � Ventilation. The bathroom Garbage 20 amp/120 volt joints. If a portion of the tile is should be ventilated by either disposal defective or missing, all tile a window, an exhaust fan, or a may have to be replaced since recirculation fan. Poor ventila- Range 40 to 50 amp/ finding additional tiles of tion will be indicated by 240 volt matching size, color, and tex- mildew on the ceiling and ture may be impossible. walls. Residential Inspection 31

Operate all electrical appli- drips and leaks in both the cupboard, attic, crawl space, or ances simultaneously, includ- supply and drainage lines. Fill wall. A recirculation range ing exhaust fans, to determine the sink and check that it hood fan is acceptable. Check that they are connected and drains promptly. Operate the the filter medium. Ducts, can run steadily without over- disposal and dishwasher listen- hoods, and filters should be loading their circuits. ing and watching for smooth free of grease buildup. � Plumbing. Visually inspect the operation. Look for leaks in Operate exhaust fans and condition of the sink for chip- plumbing connections. Check vented range hoods to deter- ping, scratches, stains, and for the existence of an air vent mine whether they are func- other defects. Decide whether it for the dishwasher unless tional and whether they should should be replaced. Check there is no disposal or unless be kept or replaced. faucets for corrosion and prop- the dishwasher pumps to the top outlet of the disposal. er operation. Make sure an air 3.5 gap exists between the faucet Check the spray hose. Decide and the flood rim to prevent whether either appliance Storage Spaces should be replaced. possible back-siphoning. See Inspect all closets and other stor- Chapter 6. � Ventilation. See that exhaust age spaces for cleanliness, func- Turn the faucets on and off fans and range hoods are duct- tionality, proper lighting, and several times and look for ed to the outside and not to a means of adequate ventilation.

The rotted supports beneath this stair were repaired by scabbing on small blocks of wood, which is insufficient. The supports should be replaced and the source of moisture investigated. 32 Residential Inspection

3.6 maximum riser of 7-3/4 inches plumbing and its capacity to (197 mm) and a minimum handle discharged water from Stairs and Hallways tread of 10 inches (254 mm). the washer. Inspect stairs and hallways as Inspect the condition and fas- In multifamily laundry follows: tening of all stair coverings. areas, examine floors and walls � Light. Stairs and hallways � Stair width and clearance. for water damage. The laundry should be well lighted and Stairs should normally have a should have a floor drain. have three-way light controls. minimum headroom of 6’-8" Determine whether the laundry Public stair and hallway lights (2030 mm) and width of 3’-0" is of proper size and in the in multifamily buildings should (915 mm). For multifamily proper location for the planned be operated from centralized buildings, check the local hous- rehabilitation. house controls. ing code for minimum dimen- Operate washers and dryers Check the operation of all sions of public hallways and and observe their functioning. Listen for noise that indicates stair and hallway lights. stairs. excessive wear. Determine � Smoke detectors. Stairs and � Structural integrity of stairs. whether they should be replaced. hallways are the appropriate Check that all stairs are struc- � Furnace rooms. Rooms con- location for smoke detectors. turally sound. Examine base- Detectors should be located on ment stairs where they meet taining fuel-burning equipment or near the ceiling, near the the floor and where they are should not be located off a sleeping room in a single fami- heads of stairs, and away from attached to the floor joists ly residence, and must be in a the corners. above. See Section 4.7. Check the operation of all publicly accessible area in a smoke detectors by activating multifamily building. Check them with a smoke source or 3.7 local code requirements for - by pushing their test buttons. Laundries and applicable fire safety and com bustion air criteria. � Stair handrails and guardrails. Utility Rooms Handrails are normally Laundry areas and utility rooms required to be 34 to 38 inches in small residential buildings are 3.8 (865 to 965 mm) above the usually located in the basement Fireplaces and Flues stair nosing on at least one or off the kitchen. Inspect them side of all stairs with three or Inspect fireplaces and flues as as follows: more risers. Guardrails are follows: � Laundries. Look for leaks or required on open sides of stair- � Fireplaces. Inspect the firebox kinks in plumbing connections ways and should have interme- for deterioration or damage. If to the washer and examine diate rails that will not allow there is a damper, check its electrical or natural gas con- the passage of an object operation. Make sure the nections to the dryer. Inspect 4 inches (100 mm) in diameter. hearth is of adequate size to dryer venting and make sure it Shake all railings vigorously to protect adjacent combustible exhausts to the outside and is check their stability and building materials, if any. A not clogged or otherwise inspect their fastenings. depth from the face of the fire- restricted. Gas dryer vents that � Stair treads and risers. Check place of 20 inches (510 mm) pass through walls or com- that all treads are level and and a width that extends one bustible materials must be secure. Riser heights and tread foot (305 mm) beyond the fire- metal. depths should be, respectively, place opening on either side is Examine the laundry tub, if as uniform as possible. As a a minimum for older fire- one exists, and decide whether guide, stairs in new residential places. Also check local codes. it should be replaced. Check its buildings must have a Residential Inspection 33

Burn some newspaper to The structural condition of chim- vents is their clear, open area. check the draw. Discoloration neys should be inspected in If a vent has an insect screen, around the mantel may indi- accordance with Section 4.6. its free area is reduced by half. cate a smoky fireplace with The vent free area to floor area poor draw. ratio should be 1 to 150. If the 3.9 Flues. Check the flue lining in calculated ratio is less, consid- masonry chimneys. It should Attics and Roof Truss er adding ventilation, especial- be tight along its entire length. and Joist Spaces ly in hot and humid climates. Linings should be intact, unob- When an attic also contains an Attics are defined here as uncon- structed, and appropriate for occupied space, check that the ditioned spaces between the roof the fuel type. It is difficult to ventilation from the uncondi- and the ceiling or walls of the properly examine flue linings tioned, unoccupied areas at the building’s inhabited rooms. In visually, and a mirror may be eaves is continuous to the small residential buildings with helpful. An obstructed flue can gable or ridge vents. Also pitched roofs, attics are usually usually be opened by a chim- check that the free area of eave partially or fully accessible. In ney sweep, but consult a chim- vents is approximately equal to buildings with low-slope roofs, ney expert if the integrity of the free area of ridge or gable they may be inaccessible or virtu- the flue is in doubt. Analyze vents. If ventilation appears to ally nonexistent. Inspect all acces- unlined chimneys for the pos- be inadequate and additional sible attic spaces as follows: sible installation of metal lin- vents cannot be added eco- ers. If there is an attic, use it to � Roof leaks. Look for signs of nomically, consider adding examine chimney construction water leakage from the roof mechanical ventilation. more closely. See Section 7.2 above and try to locate the � Roof truss and joist space for clearances around smoke source of leakage by tracing its ventilation. Most buildings pipes. path. This may be difficult to with low-slope roofs and some do beneath built-up roofs or Smoke pipe connections. buildings with pitched roofs do beneath loosely laid and Check that the smoke pipes not have attics. Instead, these mechanically fastened single- from furnaces, water heaters, buildings have ceilings at the ply roofs, since water may trav- stoves, and related devices are bottom of joists, rafters, or el horizontally between layers tightly connected to the chim- trusses. The truss space and of roofing materials. Determine ney and that they do not enter the space between each joist or the extent of any damage and a fireplace flue. See additional rafter and above the ceiling the probable cost of repairs. requirements in Section 7.2. needs ventilation. Look for � Attic ventilation. Signs of inade- vents below the eaves and Ash dump and pit. If the fire- quate ventilation are rusting check to see that the ratio of place has an ash dump at the nails (in roof sheathing, soffits, free vent area to roof area is bottom of the firebox, check and drywall ceilings), wet or 1 to 150. If the calculated ratio the operation, fit, and condi- rotted roof sheathing, and is less, consider adding ventilation of the door and check the excessive heat buildup in tion. Open one or more of the shaft to the ash pit to be cer- attics. Where attics exist but vents if possible. Probe the tain it is unobstructed and not are inaccessible, check if ventilating cavity to determine overflowing with ashes. If the access could be provided the amount of insulation and chimney has an ash pit, check through ceilings or gable ends. free air space and try to assess the operation, fit, and condi- Check for adequate attic venti- the general condition of the tion of the pit access door. The lation by calculating the ratio surrounding building compo- fit should be tight enough to of the free area of all vents to nents. It is difficult to inspect prevent dust and ash from the floor area. Free area of for ventilation in these escaping. 34 Residential Inspection

a building’s exterior and where louvered grilles are used, such as at gables, check for the presence of one-half-inch- square (13 x 13 mm) 14 or 16 gauge aluminum mesh bird screen. If there is none or it is in poor condition, consider having new bird screen installed. � Thermal insulation. Examine the amount and type of existing insulating material. Check to see that insulation faced with a vapor barrier has been installed face-side down with the vapor barrier closest to the conditioned space, and that vapor barriers are properly located between the ceiling and the first layer of insulation. Determine the proper amount of insulation to the attic and whether additional insulation is needed. If attic insulation is placed against the roof sheathing, check for a ventilated air space between the insulation and the sheathing. If there is no air space, check for the presence of moisture and deterioration of sheathing and rafters. Ensure that insulation Methods of insulating and ventilating low-slope roof structures is held away from recessed lighting fixtures, and inspect spaces around vents, stacks, buildings without removing a vents, check for the presence ducts, and wiring for thermal part of the ceiling to measure of insect screens. If insect bypasses. Inspect attic doors the free depth and width of screens are present, check or access hatches, heating or ventilation space and to deter- their condition. cooling ducts that pass through the attic, and whole- mine whether the truss, joist, � Vents. Check the condition of house attic fans for thermal or rafter spaces contain insula- ridge, gable, cornice, eave, and bypasses. Check the local juris- tion. If there is no evidence of soffit vents. Look for rusted or diction for thermal resistance water damage from condensa- broken screens and rusted (R) requirements. tion, an intrusive investigation frames. Make sure openings is usually not warranted. At are clear of dirt and debris. At ridge, cornice, eave, or soffit larger ventilation openings on Residential Inspection 35

� Exhaust ducts and plumbing stacks. Check that all plumbing stacks continue through the roof and do not terminate in the attic and that they are not broken or damaged. Also check that exhaust ducts are not broken or damaged and do not terminate in the attic but either continue through the roof, gable, or wall or vent directly to a ridge vent. � Structural conditions. Inspect the roof structure in accordance with Section 4.7.

3.10 Whole Building Thermal Efficiency Tests Several whole building tests can Methods of ventilating pitched roof structures over habitable spaces be performed to help evaluate the thermal efficiency of the building envelope. Test: A building pressurization test can be used to determine air infiltration and exfiltration. The test is particularly useful for “tightening up” an older building. See ASTM E779, Standard Test Method for Determining Air Leakage Rate by Fan Pressuriza- tion. A tracer gas test may also be used; see ASTM E741, Standard Test Method for Determining Air Change in a Single Zone by Means of a Tracer Gas Dilution. Such tests are usually performed by an energy specialist or an HVAC technician. Test: A hand-held infrared scanner can be used to detect building “hot spots” due to interior air leakage or excessive heat loss through uninsulated building components. This test should be performed in cold weather A split ceiling joist or trust chord can be easily repaired by propping it back in place and when the building is heated; the attaching new structural pieces to each side. greater the differential between inside and outside temperatures, the more 36 Residential Inspection

accurate the results. Infrared scan- Gypsum Association or the particular concern are those ners are commercially available; their National Concrete Masonry Assoc- asbestos-containing products that use varies by manufacturer. Thermo- iation. See the Gypsum Assoc- are soft, that were sprayed or graphy can be used for the same pur- iation’s publication GA-530, troweled on, or that have become pose, but it requires much more Design Data—Gypsum Products, crumbly. The Environmental expensive equipment and a trained and the National Concrete Mas- Protection Agency believes that so operator. Thermographic tests should onry Association’s Tek Note 13-1, long as the asbestos-bearing be performed by an energy specialist, Sound Transmission Class Ratings product is intact, is not likely to mechanical engineer, or others with the proper training and equipment. for Concrete Masonry Walls. be disturbed, and is in an area where repairs or rehabilitation will not occur, it is best to leave 3.11 3.12 the product in place. If it is dete- Sound Transmission Asbestos riorated, it may be enclosed, coated or sealed up (encapsulat- Asbestos is a naturally occurring Control Between ed) in place, depending upon the fibrous mineral used in many degree of deterioration. Other- Dwelling Units construction products. It is con- wise, it should be removed. Check the floors and walls be- sidered to be a carcinogen. Asbes- tween dwelling units for adequacy tos has been used in sealant, A certified environmental profes- of sound transmission control putty, and spackling compounds; sional should perform the inspec- using the current building code in vinyl floor tiles, backing for tion and make the decision for guidance. Floors that separate vinyl sheet flooring, and flooring whether to enclose, coat, encapsu- dwelling units, and floors that adhesives; in ceiling tiles; in tex- late, or remove deteriorated separate a dwelling unit from a tured paint; in exterior wall and asbestos-containing products. public or service area should have ceiling insulation; in roofing shin- Testing by a qualified laboratory an Impact Insulation Class (IIC) of gles; in cement board for many as directed by the environmental not less than 45. IIC is determined uses including siding; in door gas- professional may be needed in in accordance with ASTM E492, kets for furnaces and wood-burn- order to make an informed deci- Standard Method of Laboratory ing stoves; in concrete piping; in sion. Encapsulation, removal, and Measurement of Impact Sound paper, mill board, and cement disposal of asbestos products Transmission Through Floor- board sheets used to protect must be done by a qualified Ceiling Assemblies Using the walls and floors around wood- asbestos-abatement contractor. burning stoves; in fabric connec- Tapping Machine. Walls and floors For more information consult the tors between pieces of metal that separate dwelling units in Guidance Manual: Asbestos ductwork; in hot water and steam two-family residences, and walls Operations and Maintenance Work piping insulation, blanket cover- that separate townhouses, should Practices, available from the ing, and tape; and as insulation have a Sound Transmission Class National Institute of Building on boilers, oil-fired furnaces, and (STC) of not less than 45. STC is Sciences. determined in accordance with coal-fired furnaces. Use of asbes- ASTM E90, Standard Method for tos has been phased out since Laboratory Measurement of Air- 1978, but many older houses con- borne Sound Transmission Loss of tain asbestos-bearing products. Building Partitions and Elements. Products containing asbestos are Technical data that identifies STC not always a health hazard. The and IIC attenuation for different potential health risk occurs when types of construction is provided these products become worn or by product manufacturers and deteriorate in a way that releases trade associations, such as the asbestos fibers into the air. Of Residential Inspection 37

3.13 hazard when found on surfaces reliability. These tests should that children can chew or that not be the only method used Lead get a lot of wear and tear, such before doing rehabilitation or Lead has been determined to be a as windows and window sills, to ensure safety. significant health hazard if doors and door frames, stairs, For more information on ingested, especially by children. railing, banisters, porches, and lead-based paint consult the Lead damages the brain and ner- fences. Lead from paint chips HUD Office of Lead Hazard vous system, adversely affects that are visible and lead dust Control Web site at http:// behavior and learning, slows that is not always visible can www.hud.gov:80/lea. growth, and causes problems relat- both be serious hazards. Lead � Lead in drinking water is a ed to hearing, pregnancy, high dust can form when lead-based direct result of lead that is part blood pressure, nervous system, paint is dry scraped, dry of the plumbing system itself. memory, and concentration. sanded, or heated. Dust also Lead solder was used in pipe � Lead-based paint. Most homes forms when painted surfaces fittings in houses constructed built before 1940 used paint bump or rub together, such as prior to 1988. Lead has been that was heavily leaded. when windows open and close. used in plumbing fixtures such Between 1940 and 1960, no Lead chips and dust can get on as faucets, and in some older more than half the homes built surfaces and objects that peo- homes the service water pipe are thought to have used ple touch. Settled lead dust can from the main in the street to re-enter the air when people heavily leaded paint. In the the house is made of lead. vacuum, sweep, or walk period from 1960 to 1980, The transfer of lead into through it. many fewer homes used lead- water is determined primarily If the building is thought to based paint. In 1978, the U.S. by exposure (the length of time contain lead-based paint, con- Consumer Product Safety that water is in contact with sider having a qualified profes- Commission (CPSC) set the lead). Two other factors that sional check it for lead haz- legal limit of lead in most affect the transfer are water types of paint to a trace ards. This is done by means of temperature (hot water dis- amount. As a result, homes a paint inspection that will solves lead quicker than cold identify the lead content of built after 1978 should be water) and water acidity (“soft” every painted surface in the nearly free of lead-based paint. water is slightly corrosive and building and a risk assessment In 1996, Congress passed the reacts with lead). that will determine whether final phase of the Residential The current federal standard there are any sources of Lead-Based Paint Hazard for lead in water is a limit of serious lead exposure (such as Reduction Act, Title X, which 15 parts per billion. The only mandates that real estate peeling paint and lead dust). way to find out whether there agents, sellers, and landlords The risk assessment will also is lead in the house’s water is identify actions to take to disclose the known presence of to have the water tested by an address these hazards. The lead-based paint in homes built approved laboratory. Two sam- federal government is writing prior to 1978. ples should be tested: water standards for inspectors and Lead-based paint that is in that has been sitting in the risk assessors. Some states good condition and out of the pipes for at least four hours, may already have standards in reach of children is usually not and water that has been a hazard. Peeling, chipping, place. Call local authorities for allowed to flow not less than chalking, or cracking lead- help with locating qualified one minute before the sample local professionals. While based paint is a hazard and is taken. Tests are inexpensive home test kits for lead are needs immediate attention. ($15 to $25). available, the federal govern- Lead-based paint may be a ment is still testing their 38 Residential Inspection

If there is evidence of lead the house, rain, snow, baro- Test: Private well water testing is nor- in the system, consider having metric pressure, wind, and mally not a part of radon testing. water tested for lead. If the pressure variations caused by Therefore, if the house has a private house has a water filter, check the periodic operation of well, consult the local health depart- to see if it is certified to exhaust fans, heating systems, ment to determine whether water testing in the house’s area is recom- remove lead. fireplaces, attic fans, and range mended. How this is to be done fans. Radon concentrations are For more information on lead in should be determined by a listed variable and may be high in drinking water call the Environ- radon mitigation contractor. one house and low in an adja- mental Protection Agency’s Safe cent house. To determine if a If a building is found to have a Drinking Water Hotline: house has a radon problem, it radon problem, consult a certified 1-800-462-4791 or visit the Web must be tested. radon mitigation contractor who site of the EPA Office of Water at has met the requirements for list- http://www.epa.gov/safewater. Test: A long-term test is the most accurate method of determining the ing under the EPA’s Radon Con- For more information on lead average annual radon concentration. tractor Proficiency Program about hazards in general, call the However, because time is usually mitigation procedures. National Lead Information Center limited, there is a three- to seven-day For more information on radon clearinghouse: 1-800-424-LEAD. test that uses a charcoal canister. It is mitigation see Ventilation for Soil For the hearing impaired, call TTY available from most home do-it-your- Gases, chapter 7 in The Rehab 1-800-526-5456. self stores or through radon testing Guide, Volume 1, Foundations, service companies. 3.14 available from HUD or full text � Waterborne radon. A house’s online at http://www.pathnet.org. Radon domestic water supply from its Radon is a colorless, odorless, well can contain radon. There and tasteless gas that is present are locations with well water 3.15 in varying amounts in the ground containing 40,000 or more Tornado Safe Room and in water. Radon is produced pCi/L. The health problems If a building is located in a by the natural radioactive decay from drinking water with tornado-risk area, and if it has a of uranium deposits in the earth. radon are insignificant com- tornado shelter or safe room, it Prolonged exposure to radon in pared to breathing airborne should be investigated by a struc- high concentrations can cause radon, but radon can be re- tural engineer for structural cancer. The EPA has set guide- leased into the air when water adequacy. lines for radon levels in residen- is run into a plumbing fixture tial buildings. or during a shower. It takes a high concentration of radon in � Airborne radon. The EPA rec- water to produce a significant ommends that mitigation mea- concentration in the large vol- sures be undertaken in resi- ume of air in a house. While dential buildings when radon there is no maximum estab- concentrations are 4 picocuries lished at this time for radon in per liter (4 pCi/L) of air and water, consider removing above. radon at the water service The radon concentration in entrance when the level a house varies with time and is exceeds 10,000 pCi/L. affected by the uranium- radium content in the soil, the geological formation beneath the house, the construction of Residential Inspection 39

4 Structural System Figure 4.1 Assessing Structural Capacity Small residential buildings do not have for the most part inherent Unless there is obvious overloading, significant deterioration structural problems. Even many of important structural components, or additional loading is 19th-century buildings, that often anticipated, there is usually little need to verify the building’s show signs of settlement, may structural design or to recompute its structural capacity. A have only minor structural faults thorough visual inspection of its structural components is all that can be readily remedied. that is normally necessary. On some occasions, however, ceil- Major structural problems, when ings or other building elements may have to be opened for a they do occur, are usually quite selective inspection of critical structural members. A suffi- obvious. It is the less obvious cient number of members must be examined to afford a rea- problems that require careful in- sonable assurance that they are representative of the total spection and informed diagnosis. structure. Such problems are often detected Test: A laboratory test may be helpful in determining the strength of a through a pattern of symptoms masonry wall section or some other structural component. A represen- rather than any one symptom. tative sample of the material or component in question must be This chapter describes signs of removed from the structure for the test, which should be performed structural distress, deterioration, under the guidance of a qualified structural engineer and conducted by and damage by material type: a certified testing laboratory. Refer to the ASTM tests listed in Sections masonry (the most difficult to 4.3, 4.8, and 4.9. assess), wood, iron and steel, and If doubt remains about the building’s structural capacity concrete. If applicable, also refer after visual inspection, laboratory tests may be the next step. to Appendix A, The Effects of Fire Also, if the building’s structural loading is to be dramatically on Structural Systems, and increased during its rehabilitation by such things as a water Appendix B, Wood Inhabiting bed, stone kitchen countertop, tile flooring, or heavy stove Organisms. and oven, a quantitative analysis should be made of all the structural members involved. Simple calculations may be 4.1 made in accordance with Ambrose’s Simplified Engineering for Architects and Builders or, when wood-supported spans Seismic Resistance are involved, the use of the span tables in CABO One- and If the building is in seismic zones Two-Family Dwelling Code, the International Residential Code 2B, 3, and 4 (California, Idaho, for One- and Two-Family Dwellings, or the local building Nevada, Oregon, Washington, and code may be sufficient. More complex calculations should be portions of Alaska, Arizona, Ark- performed by a qualified structural engineer in accordance ansas, Hawaii, Missouri, Montana, with ASCE 11, Guideline for Structural Condition Assessment New Mexico, Utah, and Wyoming), of Existing Buildings. have a structural engineer check the following conditions for structural vulnerability. Note that wood frame buildings with brick � Wood frame buildings that are � Wood frame buildings and or stone veneer are still consid- not physically anchored to wood-framed portions (porch- ered wood frame. their foundations. Such build- es, for example) or other buildings may be vulnerable to ings when they are supported shifting or sliding. above ground on either short 40 Residential Inspection

wood studs (cripple walls) or New Hampshire, New Jersey, New 4.2 on piers of stone, masonry, or York, North Carolina, Oklahoma, concrete. Such buildings may Pennsylvania, Tennessee, Ver- Wind Resistance be vulnerable to tilting or mont, and Virginia) and has more The coasts of the Gulf of Mexico, falling over. than two stories above grade, the south- and mid-Atlantic coast, � Unreinforced and inadequate- consider having a structural engi- the coastal areas of Puerto Rico, ly reinforced masonry build- neer check for the last two condi- the U.S. Virgin Islands and Hawaii ings. Such buildings may be tions (large unobstructed open as well as the U.S. territories of vulnerable to total or partial space at grade and sloped sites). American Samoa and Guam are vulnerable to hurricanes in the collapse due to inadequate Buildings not of wood frame or late summer and early fall. Hur- reinforcement or to inadequate masonry construction, such as ricanes are large, slow moving, anchorage of roofs and walls stone, adobe, log, and post and damaging storms characterized to the floors. Use as a refer- beam structures, as well as build- ence Seismic Strengthening ings with more than one type of by gusting winds from different Provisions for Unreinforced construction in any seismic zone, directions, rain, flooding, high Masonry Bearing Wall should be investigated by a struc- waves, and storm surges. Winter Buildings, Appendix Chapter 1 tural engineer to determine their storms along the mid- and north- Atlantic coast can be more dam- of the Uniform Code for seismic vulnerability. Building Conservation. aging than hurricanes because of Masonry bearing wall buildings in � Buildings of any type that their greater frequency, longer seismic zones 2B, 3, and 4 should - have irregular shapes. Such duration, and high erosion im be investigated by a structural pacts on the coastline. Even in buildings may be vulnerable to engineer for the presence of rein- states not normally considered partial collapse. forcing steel. Use as a reference susceptible to extreme wind � Wood frame and masonry Seismic Strengthening Provisions storms, there are areas that exper- buildings with more than one for Unreinforced Masonry Bearing ience dangerously high winds. story above grade where the Wall Buildings, Appendix Chapter These areas are typically near story at grade is a large unob- 1 of the Uniform Code for Build- mountain ranges and include the structed open space, such as a ing Conservation. Pacific Northwest coast. Other garage. Such buildings may be extreme wind areas include the vulnerable to collapse of the Have a structural engineer check plains states, which are especially story at grade. the anchorage of wood framed structures to their foundations subject to tornadoes. � Wood frame and masonry and investigate all such structures In addition to the direct effects of buildings with more than one supported on cripple walls or high winds and winter on build- story above grade that are piers in seismic zones 2, 3, and 4. ings, hurricanes and other severe constructed on sloping hill- storms generate airborne debris sides, and buildings of any In all seismic zones, a structural that can damage buildings. type of construction and engineer should investigate build- Debris, such as small stones, tree height that are constructed on ings with more than one story branches, roof shingles and tiles, steep slopes of 20 ºF (-7 ºC) or above grade where the story at building parts and other objects, more. Such buildings may be grade is a large unobstructed is picked up by the wind and vulnerable to sliding. open space or the building is on a sloping hillside and in seismic moved with enough force to dam- If the building is in seismic zone zones 2B, 3, and 4, buildings with age and even penetrate windows, 2A (Connecticut, Massachusetts, an irregular shape. doors, walls, and roofs. When a Rhode Island, South Carolina, and building’s exterior envelope is portions of Georgia, Illinois, Ind- breached by debris, the building iana, Kansas, Kentucky, Maine, can become pressurized, Residential Inspection 41

subjecting its walls and roof to much higher damaging wind pressures. In general, the stronger the wind, the larger and heavier the debris it can carry and the greater the risk of severe damage.

If the building is in a hurricane or high-wind region, have a structural engineer check its structural system for continuity of load path, including resistance to uplift forces. If there is an accessible attic, check for improper attachment of the roof sheathing to the roof framing members by looking for unengaged or partially engaged nails. Check for the presence of hurricane hold-down clips for joists, rafters, and trusses at the exterior wall. Examine the gable end walls and the roof trusses for lateral bracing. Check to see whether the exterior A common masonry wall crack probably caused by thermal or moisture expansion. If possible, monitor such cracks over a period of time to see if they’re active. Active cracks wall and other load-bearing walls should be sealed with a flexible sealant; inactive cracks may be pointed. are securely attached to the f o u n d a t i o n . that of its neighborhood, will be a through the joints or masonry units good indicator of the condition of with a masonry bit and probed with a 4.3 its masonry. stiff wire (or, if available, a fiber optic device) to determine a wall’s thick- Masonry, General There may be a substantial differ- ness and the adequacy of its mortar. All exposed masonry should be ence in the masonry walls in The probe holes are patched after the inspected for cracking, spalling, buildings built during the last 40 investigation has been completed. A bowing (bulges vertically), sweep- to 50 years compared to those hammer test can be used to deter- ing (bulges horizontally), leaning, constructed earlier. Walls became mine the structural soundness of masonry units and their bond to the and mortar deterioration. Before thinner as designers began to mortar. The masonry is tapped lightly beginning a detailed masonry exploit more effectively the com- with a hammer and the resonance of inspection, determine which walls pressive strength of masonry by the sound produced is evaluated. Two are load-bearing and which are using higher strength masonry materials and mortars. This tests may also be useful: ASTM not. Usually this can be done by E518, Standard Test Methods for change came at the expense of examining the beams and joists in Flexural Bond Strength of Masonry , flexibility as such walls are often the building’s basement or crawl and ASTM E519, Standard Test more brittle than their massive space or attic. Note also whether Method for Diagonal Tension (Shear) the walls are solid masonry or ancestors and, therefore, more in Masonry Assemblages. See a qual- masonry cavity, or whether they subject to stress-induced damage. ified masonry consultant for the are non-structural brick or stone Tests: Two methods of testing are proper use of these tests on existing veneer. The overall quality of the sometimes useful for assessing masonry. building’s construction, and often masonry. Probe holes can be drilled 42 Residential Inspection

The brick shown here is highly spalled from Building settlement due to cut and fill excavation the effects of excessive moisture penetration and subsequent freezing. The damage cannot be repaired, although individual bricks can be replaced and the mortar pointed. The new mortar should be of the same composition as the old.

� Masonry cracking. Although masonry can deform elastically over long periods of time to accommodate small amounts of movement, large movements normally cause cracking. Cracks may appear along the mortar joints or through the masonry units. Cracking can Differential settlement caused by variable soil types result from a variety of problems: differential settlement of foundations, drying shrinkage corrosion of iron and steel wall fully discussed in Sections 4.4 (particularly in concrete block), reinforcement, differential and 4.5. expansion and contraction due movement between building Cracks should always be to ambient thermal and mois- materials, expansion of salts, evaluated to determine their ture variations, improper sup- and the bulging or leaning of cause and whether corrective port over openings, the effects walls. These problems are more action is required. Look for of freeze-thaw cycles, the Residential Inspection 43

signs of movement. A clean crack indicates recent movement; a dirty or previously filled crack may be inactive (a pocket lens may be useful for such an examination). Correlate the width of larger cracks to the age of the building. A one-half-inch crack in a new building may be a sign of rapid settlement, but in a building 50 years old, it may indicate a very slow movement of only 1/100 of an inch (0.25 mm) per year. In each case the cause and treatment may differ. Test: Crack movement can be measured with a commercially available Evidence of frost heaving joint movement indicator. This device is temporarily fastened over the crack and a scribe records movement over a period of time. Cyclical movements may take six months or more to measure, but diurnal movements can be recorded over a few days. Hand measurements can also be made of crack movements, but these will be less precise and require repeated field visits.

Cracks associated with thermal expansion and contraction may open and close with the season. These are cyclical cracks, which may gradually expand as accumulating mortar debris jams them farther apart after each cycle. Such cracks should be cleaned and protected by flexible sealants; remortaring cyclical cracks will hold them open and cause more cracking. When there are masonry problems, it is advisable to procure the services of a structural engineer. If problems An extreme case of structural failure in a masonry wall due to foundation settlement. The wall and foundation must be completely rebuilt. appear to be due to differential 44 Residential Inspection

settlement, a soils engineer the rest of the joint. It is useful rarely effective and may hasten also may be required. to remember that mortar acts deterioration by trapping mois- Mortar deterioration. The two as a drainage system to equal- ture or soluble salts that inev- important qualities of mortar ize hydrostatic pressure within itably penetrate the wall and in are its ability to bond to the masonry. Nothing should turn cause further spalling. masonry and its internal be done to reduce its porosity Chemical deterioration can be strength. A sign of poorly and thereby block water flow slowed or stopped by adding a made mortar may be random to the exterior surface. damp proof course (or inject- cracking at the bond joint. Test: To determine the composition ing a damp proofing material) Until about the end of the 19th (percentage of lime and other materi- into the brick wall just above century, the standard mortar als) of existing mortar, remove a sam- the ground line. Consult a for masonry was a mixture of ple and have it chemically analyzed masonry specialist for this type sand and pure lime or lime- by a testing laboratory. This should be of repair. possolan-sand. These low done under the supervision of a qualified structural engineer. strength mortars gave masonry 4.4 the ability to absorb consider- � Deterioration of brick able strain. Accordingly, the masonry units. The spalling, Masonry Foundations tendency to crack was reduced dusting, or flaking of brick and Piers and when cracks did appear in masonry units may be due to Inspect stone, brick, concrete, or the mortar joints, they were to either mechanical or chemical concrete block foundations for a great extent capable of chem- damage. Mechanical damage is signs of the following problems ical reconstitution or “self heal- caused by moisture entering (this may require some digging ing.” Thus, the age of the the brick and freezing, result- around the foundation): building may be a good clue in ing in spalling of the brick’s evaluating its mortar problems. outer layers. Spalling may con- � Problems associated with dif- Older mortar (or mortar of any tinue or may stop of its own ferential settlement. Uneven age that uses hydrated lime) accord after the outer layers (differential) settlement can be will be softer and may require that trapped the interior mois- a major structural problem in pointing, but otherwise may be ture have broken off. Chemical small residential buildings, responsible for a sound wall. damage is due to the leaching although serious settlement Most often, mortar deterio- of chemicals from the ground problems are relatively uncom- ration is found in areas of ex- into the brick, resulting in mon. Many signs of masonry cessive moisture, such as near internal deterioration. External distress are incorrectly diag- leaking downspouts, below signs of such deterioration are nosed as settlement-related windows, and at tops of walls. a dusting or flaking of the when in fact they are due to In such cases the remedy is to brick. moisture and thermal redirect the water flow and Very little can be done to movements. point the joints. Pointing correct existing mechanical Indications of differential should be performed with mor- and chemical damage except to settlement are vertical distor- tar of a composition similar to replace the brick. Mechanical tion or cracking of masonry or compatible with the original deterioration can be slowed or walls, warped interior and exte- mortar. The use of high stopped by directing water rior openings, sloped floors, strength mortar to point mor- away from the masonry sur- and sticking doors and win- tar of a lower strength can do face and by pointing mortar dows. Settlement most often serious damage to the masonry joints to slow water entry into occurs early in the life of a since the pointing can’t “flex” the wall. Surface sealants building or when there is a with or act in a similar way to (damp proofing coatings) are dramatic change in underground conditions. Often such Residential Inspection 45

settlement is associated with improper foundation design, particularly inadequate footers and foundation walls. Other causes of settlement are: � soil consolidation under the footings � soil shrinkage due to the loss of moisture to nearby trees or large plants � soil swelling due to inadequate or blocked surface or house drainage � soil heaving due to frost or excessive root growth � gradual downward drift of clay soils on slopes � changes in water table level � soil erosion around footers from poor surface drainage, faulty drains, leaking water mains or other underground water movements (occasionally, underground water may scour away earth along only one side of a footer, causing its rotation and the subsequent buckling or displacement of the foundation wall above) � soil compaction or movement due to vibration from heavy equipment, vehicular This pier has been overstressed by movement of the porch and column. The entire assembly traffic, or blasting, or from should be rebuilt. ground tremors (earthquakes).

Gradual differential settlement the other, depending on the cracks that are especially over a long period of time may direction and location of settle- prevalent in concrete block) produce no masonry cracking ment below the wall. Cracking may extend through contigu- at all, particularly in walls with is most likely to occur at cor- ous building elements such as older and softer bricks and ners and adjacent to openings, floor slabs, masonry walls high lime mortars; the wall will and usually follows a rough above the foundation, and inte- elastically deform instead. diagonal along mortar joints rior plaster work. Tapering More rapid settlements, how- (although individual masonry cracks, or cracks that are near- ever, produce cracks that units may be split). Settlement ly vertical and whose edges do taper, being largest at one end cracks (as opposed to the not line up, may occur at the and diminishing to a hairline at similar-appearing shrinkage joints of projecting bay 46 Residential Inspection

windows, porches, and additions. These cracks indicate differential settlement due to inadequate foundations or piers under the projecting element. Often settlement slows a short time after construction and a point of equilibrium is reached in which movement no longer occurs. Minor settlement cracking is structurally harmful only if long-term moisture leakage through the cracks adversely affects building elements. Large differential settlements, particularly between foundation walls and The effect of soil pressure on foundation walls interior columns or piers, are more serious because they will cause movements in contigu- ous structural elements such projecting building elements tilting the pier, and in structur- as beams, joists, floors, and such as bay windows, porches, al movement above it similar roofs that must be evaluated and additions. In some cases to that caused by settlement or for loss of bearing and, occa- they support the entire struc- rotation of the footing. Such a sionally, fracture. ture. Piers often settle differen- condition is most common Should strengthening of the tially and over a long period of under porches. foundation be required, it can time (particularly when they � Physical deterioration of the be accomplished by the addi- are exposed to the weather) pier due to exposure, poor tion of new structural ele- they tend to deteriorate. Com- construction, or overstressing. ments, such as pilasters, or by mon problems are: Above-ground piers exposed to pressure-injecting concrete � Settlement or rotation of the weather are subject to epoxy grout into the founda- the pier footing, which causes freeze-thaw cycles and subse- tion wall. If movement contin- a lowering or tilting of the pier quent physical damage. Piers ues and cracking is extensive, and subsequent loss of bearing for many older residential it is possible that the problem capacity. Wood frame struc- structures are often of poorly can only be rectified by under- tures adjust to this condition constructed masonry that dete- pinning. Older buildings with by flexing and redistributing riorates over the years. A sign severe settlement problems their loads or by sagging (see of overstressing of piers is ver- may be very costly to repair. Section 4.7). Masonry walls tical cracking or bulging. Seek the advice of a structural located over settled piers will � Loss of bearing of beams, or soils engineer in such cases. crack. joists, or floors due to the Problems associated with � Frost heaving of the footing above conditions or due to masonry piers. Masonry piers or pier, a condition caused by movements of the structure are often used to support the lack of an adequate footing itself. internal loads on small resi- or one of insufficient depth. Piers should be examined dential buildings or to support This will result in raising or for plumbness, signs of Residential Inspection 47

results in patterns of cracking similar to that caused by differential settlement: tapering cracks that widen as they move diagonally upward. These cracks usually form during the building’s first year, and in existing buildings will appear as “old” cracks and exhibit no further movement. Although such cracks are often mistaken for settlement cracks, shrinkage cracks usually occur in the middle one-third of the wall and the footer beneath them remains intact. Shrinkage cracking is rarely serious, and in an older building may have How backfilling can affect foundation walls been repaired previously. If the wall is unsound, its structural integrity sometimes can be restored by pressure-injecting concrete epoxy grout into the cracks or by adding pilasters. � Sweeping or horizontal cracking of the foundation walls. The sweeping or horizontal cracking of brick or concrete block foundation walls may be caused by improper backfilling, vibration from the movement of heavy equipment or vehicles close to the wall, or by the swelling or freezing and heaving of water saturated soils adjacent to the wall. Like drying shrinkage, sweeping or hor- How horizontal cracks relate to foundation wall movement izontal cracking may have occurred during the original construction and been compen- settlement, condition, and their case), piers can be supplement- sated for at that time. Such ed by the addition of adjacent adequacy in accepting bearing distress, however, is potentially supports. loads. Check their width to serious as it indicates that the height ratio, which should not � Cracking associated with dry- vertical supporting member exceed 1:10. Those that are ing shrinkage in concrete (the foundation wall) that is deficient should be repaired or block foundation walls. The carrying a portion of the struc- replaced. When appearance is shrinkage of concrete block ture above is “bent” or not a factor (as is often the walls as they dry in place often 48 Residential Inspection

“broken.” It may be possible to cracking at the corners of long tend to follow openings push the wall back into place walls, walls with abrupt upward. by careful jacking, and then changes in cross section (such � Cracks around stone sills reinforcing it with the addition as at a row of windows), walls or lintels caused by the expan- of interior buttresses or by with abrupt turns or jogs, and sion of the masonry against pressure-injecting concrete in transitions from one- to two- both ends of a tight-fitting epoxy grout into the wall. If story walls. These are the weak stone piece that cannot be outside ground conditions points that have the least c o m p r e s s e d . allow, the wall can be relieved capacity for stress. Common of some lateral pressure by moisture and thermal move- Cracks associated with thermal lowering the ground level ment cracking includes: and moisture movement often present only cosmetic prob- around the building. When � Horizontal or diagonal lems. After their cause has expansive soils are suspected cracks near the ground at been determined, they should as the cause of the cracking, piers in long walls due to hori- be repaired with a flexible examine the exterior for zontal shearing stresses sealant, since filling such cyclic sources of water such as bro- between the upper wall and the cracks with mortar will simply ken leaders or poor surface wall where it enters the cause the masonry to crack in drainage. Suspect frost heaving ground. The upper wall can another location. Cracks if the damage is above local thermally expand but its move- should be examined by a struc- frost depth or if it occurred ment at ground level is moder- tural engineer and may require during an especially cold ated by earth temperatures. the installation of expansion p e r i o d . Such cracks extend across the joints. piers from one opening to an- � Brick wall cracking associated 4.5 other along the line of least resistance. This condition is nor- with freeze-thaw cycles and Above-Ground mally found only in walls of corrosion. Brick walls often ex- Masonry Walls substantial length. hibit distress due to the expansion of freezing water or the � Vertical cracks near the end Inspect above-ground stone, rusting of embedded metals. walls due to thermal move- brick, or concrete block walls for Such distress includes: ment. A contracting wall does signs of the following problems: not have the tensile strength to � Cracking around sills, � Brick wall cracking associated pull its end walls with it as it cornices, eaves, chimneys, with thermal and moisture moves inward, causing it or the parapets, and other elements movement. Above-ground end walls to crack vertically subject to water penetration, brick walls expand in warm where they meet. which is usually due to the weather (particularly if facing migration of water into the � Vertical cracks in short off - south or west) and contract in masonry. The water expands sets and setbacks caused by cool weather. This builds up upon freezing, breaking the the thermal expansion of the stresses in the walls that may bond between the mortar and longer walls that are adjacent cause a variety of cracking pat- the masonry and eventually to them. The shorter walls terns, depending on the config- displacing the masonry itself. are “bent” by this thermal uration of the wall and the The path of the water through movement and crack vertically. number and location of open- the wall is indicated by the pat- ings. Such cracks are normally � Vertical cracks near the top tern of deterioration. and ends of the facade due to cyclical and will open and close � Cracking around iron or the thermal movement of the with the season. They will grow steel lintels, which is caused by wall. This may indicate poorly wider in cold weather and nar- the expansive force of rower in hot weather. Look for bonded masonry. Cracks will Residential Inspection 49

Despite the loss of masonry, this arch is intact and can be repaired with matching bricks.

corrosion that builds up on the surface of the metal. This exerts great pressure on the surrounding masonry and dis- places it, since corroded iron can expand to many times its original thickness. Structural iron and steel concealed within the masonry, if exposed to moisture, can also corrode, and cause cracking and displacement of its masonry cover. Rust stains usually indicate that corrosion is the cause of the problem. Check to make sure the joint between the masonry and the steel lintel Walls that extend above ceiling joists that supports the masonry over an opening is clear and 50 Residential Inspection

open. If the joint has been joining in an inverted “V” which is fairly uncommon, but sealed, the sealant or mortar above the opening’s midpoint. may be caused by a point load should be removed. Correcting such problems usu- (often added during an alter- ally means replacing failed ation) bearing on a wall of These conditions usually can components and rebuilding the insufficient thickness. If the be corrected by repairing or area above the opening. member has been concealed, replacing corroded metal com- Occasionally masonry arches such a problem will be difficult ponents and by repairing and fail because the walls that sur- to investigate. The addition of pointing the masonry. Where round them cannot provide an interior wall supports or brac- cracking is severe, portions of adequate counterthrust to the ing, however, may correct the the wall may have to be recon- arch action. This sometimes source of the problem by structed. Cracks should be happens on windows that are relieving the load. examined by a structural too close to the corners of a e n g i n e e r . � Cracking due to ground wall or bay. In such cases, the tremors from nearby con - Wall cracking or displacement masonry arch pushes the struction, heavy vehicular associated with the structural unbraced wall outward, caus- traffic, or earthquakes, which failure of building elements. ing it to crack above the open- is roughly vertical in direction Structure-related problems, ing near or just above the and occurs more toward the aside from those caused by dif- spring of the arch. When this center of the building. Build- ferential settlement or earth- occurs, the end walls must be ings exhibiting such cracking quakes, are usually found over strengthened. should be treated on a case-by- openings and (less commonly) � Cracking or outward dis - case basis, since serious struc- under roof eaves or in areas of placement under the eaves of tural damage has possibly structural overloading. Such a pitched roof due to failure in taken place. Consult a struc- problems include: the horizontal roof ties that tural engineer experienced in � Cracking or displacement results in the roof spreading such matters. of masonry over openings, outward. The lateral thrust of � Bulging of walls. Masonry resulting from the deflection the roof on the masonry wall walls sometimes show signs of or failure of the lintels or may cause it to crack horizon- bulging as they age. A wall arches that span the openings. tally just below the eaves or to itself may bulge, or the bulge In older masonry walls with move outward with the roof. may only be in the outer withe. wood lintels, cracking will The roof will probably be leak- Bulging often takes place so occur as the wood sags or ing as well. When this occurs, slowly that the masonry decays. Iron and steel lintels examine the roof structure doesn’t crack, and therefore it also cause cracking as they carefully to ascertain whether may go unnoticed over a long deflect over time. Concrete and there is a tying failure. If so, period of time. The bulging of stone lintels occasionally bow additional horizontal ties or the whole wall is usually due and sometimes crack. tension members will have to to thermal or moisture expan- Masonry arches of brick or be added and, if possible, the sion of the wall’s outer surface, stone may crack or fail when roof pulled back into place. or to contraction of the inner there is wall movement or when The damaged masonry can withe. This expansion is not their mortar joints deteriorate. then be repaired. The weight completely reversible because When such lintel deflections also can be transferred to inte- once the wall and its associat- or arch failures occur, the rior walls. Jacking of the ridge ed structural components are masonry above may be sup- and rafters is possible too. “pushed” out of place, they can porting itself and will exhibit � Cracking due to overload - rarely be completely “pulled” step cracks beginning at the ing (or interior movement), back to their original positions. edges of the opening and Residential Inspection 51

The effects of the cyclical expansion of the wall are cum- ulative, and after many years the wall will show a detectable bulge. Inside the building, separation cracks will occur on the inside face of the wall at floors, walls, and ceilings. Bulging of only the outer masonry withe is usually due to the same gradual process of thermal or moisture expansion: masonry debris accumulates behind the bulge and prevents the course from returning to its original position. In very old buildings, small wall bulges may result from the decay and collapse of an internal wood The V3 rule for wall stability lintel or wood-bonding course, which can cause the inner course to settle and the outer course to bulge outward. When wall bulges occur in solid masonry walls, the walls may be insufficiently tied to the structure or their mortar may have lost its bond strength. Large bulges must be tied back to the structure; the star-shaped anchors on the exterior of masonry walls of many older buildings are exam- ples of such ties (check with local building ordinances on their use). Small bulges in the outer masonry course often can be pinned to the inner course or dismantled and rebuilt. Leaning of walls. Masonry walls that lean (invariably outward) represent a serious, but uncommon, condition that is usually caused by poor design A bowed brick veneer wall and construction practices, particularly inadequate 52 Residential Inspection

A deteriorated parapet wall that badly needs repointing. Fortunately, the wall has not yet exhibited serious movement, but it will if left unrepaired.

structural tying or poor foun- When large areas or whole � Cracks caused by wood dation work. When tilting or walls lean, rebuilding the wall, frame shrinkage, which are leaning occurs, it is often asso- and possibly the foundation, most likely to be found around ciated with parapets and other may be the only answer. fixed openings where the inde- upper wall areas, especially Test: A wall is usually considered pendent movement of the those with heavy masonry cor- unsafe if it leans to such an extent veneer wall is restrained. These nices cantilevered from the that a plumb line passing through its cracks are also formed early in wall. Leaning can produce sep- center of gravity does not fall inside the life of the building and can aration cracking on the end the middle one-third of its base be repaired by pointing. walls and cracking on the inte- (called the V3 rule). In such an event, � Bulging, which is caused by rior wall face along floors, consult a structural engineer. inadequate or deteriorated ties walls, and ceilings. Leaning � Problems associated with between the brick and the wall walls can sometimes be tied brick veneer walls. Brick to which it is held. back to the structure and veneer walls are subject to the � Vertical cracking at corners thereby restrained. In such forces of differential settle- or horizontal cracking near cases, the bearing and connec- ment, moisture- and thermal- the ground caused by thermal tions of interior beams, joists, related cracking, and the movement of the wall, which floors, and roof should be effects of freezing and corro- is similar to that in solid examined. sion. Common problems pecu- masonry or masonry cavity liar to brick veneer walls are: walls, but possibly more Residential Inspection 53

pronounced in well-insulated � Random vertical cracking effects. See also Appendix A, buildings because of the near the center of the wall Effects of Fire on Structural reduction in the moderating due to thermal contraction. Systems. effect from interior tempera- � Deterioration of parapet tures. Thermal cracks are masonry due to excessive 4.6 cyclic and should be filled with water penetration through a flexible sealant. Where there inadequate coping or flashing, Chimneys is severe cracking, expansion if any, which when followed by Chimneys, like parapets, have joints may have to be installed. freeze-thaw cycles causes greater exposure to the weather Problems associated with masonry spalling and mortar than most building elements, and parapet walls. Parapet walls deterioration. have no lateral support from the often exhibit signs of distress Carefully examine all parapet point where they emerge from the and deterioration due to their walls. Check their coping and roof. Common problems are: full exposure to the weather, flashing for watertightness and � Differential settlement of the the splashing of water from overall integrity. In some cases, chimney caused by an inade- the roof, differential move- structurally unsound parapets quate foundation. If the chim- ment, the lack of restraint by can be stabilized and their ney is part of an exterior wall, vertical loads or horizontal moisture and thermal move- it will tend to lean away from bracing, and the lack of ade- ments brought under control the wall and crack where it is quate expansion joints. Typical by the addition of expansion joined to other masonry. In parapet problems include: joints. In other cases, the wall some cases, the chimney can � Horizontal cracking at the may require extensive repair or be tied to the building. Consult roof line due to differential rebuilding. All repairs should a structural engineer. thermal movement between include adequate expansion � Deterioration of masonry near the roof line and the wall joints. the top due to a deteriorated below, which is exposed to � Fire damage to brick masonry cap that allows water into the moderating interior tempera- walls. Masonry walls exposed masonry below and exposes it tures. The parapet may eventu- to fire will resist damage in to freeze-thaw cycles. This cap ally lose all bond except that proportion to their thickness. is often made of a tapered due to friction and its own Examine the texture and color layer of mortar, called a weight and may be pushed out of the masonry units and cement wash, that cracks and by ice formation on the roof. probe their mortar. If they are breaks after several years. � Bowing due to thermal and intact and their basic color is Check the cap. If it is mortar moisture expansion when the unchanged, they can be consid- and the chimney has a hood, parapet is restrained from ered serviceable. If they under- repair the mortar. If it is mor- lengthwise expansion by end go a color change, consult a tar and the chimney does not walls or adjacent buildings. qualified structural engineer have a hood, replace the mor- The wall will usually bow out- for further appraisal. Hollow tar with a stone or concrete ward since that is the direction masonry units should be exam- cap. If the cap is stone or con- of least resistance. ined for internal cracking, crete, repair it or replace it. � Overhanging the end walls where possible, by cutting into Also see Section 2.9. when the parapet is not re- the wall. Such units may need � Leaning of the chimney where strained on its ends. The prob- replacement if seriously dam- it projects above the roof due lem is often the most severe aged. Masonry walls plastered to deteriorated mortar joints when one end is restrained and on the fire side may have been caused either by wind-induced the other is not. sufficiently protected and will swaying of the chimney or by have suffered few, if any, ill 54 Residential Inspection

sulfate attack from flue gases and particulates within the chimney when the chimney is not protected by a tight flue liner. Deteriorated mortar joints should be pointed, and unstable chimneys or those with a noticeable lean should be dismantled and rebuilt. Chimney-mounted antennas should be removed if they appear to be causing structural distress.

4.7 Wood Structural Components Wood structural components in small residential buildings are often directly observable only in attics, crawl spaces, or basements. Elsewhere they are concealed by floor, wall, and ceiling materials. Common signs of wood structural problems are sloping or springy floors, wall and ceiling cracks, wall bulges, and sticking doors and windows, although many such problems may be attributable to differential settlement of the foundation or problems with exterior masonry bearing walls (see Sections 4.4 and 4.5).

When failures in wood structural components occur, they usually involve individual wood members and rarely result in the failure of the entire structure. Instead, an elastic adjustment takes place that redistributes stresses to other components in the building. A deteriorated chimney cap. Mortar, rather than concrete, is often improperly used (as it was The four types of problems com- here) to cap the chimney. The masonry below will eventually deteriorate unless the cap is monly associated with such com- replaced. ponents in small residential Residential Inspection 55

buildings are 1) deflection and warping, 2) fungal and insect attack, 3) fire, and 4) connection failure and improper alteration. Inspect for these problems as follows: � Deflection, warping, and associated problems. Some deflection of wood structural components or assemblies is common in older buildings and normally can be tolerated, unless it causes loss of bearing or otherwise weakens connections or it opens watertight joints in roofs or other critical locations. Deflection can be Some reasons for column settling arrested by the addition of supplemental supports or strengthening members. Once permanently deflected, however, a wood structural component cannot be straightened. Warping of individual wood components almost always takes place early in the life of a building. It will usually cause only superficial damage, although connections may be loosened and occasionally there may be a loss of bearing. Look for the following problems associated with wood structural components: � Loss of bearing in beams and joists over foundation walls, piers, or columns due to movements caused by long- term deflection of the wood beams or joists, differential movements of the foundation elements, localized crushing, The sagging floor is caused by settlement of a basement support. It may be possible to jack or wood decay. Check the bear- the floor and its adjacent wall into a level position, but this should be done slowly and ing and connections of all carefully. exposed structural elements that are in contact with the foundation and look for 56 Residential Inspection

symptoms of bearing failure � Floor sagging near stairway of roofing material, failure of where these elements are con- openings due to gradual de- fire retardant plywood roof cealed, such as bowing or slop- flection of the unsupported sheathing, inadequate bracing, ing in the floor above, and floor framing. This is a com- or undersized rafters. Some- cracking or tilting of founda- mon problem in older houses times three or more layers of tion walls, piers, and columns. and usually does not present a shingles are applied to a roof, � Sagging, sloping, or spring - structural problem. Correction, greatly increasing its dead ing of floors due to foundation if desired, will be difficult load. Or, when an attic story settlement, excessive spans, since the whole structural as- has been made into a habitable cut or drilled structural ele- sembly surrounding the stair space or otherwise altered, col- ments, overloading, or removal has deformed. Look for signs lar beams or knee walls may of supporting walls or columns that a supporting wall below have been removed. A number on the floor above or below. the opening has been removed. of factors, such as increases in Each case must be diagnosed Where this has occurred, struc- snow and wind loads, poor separately. In older buildings, tural modification or the addi- structural design, and con- columns or walls that helped tion of a supporting column struction errors result in support or stabilize the floor may be required. undersized rafters. Check for above may have been removed � Floor sagging beneath door all these conditions. during a previous alteration; jambs resulting from improper � Failure of Fire Retardant conversely, partitions, bath- support below the jamb. This Plywood (FRP) used at party rooms, kitchens, or similar can be a structural concern. If walls between dwelling units in remodelings may have been needed, additional bracing can some townhouses, row houses, placed on a floor not designed be added between the joists and multiple dwellings is not to support such additional where the sag occurs, but with uncommon. Premature failure loads. Depending on the cir- some difficulty if above a fin- of the material is due to exces- cumstances, sagging, sloping, ished ceiling. sive heat in the attic space. On or springing floors may be any- � Cracking in interior walls the exterior, sagging of the thing from an annoyance to an around openings, which may roof adjacent to a party wall indication of a potentially seri- be caused by inadequate, often is evident. On the interior, ous structural problem. Check deflected, or warped framing check for darkening of the ply- below the floor for adequate around the openings; differen- wood surface, similar to char- supports and bearing and for tial settlement; or on the interi- ring, as an indication of failure sound connections between or of masonry load-bearing that requires replacement of structural elements. Look for walls, by problems in the exte- the FRP with a product of com- signs of supporting walls that rior masonry wall. Cracking parable fire resistance and have been removed, missing due to framing problems is structural strength. joist hangars, and for inappro- usually not serious, although it � Spreading of the roof down - priate cuts or holes in joists may be a cosmetic concern ward and outward due to for plumbing, electric, or HVAC that can be corrected only by inadequate tying. This is an lines or ducts. Also look for breaking into the wall. See uncommon but potentially seri- signs of insect or fungal attack. Sections 4.4 and 4.5 for crack- ous structural problem. Look Test: Roll a marble or similar heavy ing caused by differential for missing collar beams, inad- round object over suspect floor areas settlement or masonry wall equate tying of rafters and ceil- to determine the direction and degree p r o b l e m s . ing joists at the eaves, or inad- of slope, if any.A carpenter’s level � Sagging in sloped roofs equate tying of ceiling joists also can be used. For large or com- resulting from too many layers that act as tension members plex areas, a transit or laser level is from one side of the roof to more appropriate. Residential Inspection 57

the other. Altered trusses can also cause this problem. Check trusses for cut, failed, or removed members, and for fasteners that have failed, been completely removed, or partially disconnected. Spreading can be halted by adequate bracing or tying, but there may be damage to masonry walls below the eaves (see Section 4.5). It is possible that the roof can be jacked back to its proper position. Consult a structural engineer. � Deflection of flat roofs due to too great a span, overloading, or improper support of joists beneath the roof. This is a common problem and is usually of no great concern unless it results in leaking and subsequent damage to the structure, or unless it causes water to pond on the roof, thereby creating unacceptable dead loads. In both cases, the roof will have to be strengthened or releveled. Fungal and insect attack. The moisture content of properly protected wood structural A common location of fungal and insect infestation is where wood door frames touch concrete components in buildings usual- or earth at grade. ly does not exceed 10 to 15 percent, which is well below holes, signs of tunneling, soft pieces. See Appendix B, Wood In- the 25 to 30 percent required or discolored wood, small piles habiting Organisms, for more detailed to promote decay by the fungi of sawdust or “frass,” and i n f o r m a t i o n . that cause rot or to promote related signs of infestation. attack by many of the insects Exterior building areas or that feed on or inhabit wood. Test: Probe all suspect wood with a components that should be Dry wood will never decay. sharp instrument and check its mois- checked are: Inspect all structural and ture content with a moisture meter. � Places where wood is in Wood with a meter reading of more non-structural wood compo- contact with the ground, such than 20 to 25 percent should be thor- nents for signs of fungus and as wood pilings, porch and oughly examined for rot or infesta- insect infestation, including deck supports, porch lattices, tion. Sound wood will separate in wood stains, fungi, termite long fibrous splinters, but decayed wood steps, adjacent fences, shelter tubes, entry or exit wood will lift up in short irregular and nearby wood piles. 58 Residential Inspection

� Foundation walls that might components after the source of embedment due to distortion harbor shelter tubes, including the problem has been correct- of truss members. Also check tubes in the cracks on wall ed. Damage is rarely severe glue laminated timber beams surfaces. enough to seriously affect the for delamination where there is � Frames and sills around structural stability of a build- evidence of moisture. Where basement or lower level ing, although individual possible, examine truss, rafter, window and door frames, and members may be badly deterio- and joist hangers for corrosion the base of frames around rated. Consult an exterminator and proper nailing. garage doors. when evidence of insect attack Buildings are often altered is found. incrementally by the addition � Wood framing adjacent to of pipes and ducts when unfin- slab-on-grade porches or � Fire-damaged wood. When ished spaces, such as base- patios. exposed to fire, wood first “browns,” then “blackens,” ments and attics, are made � Wood near or in contact then ignites and begins to char habitable or when kitchens and with roofs, drains, window at a steady rate. The charred bathrooms are remodeled. Ob- wells, or other areas exposed portion of the wood loses its serve joists, rafters, and beams to periodic wetting from rain structural strength, but the for holes cut through them, or lawn sprinklers, etc. clear wood beneath does not, especially for any size cutouts Interior areas or components unless it undergoes prolonged at or near their top or bottom. to be checked for rot or infes- heating. Observe wood trusses for cuts tation are: The remaining strength of through chords and webs of � Spaces around or within wood exposed to fire can be open web trusses and webs and interior foundation walls and determined by removing the flanges of plywood trusses. floors, crawl spaces, piers, char and estimating the size columns, or pipes that might and strength of the new cross 4.8 harbor shelter tubes, including section. Damaged structural cavities or cracks. members may be reinforced by Iron and Steel � The sill plate that covers the bolting additional structural Structural Components foundation wall, and joists, members in a configuration Metal structural components used beams, and other wood compo- that restores their original de- in small residential buildings are nents in contact with it. sign strength. Consult a struc- usually limited to beams and pipe tural engineer before repairing � Wood frame basement columns in basements, angles major structural beams or gird- partitions. over small masonry openings, and ers. See also Appendix A, � Baseboard trim in slab-on- beams over long spans elsewhere Effects of Fire on Structural grade buildings. in the structure. These compo- Systems. � nents are almost always made of Subflooring and joists below � Connection failure and steel, although in buildings erect- kitchen, bathroom, and laundry improper alteration. Open-web areas. ed before 1890 to 1900 they may wood trusses are commonly be of cast or wrought iron. While � Roof sheathing and framing used in small residential build- cast iron is weaker in tension in the attic around chimneys, ings as roof and floor struc- than steel, when found in small vents, and other openings. tures. Those trusses with wood buildings it is rarely of insuffi- chords and wood webs usually Damage to wood from fungal cient strength unless it is deterio- use metal plate connectors. or insect attack usually can be rated or damaged. Where there is evidence of repaired at a reasonable cost moisture, examine connectors Problems with iron and steel by replacing or adding supple- structural components usually mental support to affected for corrosion and for loss of Residential Inspection 59

This fire-damaged wood should be carefully probed to determine the extent of charring. In this case, the wood was replaced. center on corrosion. Inspect them as follows: � Lintels and other embedded metal components in exterior masonry walls can corrode and in time become severely weakened themselves. Rain and snow often contain carbonic, sulfuric, nitric, or hydrochloric acid that lowers the pH of rain water, thereby accelerating corrosion. Check all embedded iron and steel to determine its condition. Make sure lintels have adequate bearing. Corrosion can also displace surrounding masonry; see Section 4.5. Joist notching and drilling criteria � Columns should be checked for adequate connections at 60 Residential Inspection

their base and top, and for corrosion at their base if they rest at ground level. Eccentric (off- center) loading or noticeable tilting of columns should be remedied. � Beams should be checked for bearing, adequate connections to the structure, and deflection. Bearing can be significantly reduced on pilasters, piers, or columns in differentially settled buildings; inspect such conditions carefully (see Section 4.4). Beams in small residential buildings rarely deflect. If deflection is found, however, the cause should be determined and supplemental supports or plates should be added to correct the problem. � Fire damage to iron and steel structural components should be carefully inspected. Iron and steel rapidly lose their load-bearing capacity when exposed to fire and will undergo considerable expansion and distortion. In general, a structural iron or steel member that remains in place with negligible or minor distortions to its web, flanges, or end connections should be considered serviceable. Sagging or bent members, or those with a loss in bearing capacity should be replaced or reinforced with supplemental plates. Test: When the quality or composition of an iron or steel structural component is in doubt, a small sample of the metal (called a “coupon”) may be removed from a structurally unimpor- tant location and sent to a testing laboratory for evaluation. The sample Failure of a concrete lintel and sill due to differential settlement of the building. Permanent should be tested in accordance with repairs will be quite expensive. Note the makeshift shoring of the lintel. Residential Inspection 61

ASTM E8, Standard Test Methods for the slab. If cracking is near and behavior are generally obvious Tension Testing of Metallic Materials, parallel to foundation walls, it and should be treated on a and ASTM E9, Standard Test Meth- may have been caused by the case-by-case basis. Cracks can ods of Compression Testing of Metallic movement of the walls or foot- be sealed by injecting concrete Materials at Room Tem p e r a t u r e . Such ers (see Section 4.4). Cracking epoxy grout. Paints are avail- work should be performed under the can also result from soil swell- able to restore the appearance auspices of a structural engineer. ing beneath the slab, a condi- of finely cracked or crazed tion that may be caused by concrete surfaces. See also 4.9 water from clogged or broken Appendix A, Effects of Fire on basement or footer drains. Structural Systems. Concrete Structural Rarely is such cracking struc- Tests: Two specialized tests may Components turally harmful to the building. sometimes be useful for estimating Concrete is commonly used for � Cracking of exterior concrete the quality, uniformity, and compres- grade and below-grade level elements, such as porches, sive strength of in-situ concrete. The floors and for footings. It also patios, and stairs, is usually first is the Windsor Probe, a device that fires a hardened steel probe into may be used for foundations, due to heaving from frost or concrete. See ASTM C803, Standard beams, floors above grade, porch- nearby tree roots, freeze-thaw Test Method for Penetration Resis- es or patios built on grade, exteri- cycles, settlement, or a combi- nation of these conditions. It is tance of Hardened Concrete. The or stairs and stoops, sills, and second test is the Schmidt Hammer, compounded by the use of occasionally as a precast or which measures the rebound of a deicing salts. Such cracking poured-in-place lintel or beam hardened steel hammer dropped on rarely presents a structural over masonry openings. Concrete concrete. See ASTM C805, Standard structural components are rein- problem to the building, but is Test Method for Rebound Number of forced. Welded steel wire mesh is often a practical problem that Hardened Concrete. used in floors at and below grade, can best be remedied by For additional information about patios built on grade, walks and replacing the concrete and pro- inspecting and repairing concrete, drives, and short-span, light-load viding the new work with more consult the following publications lintels. All other concrete struc- stable support. Cracks in exist- tural components usually are ing concrete elements that are from the American Concrete reinforced with steel bars. not seriously deteriorated may Institute: ACI 201.1R, Guide for be cyclical and can be filled Making a Condition Survey of Inspect for the following: with a flexible sealant. Concrete in Service; ACI 364.1R, Guide for Evaluation of Concrete � Cracking at corners or open- � Fire damage to concrete struc- Structures Prior to Rehabilitation; ings in concrete foundations tural components should be and ACI 546.1R, Concrete Repair below masonry exterior walls thoroughly evaluated. Concrete Guide. due to drying shrinkage of con- heated in a building fire will crete walls that are prevented lose some compressive from contracting by the mass strength, although when its of the masonry above. This temperature does not exceed cracking will occur early in the 550 ºF (290 ºC) most of its life of the building. Minor strength eventually will be cracks can be filled with mor- recovered. If the concrete sur- tar and major cracks with con- face is intact, it can usually be crete epoxy grout. assumed to be in adequate � Cracking of interior slabs on condition. Superficial cracking grade is usually due to shrink- can be ignored. Major cracks age or minor settlement below that could influence structural 62 Residential Inspection

When universal design is a part of � Electric meter. Check that the 5 a rehabilitation, consult HUD pub- electric meter and its base are Electrical System lication Residential Remodeling weatherproof, and that the and Universal Design for detailed meter is functional, has not Electrical systems for small resi- information about electrical been tampered with, and is dential buildings are usually sim- devices. securely fastened. Advise the ple in concept and layout. utility company of any prob- Assess the capacity of the build- Primary components are the ser- lems with the meter. ing’s existing electrical service in vice entry, panelboard, and accordance with Figure 5.1. � Seismic vulnerability. If the branch circuits. In unaltered building is in a seismic zone, buildings built since about 1940, The safety standards for the fol- check the electrical service for the electrical system is likely to lowing assessment procedures are vulnerability to differential be intact and safe, although it generally based on the require- movement between the exteri- may not provide the capacity ments of the National Electrical or and interior. Look for required for the planned reuse of Code. flexible connections. the building. Electrical capacity � Service entrance conductor. can be easily increased by bring- Ensure that the service en- ing additional capacity in from 5.1 trance conductor has no the street and adding a larger Service Entry splices and that its insulation panelboard between the service Inspect for the following condi- is completely intact. If the entry and the existing panel. tions in the electrical service main panelboard is located Existing circuits can continue to between the street and the main inside the building, the con- use the existing panel and new panelboard: ductor’s passage through the circuits can be fed through the wall should be sealed against new panel. � Overhead wires. Check that overhead wires from the street moisture. Where aluminum The electrical systems of small are no lower than 10 feet conductors are used, their ter- residential buildings built prior above the ground, not in con- minations at all service equip- to about 1940 may require over- tact with tree branches or ment should be cleaned with haul or replacement, depending other obstacles, and not reach- an oxide inhibitor and tight- on rehabilitation plans and the able from nearby windows or ened by an electrician or condition of the electrical system. other accessible areas. Make replaced with equal capacity Parts of these older systems may sure that the wires are securely copper conductors. When it is function very adequately and attached to the building with necessary to replace an over- they can often be retained if the insulated anchors, and have head service entry, have it rehabilitation is not extensive drip loops where they enter the replaced with an underground and the load-carrying capacity is weatherhead. Spliced connec- service entry. a d e q u a t e . tions at the service entrance � Type of power available. Not A thorough and informed assess- should be well wrapped, and every jurisdiction provides the ment of the electrical system will bare wires from the street same kind of electrical power. determine the extent to which it should be replaced by the utili- Philadelphia, for example, has can be reused. This assessment ty company. Wires should not two-phase electrical power in should be conducted only by a be located over swimming some locations rather than the qualified electrician who is expe- pools. more common single-phase. rienced in residential electrical Check with the power company work. to determine the characteristics of the power available. Residential Inspection 63

5.2 Main Panelboard Figure 5.1 (Service Equipment) Assessing Electrical Service Capacity The main panelboard is the distri- (Ampacity) bution center for electric service within the building and protects To determine the capacity (measured in amperes) of the the house wiring from overloads. building’s existing electrical service at the main panel- Inspect the panelboard as follows: board, check the following: � Condition and location. Check � The ampacity of the service entry conductor, which may the overall condition of the be determined by noting the markings (if any) on the panelboard. Water marks or conductor cable and finding its rated ampacity in the rust on a panel mounted inside National Electrical Code, Table 310-16, or applicable the building may indicate water local code. If the service entry conductor is in conduit, infiltration along the path of look for markings on the conductor wires as they the service entrance conductor. emerge from the conduit into the panelboard. If all con- Panelboards mounted outdoors ductors are unmarked, have an electrician evaluate should be watertight and tam- them. per proof. Panels mounted � The ampere rating on the panelboard or service discon- indoors should be located as nect switch, as listed on the manufacturer’s data plate. closely as possible to where � The ampere rating marked on the main circuit breaker the service entrance conductor or main building fuse(s). This rating should never be enters the building and should higher than the above two ratings; if it is, the system be easily accessible. The panel- should not be used until it is evaluated by an electrician. board should have a workable and secure cover. The building’s service capacity is the lowest of the above three figures. Once the service ampacity has been deter- � Amperage rating. The amper- mined, compare it to the estimated ampacity the building age rating of the main discon- will require after rehabilitation. If the estimated ampacity nect should not be higher than exceeds the existing ampacity, the building’s electrical ser- the amperage capacity of the vice will need upgrading. The method for estimating service entrance conductor or required ampacity is found in the National Electrical Code, the panelboard. If the rating is Article 220. higher (indicating unapproved work has been done), more Similarly, the service capacity of each branch circuit can be branch circuits may be con- determined by checking the markings on each branch cir- n e c t e d to it than the service en- cuit conductor. If no markings can be found, a plastic wire trance conductor is capable of gauge may be used to measure the wire size (with the supplying. This is a serious haz- power disconnected), although an experienced person can ard and should be corrected. often determine the size by eye. Find the ampere rating of � Voltage rating. The voltage the conductor, either by its markings or wire size, in the rating of the panelboard (as National Electrical Code, Table 310-16, or applicable local marked on the manufacturer’s code. data plate) should match the voltage of the incoming electrical service. 64 Residential Inspection

Test: The actual voltage rating of the incoming electrical service can be checked with a voltmeter. This test should be performed by an electrician. Usually three service conductors indicates 120/240 volt current, and two conductors indicates 120 volt current. � Grounding. Verify that the panelboard is properly grounded. Its grounding conductor should run to an exterior grounding electrode or be clamped to the metal water service inlet pipe between the exterior wall and the water meter. If it is attached on the house side of the meter, the meter should be jumpered to ensure proper electrical continuity to the earth. Make sure that the ground conductor is securely and properly clamped to the pipe—often it is not, and occasionally it is disconnected altogether. Ensure also that the grounding conductor is not attached to a natural gas pipe, to an inactive pipe that may be cut off on the exterior side of the wall, or to a pipe that is connected to a plastic water service entry line. If the grounding conductor is attached to an exterior grounding electrode driven into the earth, verify that the electrode is installed in accordance with local code. Many older buildings will have the ground connected to the Typical electrical service entry and main panelboard for a single family residence. This type of grounding applies only if the water pipe is metal. If the water pipe is plastic, a separate driven cold water pipe. If this is the ground rod is required. case and the building needs to conform to the current code, an alternate ground is required. Residential Inspection 65

Typical service equipment

Test: An electrical ground (resis- service, which is normally sup- starting current. Look near the tance-to-ground) test may be used to plied by #10 copper wire. If panelboard for an inordinate determine whether the electrical sys- there is an electric range, it number of new or blown fuses, tem is well grounded to the earth. would require a 40 or 50 amp or breakers taped in the “on” The test requires the use of an ohm- service with #6 copper wire. position. Be suspicious of 20 or meter and should be performed by Central air conditioning equip- 25 amp fuses on household an electrician. ment will have an overcurrent lighting circuits. These are � Overcurrent protection. Check protection requirement on the signs of frequent overloads the rating of the fuse or circuit nameplate. Aluminum wire and inadequate electrical ser- breaker for each branch circuit. must be one size larger than vice. Other indications of over- The amperage of the fuse or copper wire in each case (e.g., loading are the odor of burned circuit breaker should not #14 to #12), but it should not insulation, evidence of melted exceed the capacity of the be used for 15 and 20 amp insulation, discolored copper wiring in the branch circuit it circuits. See Figure 5.1 for contact points in the fuse hold- protects. Most household cir- determining wire size. ers, and warm fuses or circuit cuits use #14 copper wire, Make sure that no circuit breakers. which should have 15 amp has a fuse or circuit breaker Test: Flip all circuit breakers on and protection. There may be one with a higher ampere rating off manually to make sure they are in or more circuits with #12 cop- than its wiring is designed to good operating condition. A commer- per wire, which should have 20 carry. Air conditioners and cially available circuit breaker and amp protection. Large appli- other equipment with motors resistance tester, which can simulate ances, such as electric water may have circuit breakers up an overload condition, can be used to heaters and central air condi- to 175 percent ampacity of the test each breaker. Such a test should tioners, may require 30 amp conductor rating to allow for be performed by an electrician. Note 66 Residential Inspection

This knob and tube wiring is in good condition except for a piece of broken insulation (top of photograph).

that this test is not recommended for 5.3 tube wiring splices are mechani- computers, VCRs, clocks, and many cally twisted, soldered, and taped, similar devices. Branch Circuits as required. Knob and tube wiring Many older residential build- The oldest types of residential should be replaced during reha- ings have more than one panel- wiring systems are seldom bilitation; but if it is properly board or fused devices. Check encountered today. They include installed, needs no modification, that all supplementary overcur- open wires on metal cleats, wiring has adequate capacity, is properly rent devices are located in laid directly in plaster, and wiring grounded, has no failed insula- metal boxes and that they are in wooden molding. These sys- tion, and is otherwise in good not in the vicinity of easily tems proved quite hazardous. The condition, it can be an acceptable ignitable materials. All panel- oldest wiring system that may wiring system and is still legal in boards must have covers. It still be acceptable, and one still many localities. Check with local should be possible to turn off found fairly often in houses built building code officials. Also check all electrical power to a before 1930, is “knob and tube.” the terms and conditions of the dwelling from a single location. This system utilizes porcelain home insurance policy in force to insulators (knobs) for running see if knob and tube wiring is wires through unobstructed excluded. The greatest problem spaces, and porcelain tubes for with such wiring is its insulation, running wires through building which turns dry and brittle with components such as studs and age and often falls off on contact, joists. Note whether knob and leaving the wire exposed. Residential Inspection 67

or on the directory on the panelboard. � Connected loads. Trace branch circuit conductors to determine that their connected load does not exceed their rating (e.g., a 30 amp clothes dryer connected to a 20 amp circuit). Generally speaking, each dwelling unit should have two to four 15 amp circuits for lighting and convenience outlets; two 20 amp circuits for appliances in the kitchen, din- ing, and laundry areas; and separate circuits of appropriate ampacity for large appliances such as dryers, ranges, dispos- als, dishwashers, and water heaters. See Section 3.4 for additional kitchen electrical service information. Check the size and length of all branch The armored cable and junction box are in good condition and can be reused, even if circuit wiring against the the lighting fixture is relocated. requirements of the local electrical code. Buildings built before 1980 may be considered Insulation that can be seen to � AC (armored cable), also called to have an inadequate number have failed also will likely have BX, a flexible metal-covered of circuits because present day failed where wiring is concealed. cable. codes require a separate laun- If any failed insulation is � MC (metal-clad cable), a flexi- dry circuit and a separate cir- observed, the knob and tube ble metal-covered cable with a cuit for the bathroom recepta- wiring should be replaced. green insulated ground cle. For air conditioning units, Other approved wire types conductor. many local codes will allow one include: � EMT (electrical metallic tub- wire size smaller than called for in the disconnect. � NM (non-metallic) cable, often ing), also called “thinwall,” a called by the trade name metal conduit through which Test: A voltmeter may be used to “Romex,” a plastic covered- the wires are run in areas measure voltage drop due to exces- cable for use in dry locations where maximum protection is sive branch circuit length, poor wiring (older NM cable may be cloth required. connections, or undersized wire. Measurements must be made under covered). Check branch circuits for the a connected load. This test should be � NMC, similar to NM but rated following: performed by an electrician. for damp locations. � Marking. The function of each � Grounding. It is best that all � UF (underground feeder), a branch circuit should be clearly circuits be grounded to the plastic-covered waterproof and legibly marked at its dis- panelboard, but this was not cable for use underground. connect, fuse, circuit breaker, required by the National 68 Residential Inspection

Electrical Code prior to 1965. circuits should read at least one should be corrected. Alum- Do not assume that circuits in megohm to ground. If lights or appli- inum wire should not be used metal cable are grounded with- ances are connected to the circuit, on 15 and 20 amp circuits. out testing each outlet. A l s o , readings should be at least 500,000 Whenever possible, aluminum do not assume that three- ohms. This test should be performed wire and its devices should be by an electrician. A visual inspection prong plug convenience out- replaced with copper wire and of insulation on accessible circuits lets are connected to ground. devices appropriate for copper. will usually determine whether addi- Remove each one to observe If aluminum wiring is not tional tests should be performed by the presence of a connected an electrician. replaced, it must be frequently ground wire. Check to see inspected and maintained. whether GFI (ground fault Look for unprotected wire runs � Smoke Detectors. Check to see interruption) type receptacles through ducts and other inap- if buildings have functioning have been installed in laun- propriate areas. Inspect for evi- smoke detectors. Detectors dries, kitchens, and bath- dence of “handyman tamper- should be wired to a power rooms, and test their opera- ing” (e.g., unconventional source, and also should con- tion. These types of recepta- splices), and if found in one tain a battery. Most likely, cles were not required before location, expect it to be more buildings built before 1970 will 1990, but are easily installed widespread. Check for surface- not have detectors, but they as replacements. mounted lamp cord extension should be added. wiring. It is dangerous and Test: Commercially available circuit analyzers can be used for checking must be removed. It is best to the following circuit conditions: open remove all unused wiring or ground, open hot, open neutral, wiring that will be abandoned hot/ground reversed, hot/neutral during rehabilitation work to reversed. Operation of these avoid future confusion or analyzers varies by manufacturer. misuse. Condition and safety. Check � Aluminum wire. Aluminum that all wire types and equip- wire was used in residential ment are installed properly in buildings primarily during accordance with good practice. the 1960s and early 1970s. Check the conductors’ expo- Inspect with local code require- sure to possible damage or ments in mind. Be sure that abrasion. Look for proper fas- aluminum wire is attached only tening, clearance, and frayed or to approved devices (marked damaged insulation. Make cer- “CO-ALR” or “ICU-AL”) or to tain that all wire splices are approved connectors. Problems made in work boxes and that with aluminum wiring occur at all boxes for splices and connections, so feel all cover switches have cover plates. plates for heat, smell for a dis- Check all exterior receptacles tinctive odor in the vicinity of to make sure they are of the outlets and switches, and look waterproof type. for sparks and arcing in switches or outlets and for Test: A megohm test may be used for flickering lights. Also check for detecting deteriorated insulation. It requires a Megger tester and oper- the presence of an oxide inhib- ates at high voltage. With the electri- itor on all aluminum wire con- cal service disconnected, branch nections. All such conditions Residential Inspection 69

� House service main. The the building and two shutoff 6 house service main begins at valves, one on the street side Plumbing System the curb valve and ends at the and one on the house side. If a inside wall of the building at valve appears corroded or A thorough assessment of the the master shutoff valve. The damaged, have a plumber plumbing system will determine main is normally laid in a check to see that it is operable the extent to which it, like the straight run between the two and not frozen into the open electrical system, can be reused. and its location can thereby be position. The shutoff valve Older piping in particular may traced. Codes require that the should include a bleed valve require replacement, but other main be at least 10 feet (3 m) for draining the building’s inte- parts of the system may function away from the sanitary sewer rior distribution piping. very adequately and can be or located on a plane one foot � Water meter. The water meter retained if rehabilitation is not above it. Mains made of galva- is normally the property of the extensive. Also see Sections 3.3 nized steel last about 20 to 30 municipal water company and and 3.4 for additional plumbing years under normal soil and may be located near the street, information. water conditions, although adjacent to the house, or with- If the plumbing system appears joints may leak sooner. If the in the house. Check the meter to be functioning properly after building is approaching or connections and supports, and checking, consider the effects of more than 40 years old, con- inspect for adjacent plumbing sider replacing the main. additional loads that may be constrictions that may reduce imposed on the system by any Test: Leaks in the main can be the building’s water pressure. rehabilitation that might be detected by inspecting for unex- If the water meter is located planned for the building. plained sources of ground water over inside the house, look for two the path of the main or by listening shutoff valves, one on the Assess the capacity of the build- with a stethoscope for underground street side and one on the ing’s existing plumbing system in water flow. Stop all water flow inside house side of the meter. accordance with Figure 6.1. the building before using this device. � Seismic vulnerability. If the If the water meter is located near the building is in seismic zones 3 street, leaks in the service main can 6.1 also be detected by turning off all or 4 (California and portions of Water Service Entry water in the building and watching the Alaska, Arkansas, Hawaii, Ida- meter to see whether it continues to ho, Missouri, Montana, Nevada, Inspect the following water ser- register a water flow. Oregon, Utah, Wyoming, and vice components: Washington), check the water Check the main where it enters � Curb valve (also known as the service for vulnerability to dif- the building; older lines are some- curb cock or curb stop). The ferential movement where the times made of lead. curb valve is located at the piping enters the building. junction of the public water Test: If a lead main is found, have the Look for adequate clearance. main and the house service water analyzed and replace the piping main, usually near the street. if lead content exceeds 50 parts per Locate it and check its accessi- billion (0.05 ppm). bility and condition. The curb � Master shutoff valve. A mas- valve is usually the responsi- ter shutoff valve should be bility of the municipal water located where the house ser- department. vice main enters the building. If the water meter is located inside the building, look for another water meter outside of 70 Residential Inspection

Figure 6.1 Test: The capacity of the interior water distribution piping should be checked by run- Assessing Water Supply Capacity ning the water in all the fixtures in a fixture The minimum size of the water service entry should group (such as a bathroom) and observ- be approximately as follows: ing whether water flow is adequate. Wat e r flow can be more precisely tested at each Number of Size of galvanized Size of type K fixture by using a water pressure gauge to dwelling steel pipe copper pipe determine the fixture’s pressure in psi, or units served (NPS/DN) (NPS/DN) by clocking the time it takes to fill a gallon 1 1 to 1-1/4 inch 3/4 to 1 inch jug from each fixture (e.g., a kitchen sink (25 to 32 mm) (20 to 25 mm) faucet should be able to fill a gallon jug in 24 seconds; that is, 60 seconds divided 2 1-1/4 to 1-1/2 inch 1 to 1-1/4 inch by 2.5 gpm). (32 to 40 mm) (25 to 32 mm) 3, 4 1-1/2 to 2 inch 1 to 1-1/4 inch If the service entry is correctly sized but (40 to 50 mm) (25 to 32 mm) water flow is low throughout the building, the problem will either be the juris- The following minimums should generally apply to diction’s water pressure or it will be fixture supply pipes within the building (these are somewhere between the building inlet code minimums; 15 psi [103 kPa] at each fixture is and the first fixtures on the line. Check preferable to the lower figures listed here): for external restrictions in the supply main, such as undersized piping (particularly around the water meter), partially Minimum Minimum Minimum closed valves, or kinks in the piping. If pipe size flow rate flow there are no apparent external restric- (NPS/DN) pressure tions, the piping is probably clogged by Kitchen sink 1/2" (15 mm) 2.5 gpm 8 psi rust and/or mineral deposits and should (9.5 L/min) (55 kPa) be replaced. If water flow is low in only one set of fixtures, examine the fixture Lavatory 3/8" (10 mm) 2.0 gpm 8 psi risers in a like manner and inspect (7.5 L/min) (55 kPa) plumbing fixtures for flow restrictors, Shower 1/2" (15 mm) 3.0 gpm 8 psi clogged aerators, or malfunctioning (11.5 L/min) (55 kPa) faucets. If water flow is lower in hot water faucets than cold, suspect prob- Bathtub 1/2" (15 mm) 4.0 gpm 8 psi lems with the water heater or, more (15 L/min) (55 kPa) likely, buildup of rust and mineral Toilet 3/8" (10 mm) 3.0 gpm 8 psi deposits in the supply lines, since this (11.5 L/min) (55 kPa) buildup occurs faster in hot water. Dishwasher 1/2" (15 mm) 2.75 gpm 8 psi If new fixtures are to be added to the (10.5 L/min) (55 kPa) distribution system, have a plumber determine whether the existing piping Laundry 1/2" (15 mm) 4.0 gpm 8 psi can carry the additional load by check- (15 L/min) (55 kPa) ing the size and condition of the piping Hose bib 1/2" (15 mm) 2.5 gpm 8 psi and calculating the water demands of (9.5 L/min) (55 kPa) the fixture(s) to be added. Residential Inspection 71

6.2 Test: To check water flow, run several Most supply mains can be plumbing fixtures at once and inspected from the basement Interior Water Distribution observe the flow rate at the smallest or from crawl spaces, but the spout. Rusty water indicates that gal- All piping, regardless of composi- fixture risers are usually con- vanized steel is present somewhere tion, should be checked for wet cealed within walls and cannot in the line or, if it only appears from spots, discoloration, pitting, min- be readily examined. The two the hot water side, that there is rust in most important factors in eral deposits, and leaking or dete- the water heater. riorated fittings. Fixture risers assessing distribution piping tend to remain in better condition Inspect the following water distri- are the piping’s material and than supply mains, so their in- bution components: age. spection is not as critical. The � Distribution piping. Distri- Test: Pressure test any piping water flow from all fixtures bution piping consists of sup- suspected of having leaks. should be checked. ply mains and fixture risers.

Typical water distribution system schematic for a single-family residence 72 Residential Inspection

Galvanized pipe sections removed from an older house. Mineral deposits and corrosion within the pipe had severely reduced water flow to the plumbing fixtures.

� Galvanized steel piping is piping clogged with rust and openings will evaporate before subject to rusting and accumu- mineral deposits. During reha- dripping and leave whitish lating more mineral deposits bilitation, if galvanized steel mineral deposits. Whitish than most other piping materi- piping is exposed, consider deposits may also form around als. Depending on the quality replacing it. threaded joints, usually the of the pipe and its joints and � Brass piping is of two vari- most vulnerable part of a brass the mineral content of the eties, yellow and red. Red is piping system. Brass piping water it carries, the service life more common and has the with such signs of deteriora- of galvanized steel piping is longer service life—up to 70 or tion should be replaced. anywhere from 20 to 50 years. more years. The service life of � Copper piping came into Rusted fittings and rust-col- yellow brass is about 40 years. widespread use in most parts ored water, particularly from Old brass piping is subject to of the country in the 1930s hot water lines, are signs of pinhole leaking due to pitting and has a normal service life of advanced deterioration. Low caused by the chemical 50 or more years. Copper lines rates of flow and low water removal of its zinc content by and joints are highly durable pressure are likely to be minerals in the water. Often, and usually not subject to clog- caused by galvanized steel water leaking from the pinhole ging by mineral deposits. Such Residential Inspection 73 piping need not be replaced � Mixed metal piping that is a 6.3 unless there are obvious signs mixture of galvanized steel and of deterioration, leakage, or copper or brass piping is a Drain, Waste, and restriction of water flow. Leak- sign of potential trouble and Vent Piping age usually occurs near joints should be closely inspected for Determine drain, waste, and vent and at supports. corrosion due to galvanic (DWV) capacity as described in action. Where pipes of dissimi- � Plastic piping (ABS, PE, PB, Figure 6.2. Inspect the DWV pip- lar metals are connected, be PVC, and CPVC) is a relatively ing as follows: new plumbing material and, if certain a dielectric coupling � Fixture traps. Fixture traps are properly installed, supported, separates them. Also, metal generally U-shaped and de- and protected from sunlight pipes and dissimilar metal sup- signed to hold a water seal that and mechanical damage, should ports need to be separated to blocks the entry of sewer last indefinitely. However, there avoid corrosion. Check connec- gasses through the fixture are several class action lawsuits tions to plumbing and HVAC drain. Check all fixture drains pending at this time concerning equipment, such as water for evidence of water seal loss; polybutylene pipe and fittings heaters and boilers, to be cer- such drains usually emit the used inside and outside build- tain that pipes and connections odor of sewer gas. The water ings. Funds resulting from are the same metal or, if of dif- seal in water closets can be these suits are controlled by ferent metals, that a dielectric visually verified, while other local jurisdictions. Check with coupling separates them. No fixtures can be checked with a local authorities or consumer separation is needed between dipstick. advocate groups for details. metal and plastic pipe. Some codes restrict the use of � Thermal protection. Examine Test: Refill any empty traps and dis- plastic piping. Consult the local all water distribution lines for charge their fixtures to determine building official. exposure to freezing condi- whether the water seal was lost due to a plumbing malfunction or through Some newer buildings use a tions and look for signs of pre- evaporation due to lack of use. If, manifold off the water main to vious water damage from burst after operation, the traps are again distribute cold water and a joints or piping. Determine “pulled,” the problem is caused either manifold off the water heater to whether the piping remains by self-siphonage because of distribute hot water. From the exposed to freezing and improper plumbing design, obstruc- manifold, flexible plastic pipes whether any planned rehabili- tions in the venting system, or the are snaked through floors and tation work will block the mod- lack of a vent. In this case, first check walls to each plumbing fixture. erating effects of the building’s for the presence of S-traps under the Check manifolds closely for interior temperature from any fixture, which may cause the self- signs of corrosion and leaks. part of the piping. Consider siphonage and are no longer allowed When testing water flow, all the the costs and benefits of insu- by plumbing codes. If S-traps are not fixtures off a manifold should lating hot water lines during present, thoroughly check the venting be run at the same time. the building’s rehabilitation. system. Even if all plumbing fixtures are to be replaced, this assessment � Lead piping may be found in process should be performed to very old structures and may reveal problems in the overall system. pose a health hazard to building occupants. � Vents. Vents equalize the atmospheric pressure within Test: If lead piping is found, have the the waste drainage system to water analyzed for lead content and prevent siphoning or “blowing” replace the piping if lead content exceeds 50 parts per billion of the water seals in the build- (0.05 ppm). ing’s fixture traps. Vents 74 Residential Inspection

should be unobstructed and open high enough above the roof to prevent snow closure. Vents that terminate outside an exterior wall or terminate near a building opening (such as a dormer window) are pro- hibited by building codes, although under certain conditions they may be acceptable. Check vent lines for damage caused by building movement or settlement or by the sagging of individual building components. Test: Discharge several fixtures simultaneously while observing fixture traps; water movement greater than one inch in the trap indicates inadequate or obstructed venting that must be corrected. Also, fill a sink, lavatory, or tub with water and listen to the fixture drain. If a gurgling sound is heard, it usually indicates a venting problem.

Typical DWV piping schematic for a single-family residence

Figure 6.2 Assessing DWV Capacity The installed capacity of an existing DWV system can be estimated by measuring the size of each DWV stack and, using the local plumbing code, finding the allowable number of fixtures that can drain into it. This is a relatively simple process.

An S-trap that can cause self-siphonage and loss of the water seal. All such traps should be replaced. Residential Inspection 75

Drain lines. Drain lines direct waste water from the fixture trap through the building to Figure 6.3 the sewer. Because the waste Assessing Hot Water Heater Capacity drainage system operates by gravity, drain lines must be of Water heater capacity is determined by the heater’s storage adequate size and slope to capacity and its recovery rate, or the time it takes to reheat function properly. Minimum the water in its tank. Recovery rates vary with the type of slope should be 1/8 inch per fuel used. Generally, gas- or oil-fired heaters have a high foot (1:00) Cleanouts should be recovery rate and electric heaters have a low recovery rate. located near the juncture of all Low recovery rates can be compensated for by the provision main vertical drain pipes that of larger storage capacity. enter the building drain. Check Water heaters are sized according to the number of people - for low spots on long horizon living in the house and the type of heat source used: tal runs caused by inadequate support, and for damage or distress caused by building set- Gas tlement or movement. Check 30 gallon (115 L) 3 to 4 people also for drains with pipes of dissimilar metals that are not 40 gallon (150 L) 4 to 5 people separated by a dielectric cou- 50 gallon (190 L) 5 and more people pling to prevent corrosion. Metal pipes with dissimilar metal supports need to be sep- Electric arated to avoid corrosion. 40 to 42 gallon (115 to 160 L) 3 to 4 people Test: Test the waste drainage system 50 to 52 gallon (190 to 200 L) 4 to 5 people by discharging several fixtures simul - taneously. Look for “boiling” or back- 65 gallon (250 L) 5 and more people up in the lowest fixture in the building. This indicates a clogged or malfunc- Oil tioning main building drain between the building and the public sewer. 30 gallon (115 L) any number of people Most often such a problem is caused A qualified plumber or mechanical engineer should deter- by tree roots that have clogged the mine the size of replacement units based on rehabilitation line. plans. Test: Oil of peppermint or smoke can be used to check the hydraulic If a spa or whirlpool bath is in the house and the water is integrity of DWV systems by inserting heated by either gas or electricity, an additional capacity of either substance in the system (the oil 10 gallons (40 L) is needed. through a roof vent, the smoke through a trap) and then checking throughout the structure for signs of a pungent odor or smoke. This test should be performed by a plumber. located inside the building by side the foundation wall. House trap. Some communities the foundation wall. It is Inspect the trap cleanout and require the installation of a U-shaped and requires a sepa- check to see that the vent is house trap on the building rate vent that terminates out- unobstructed from the outside. drain. This trap is usually 76 Residential Inspection

6.4 Tank Water Heaters Tank water heaters consist of a glass-lined or vitreous enamel- coated steel tank covered by an insulated sheet metal jacket. They are gas-fired, oil-fired, or electrically heated. � Gas-fired tank water heaters have an average life expectancy of about 11 to 13 years and a high recovery rate. � Oil-fired heaters have an average life similar to that of gas- fired heaters. Their recovery rate is also high. � Electric water heaters have a longer service life—about 14 years. They have a low recovery rate and thus require a larger storage tank.

Dates of tank manufacture are usually listed on the data plate (often in a simple 1995 code in the serial number; 0595, for instance, would mean manufac- tured in May 1995), and since water heaters are usually installed within several months of manufacture, the age of the tank often can be approximated. Plan to replace a tank near the end of its life expectancy. Assess water heater capacity in accordance with Figure 6.3. Inspect tank water heaters as follows: � Plumbing components. Check that the hot and cold water lines are connected to the proper fittings on the tank; often they are reversed, causing a loss of fuel efficiency. There should be a shutoff valve on the cold water supply This water heater tank had a threaded plug where its temperature-pressure relief valve should line. Heavy mineral or rust have been, an unsafe condition that should be corrected immediately. Residential Inspection 77

deposits around the tank fit- the floor. Leaking tanks cannot tank (it should not be on the tings are usually a sign that usually be repaired and, there- cold water line), and for a dis- the tank is nearing the end of fore, must be replaced entirely. charge pipe that extends from its service life. Heavy rusting of the tank inte- the valve to a few inches from Test: If the tank’s age or general con- rior indicates that the tank the floor or to a floor drain or dition cannot be determined from should be replaced, although the building exterior, depend- observation, consider having a the presence of some sediment ing on local code requirements. plumber drain some water from the and rust is normal. The tank Test: If necessary, the pressure relief tank and inspect for sediment and should be drained regularly to valve can be tested by pressing the rust. remove this normal amount of test lever, but since it may stick open, sediment and rust. Check for do not perform this test without hav- Check for signs of leakage on the existence of a tempera- ing a replacement valve available and the bottom of the tank, such as ture/pressure relief valve on the necessary tools for replacement. rust or water stains on or near top of the tank or on the hot fuel burning components or on water line leading from the

The soot that has accumulated below the draft hood of this water heater indicates a severely clogged flue or chimney, or more commonly, backdrafting caused by insufficient make-up air. 78 Residential Inspection

Fuel-burning components. On 6.5 Test. Turn on the hot water in two or gas- and oil-fired tank water more plumbing fixtures to check the heaters, check the flue for Tankless Coil water flow. If it is low, suspect a upward pitch (1/4 inch per Water Heaters buildup of mineral deposits within the foot [1:50] minimum with no coil. Such deposits can often be (Instantaneous flushed from the coil by a plumber. flat spots), tightness of the fittings, and overall condition Water Heaters) � Controls. Inspect the function- and integrity. A clogged flue or Tankless coil water heaters con- ing of the aquastat (device that chimney will deposit soot on sist of small diameter pipes activates the boiler when heat top of the tank under the draft coiled inside of or in a separate is needed for producing hot hood. On oil-fired water casing adjacent to a hot water or water). heaters, check for a barometric steam boiler. They are designed Test: Run hot water until the damper in the flue and verify for a specific rate of water flow, boiler fires. Boiler water temperature that it moves freely. usually three to four gallons per should not drop below 180 ºF (82 ºC) Test: Check that the burners have an minute. Since demand for domes- on the water gauge; if it does, the adequate supply of combustion air by tic hot water can easily exceed aquastat needs adjustment. this flow, such heaters often have using a draft gauge or match to test Check for the presence of a the draft. an associated storage tank to pressure relief valve on the hot satisfy periods of high demand. Inspect the ignition compo- water side of the coil or on the Thus the recovery rate of a tank- nents and look for clogged auxiliary storage tank. The less coil water heater is instanta- valve should be connected to a burners and signs of flashback, neous for low demand and will discharge pipe that extends to such as soot on the heater near vary for high demand depending a few inches from the floor, or the burner. The fuel burning on the size of the storage tank, if components can be repaired or the building’s exterior, depend- any. The life expectancy of a tank- replaced, but consider the cost- ing on local code requirements. less coil water heater is limited effectiveness of such repairs in only by the possible long-term Test: The relief valve should be - terms of the expected remain deterioration of its coils and by tested by pressing the test lever, but ing service life of the water the service life of the boiler to as it may stick in the open position, heater. which it is attached. Since the the test should not be performed without having a replacement valve Seismic vulnerability. If the boiler must operate through the available and the necessary tools for building is in seismic zones 3 summer in order for the water r e p l a c e m e n t . or 4 (California and portions of heater to function, such water Alaska, Arkansas, Hawaii, heaters are usually considered Idaho, Missouri, Montana, inefficient. 6.6 Nevada, Oregon, Utah, Wyo- Check tankless coil water heaters ming, and Washington), check Water Wells as follows: the water heater for the pres- and Equipment ence of seismic bracing to the � Plumbing components. Inspect Assess well capacity as described floor or other structural the plumbing connections and in Figure 6.4. Check water wells member. joints around the heater mounting plate for rust, water and equipment as follows: stains, and mineral deposits. � Location and water quality. Tighten the mounting plate Wells that supply drinking and repair the connections if water should be located uphill required. from the building supplied and from any storm or sanitary sewer system piping. Codes Residential Inspection 79

usually require that the well be a minimum of 50 feet (15 m) from a septic tank and 100 Figure 6.4 feet (30 m) from any part of Assessing Well Capacity the absorption field; however, A water well serving a single-family residence should be local codes may have different capable of sustaining at least a 4-gallon-per-minute flow separation distances based on (a 5- to 7-gpm [19 to 26 L/min] flow is preferable) with a the percolation rates of the peak flow capacity of 12 gpm (45 L/min). local soils. Well water can be more corrosive than city water Test: To check the well’s capacity, run water simultaneously from sev- and may contain radon. eral faucets for 30 minutes or more. Note pressure fluctuations, if any. Near the end of the test, look for mud or cloudiness in the water; this Test: Water should be analyzed for indicates that the well has insufficient capacity for normal use. the presence of bacterial contamina- tion, for its mineral content, and for Wells serving more than one residence should have propor- the presence of radon. The local tionately larger capacities. A more exacting capacity test can health department normally will probe performed by a well specialist. vide such an analysis. There should be no measurable coliforms. Depth and casing. Most localities now require wells to be extend from the top of the pressure within a predeter- more than 50 feet (15 m) in casing. The life expectancy of mined 20 psi (140 kPa) range depth and encased in a steel, deep well pumps is 10 years (usually 20 to 40 psi [140 to wrought iron, or plastic pipe. or longer, depending on the 275 kPa], 30 to 50 psi [205 to The casing should extend sev- type. Submersible pumps are 345 kPa], or 40 to 60 psi [275 eral inches above its surround- usually the most long lasting to 415 kPa]). ing concrete cover, which and trouble free. Check that should slope away from and Test: Check the pressure tank and pump and plumbing compo- completely protect the casing. switch by running the water and see- nents at the well are protected The casing should be tightly ing whether the pump activates at the from freezing. sealed where the pump and lower pressure limit and stops at the power lines enter it and pro- � Pressure tank and switch. A upper pressure limit. If pressure slow- tected from flooding and other tank under low air pressure (a ly goes down in the tank without water being drawn from the system, threats to its sanitary integrity. hydropneumatic tank) should be located in either the well the tank or some other part of the Pumps. Two kinds of deep well house or the building’s base- system is leaking, and the problem pumps are in common use, the should be found and corrected. ment. This tank regulates jet pump and the submersible water pressure and flow; when pump. A jet pump is mounted Pressure tanks and switches air pressure is lost (as air is above the well casing, and two have an average life expectancy absorbed in the water over pipes should extend into it; if of 5 to 10 years, but may last time), the tank becomes water- there is only one pipe leading much longer. Check the tank logged and causes the pump to into the casing, the well is less for the presence of a pressure be activated every time water than 25 feet deep and may not relief valve. is used. Look for this condi- meet code. Submersible pumps tion; it can be remedied by are located at the bottom of pumping air back into the the well casing (submerged) tank. Newer tanks contain an and a single discharge pipe air bag. A pressure switch on and an electrical supply cable the tank keeps the water 80 Residential Inspection

6.7 Septic Systems Figure 6.5 Assess septic system capacity as Assessing Septic Capacity described in Figure 6.5. Check Plumbing codes normally require the following septic tank septic systems as follows: capacities (check the local code for exact requirements): � Location and layout. Septic systems should be located downhill from the building. No Single-family, Multi-family, Capacity storm water should be directed number of bedrooms one bedroom each into the septic system, as this 1 to 2 -- 750 gallons can flood it and force solids (2840 L) into the absorption field, thereby destroying the field. Suffi- 3 -- 1000 gallons cient room should exist on the (3785 L) property to relocate the ab- 4 2 units 1200 gallons sorption field, which has an (4545 L) average life expectancy of 20 5 to 6 3 units 1500 gallons to 30 years under proper use. (5680 L) Do everything possible to de- 4 units 2000 gallons termine the layout of the exist- (7570 L) ing septic system, as the absorption field should not be disturbed by new construction The capacity of the septic system’s absorption field depends and vehicular traffic, or cov- on its layout and on the percolation qualities of the sur- ered by fill. The field often can rounding soil. be located by the presence of Test: The absorption field’s capacity should be checked by running greener vegetation in dry sum- water into several plumbing fixtures for 30 to 60 minutes and observ- mer weather or by melting ing the trap in the lowest building fixture. If the water in the trap snow in winter. “boils,” backs up, or makes a gurgling sound, the absorption field is � Septic tank. The septic tank clogged or inadequately sized. In either case, it will probably have to should be watertight and, for a be replaced. See a local septic system specialist to determine single-family house, have a replacement needs. It is very difficult to test septic systems where the minimum capacity of 1000 gal- house has been vacant for 30 days or more. lons (3800 L). If properly main- Other signs of a clogged absorption field are the presence of tained, it should have been dark green vegetation over the leaching beds throughout the pumped every several years. growing season (caused by nutrient-laden wastes being Ask to see the tank’s pumping pushed up through the soil), wet or soggy areas in the field, records. Lack of periodic or distinct sewage odors. These signs all indicate the proba- pumping will cause solids to ble need to replace the absorption field. be carried into the absorption field, clogging the leaching beds and shortening their useful life. � Absorption field. The absorp- loads without clogging or over- vice records for the system. If tion field should be adequately flowing. Try to locate the origi- the company that serviced the sized to handle its service nal design information and ser- installation can be identified, Residential Inspection 81

additional work is needed. A qualified plumber or mechanical engineer should determine the capacity of the system based on the renovation plans. � Grease trap. Some houses have grease traps in the septic system to prevent grease from getting into and clogging the absorption field. This trap should be inspected for grease buildup. Test: To check whether runoff on the site is coming from the absorption field, put dye capsules in the waste water and return later to check the color of any runoff.

6.8 Gas Supply Example of a typical septic system layout with a detail of the absorption field piping in Seismic Regions Inspect the following features of the gas service: � Service entrance. If the building is in seismic zones 3 or 4 (California and portions of Alaska, Arkansas, Hawaii, Idaho, Missouri, Montana, Nevada, Oregon, Utah, Wyo- ming, and Washington), check the gas service for vulnerability to differential movement where the piping enters the building. Look for adequate clearance or for flexible connections. � Emergency shutoff. If the building is in seismic zone 4 (portions of Alaska and Cali- Cross section of a typical two-compartment septic tank fornia, and small parts of Ida- ho, Montana, and Wyoming), look for an automatic emer- check with that company about is being considered, verifying gency shutoff valve for the the system’s condition. If a the system’s existing capacity entire house. renovation that adds bedrooms is critical to determining what 82 Residential Inspection

and Universal Design for detailed Newer thermostats have a mer- 7 information about HVAC controls. cury switch in lieu of electrical contacts. Plan to replace worn HVAC System HVAC systems have used asbestos- or defective thermostats. bearing insulation on piping, ducts, Most HVAC (heating, ventilating, There may be more than and equipment, and may have air conditioning) systems in small one thermostat in each living lead-based paint on piping and residential buildings are relatively unit. Sometimes two thermo- equipment such as radiators. When simple in design and operation. stats separately control the inspecting the HVAC system, pay They consist of four components: heating and cooling system, particular attention to the presence controls, fuel supply, heating or and sometimes the living unit of these hazardous materials. cooling unit, and distribution sys- is divided into zones, each tem. Each component must be Assess heating and cooling capac- with its own thermostat. evaluated for its physical and ity as described in Figure 7.1. Multi-family buildings with a functional condition and its ade- central HVAC system will be quacy in terms of the building’s divided into at least one zone planned reuse. The adequacy of 7.1 per living unit and buildings heating and cooling is often quite Thermostatic Controls with electric baseboard heat subjective and depends upon may have a thermostat in every Residential HVAC controls consist occupant perceptions that are room or on every heating unit. of one or more thermostats and a affected by the distribution of air, master switch for the heating or Test: Check the functioning of multi- the location of return air vents, cooling unit. Inspect them as zone systems by operating the HVAC air velocity, the sound of the sys- follows: system in all its modes and noting tem in operation, and similar whether distribution is adequate in � Thermostats. Thermostats are characteristics. For this reason, each zone (see also Sections 7.3 and past energy use should not be temperature-sensitive switches 7.4). Consider the zoning needs for used as the basis for estimating that automatically control the the planned rehabilitation of the build- future energy use. heating or cooling system. ing. Refer to the National Environ- They normally operate at 24 mental Balancing Bureau’s Proced- This chapter describes inspection volts. Thermostats should be ural Standards for Testing, Adjusting, procedures for oil- and gas-fired located in areas with average and Balancing of Environmental warm air, hot water, and steam temperature conditions and Systems or the Associated Air Bal- heating systems; electric resistance away from heat sources such ance Council’s MN-4, ABBC Test and heaters; chilled air and evaporative as windows, water pipes, or Balance Procedures. systems; humidifiers; unit air con- ducts. For a thermostat that � Master switch. Every gas- and ditioners; and attic fans. controls both heating and cool- oil-burning system should have When inspecting the HVAC sys- ing, a location near the return a master switch that serves as tem, look for equipment service air grille is ideal. an emergency shutoff for the records and read all equipment Test: Check each thermostat by burner. Master switches are data plates. Whenever possible, adjusting it to activate the HVAC usually located near the burner ask building occupants about the equipment. Then match the tempera- unit or, if there is a basement, HVAC system’s history of perfor- ture setting at which activation occurs near the top of the stairs. mance. Always try to observe with the room temperature as shown Cooling system controls also equipment in actual operation. on the thermostat’s thermometer. may include a master switch, which in the “off” position will When universal design is a part of Take off the thermostat cover not allow the compressor to a rehabilitation, consult HUD pub- and check for dust on the start, as well as a switch allow- lication Residential Remodeling spring coil and dirty or corroding only the circulating fan to ed electrical contact points. operate. Residential Inspection 83

Figure 7.1 in the overall assessment of the HVAC Assessing Heating system. � Design calculation. An HVAC system’s and Cooling Capacity capacity can be more accurately determined by noting its heating or cooling output (in tons or BTUs) from information on The capacity of an existing heating or cooling the manufacturer’s data plate and compar- system, as measured by its ability to heat or ing it to the building’s heating and cooling cool a specific building or space, can be loads. These loads can be calculated using determined in either of two ways: the Air Conditioning Contractors of � Field test. Properly sized heating and cool- America’s Manual J or similar load calcula- ing systems should operate at full capacity tion guide. at normal yearly outside temperature A rough estimate of a building’s extremes and should be slightly under- required heating equipment size in BTUs sized for unusual outside temperature per hour (BTUH) can be obtained by using extremes. It is rare, however, that they can the following formula: be checked under such conditions. BTUH = .33 x [square footage of building to be Test: Operate the heating system on the coolest heated] x [difference between outside and inside possible day and the cooling system on the design temperatures] warmest possible day (within the limitations of the inspection period). Note how “hard” the system is The factor of .33 in this formula is based on working to maintain the preset indoor temperature, R11 exterior walls, an R19 ceiling at the top as indicated by how often the system cycles on and floor or roof, and double-glazed windows. off, and compare this to outside temperatures. This A rough estimate of a building’s procedure, while inexact, may provide some idea of required cooling equipment size, in tons, the system’s potential capacity. can be made by dividing the floor area by When the system has a history of continu- 550 (each ton equals 12,000 BTUH). ous use, maintenance, and repair, it can be Tonnage is not an adequate measure of assumed to have sufficient capacity. cooling capacity in a dwelling of three or However, check with present or former more floors with the air handling unit building tenants on this matter. located on the lowest floor, with such a Of more concern is the fuel efficiency layout, the top floor can never be properly of the system. Ask the local utility cooled. company or fuel distributor for records of These estimates should be followed by a complete load calculation after rehabili- past fuel consumption and consider this tation needs are firmly established.

Test: Operate all master and emer- In hot water heating systems lating pump rather than the gency shut-off switches when the that also are used to generate burner (see Section 7.4). burner is in operation to see whether domestic hot water, the they deactivate the unit. thermostat controls the circu- 84 Residential Inspection

7.2 � Data plate and service Washington), check fuel- records. Locate the data plate burning equipment for the Fuel-Burning Units, on each unit and note its date presence of seismic bracing to General of manufacture, rated heating the structure. capacity in BTUs per hour, fuel Oil- or gas-fired furnaces and � Fuel supply. Gas supply lines requirements, and other opera- boilers provide heat to the major- should be made of black iron tional and safety information. ity of small residential buildings. or steel pipe (some jurisdic- Examine the service records of Such fuel-burning units, whether tions allow copper lines with oil-fired units. These should be they are part of a warm air or a brazed connections). Shutoff attached to the unit or avail- hot water system, should be valves should be easily accessi- able from the oil distributor or inspected as follows: ble and all piping well-support- company that last serviced the ed and protected. � Location, clearances, and fire unit. Oil tanks should be main- protection. Check that the unit � Seismic vulnerability. If the tained in accordance with local meets local fire safety regula- building is in seismic zones 3 code or the recommendations tions. No fuel-burning unit or 4 (California and portions of of the National Fire Protection should be located directly off Alaska, Arkansas, Hawaii, Ida- Association. All tanks must be sleeping areas or close to com- ho, Missouri, Montana, Nevada, vented to the outside and have bustible materials. Oregon, Utah, Wyoming, and an outside fill pipe. Buried

Record all pertinent information from the manufacturer’s data plates on HVAC equipment. It will be useful in assessing the equipment’s capacity later. Residential Inspection 85

tanks normally have a 550, settled to the bottom. Feel each side of the unit requiring 1000, or 1500 gallon (2080, along the undersides and service. Check the local code 3785, or 5680 L) capacity; probe the interiors for such for requirements. Also check basement tanks are usually leakage. Look for an oil level equipment manufacturer’s restricted to a 275 gallon (1040 gauge and see whether it guidelines for makeup air, L) capacity, with no more than works. Decide whether the especially where furnaces and two tanks allowed. Tanks must tanks should be replaced. See boilers are enclosed in a fin- be located at a minimum of also the information on buried ished basement or closet. A seven feet from the furnace oil tanks in Section 1.2. general rule is to provide one and should be adequately sup- Check the oil supply line to inch of free area across the ported and free of interior the furnace; it should be width of the door to the fur- rust. Outside tanks at grade equipped with a filter and pro- nace or boiler room or closet should have an adequate sup- tected from accidental damage for every 1000 BTUH (300 W) porting base. and rupture. of heating. The free area Oil tanks often begin to leak � Ventilation and access. Make needed should be divided: after about 20 years, when the sure the fuel-burning unit has roughly half at the bottom of bottom of the tank corrodes adequate combustion air and is the door and half at the top. A from moisture that has con- easily accessible for servicing grille can also be used in the densed inside the tank and with at least three feet clear on door. � Condition. Open all access panels and examine the external and internal condition of each unit. On hot air furnaces, look for signs of rust from basement dampness or flooding, and, if an air conditioning evaporator coil is located over the furnace, look for rust caused by condensate overflow. On hot water boilers, look for rust caused by dampness and by leaking water lines and fittings. If possible, check the condition of the interior refrac- tory lining on all oil-fired units. � Ignition and combustion. Observe the ignition and combustion process. Test: Step away from the unit while someone else turns up the thermostat. Look for a puffback in oil-fired units or flames licking under the cover plate of a gas-fired unit; both indicate potential hazards that must be corrected. If the unit doesn’t light, check the master switch or emergency Gas piping terminology 86 Residential Inspection

Look for signs of corrosion around and within oil storage tanks and check the operation of the oil level gauge. Use a dipstick to check for signs of condensation in the tank.

shutoff to make sure it’s on, press the of inefficient combustion. In oil-fired � Venting and draft. Check the reset button, and try again. If it still units, look for soot below the draft smoke pipe between the unit doesn’t light, call a service technician. regulator, on top of the unit’s housing, and the chimney. It should and around the burner. The odor of Once the unit has been activated, have a slight upward pitch smoke near the unit is another sign of closely observe the combustion with no sags, preferably a min- poor combustion. process. In oil-fired units, the flame imum of 1/4 inch per foot. should be clear and clean, and have Test: Consider having a service tech- Inspect the pipe for corrosion minimal orange-yellow color. Flame nician perform a flue gas analysis to holes, the tightness of its fit- height should be uniform. determine the unit’s combustion effi- tings, and the tightness of its ciency. This test requires the use of a Gas-fired units should have a flame connection to the chimney. flue gas analyzer and should be per- that is primarily bluish in color. Note Check for signs of soot build formed in accordance with ASTM whether the flame lifts off the burner up in the smoke pipe. Consult D2157, Standard Test Method for head; this indicates that too much air local code requirements about Effect of Air Supply on Smoke Density is being introduced into the mixture. the minimum size, required in Flue Gasses from Burning Distillate Check gas burners for rust and clearance from combustible Fuels. clogged ports. Soot build up is a sign materials, and number of Residential Inspection 87

cracks that allow excess air to enter the combustion chamber or the smoke pipe. All such openings should be sealed. The damper of a barometric draft regulator should be level, free of rust, and not damaged or altered. Improper draft from an oil furnace could cause a build up of carbon monoxide gas in occupied spaces. Have old flues cleaned by a chimney sweep or HVAC service technician. Have a deteriorated flue replaced. Test: Check the draft regulator by observing its motion when the heating unit is in operation. It should open as the heating unit warms up. The draft regulator is adjusted during the combustion efficiency test. � Operation. The operation of the fuel-burning unit will depend on the type of heating system in which it is used. See Section 7.3 for the operation of gas- and oil-fired warm air sys- This barometric draft regulator should swing freely and open somewhat as the tems and Section 7.4 for the heating unit warms up. operation of gas- and oil-fired hot water and steam systems.

smoke pipes entering the chim- Test: Have a service technician run ney. Newer, higher efficiency the furnace or boiler through a com- 7.3 furnaces are not as prone to plete cycle, then with a match or can- Forced Warm Air dle conduct a simple smoke test of backdrafting because of forced Heating Systems or reduced draft systems. the draft at or near the diverter.A draft gauge or CO tester can be used When these systems are used Warm air heating systems are of to detect an outward flow of hot with existing old flues, flues two types, forced air or gravity. exhaust gas; this indicates a haz- tend to fail early. Check for Gravity systems are occasionally ardous draft problem that must be still found in older single-family evidence of rust or leaking in corrected. the exhaust flue. houses, but most gravity systems Gas-fired units have a draft Proper draft is critical to the either have been replaced or con- diverter that is located either efficient operation of an oil- verted to forced air. Gravity sys- on the exhaust stack of a boil- fired unit. A barometric draft tems are big, bulky, and easily er or built into the sheet metal regulator is required above the recognizable. Lacking a mechani- casing of a furnace. unit or on the smoke pipe. cal means of moving air, such Inspect for open joints or systems are inefficient and heat unevenly, can be dangerously hot, 88 Residential Inspection

and are generally considered Test: Look for signs of soot at supply and off at preset temperatures. archaic. Plan to replace them registers and smell for oil or gas When the thermostat calls for unless there are overriding rea- fumes. Observe the burner flame as heat, the furnace burner is sons for doing otherwise. the furnace fan turns on; a turned on. After the heat disturbance or color change in the exchanger warms to a preset Most forced warm air systems use flame may indicate air leakage temperature (usually 110 to natural gas or fuel oil as a heat through the exchanger. Operate the 120 ºF [43 to 49 ºC]), the fan source, but some systems use furnace for several minutes and then control activates the blower. electric resistance heaters or heat feel the furnace frame for uneven hot The thermostat will shut off pumps. These heaters replace the spots. Similarly, another simple test the burner when the building heat exchanger and burner found requires turning on the fan only and warms to the thermostat set- in gas- and oil-fired furnaces or placing a lighted match or candle in ting, and when the heat supplement the heat output of the heat exchanger enclosure. If there exchanger cools to about heat pumps (see Section 7.9). are leaks, the flame will flicker.A CO tester may also be used to detect 85 ºF (29 ºC) the fan control Electric resistance heating sys- combustion gases. For any of these will switch off the blower. tems have no moving parts and tests, consult a heating contractor or require no adjustment. The circu- Test: Observe the above sequence; HVAC service technician. lation blower and air distribution if it is faulty, the fan control should be ductwork for electric resistance Look for rust on the exchanger— adjusted or replaced. heating systems (and heat pumps) a major cause of premature The high-temperature limit are identical to those of gas- and exchanger failure is water leak- control is a safety device that oil-fired warm air systems and age from humidifiers or shuts the burner off if the heat should be checked as described blocked air conditioner con- exchanger gets too hot (the below. See Section 7.6 for addi- densate lines. Check for other control is usually set at about tional information on electrical signs of water leakage. 175 ºF). Should the burner resistance heating equipment. The durability of the heat automatically turn off before exchanger determines the ser- Assess the condition of forced the blower is activated, either vice life of the furnace. warm air heating systems as the blower, the fan control, or Furnaces installed since the follows: the high-temperature limit con- 1950s normally have a useful trol is faulty and should be � Heat exchanger. The heat life of 25 years or less. Older adjusted or replaced. exchanger is located above the furnaces with cast iron heat � Circulation blower. Remove burner in gas- and oil-fired fur- exchangers may last much the blower cover and inspect naces and separates the prod- longer. ucts of combustion from the the blower motor and fan. � Furnace controls. Gas- and oil- air to be heated. (There is no Look for proper maintenance fired furnaces have two inter- heat exchanger in an electrical- and oiling. Check for wear or nal controls, a fan control and ly heated furnace.) It is critical misalignment of the fan belt, if a high-temperature limit con- that the heat exchanger be any, and for dirt build up on trol. (Furnaces with electric intact and contain no cracks or the motor or fan. resistance heating coils have other openings that could high temperature limit controls Test: When the system is operating, allow combustion products listen for unwarranted blower noise and air flow switches.) The fan into the warm air distribution and determine its cause. control prevents cold air from system. Visual detection of being circulated through the � Distribution system and con- cracks, even by heating ex- system. It is a temperature-sen- trols. The distribution system perts, is a difficult and unreli- sitive switch, completely inde- is made up of supply and able process. pendent of the thermostat, and return ducts, filters, dampers, turns the furnace blower on and registers. Supply and Residential Inspection 89 return ducts may be made of Test: The operation of all dampers 7.4 sheet metal, glass fiber, or should be checked by activating each other materials. Glass fiber thermostat, one at a time. If the Forced Hot Water ducts are self-insulated, but dampers are working properly, air (Hydronic) sheet metal ducts are usually should begin to circulate in each zone immediately after its thermostat has Heating Systems not insulated except where been activated. they pass through unheated (or Hot water heating systems, like uncooled) spaces (see Sections Check the location of supply warm air systems, are of two 3.1 and 3.9). Sheet metal ducts and return registers in each types, forced or “hydronic” and are occasionally insulated on room. Warm air registers are gravity. Gravity systems are some- the inside; determine the pres- most effective when positioned times found in older single-family ence of insulation by tapping low on the exterior wall; cold houses, but in most cases such on the duct and listening for a air registers when located high systems have been replaced or dull sound. Check ducts for on the walls or in the ceiling. converted to a forced hot water open joints and air leakage Return registers should be on system. Gravity systems have no wherever the ducts are ex- opposite sides of the room water pump and use larger pip- posed. Examine them for dirt from supply registers. If return ing. They tend to heat unevenly, build up by removing several registers are located in a hall- are slow to respond, and can only room registers and inspecting way or a different room, make heat spaces above the level of the duct. Ducts can be cleaned sure intervening doors are their boiler. Like gravity warm air by a heating contractor. If undercut by about one inch. systems, they are considered inef- there is a flexible connection ficient and normally should be Test: When the furnace blower is on, replaced during the rehabilitation between the furnace and the check the air flow in all supply and process. duct work, check it for tears return registers. Remove and inspect and openings. There should be registers that appear blocked. Listen Forced hot water systems are usu- no openings in return ducts in for sounds emanating from the duct- ally heated by gas- or oil-fired the same room as a combus- work and determine their source. boilers. Occasionally they may tion furnace. use immersion-type electric resis- Humidifiers may be located in Air filters are usually tance heating coils. These coils the supply ducts. They should located on the return side of replace the burner found in gas- not be located in return air the furnace next to the blower, and oil-fired boilers. The hot ducts because the moist air but they may be found any- water pump and distribution pip- will pass through the heat where in the distribution sys- ing for electrically heated systems exchanger and evaporator coil, tem. Check for their presence are similar to those of gas- and rendering the humidification and examine their condition. oil-fired hot water systems and ineffective and corroding the Supply ducts are often pro- should be checked as described heat exchanger. Check humidi- vided with manual dampers to below. Refer to Section 7.6 for fiers in accordance with balance air flow in the distribu- additional information on electri- Section 7.11. tion system. Locate them by cal resistance heating equipment. looking for small damper han- dles extending below the duct- Assess the condition of forced work. Check their operation. In hot water heating systems as zoned systems, automatically follows: controlled dampers may be � Boiler. Most hot water and located in the ductwork, steam heating systems have usually near the furnace. steel boilers with a service life of about 20 years. Cast iron boilers, which are less 90 Residential Inspection

The hot water boiler on the left is gas-fired; the one on the right, oil-fired. Both have standard pressure and temperature gauges.

common, have a service life of � Expansion tank. The expan- boiler’s pressure relief valve about 30 years. Old cast iron sion tank is usually located each time the system heats up. boilers converted from coal- above the boiler (although it Check for such a condition. fired units may last much may be in the attic) and is con- Waterlogged expansion tanks longer but are usually quite nected to the hot water distrib- should be drained and repres- inefficient. Inspect all boilers ution piping. Most tanks are surized. This should be done for signs of corrosion and compression-type tanks that by a heating or plumbing leakage. are designed to permit heated contractor. Test: Run the boiler for one-half hour water to expand against a � Boiler controls. All boilers or longer and check for leaks. cushion of pressurized air should be equipped with a Occasionally a boiler fitting will leak within the tank. When the tank pressure gauge, a pressure slightly before it warms up, expands, loses air, it becomes “water- relief valve, and a pressure- and returns to a watertight fit. Don’t logged” and expansion cannot reducing valve. The pressure confuse condensation droplets on a be accommodated. Instead, gauge indicates the water pres- cold boiler with water leaks. water discharges from the sure within the boiler, which Residential Inspection 91

should normally be between 12 near the valve or below it on replacement valve on hand and the and 22 psi (83 to 153 kPa). A the floor. High pressure condi- proper tools for removing and rein- temperature gauge may be tions are usually due to a stalling the valve and extension pipe. included in the pressure gauge. waterlogged expansion tank. If Hot water boilers should have The pressure-reducing valve the boiler also generates a high-temperature limit con- (actually a water make-up domestic hot water, high pres- trol or aquastat that shuts off valve) adds water to the system sure may be caused by cracks the burner if the boiler gets from the domestic water sup- in the coils of the water heater, too hot. Check for such a ply when the boiler pressure since the domestic water sup- control. drops below 12 psi (83 kPa). ply pressure usually exceeds � Circulating pump and con- Pressure readings lower than 30 psi (207 kpa). The pressure trols. The circulating pump 12 psi indicate a faulty valve relief valve should be mounted forces hot water through the that should be adjusted or on the boiler. system at a constant flow rate, replaced. Test: As a last resort, the pressure usually stated in gallons per The pressure relief valve relief valve may be tested by a ser- minute (gpm). It should be should discharge water from vice technician. But since it may be located adjacent to the boiler the system when the boiler old or clogged and become stuck in on the return pipe near the pressure reaches 30 psi (207 the open position, the test should not boiler. The pump may be kPa). Look for signs of water be performed without having a

This hot water expansion tank is located above the boiler. Look for signs of leakage in expansion tanks. 92 Residential Inspection

RA D I A T O R CO N V E C T O R

Expansion tank This pipe is missing in Two-pipe systems a series loop system have a separate re t u r n

Pr e s s u r e relief valve Pressure gage

RA D I A T O R

Ci r c u l a t i n g pu m p

One-pipe forced hot water heating system

operated in one of the follow- burner is independently acti- Inspect the seal between the motor ing four ways: vated by the thermostat as and the pump housing for signs of leakage. Examine the condition of all � Constant-running circula - heat is required. electrical wiring and connections. tor, in which the pump is con- � Thermostat-controlled Feel the return line after the system trolled by a manual switch. The circulator, in which water is has been operating for a short time; it pump is usually turned on at maintained at a constant tem- should be warm. If it isn’t, the pump the beginning of the heating perature in the boiler by an may be faulty. season and runs constantly aquastat. In heating systems used for until it is turned off at the end � Relay-controlled circulator, generating domestic hot water, of the heating season. The boil- in which the pump is activated the thermostat will control the er is independently activated (via a relay switch) whenever circulating pump and an aqua- by the thermostat as heat is the boiler is activated by the stat will control the burner. See required. thermostat. Section 6.5. � Aquastat-controlled Test: Determine which kind of device � Distribution piping. The circulator, which turns the controls the pump and check its oper- forced hot water distribution pump on and off at a preset ation. Inspect the condition and oper- boiler temperature (normally ation of the pump itself. Listen for system consists of distribution 120 ºF [49 ºC]). Like the con- smooth operation; a loud pump may piping, radiators, and control stantly running circulator, the have bad bearings or a faulty motor. valves. Distribution piping may Residential Inspection 93

The hot water radiator on the left has a bleed valve at its top left corner. The steam radiator on the right has an air vent.

be one of three types: series- used to regulate the amount of properly insulated in unheated loop, one-pipe, and two-pipe. hot water entering it. basements, attics, and crawl In a series-loop system, Two-pipe systems use sepa - spaces. See Sections 3.1 and 3.9. radiators are connected by one rate pipes for supply and When the distribution pipe directly in a series. Since return water, which ensures a piping is divided in zones, the last radiator will receive small temperature differential each zone will have either a cooler water than the first, between radiators, regardless separate circulation pump or a downstream radiators should of their location. Individual separate electrically operated be progressively larger. Alter- room control is possible with valve. natively, series-loop systems both one-pipe and two-pipe Test: Check the operation of all zone may be divided in small zones systems, although a change in valves by activating each thermostat, to overcome this problem. the valve adjustment on one one at a time. If hot water is being One-pipe systems di f f e r radiator will affect the perfor- distributed properly to each zone, the from series-loop systems in mance of others downstream. radiators in that zone should be warm that their radiators are not con- Distribution piping should be to the touch within several minutes. nected in series. Instead, each checked for leaks at valves and Locate all valves, inspect their electri- radiator is separately attached connections. Inspect such pip- cal wiring and connections, and look to the water distribution pipe ing as outlined in Section 6.2 for signs of leakage. with a diverter fitting, which is for domestic water supply piping. Make sure pipes are 94 Residential Inspection

Radiators and control valves. Radiators are of three types: cast iron (which in most cases are free standing but sometimes are hung from the ceiling or wall, convector (which may have a circulating fan), and baseboard. Older residential buildings usually have cast iron radiators that are extremely durable and normally can be reused, although they are less efficient than convectors. Baseboard radiators are considered the most desirable for residential use because they are the least conspicuous and distribute heat most even- ly throughout the room. Ra d - iators should be located on outside walls whenever possible. One-pipe parallel flow steam heating system Test: Activate the system and look for signs of water leakage. Feel the sur- unless piping includes copper faces of all radiators to ensure that 7.5 pipe and steel pipe that are they are heating uniformly; if they are Steam Heating Systems not, bleed them to remove entrapped not separated by a dielectric air. Examine the fins of all convectors c o u p l i n g . Steam heating systems are for dirt and damage. These fins can Test: Operate radiant heating systems seldom installed now in small res- be “combed” straight. Check the con- to determine their functional adequa- idential buildings but are still dition of all radiator control, safety, cy. Radiant surfaces should be warm common in many older ones. and bleed valves and make sure they to the touch within several minutes. They are simple in design and are operational. Often the valves Check the condition of the shutoff operation, but require a higher need tightening or their packing valves for each distribution zone and level of maintenance than modern needs replacing. the main balancing valves near the residential heating systems. Radiant panel heating. H o t boiler and look for signs of leakage. Unless the steam system is in water distribution piping may Inspect the expansion tank and air good working order and adequate vent (if any) in accordance with the be embedded in floors, walls, plans can be made for its up subsection on expansion tanks and ceilings to provide radiant keep, consider replacing it with a (above). If the system appears to be heating. Because the piping is more maintenance-free system. in good condition but heating is not embedded, it can only be adequate, consider having a service Assess the condition and opera- inspected by looking for signs technician pressure test the distribu - tion of steam heating systems as of water leakage or rust on the tion piping for a period of up to 24 follows: floor or wall surfaces that hours. If a drop in pressure occurs, � Boiler. Steam boilers are physi- cover the piping. Such heating there is a leak. When a leak is cally similar to hot water boil- is normally trouble free, un- detected, have the service technician ers and should be inspected less there are major structural flush the piping to check for galvanic similarly. See Section 7.4. problems that damage distrib- corrosion. ution piping and joints, or Residential Inspection 95

� Boiler controls. Unlike hot water boilers, steam boilers operate only about three- fourths full of water and at much lower pressures, usually 2 to 5 psi. Steam boilers should be equipped with a water level gauge, a pressure gauge, a high-pressure limit switch, a low water cut-off, and a safety valve. Test: Activate the boiler and observe the water level gauge that indicates the level of the water in the boiler. The gauge should normally read about half full, though the actual level of the water is not critical as long as the level is showing. If the gauge is full of water, the boiler is flooded and One-pipe counterflow steam heating system water must be drained from the system. If the gauge is empty, the boiler water level is too low and must be filled (either manually through the fill valve or automatically through the automatic water feed valve, if the boiler has one). Unsteady, up and down motion of water in the gauge means the boiler is clogged with sediment or is otherwise operating incorrectly and must be repaired. The clarity of the boiler water should be noted when checking the gauge; if the gauge is too dirty to judge the water level, remove and clean it. This test and any resulting work should be done by a service technician.

The high-pressure limit switch turns off the burner when the boiler pressure exceeds a preset level, usually 5 to 7 psi (35 to 48 kPa). It is connected to the boiler by a pigtail-shaped pipe. The low water cut-off shuts down the burner when the boil- Two-pipe steam heating system er water level is too low. 96 Residential Inspection

Test: Lower the water level in the boil- supply piping in a “Hartford cleaning and supply valves need er and see whether the low water cut- Loop.” This prevents a leak in tightening, or valve packing needs to off turns off the burner. Usually this the condensate return from be replaced. “Pounding” near the test should be performed by a service emptying the boiler. Two-pipe radiator can often be cured by lifting technician. systems can be balanced by one edge of the radiator slightly; this reduces condensate blocking in the regulating the supply valves on The pressure relief valve is pipes. designed to discharge when each radiator, and may be con- the boiler pressure exceeds 15 verted for use in a hot water psi (103 kPa). heating system (although new, 7.6 larger-size return piping usual- Distribution piping. The steam ly must be installed). Electric Resistance Heating distribution system consists of Distribution piping should distribution piping, radiators, Electric resistance heating ele- be checked for leaks at all and control valves. Distribution ments commonly are used in valves and connections. Make piping may have either a one- heat pump systems, wall heaters, sure all piping is properly pipe or two-pipe configuration. radiant wall or ceiling panels, and pitched to drain toward the In a one-pipe system, steam baseboard heaters. They are less boiler. “Pounding” may occur from the boiler rises under frequently used as a heat source when oncoming steam meets pressure through the pipes to for central warm air or hot water water trapped in the system by the radiators. There it dis- systems. Such heating devices improperly pitched distribu- places air by evacuation usually require little mainte- tion piping or by shutoff valves through the radiator vent nance, but their operating costs that are not fully closed or valves, condenses on the radia- should be carefully considered fully open. Inspect the condi- tor’s inner surface, and gives when planning the building reha- tion of all piping as outlined in up heat. Steam condensate b i l i t a t i o n . Section 6.2 for domestic water flows by gravity back through Assess the condition of all elec- supply piping. Make sure pipes the same pipes to the boiler tric resistance heating devices by are properly insulated in for reheating. The pipes, there- activating them and inspecting as unheated basements, attics, fore, must be pitched no less follows: and crawl spaces. See Sections than one inch in ten feet in the 3.1 and 3.9. � Electric resistance heaters. direction of the boiler to en- Electric resistance heaters are sure that the condensate does � Radiators and control valves. used in warm air and hot water not block the steam in any part Steam radiators are made of systems as described in of the system. All piping and cast iron and are usually free Sections 7.3 and 7.4, and in radiators must be located standing. They are quite dur- heat pumps as described in above the boiler in a one-pipe able and, in most cases, can be Section 7.9. They incorporate system. reused. Radiators should be one or more heavy duty heat- In a two-pipe system, steam located on outside walls when- ing elements that are actuated flows to the radiators in one ever possible. by sequence relays on demand pipe and condensate returns in Test: Activate the system and inspect from the thermostat. The another. A steam trap on the the condition of all radiators. Look for relays start each heating ele- condensate return line releases signs of water leakage. Feel their sur- ment at 30-second intervals, air displaced by the incoming faces to make sure they are heating which eliminates surges on the steam. If the condensate return uniformly; if they are not, check the electrical power system. In piping is located below the radiator air vents and supply valves warm air and heat pump sys- level of the boiler, it should be on a one-pipe system and the radia- tems, electric heating elements brought back up to the level of tor supply valves and the steam trap are normally located in the fur- the boiler and vented to the on the condensate return on a two- pipe system. Often air vents need nace or heat pump enclosure, Residential Inspection 97

but they may be located any- and inspect for such problems. connected by refrigerant lines to where in the ductwork as pri- Bent heating fins can often be an evaporator inside the build- mary or secondary heating restraightened by “combing.” ing’s air distribution ductwork. devices. The thermostat may be on an Split systems in buildings heated Inspect the condition of all adjacent wall or in the unit by forced warm air usually share electric resistance heaters, itself. the warm air system’s circulating including their wiring and con- fan and ductwork. In such cases, nections. the evaporator is placed either 7.7 Test: If possible, observe the start up directly above or below the fur- of the heating elements. Their failure Central Air Conditioning nace, depending on the furnace to heat up indicates either a burnt-out Systems design. element or a malfunctioning relay. Assess the condition of central air Central air conditioning systems Electric wall heaters. These conditioning systems as follows: are defined here as electrically compact devices are often used operated refrigerant-type systems � Compressor and condenser. as supplementary heating units used for cooling and dehumidifi- The compressor pumps refrig- or as sole heat sources in cation. (Evaporative coolers are erant gas under high pressure houses for which heating is described in Section 7.10 and gas- through a condenser coil, only occasionally required. absorption systems are described where it gives up heat and They may have one or more in Section 7.8.) Heat pumps are becomes a liquid. The heat is electric heating elements, similar to central air conditioners, exhausted to the outside air by depending on their size, and but are reversible and can also be the condenser fan. Compres- should be inspected as de- used as heating devices; they are sors have a service life of 5 to scribed above. Wall heaters described in Section 7.9. Air con- 15 years, depending on the often have a small circulation ditioning systems should be test- maintenance they receive, and fan; check its condition and ed only when the outside air tem- are the most critical compo- operation and look for dirt perature is above 65 ºF (18 ºC); nent in the air conditioning build up on the fan blades and below that temperature, the sys- system. motor housing. Inspect all elec- tems will not operate properly Test: Activate the system and observe trical wiring and connections. and may shut down due to safety the operation of the compressor. It Radiant wall and ceiling controls. should start smoothly and run contin- panels. Electric heating panels uously; noisy start up and operation There are two types of central air that are embedded in wall or indicates a worn compressor. The conditioning systems: integral ceiling surfaces cannot be condenser fan should start simultane- and split. In the integral system, directly inspected, but all radi- ously with the compressor. After sev- all mechanized components— ant surfaces should be exam- eral minutes of operation, the air flow- compressor, condenser, evapora- ined for signs of surface or ing over the condenser should be tor, and fans—are contained in a structural damage. warm. If it isn’t, either the compressor single unit. The unit may be locat- is faulty or there is not enough refrig- Test: If the panels do not provide heat ed outside the building with its erant in the system. when the thermostat is activated, cold air ductwork extending into check the thermostat, circuit breaker, the interior, or it may be located If the compressor, condenser, and all accessible wiring to determine and condenser fan are part of somewhere inside the building the cause or have an electrical conti- a split system and are located with its exhaust air ducted to the nuity test performed by an electrician. in a separate unit outside, outside. Baseboard heaters. Baseboard check the air flow around the heater heating fins can be dam- In the split system, the compres- outside unit to make sure it is aged and become clogged with sor and condenser are located unobstructed. Look for dirt dust. Remove heater covers outside the building and are and debris inside the unit, 98 Residential Inspection

Looking down into an outdoor compressor unit with the top cover removed. The compressor is on the upper right, controls are on the lower right, and the fan and condenser coils are to the left.

particularly on the condenser low pressure (cold) refrigerant system. Frost on any exposed coils and fins, and inspect all gas from the evaporator to the parts of the larger line also indi- electrical wiring and connec- compressor. It is about the cates a refrigerant deficiency. tions. The unit should be level diameter of a broom handle � Seismic vulnerability. If the and well-supported, and its and should be insulated along building is in seismic zones 3 housing intact and childproof. its entire length. The smaller or 4 (California and portions of An electrical disconnect switch line is uninsulated and carries Alaska, Arkansas, Hawaii, Ida- for use during maintenance high pressure (warm) liquid ho, Missouri, Montana, Nevada, and repairs should be located refrigerant to the evaporator. Oregon, Utah, Wyoming, and within sight of the unit. Check both lines for signs of Washington), check roof-mount- Integral systems located damage and make sure the ed compressor and condenser somewhere on or in the build- insulation is intact on the larger units for the presence of seis- ing should have their compres- line. On its exterior, the insula- mic bracing to the structure. sors placed on vibration tion should be protected from � Evaporator. The evaporator is mountings to minimize sound ultraviolet damage by a cover- enclosed in the air distribution transmission to inhabited ing or by white paint. Some- ductwork and can only be building spaces. times a sight glass is provided observed by removing a panel on the smaller line; if so, the � Refrigerant lines. Re f r i g e r a n t or part of the furnace plenum. flow of refrigerant should look lines form the link between the High pressure liquid refriger- smooth through the glass. interior and exterior compo- ant enters the evaporator and Bubbles in the flow indicate a nents of a split system. The expands into a gas, absorbing deficiency of refrigerant in the larger of the two lines carries heat from the surrounding air. Residential Inspection 99

Leaking condensate tray

Air is pushed past the evapora- heat exchanger (see Section after about 30 minutes of operation. tor coil by the system’s circula- 7.3), or above a ceiling, where Frost is an indication of inadequate tion blower; in the process, it can damage the building air flow due to dirt on the coil or a water vapor from the air con- components below. Follow the deficiency of refrigerant in the system. denses on the evaporator coil condensate line and make sure Check to see if water is discharging from the condensate drain line. If it is and drips into a drain pan. that it terminates in a proper not, either the evaporator coil is not From there, it is directed to a location. If there is a pump on working properly or the drain line is condensate drain line that may the line, check its operation. clogged. sometimes include a conden- In split systems where the sate pump. The drain line emp- evaporator is located in an attic Test: Central air conditioning systems ties into a house drain or direct- or closet, the condensate drain can be tested by an HVAC service ly to the building’s exterior. pan should have an auxiliary technician to determine their overall Examine the ductwork condensate drain line located condition and operational efficiency. This test requires a variety of special- around the evaporator for above the regular drain line or ized equipment and involves: 1) test- signs of air leakage and check an auxiliary drain pan that is ing the pressure in the refrigerant below the evaporator for signs separately drained. The connec- lines, 2) taking amperage readings on of water leakage due to a tion of a condensate drain line the compressor, and 3) taking tem- blocked condensate drain line. to a plumbing vent in the attic perature readings of the air passing Such leakage can present a may violate local codes. Check over the condenser and the evapora- serious problem if the evapora- for such violations. tor coils, and correlating these tor is located above a warm air Test: If the evaporator coil can be readings with ambient outside tem- furnace, where dripping exposed, inspect it for frost build up perature conditions. condensate water can rust the 100 Residential Inspection

Geothermal heating and cool- 7.8 the unit and the building. If locating system. Geothermal sys- ed on or within the building, they tems are relatively new and Central Gas-Absorption should be mounted on vibration operate similarly to air-to-air Cooling Systems isolators, be thermally protected, heat pump systems, but differ and have an adequate condensate Gas-absorption cooling systems in design and installation. drainage system. occasionally may be found in What might be considered the older residential buildings. Such Inspect heat pumps by the proce- condenser are pipes buried in systems use the evaporation of a dure described in Section 7.7 for the ground in dry wells or liquid, such as ammonia, as the central air conditioning systems. other in-ground systems suit- cooling agent and, like a gas Testing in one mode is usually able for transferring or displac- refrigerator, are powered by a sufficient. However, do not oper- ing heat. The system is closed natural gas or propane flame. ate air-to-air heat pumps in tem- and its piping is PVC so corro- peratures below 65 ºF (18 ºC) on sion is not a potential problem. Test: A gas-absorption system oper- the cooling cycle and above Geothermal systems are nor- ates under several hundred pounds of 55 ºF (13 ºC) on the heating cycle. mally installed without a back pressure and should be tested by a specialist. The local gas or fuel sup- In both conditions the amount of up or emergency heating sys- plier probably maintains the unit; ask work the heat pump has to do to tem and all their components for an evaluation of the system. achieve interior comfort tempera- except the buried coils are usu- Meanwhile, operate the system. It tures is not enough to really test ally inside the house. For more should start smoothly and run quietly. the heat pump’s ability to per- information, consult the Geo- form. Check also for the following thermal Heat Pumps: Introduc- Examine the condition of the sys- problems: tory Guide published by the tem’s exterior and interior com- International Ground Source ponents. Inspect ductwork in � Auxiliary heater failure. Heat Pump Association. A geot- accordance with Section 7.3. Electric resistance auxiliary hermal heating and cooling heaters are designed to acti- system can be operated in a vate (usually in stages) below heating or cooling mode under 7.9 about 30 ºF (-1 ºC) outdoor any outside temperature. Heat Pumps temperature when the heat Although expensive to install, pump cannot produce enough Electric heat pumps are electrical- they normally are efficient and heat to satisfy the thermostat. ly operated, refrigerant-type air economical to operate. Examine the condition of all conditioning systems that can be auxiliary heaters in accordance Test: Observe the operation of the reversed to extract heat from out- with Section 7.6. system in both heating and cooling side air and transfer it indoors. Test: If possible, activate the auxiliary modes if possible. Visually inspect the Heat pumps are normally sized heaters to observe their operation. well field header piping and pumps. for their air conditioning load, Operating failures may be caused by Pressure test the well field. Tests which in most parts of the coun- should be conducted by a service a faulty heater element, faulty relays, try is smaller than the heating technician. a faulty thermostat, or a faulty revers- load. Auxiliary electric heaters are ing valve. Distribution ductwork and used to provide the extra heating � Improper defrosting. During controls. Cool air distribution capacity the system requires in cold, damp weather, frost or ductwork and controls, includ- the heating season. ing zone controls, should be ice may form on the metal fins Like air conditioning systems, inspected similarly to those for of the coil in an outdoor unit. heat pumps can be either split or forced warm air heating sys- Heat pumps are designed to integral. Integral systems located tems, as described in Section 7.3. defrost this build up by revers- outside the building should have ing modes either at preset well-insulated air ducts between Residential Inspection 101

intervals or upon activation by valve changes modes from 7.10 a pressure sensing device. heating to cooling (some heat Evaporative Test: The pressure sensor may mal- pumps use a series of dampers function, and on units so equipped, it instead) when the thermostat Cooling Systems is changed. can be tested in the heating mode by Evaporative cooling systems are temporarily placing an obstruction on Test: Check the reversing valve when simple and economical devices. the exhaust side of the coil and the outside temperature varies They pass air through wetted observing whether the coil begins to enough to be able to run the heat pads or screens and cooling takes heat (defrost) within a short period of pump in the opposite modes. Change place by evaporation. Such sys- time. the thermostat. If the system doesn’t tems can only be used in dry cli- � Faulty reversing valve. In reverse, the reversing valve is faulty. mates where evaporation readily most heat pumps, a reversing

A roof-mounted evaporative cooler. This type of cooling unit is relatively simple to inspect, repair, and maintain. 102 Residential Inspection

Installation of this air conditioner destroyed the structural integrity of the bearing wall between the two windows.

takes place and where dehumidi- through a reservoir on a rotating reservoir, float-operated supply fication is not required. drum. valve, and drain.

Evaporative coolers consist of The water in evaporative coolers Test: Activate the system and listen evaporator pads or screens, a often contains algae and bacteria for unusual sounds or vibrations. means to wet them, an air blower, that emit a characteristic Inspect all distribution ductwork as and a water reservoir with a drain “swampy” odor. These can be described in Section 7.3 and evaluate and float-operated water supply removed easily with bleach. Some the system’s overall ability to cool the building. valve. These components are con- systems counteract this pattern tained in a single housing, usually by treating the water or by con- If the building is in seismic zones located on the roof, and connect- tinually adding a small amount of 3 or 4 (California and portions of ed to an interior air distribution fresh water. Alaska, Arkansas, Hawaii, Idaho, system. In wetted-pad coolers, Inspect evaporative cooling sys- Missouri, Montana, Nevada, evaporator pads are wetted by a tems by examining the condition Oregon, Utah, Wyoming, and circulating pump that continually of each component. Note whether Washington), check the evapora- trickles water over them; in evaporative pads need cleaning or tive cooler for the presence of slinger coolers, evaporator pads seismic bracing to the structure. replacement. Look for signs of are wetted by a spray; and in leakage and check the cleanliness rotary coolers, evaporator and operation of the water screens are wetted by passing Residential Inspection 103

7.11 Test: Activate the humidifier by turning electrical wiring and check to see up the humidistat. It should only oper- that the attic fan thermostat is Humidifiers ate when the furnace fan is on, the set at about 95 ºF (35 ºC). system is in the heating mode, and Humidifiers are sometimes added the indoor humidity is lower than the Test: Activate whole house and attic to warm air heating systems to humidistat setting. fans and observe their operation. reduce interior dryness during They should start and run smoothly the heating season. They are and be securely fastened to their installed with the air distribution 7.12 frames. Note whether the louvers system and are controlled by a below a whole house fan are open humidistat that is usually located Unit (Window) completely when the fan is running in the return air duct near the Air Conditioners and whether exterior louvers on attic humidifier housing. The humidi- fans are weather protected and Unit air conditioners are portable, fier should not be located in a screened. integral air conditioning systems return air duct (see Section 7.3). without ductwork. Inspect their Humidifiers can be of several overall condition and check the types: seal around each unit and its � Stationary pad, in which air is attachment to the window or wall. drawn from the furnace Ensure that it is adequately sup- plenum or supply air duct by a ported and look for obstructions fan, blown over an evaporator to air flow on the exterior and for pad, and returned to the air proper condensate drainage. distribution system. Make sure all electrical service is � Revolving drum, in which properly sized and that each unit water from a small reservoir is is properly grounded. Bent fins picked up by a revolving pad on the condenser coils may be and exposed to an air stream “combed.” from the furnace plenum or Test: Operate each window unit for a supply ductwork. long enough period to determine its � Atomizer, in which water is cooling capacity; after several min- broken into small particles by utes, the air from the unit should feel an atomizing device and quite cool. It should start smoothly released into the supply air and run quietly. Check for water drip- ductwork. ping from the condensate discharge on the exterior side of the unit. � Steam, in which water is heated to temperatures above boiling and then injected into the 7.13 supply air duct. Whole House Inspect the humidifier’s condi- and Attic Fans tion. Take off the unit’s cover and check for mineral build up on the Check the location and condition drum or pad. Examine the humid- of the whole house or attic fan, if ifier’s water supply and look for one is present (see Section 3.9). signs of leakage, especially at its Inspect fan motors for signs of connection with the house water overheating and examine fan supply. Check all electrical wiring belts for signs of wear. Check all and connections. operating controls and associated 104 Residential Inspection Appendix A—The Effects of Fire on Structural Systems A-1

on estimating the residual 1100 ºC for copper, and 1100 to Appendix A— load-carrying capacity of the 1200 ºC for cast iron. There are The Effects of structure and then determining also the well-known color changes the remedial measures, if any, in concrete or mortar. The devel- Fire on Structural needed to restore the building to opment of red or pink coloration its original design for fire resis- in concrete or mortar containing Systems tance and other requirements. natural sands or aggregates of Obviously, if weaknesses in the appreciable iron oxide content Introduction original design are exposed, these occurs at 250 to 300 ºC and, nor- should be corrected. mally, 300 ºC may be taken as the Building fires, which normally transition temperature. Table A-1 All building materials except tim- reach temperatures of about provides specifics. ber are likely to show significant 1000 ºC, can affect the load- loss of strength when heated Making an analysis of the damage bearing capacity of structural above 250 ºC, strength that may and assessment of the necessary elements in a number of ways. not recover after cooling. Thus, it repairs may be possible within a Apart from such obvious effects is useful to estimate the maxi- reasonable degree of accuracy, as charring and spalling, there mum temperature attained in a but final acceptance may depend can be a permanent loss of fire. Molded glass objects soften on proof by a load test, where strength in the remaining materi- or flow at 700 or 800 ºC. Metals performance is generally judged al and thermal expansion may form drops or lose their sharp in terms of the recovery of deflec- cause damage in parts of the edges as follows: 300 to 350 ºC tion after load removal. building not directly affected by for lead, 400 ºC for zinc, 650 ºC the fire. for aluminum and alloys, 950 ºC In assessing fire’s effects, the for silver, 900 to 1000 ºC for main emphasis should be placed brass, 1000 ºC for bronze,

Table A–1 Fire-Induced Color Change in Concrete

The temperature within a slab may continue to rise after the fire has ended and some of the maxima were attained after the end of the heating period.

Heating Maximum Maximum depth of concrete showing characteristic change period, surface hours temperature Pink or red Fading of red, friability Buff Sintering ºF ºC 300 ºC 600 ºC 600 ºC 1200 ºC 1 1742 950 56 mm 19 mm 0 0 2 1922 1050 100 mm 38 mm 6 mm 0 4 2246 1230 140 mm 63 mm 25 mm 3 mm 6 2282 1250 170 mm 90 mm 38 mm 6 mm A-2 Residential Inspection

1 2 Analysis and Repair Timber Masonry As with concrete, it is possible to determine the degree of heating Timber browns at about 120 to The physical properties and of the wall from the color change 150 ºC, blackens around 200 to mechanisms of failure in masonry of the mortar and bricks. For 250 ºC, and emits combustible walls exposed to fire have never solid brick walls without undue vapors at about 300 ºC. Above a been analyzed in detail. Behavior distortion, the portion beyond temperature of 400 to 450 ºC (or is influenced by edge conditions the pink or red boundary may be 300 ºC if a flame is present), the and there is a loss of compressive considered serviceable and calcu- surface of the timber will ignite strength as well as unequal ther- lations should be made accord- and char at a steady rate. Table mal expansion of the two faces. ingly. Per-forated and hollow A-2 shows the rate of charring. For solid bricks, resistance to the brick walls should be inspected effects of fire is directly propor- for the effects of cracks indicat- tional to thickness. Perforated Analysis and Repair ing thermal shock. Plastered bricks and hollow clay units are Generally, any wood that is not bricks sometimes suffer little more sensitive to thermal shock. charred should be considered to damage and may need repairs There can be cracking of the con- have full strength. It may be pos- only to the plaster surfaces. necting webs and a tendency for sible to show by calculation that the wythes to separate. In cavity a timber section or structural ele- walls, the inner wythe carries the ment subjected to fire still has 3 major part of the load. Exterior adequate strength once the char Steel walls can be subjected to more is removed. Where additional severe forces than internal walls The yield strength of steel is strength is required, it may be by heated and expanding floor reduced to about half at 550 ºC. possible to add strengthening slabs. All types of brick give At 1000 ºC, the yield strength is pieces. Joints that may have much better performance if plas- 10 percent or less. Because of its opened and metal connections ter is applied, which improves high thermal conductivity, the that may have conducted heat to insulation and reduces thermal temperature of unprotected inter- the interior are points of weak- shock. nal steelwork normally will vary ness that should be carefully little from that of the fire. Struc- e x a m i n e d . tural steelwork is, therefore, usually insulated.

Table A–2 Char Rate of Timber

A column exposed to fire on all faces should be assumed to char equally on all faces 1.25 times faster than the rates shown. Linear interpolation or extrapolation for periods between 15 and 90 minutes is permissible.

Species Charring after 30 minutes Charring after 60 minutes All structural species except those below 20 mm 40 mm Western red cedar 25 mm 50 mm Oak, utile, kerving (gurgun), teak, greenheart, jarrah 15 mm 30 mm Appendix A—The Effects of Fire on Structural Systems A-3

Apart from losing practically all effect in an element that has not Because of the comparatively of its load-bearing capacity, reached the critical condition. low thermal diffusivity of con- unprotected steelwork can crete (of the order of 1 mm/s), undergo considerable expansion Analysis and Repair the 300 ºC contour may be at when sufficiently heated. The only a small depth below the In general, a structural steel coefficient of expansion is 10-5 heated face. Concrete’s modulus member remaining in place with per degree Celsius. Young’s of elasticity also decreases with negligible or minor distortions modulus does not decrease with temperature, although it is to the web, flanges, or end con- temperature as rapidly as does believed that it will recover sub- nections should be considered yield strength. stantially with time, provided satisfactory for further service. that the coefficient of thermal Cold-worked reinforced bars, Exceptions are the relatively expansion of the concrete is on when heated, lose their strength small number of structures built the order of 10-5 per degree more rapidly than do hot-rolled with cold-worked or tempered Celsius (but this varies with high-yield bars and mild-steel steel, where there may be per- aggregate). Creep becomes sig- bars. The differences in proper- manent loss of strength. This nificant at quite low tempera- ties are even more important may be assessed using estimates tures, being of the orders of 10-4 after heating. The original yield of the maximum temperatures to 10-3 per hour over the temper- stress is almost completely attained or by on-site testing. ature range of 250 to 700 ºC, recovered on cooling from a Where necessary, the steel and can have a beneficial effect temperature of 500 to 600 ºC should be replaced, although in relaxing stresses. for all bars but on cooling from reinforcement with plates may 800 ºC, it is reduced by 30 per- be possible. Microscopy can be Analysis and Repair cent for cold-worked bars and used to determine changes in � Effective cross section. by 5 percent for hot-rolled bars. microstructure. Since this is a Removal of the surface mater- specialized field, the services of The loss of strength for pre- ial down to the red boundary a metallurgist are essential. stressing steels occurs at lower (see Table A-1) will reveal the temperatures than that for rein- remaining cross section that forcing bars. Cold-drawn and 4 can be deemed effective. heat-treated steels lose a part of Compression tests of cores their strength permanently Concrete can indicate the strength of when heated to temperatures in Concrete’s compressive strength the concrete, yielding a value excess of about 300 ºC and varies not only with temperature for use in calculations. 400 ºC, respectively. but also with a number of other � Cracks. Most fine cracks are confined to the surface. Major The creep rate of steel is sensi- factors, including the rate of cracks that could influence tive to higher temperatures and heating, the duration of heating, structural behavior are general- becomes significant for mild whether the specimen was ly obvious. A wide crack or steel above 450 ºC and for pre- loaded or not, the type and size cracks near supports may mean stressing steel above 300 ºC. In of aggregate, the percentage of there has been a loss of anchor- fire resistance tests, the rate of cement paste, and the water/ age of the reinforcement. temperature rise when the steel cement ratio. In general, con- is reaching its critical tempera- crete heated by a building fire � Reinforcing steel. Provided ture is fast enough to mask any always loses some compressive that mild steel or hot-rolled effects of creep. When there is a strength and continues to lose it high-yield steel is undistorted long cooling period, however, as on cooling. However, where the and has not reached a tem- in prestressed concrete, subse- temperature has not exceeded perature above about 800 ºC, quent creep may have some 300 ºC, most strength eventually the steel may be assumed to is recovered. A-4 Residential Inspection

have resumed its original prop- increase in the size of the section. erties except that cold-worked Large cracks can be sealed by bars will have suffered some injecting latex solutions, resins, permanent loss. or epoxies. Various washes or � Prestressing steel. It is likely paints are available to restore the that prestressing steel will appearance of finely cracked or have lost some strength, par- crazed surfaces. ticularly if it has reached temperatures over 400 ºC. There will also be a loss of tensile stress. These effects can be assessed for the estimated maximum temperature attained.

In some situations, the replacement of a damaged concrete structural member may be the most practical and economic solu- tion. Elsewhere, the repair of the member, even if extensive, will be justified to avoid inconvenience and damage to other structural members.

Where new members are connected to existing ones, monolithic action must be ensured. This calls for careful preparation of the concrete surfaces and the continuity of reinforcing steel. For repair, the removal of all loose friable concrete is essential to ensure adequate bonding. Extra reinforcement should be fastened only by experienced welders.

New concrete may be placed either by casting in forms or by the gunite method. With the latter, it may be possible to avoid increasing the original dimensions of the member. The choice of method will depend on the thickness of the new concrete, the surface finish required, the possibility of placing and compacting the concrete in the forms, and the degree of importance attached to an Appendix B—Wood-Inhabiting Organisms B-1

Some fungi use only the starch surface molds or mildew fungi Appendix B— and proteins in the wood and grow quickly on moist wood or Wood-Inhabiting don’t weaken it. Others use the on wood in very humid condi- structural components, and as tions. They can grow on wood Organisms they grow, they weaken the wood, before it is seasoned, when it which eventually becomes struc- is in the supplier’s yard or on This material is excerpted from A Guide turally useless. All fungi require the building site, or in a fin- to the Inspection of Existing Homes for moisture, oxygen, warmth, and ished house. When the wood Wood Inhabiting Insects, by Michael P. food. The keys to preventing or dries, the fungi die or become Levy and published by the U.S. Depart- controlling growth of fungi in dormant, but they do not ment of Housing and Urban Develop- wood in buildings are to either change their appearance. Thus, ment (HUD). keep the wood dry (below a mois- wherever surface molds or Wood is a porous material and ture content of 20 percent) or to mildew fungi are observed on will absorb moisture from the air. use preservative-treated or natu- wood in a building, it is a Moisture is attracted to the walls rally resistant heartwood or warning sign that at some time of the tubes that make up the selected species. the wood was moist or humidity was high. wood. As walls absorb moisture, Wood-inhabiting insects can be Surface molds and mildew the wood swells. If the humidity divided into those that use wood fungi are controlled by elimi- is kept at 100 percent, the walls as a food material—termites and nating the source of high become saturated with water. The wood-boring beetles, for exam- humidity or excess moisture, moisture content at which this ple—and those that use it for for example by repairing leaks, occurs is the fiber saturation shelter—carpenter ants and bees, improving ventilation in attics point, which is approximately 30 for example. Damage is caused by or crawl spaces, or installing percent by weight for most immature termites called nymphs, soil covers. Before taking cor- species used in construction. by the larvae or grubs of the rective action, the source of Fungi will only decay wood with a wood-boring beetles, and by the the moisture that allowed fun- moisture content above the fiber adults in ants and bees. saturation point. To allow a safety gus growth must be deter- margin, wood with a moisture Some wood-inhabiting organisms mined. If the wood is dry and content above 20 percent is con- are found in all parts of the coun- the sources of moisture are no sidered to be susceptible to de- try, others are highly localized. longer present, no corrective cay. Wood in properly construct- Some, although common, cause action need be taken. ed buildings seldom will have a very little structural damage. The Sapstain or bluestain fungi moisture content above 16 to l8 following is a description of the are similar to surface molds, percent. Thus, wood will only major wood-inhabiting fungi and except that the discoloration decay if it is in contact with the insects in the United States. goes deep into the wood. They ground or wetted by an external � Surface molds and sapstain color the wood blue, black, or source of moisture, such as rain fungi. Surface molds or mildew gray and do not weaken it. seepage, plumbing leaks, or con- fungi discolor the surface of They grow quickly on moist densation. Dry wood will never wood, but do not weaken it. wood and do not change their decay. Also, the drier the wood, They are generally green, black, appearance when they die or the less likely it is to be attacked or orange and powdery in become dormant. They usually by most types of wood-inhabiting appearance. The various build- occur in the living tree or insects. ing codes allow the use of before the wood is seasoned, framing lumber with surface but sometimes they grow in Wood-inhabiting fungi are small molds or mildew, providing the supplier’s yard, on the plants that lack chlorophyll and that the wood is dry and not building site, or in a finished use wood as their food source. decayed. Spores (or seeds) of house. In the latter case, they B-2 Residential Inspection

are normally associated with sources include water leaks improving drainage and venti- rain seepage or leaks. Stain and wood in contact with or lation under a house, repairing fungi are a warning sign that at close to the soil: for example, water leaks, or preventing some time the wood was next to earth-filled porches or water seepage. When the wood moist. Control is the same as planters. Where the fungus dries, the fungi die or become for surface molds or mildew grows from a porch, the soil dormant. Spraying wood with fungi. should be removed from the chemicals does not control Water-conducting fungi. Most porch next to the foundation decay. If the moisture source decay fungi are able to grow wall to prevent continued cannot be eliminated, all the only on moist wood and can- growth of the fungus into the decayed wood should be not attack adjacent dry wood. house. Poria incrassata normal- replaced with pressure-treated Two brown-rot fungi, Poria ly occurs in new or remodeled wood. incrassata and Merulius lacry - houses and can cause exten- � White-pocket rot. White- mans, are able to conduct sive damage within two to pocket rot is caused by a fun- water for several feet through three years. gus that attacks the heartwood root-like strands or rhizo- � Brown-rot and white-rot fungi. of living trees. Decayed wood morphs, to moisten wood and The fungi often produce a contains numerous small, spin- then to decay it. These are whitish, cottony growth on the dle-shaped white pockets filled sometimes called water-con- surface of wood. They grow with fungus. These pockets are ducting or dry-rot fungi. They only on moist wood. The fungi generally 3 to 13 mm long. can decay wood in houses very can be present in the wood When wood from infected trees rapidly, but fortunately they when it is brought into the is seasoned, the fungus dies. are quite rare. Poria incrassata house or can grow from the Therefore, no control is neces- is found most frequently in the spores that are always present sary. White-pocket rot general- Southeast and West. Merulius in the air and soil. Wood ly is found in softwood lumber lacrymans occurs in the North- attacked by these fungi should from the West Coast. east. Both fungi can cause not be used in construction. � Subterranean termites. extensive damage in floors and Wood decayed by brown-rot Subterranean termites normal- walls away from obvious fungi is brittle and darkened in ly damage the interior of wood sources of moisture. Decayed color. As decay proceeds, the structures. Shelter tubes are wood has the characteristics of wood shrinks, twists, and the most common sign of their brown rotted wood except that cracks perpendicular to the presence. Other signs include the surface of the wood some- grain. Finally, it becomes dry structural weakness of wood times appears wavy but appar- and powdery. Brown-rot is the members, shed wings or warm- ently sound, although the inte- commonest type of decay ers, soil in cracks or crevices, rior may be heavily decayed. found in wood in houses. and dark or blister-like areas The rhizomorphs that charac- Wood decayed by white-rot on wood. The major character- terize these fungi can be up to fungi is fibrous and spongy istics of infested softwood an inch in diameter and white and is bleached in color. when it is broken open are that to black in color, depending on Sometimes it has thin, dark damage is normally greatest in their age. They can penetrate lines around decayed areas. the softer springwood and that foundation walls and often are The wood does not shrink until gallery walls and inner sur- hidden between wood mem- decay is advanced. faces of shelter tubes have a bers. The source of moisture These fungi can be con- pale, spotted appearance like supporting the fungal growth trolled by eliminating the dried oatmeal. The galleries must be found and eliminated source of moisture that allows often contain a mixture of soil to control decay. Common them to grow, for example by and digested wood. Termites Appendix B—Wood-Inhabiting Organisms B-3

usually enter houses through swarmers from those of native piles of fecal pellets, which are wood in contact with the soil species are their larger size (up hard, less than 1 mm in length, or by building shelter tubes on to16 mm compared to 9 to 13 with rounded ends and six flat- foundation walls, piers, chim- mm) and hairy wings (com- tened or depressed sides. The neys, plumbing, weeds, etc. pared with smooth wings in pellets vary in color from light Although they normally main- other subterraneans). Soldiers gray to very dark brown, tain contact with the soil, sub- have oval shaped heads, as depending on the wood being terranean termites can survive opposed to the oblong and rec- consumed. The pellets, elimi- when they are isolated from tangular heads of native sol- nated from galleries in the the soil if they have a continu- diers. Formosan termites also wood through round kick holes, ing source of moisture. Heavy produce a hard material called accumulate on surfaces or in damage by subterranean ter- carton, which resembles spider webs below the kick mites (except Formosans) does sponge. This is sometimes holes. There is very little exter- not normally occur during the found in cavities under fixtures nal evidence of drywood ter- first five to 10 years of a build- or in walls adjacent to attacked mite attacks in wood other than ing’s life, although their attack wood. Other characteristics— the pellets. The interior of dam- may start as soon as it is built. and control methods—are simi- aged wood has broad pockets Subterranean termites can be lar to those for native subter- or chambers that are connected controlled most effectively by ranean termites. However, For- by tunnels that cut across the the use of chemicals in the soil mosan subterranean termites grain through springwood and and foundation area of the are more vigorous and can summerwood. The galleries are house, by breaking wood-soil cause extensive damage more perfectly smooth and have few, contact, and by eliminating rapidly than do native species. if any, surface deposits. There excess moisture in the house. For this reason Formosans are usually some fecal pellets When applied properly, these should be controlled as soon stored in unused portions of chemicals will prevent or con- as possible after discovery. the galleries. Swarming is an- trol termite attack for at least � Drywood termites. It is quite other sign of termite presence. 25 years. common for buildings to be It normally takes a very long Formosan subterranean ter- infested by drywood termites time for the termites to cause mites. Formosan subterranean within the first five years of serious weakness in house termites are a particularly vig- their construction in southern framing. Damage to furniture, orous species of subterranean California, southern Arizona, trim, and hardwood floors can termite that has spread to this southern Florida, the Pacific occur in a few years. The country from the Far East. area, and the Caribbean. choice of control method They have caused considerable Swarmers generally enter depends on the extent of dam- damage in Hawaii and Guam through attic vents or shingle age. If the infestation is wide- and have been found in several roofs, but in hot, dry locations, spread or inaccessible, the locations on the United States they can be found in crawl entire house should be fumi- mainland. It is anticipated that spaces. Window sills and gated. If infestation is limited, they could eventually become frames are other common spot treatment can be used or established along southern entry points. the damaged wood can be coasts, the lower East and West Drywood termites live in removed. Coasts, in the lower Mississippi wood that is dry. They require � Dampwood termites. Valley, and in the Caribbean. no contact with the soil or with Dampwood termites of the The most obvious character- any other source of moisture. desert Southwest and southern istics that distinguish For- The first sign of drywood Florida are rarely of great mosan subterranean termite termite infestation is usually danger to structures. Pacific B-4 Residential Inspection

Coast dampwood termites can used to advantage in some current information on control, cause damage greater than areas. an entomologist should be subterranean termites if envi- � Carpenter ants. Carpenter ants contacted. ronmental conditions are ideal. burrow into wood to make � Wood-boring beetles, bees, Dampwood termites build nests, but do not feed on the and wasps. There are numer- their colonies in damp, some- wood. They commonly nest in ous species of wood-boring times decaying wood. Once dead portions of standing insects that occur in houses. established, some species trees, stumps, logs, and some- Some of these cause consider- extend their activities to sound times wood in houses. Nor- able damage if not controlled wood. They do not require con- mally they do not cause exten- quickly. Others are of minor tact with the ground, but do sive structural damage. Most importance and attack only require wood with a high mois- species start their nests in unseasoned wood. Beetles, ture content. There is little moist wood that has begun to bees, and wasps all have larval, external evidence of the pres- decay. They attack both hard- or grub, stages in their life ence of dampwood termites woods and softwoods. The cycles, and the mature flying other than swarmers or shed most obvious sign of infesta- insects produce entry or exit wings. They usually are associ- tion is the large reddish-brown holes in the surface of the ated with decayed wood. The to black ants, 6 to 13 mm long, wood. These holes, and sa w - appearance of wood damaged inside the house. Damage dust from tunnels behind the by dampwood termites de- occurs in the interior of the holes, are generally the first evi- pends on the amount of decay wood. There may be piles or dence of attack that is visible to present. In comparatively scattered bits of wood powder the building inspector. Correct sound wood, galleries follow (frass), which are very fibrous identification of the insect the springwood. In decayed and sawdust-like. If the frass is responsible for the damage is wood, galleries are larger and from decayed wood, pieces essential if the appropriate con- pass through both springwood tend to be darker and more trol method is to be selected. and summerwood. Some are square ended. The frass is The characteristics of each of round in cross section, others expelled from cracks and the more common groups of are oval. The surfaces of the crevices, or from slit-like open- beetles, bees, and wasps are galleries have a velvety appear- ings made in the wood by the discussed in the following table ance and are sometimes cov- ants. It is often found in base- which summarizes the size and ered with dried fecal material. ments, dark closets, attics, shape of entry or exit holes pro- Fecal pellets are about 1 mm under porches, and in crawl duced by wood-boring insects, long and colored according to spaces. Galleries in the wood the types of wood they attack, the kind of wood being eaten. extend along the grain and the appearance of frass or saw- Found throughout the work- around the annual rings. The dust in insect tunnels, and the ings, the pellets are usually softer springwood is removed insect’s ability to reinfest wood hard and round at both ends. first. The surfaces of the gal- in a house. In very damp wood, the pellets leries are smooth, as if they To use the table, match the are often spherical or irregular, had been sandpapered, and are size and shape of the exit or and may stick to the sides of clean. The most effective way entry holes in the wood to the galleries. to control carpenter ants is to those listed in the table; note Dampwood termites must locate the nest and kill the whether the damaged wood is maintain contact with damp queen in colonies in and near a hardwood or softwood and wood. Therefore, they can be the house with insecticides. It whether damage is in a new or controlled by eliminating damp is sometimes also helpful to old wood product (evidence of wood. Treatment of the soil treat the voids in walls, etc. For inactive infestations of insects with chemicals can also be Appendix B—Wood-Inhabiting Organisms B-5

that attack only new wood will pores: for example, oak, hicko- and loosely packed with fine often be found in old wood; ry, ash, walnut, pecan, and frass. If damage is severe, the there is no need for control of many tropical hardwoods. They sapwood may be completely these). Next, probe the wood to reinfest seasoned wood until it converted to frass within a few determine the appearance of disintegrates. Lyctids range years and held in only by a the frass. It should then be from 3 to 7 mm in length and very thin veneer of surface possible to identify the insect are reddish-brown to black. wood with beetle exit holes. type. It is clear from the table The presence of small piles of The amount of damage that there is often considerable fine flour-like wood powder depends on the level of starch variation within particular (frass) on or under the wood is in the wood. Infestations are insect groups. Where the in- the most obvious sign of normally limited to hardwood spector is unsure of the identi- infestation. paneling, trim, furniture, and ty of the insect causing dam- Even a slight jarring of the flooring. Replacement or age, a qualified entomologist wood makes the frass sift from removal and fumigation of should be consulted. the holes. There are no pellets. infested materials are usually � Lyctid powder-post beetles. The exit holes are round and the most economical and effec- Lyctids attack only the sap- vary from 1 to 1.5 mm in tive control methods. For cur- wood of hardwoods with large diameter. Most of the tunnels rent information on the use of are about 1.5 mm in diameter residual insecticides, the

Table B-1 Characteristics of Wood-Inhabiting Organisms

Shape and size (inches) Wood type Age of wood Appearance of frass in tunnels Insect type Reinfest of exit/entry hole attacked round, 0.5 to 1.5 mm softwood & hardwood new none present ambrosia beetles no round, 0.8 to 1.5 mm hardwood new & old fine, flour-like, loosely packed lyctid beetles yes round, 0.8 to 2.5 mm bark/sapwood interface new fine to course, bark colored, tightly packed bark beetles no round, 0.8 to 1.5 mm softwood & hardwood new & old fine powder and pellets, loosely packed; anobiid beetles yes pellets may be absent and frass tightly packed in some hardwoods round, 2.5 to 7 mm softwood & hardwood new fine to course powder, tightly packed bostrichid beetles rarely (bamboo) round, 1.5 to 7 mm softwood new course, tightly packed horntail or no woodwasp round, 13 mm softwood new & old none present carpenter beetle yes round-oval, 3 to 10 mm softwood & hardwood new course to fibrous, mostly absent round-headed no borer oval, 3 to 13 mm softwood & hardwood new sawdust-like, tightly packed flat-headed borer no oval, 6 to 10 mm softwood new & old very fine powder and tiny pellets, old house borer yes tightly packed flat oval 13 mm or more softwood & hardwood new absent or sawdust-like, course to fibrous; round or no or irregular surface tightly packed flat headed borer groove, 6 to 13 mm wide B-6 Residential Inspection

inspector should contact the should contact the extension which it occurs in houses in extension entomologist at his entomologist at his nearest the mid-Atlantic states. The nearest land grant university land grant university or a rep- beetle ranges from 15 to 25 or a reputable pest control utable pest control company. mm in length, and is brownish- company. � Bostrichid powderpost bee- black in color. The first notice- Anobiid beetles. The most tles. Most bostrichids attack able sign of infestation by the common anobiids attack the hardwoods, but a few species old house borer may be the sapwood of hardwoods and attack softwoods. They rarely sound of larvae boring in the softwoods. They reinfest attack and reinfest seasoned wood. They make a rhythmic seasoned wood if environmen- wood. Bostrichids range from ticking or rasping sound, much tal conditions are favorable. 2.5 to 7 mm in length and like a mouse gnawing. In Attacks often start in poorly from reddish-brown to black. severe infestations the frass, heated or ventilated crawl The black polycaon is an atypi- which is packed loosely in tun- spaces and spread to other cal bostrichid and can be 13 to nels, may cause the thin sur- parts of the house. They rarely 25 mm in length. The first face layer of the wood to bulge occur in houses on slab foun- signs of infestation are circular out, giving the wood a blis- dations. Anobiids range from entry holes for the egg tunnels tered look. When adults 3 to 7 mm in length and are made by the females. The exit emerge (three to five years in reddish-brown to nearly black. holes made by adults are simi- the South, five to seven years Adult insects are rarely seen. lar, but are usually filled with in the North), small piles of The most obvious sign of infes- frass. The frass is meal-like frass may appear beneath or tation is the accumulation of and contains no pellets. It is on top of infested wood. The powdery frass and tiny pellets tightly packed in the tunnels exit holes are oval and 6 to underneath infested wood or and does not sift out of the 10 mm in diameter. They may streaming from exit holes. The wood easily. The exit holes are be made through hardwood, exit holes are round and vary round and vary from 2.5 to plywood, wood siding, trim, from 1.5 to 3 mm in diameter. 9 mm in diameter. Bostrichid sheetrock, paneling, or floor- If there are large numbers of tunnels are round and range ing. The frass is composed of holes and the powder is bright from 1.5 to 10 mm in diame- very fine powder and tiny and light colored like freshly ter. If damage is extreme, the blunt-ended pellets. If damage sawed wood, the infestation is sapwood may be completely is extreme, the sapwood may both old and active. If all the consumed. Bostrichids rarely be completely reduced to pow- frass is yellowed and partially cause significant damage in dery frass with a very thin caked on the surface where it framing lumber and primarily layer of surface wood. The sur- lies, the infestation has been affect individual pieces of faces of the tunnels have a controlled or has died out nat- hardwood flooring or trim. characteristic rippled pattern, urally. Anobiid tunnels are nor- Replacement of structurally like sand over which water has mally loosely packed with frass weakened members is usually washed. Control can be and pellets. It is normally 10 or the most economical and effec- achieved by both chemical and more years before the number tive control method. non-chemical methods. For current information on control of beetles infesting wood � Old house borer. This beetle of the old house borer, the becomes large enough for their infests the sapwood of soft- inspector should contact the presence to be noted. Control woods, primarily pine. It rein- extension entomologist at his can be achieved by both chemi- fests seasoned wood, unless it nearest land grant university cal and non-chemical methods. is very dry. The old house or a reputable pest control For current information on con- borer probably ranks next to company. trol of anobiids, the inspector termites in the frequency with Appendix B—Wood-Inhabiting Organisms B-7

Carpenter bees. Carpenter � Other wood-inhabiting in s e c t s . attack both sapwood and bees usually attack soft and There are several other species heartwood, producing a tunnel easy-to-work woods, such as of insects that infest dying or that is roughly C-shaped in the California redwood, cypress, freshly felled trees or unsea- tree. Exit holes and tunnels are cedar, and Douglas fir. Bare soned wood, but that do not circular in cross-section and wood, such as unfinished sid- reinfest seasoned wood. They 1.5 to 7 mm in diameter. ing or roof trim, is preferred. may emerge from wood in a fin- Tunnels are tightly packed The only external evidence of ished house or evidence of their with course frass. Frequently, attack is the entry holes made presence may be observed. On tunnels are exposed on the by the female. These are round rare occasions, control mea- surface of lumber by milling and 9 mm in diameter. A sures may be justified to pre- after the development of the rather course sawdust-like vent disfigurement of wood, but insect. frass may accumulate on sur- control is not needed to prevent � Round-headed borers. faces below the entry hole. The structural weakening. Several species are included in frass is usually the color of � Ambrosia beetles. These this group. They attack the freshly sawed wood. The pres- insects attack unseasoned sap- sapwood of softwoods and ence of carpenter bees in wood wood and heartwood of soft- hardwoods during storage, but sometimes attracts woodpeck- wood and hardwood logs, pro- rarely attack seasoned wood. ers, which increases the dam- ducing circular bore holes 0.5 The old house borer is the age to the surface of the wood. to 3 mm in diameter. Bore major round-headed borer that The carpenter bee tunnels turn holes do not contain frass, but can reinfest seasoned wood. at a right angle after extending are frequently stained blue, When round-headed borers approximately an inch across black, or brown. The insects do emerge from wood, they make the grain of the wood, except not infest seasoned wood. slightly oval to nearly round when entry is through the end � Bark beetles. These beetles exit holes 3 to 10 mm in diam- of a board. They then follow tunnel at the wood/bark inter- eter. Frass varies from rather the grain of the wood in a face and etch the surface of fine and meal-like in some straight line, sometimes for wood immediately below the species to very course fibers several feet. The tunnels are bark. Beetles left under bark like pipe tobacco in others. smooth-walled. It takes several edges on lumber may survive Frass may be absent from tun- years of neglect for serious for a year or more as the wood nels, particularly where the structural failure to occur. dries. Some brown, gritty frass wood was machined after the However, damaged wood is may fall from circular bore emergence of the insects. very unsightly, particularly if holes 1.5 to 2.5 mm in diame- � Flat-headed borers. These woodpeckers have followed the ter in the bark. These insects borers attack sapwood and bees. The bees can be con- do not infest wood. heartwood of softwoods and trolled by applying five to 10 hardwoods. Exit holes are oval, percent carbaryl (Sevin) dust � Horntails (wood wasps). with the long diameter 3 to into the entry holes. Several Horntails generally attack 13 mm. Wood damaged by flat- days after treatment, the holes unseasoned softwoods and do headed borers is generally should be plugged with dowel not reinfest seasoned wood. sawed after damage has or plastic wood. Prevention is One species sometimes occurred, so tunnels are best achieved by painting all emerges in houses from hard- exposed on the surface of exposed wood surfaces. wood firewood. Horntails occasionally emerge through panel- infested wood. Tunnels are ing, siding, or sheetrock in new packed with sawdust-like bor- houses; it may take four to five ings and pellets, and tunnel years for them to emerge. They walls are covered with fine B-8 Residential Inspection

transverse lines somewhat similar to some round-headed borers. However, the tunnels are much more flattened. The gol- den buprestid is one species of flat-headed borer that occurs occasionally in the Rocky Mountain and Pacific Coast states. It produces an oval exit hole 5 to 7 mm across, and may not emerge from wood in houses for 10 or more years after infestation of the wood. It does not reinfest seasoned wood.

If signs of insect or fungus damage other than those already described are observed, the inspector should have the organ- ism responsible identified before recommending corrective measures. Small samples of damaged wood, with any frass and insect specimens (larvae or grubs must be stored in vials filled with alco- hol), should be sent for identification to the entomology or pathol- ogy department of the state land grant university. Appendix C—Life Expectancy of Housing Components C-1

Appendix C— Bathrooms Life in Years Life Expectancy of Housing Cast iron bathtubs 50 Fiberglass bathtub and showers 10–15 Components Shower doors, average quality 25 The following material was developed for the National Toilets 50 Association of Home Builders (NAHB) Economics Sources: Neil Kelly Designers, Thompson House of Kitchens and Bath Department based on a survey of manufacturers, trade associations, and product researchers. Many factors affect the life expectancy of housing components and need to be Cabinetry considered when making replacement decisions, including Kitchen cabinets 15–20 the quality of the components, the quality of their installation, their level of maintenance, weather and climatic condi- Medicine cabinets and bath vanities 20 tions, and intensity of their use. Some components remain Sources: Kitchen Cabinet Manufacturers Association, Neil Kelly Designers functional but become obsolete because of changing styles and tastes or because of product improvements. Note that the following life expectancy estimates are provided largely Closet Systems by the industries or manufacturers that make and sell the Closet shelves Lifetime components listed.

Countertops Appliances Life in Years Laminate 10–15 Compactors 10 Ceramic tile, high-grade installation Lifetime Dishwashers 10 Wood/butcher block 20+ Dryers 14 Granite 20+ Disposal 10 Sources: AFPAssociates of Western Plastics, Ceramic Tile Institute of Freezers, compact 12 America Freezers, standard 16 Microwave ovens 11 Doors Screen 25–50 Electric ranges 17 Interior, hollow core Less than 30 Gas ranges 19 Interior, solid core 30-lifetime Gas ovens 14 Exterior, protected overhang 80–100 Refrigerators, compact 14 Exterior, unprotected and exposed 25–30 Refrigerators, standard 17 Folding 30–lifetime Washers, automatic and compact 13 Garage doors 20–50 Exhaust fans 20 Garage door opener 10 Source: Appliance Statistical Review, April 1990 Sources: Wayne Dalton Corporation, National Wood Window and Door Association, Raynor Garage Doors C-2 Residential Inspection

Electrical Life in Years Heating Ventilation Copper wiring, copper plated, 100+ and Air Conditioning Life in Years copper clad aluminum, and bare Central air conditioning unit 15 copper (newer units should last longer) Armored cable (BX) Lifetime Window unit 10 Conduit Lifetime Air conditioner compressor 15 Source: Jesse Aronstein, Engineering Consultant Humidifier 8 Electric water heater 14 Finishes Used for Waterproofing Gas water heater (depends on type 11–13 Paint, plaster, and stucco 3–5 of water heater lining and quality of Sealer, silicone, and waxes 1–5 water)

Source: Brick Institute of America Forced air furnaces, heat pump 15 Rooftop air conditioners 15 Floors Boilers, hot water or steam 30 Oak or pine Lifetime (depends on quality of water) Slate flagstone Lifetime Furnaces, gas- or oil-fired 18 Vinyl sheet or tile 20–30 Unit heaters, gas or electric 13 Terrazzo Lifetime Radiant heaters, electric 10 Carpeting (depends on installation, 11 Radiant heaters, hot water or steam 25 amount of traffic, and quality of carpet) Baseboard systems 20 Marble (depends on installation, Lifetime+ Diffusers, grilles, and registers 27 thickness of marble, and amount of traffic) Induction and fan coil units 20

Sources: Carpet and Rug Institute, Congoleum Corporation, Hardwood Dampers 20 Plywood Manufacturers Association, Marble Institute, National Terrazzo and Mosaic Association, National Wood Flooring Association, Resilient Floor Centrifugal fans 25 Covering Institute Axial fans 20 Ventilating roof-mounted fans 20 Footings and Foundation DX, water, and steam coils 20 Poured footings and foundations 200 Electric coils 15 Concrete block 100 Heat Exchangers, shell-and-tube 24 Cement 50 Molded insulation 20 Waterproofing, bituminous coating 10 Pumps, sump and well 10 Termite proofing (may have shorter 5 life in damp climates) Burners 21

Source: WR Grace and Company Sources: Air Conditioning and Refrigeration Institute, Air Conditioning, Heating, and Refrigeration News, Air Movement and Control Association, American Gas Association, American Society of Gas Engineers, American Society of Heating, Refrigeration and Air-Conditioning Engineers, Inc., Safe Aire Incorporated Appendix C—Life Expectancy of Housing Components C-3

Home Security Life in Years Paints and Stains Life in Years Applicances Exterior paint on wood, brick, and 7–10 Intrusion systems 14 aluminum Smoke detectors 12 Interior wall paint (depends on 5–10 the acrylic content) Smoke/fire/intrusion systems 10 Interior trim and door paint 5–10

Insulation Wallpaper 7 For foundations, roofs, ceilings, walls, Lifetime Sources: Finnaren and Haley, Glidden Company, The Wall Paper and floors Sources: Insulation Contractors Association of America, North American Plumbing Insulation Manufacturers Association Waste piping, cast iron 75–100 Sinks, enamel steel 5–10 Landscaping Sinks, enamel cast iron 25–30 Wooden decks 15 Sinks, china 25–30 Brick and concrete patios 24 Faucets, low quality 13–15 Tennis courts 10 Concrete walks 24 Faucets, high quality 15–20 Sources: American Concrete Pipe Association, Cast Iron Soil and Pipe Gravel walks 4 Institute, Neil Kelly Designers, Thompson House of Kitchens and Baths Asphalt driveways 10 Swimming pools 18 Roofing Sprinkler systems 12 Asphalt and wood shingles and shakes 15–30 Fences 12 Tile (depends on quality of tile and climate) 50 Sources: Associated Landscape Contractors of America, Irrigation Association Slate (depends on grade) 50–100 Sheet metal (depends on gauge of 20–50+ Masonry metal and quality of fastening and Chimney, fireplace, and brick veneer Lifetime application) Brick and stone walls 100+ Built-up roofing, asphalt 12–25 Stucco Lifetime Built-up roofing, coal and tar 12–30

Sources: Brick Institute of America, Architectural Components, National Asphalt composition shingle 15–30 Association of Brick Distributors, National Stone Association Asphalt overlag 25–35

Source: National Roofing Contractors Association Millwork Stairs, trim 50–100 Disappearing stairs 30–40 C-4 Residential Inspection

Rough Structure Life in Years Basement floor systems Lifetime Framing, exterior and interior walls Lifetime

Source: NAHB Research Foundation

Shutters Wood, interior Lifetime Wood, exterior (depends on weather 4–5 conditions) Vinyl plastic, exterior 7–8 Aluminum, interior 35–50 Aluminum, exterior 3–5

Sources: A.C. Shutters, Inc., Alcoa Building Products, American Heritage Shutters

Siding Gutters and downspouts 30 Siding, wood (depends on maintenance) 10–100 Siding, steel 50–Lifetime Siding, aluminum 20–50 Siding, vinyl 50

Sources: Alcoa Building Products, Alside, Inc., Vinyl Siding Institute

Walls and Wall Treatments Drywall and plaster 30–70 Ceramic tile, high grade installation Lifetime Sources: Association of Wall and Ceiling Industries International, Ceramic Tile Institute of America

Windows Window glazing 20 Wood casement 20–50 Aluminum and vinyl casement 20–30 Screen 25–50

Sources: Best Built Products, Optimum Window Manufacturing, Safety Glazing Certification Council, Screen Manufacturers Association Appendix D—References D-1

Scutella, Richard M., and Dave Heberle. 1994. Home Appendix D—References Buyer’s Checklist, A Foolproof Guide to Finding the The American Society of Home Inspectors (ASHI) is Perfect House, 2d ed. New York: McGraw-Hill, Tab the professional organization that establishes home Books. inspector qualifications and develops recommended Traister, John E. 1997. Home Inspection Handbook. home inspection standards. For information about Gordon and Breach Publishing Group, Craftsman this organization, write ASHI, Inc., 655 15th Street, House Books. N.W., Suite 320, Washington, D.C. 20005 (phone 202 842 3096), http://www.ashi.org. Ventolo, William L. 1995. Your Inspection Guide. Chicago, IL: Dearborn Financial Publishing Group, Useful home inspection publications include: Real Estate Education Company.

Becker, Norman. 1993. The Complete Book of Home The CABO One and Two Family Dwelling Code and Inspection. New York: McGraw-Hill, Tab Books. its successor, the International Residential Code for Boroson, Warren, and Ken Austin. 1993. The Home One- and Two-Family Dwellings, are the most widely Buyer’s Inspection Guide. New York: John Wiley & used and accepted residential building codes in the Sons. United States and can be used for comparing conditions in existing structures against current code Burgess, Russell W. 1999. Real Estate Home Inspec- requirements. They also provide span and working tion. 3d ed. Chicago, Illinois: Dearborn Financial stress tables for wood joists and rafters, which are Publishing Group, Real Estate Education useful for checking the adequacy of wood structural Company. components.

Carson, Alan, and Robert Dunlop. 1999. Inspecting International Code Council, Inc. 2000. International - a House: A Guide for Buyers, Owners, and Reno Residential Code for One- and Two-Family vators, 2d ed. New York: Stoddart Publishing Dwellings. Falls Church, VA: International Code Company. Council, Inc. Available from any of the three Carson Dunlop & Associates Limited. 1998. The model code organizations: Building Officials and Illustrated Home. Toronto, Ontario: Carson Code Administrators International, Inc., 4051 Dunlop & Associates Limited. Available from West Flossmoor Road, Country Club Hills, IL Carson, Dunlop & Associates, 120 Carlton Street, 60478-5795 (phone 703 799 2300), Suite 407, Toronto, Ontario M5A4K2, Canada http://www.bocai.org; Southern Building Code (phone 800 268 7070), Congress International, Inc., 900 Montclair Road, http://www.carsondunlop.com Birmingham, AL 35213-1206 (phone 205 591 1853), http://www.sbcci.org; and International .1998. Home Reference Book. Toronto, Conference of Building Officials, 5360 Workman Ontario: Carson Dunlop & Associates Limited. Mill Road, Whittier, CA 90601-2298 Available from Carson, Dunlop & Associates, (phone 800 423 6587), ht t p : / / w w w . i c b o . o r g . 120 Carlton Street, Suite 407, Toronto, Ontario M5A4K2, Canada (phone 800 268 7070), The National Electrical Code should be used as a ref- ht t p : / / www.carsondunlop.com erence for all electrical work.

Irwin, Robert. 1995. The Home Inspection National Fire Protection Association (NFPA). 2000. Troubleshooter. Chicago, IL: Dearborn Financial National Electrical Code. Quincy, MA: National Publishing Group, Real Estate Education Fire Protection Association. Available from NFPA, Company. Batterymarch Park, Quincy, MA 02269 (phone 617 770 3000), http://www.nfpa.org. D-2 Residential Inspection

The following publications are useful general HUD User, P.O. Box 6091, Rockville, MD 20849 references for rehabilitating houses: (phone 800 245 2691), http:// www.huduser.org.

Ching, Francis D. K., and Miller, Dale E. 1983. Home . 1977. In the Bank or Up the Chimney: A Renovation. New York: John Wiley & Sons. Dollars and Cents Guide to Energy-Savings Home Improvement. Washington, DC: U.S. Department Litchfield, Michael W. 1997. Renovation: A Complete of Housing and Urban Development. Available Guide. New York: Sterling Publishing. from HUD User, P.O. Box 6091, Rockville, MD Nash, George. 1996. Renovating Old Houses. 20849 (phone 800 245 2691), Newtown, CT: Taunton Press. http://www.huduser.org.

Vila, Bob, and Hugh Howard. 1999. Bob Vila’s . 1996. Rehabilitation Energy Guidelines for Complete Guide to Remodeling Your Home: One-to-Four Family Dwellings. Washington, DC: Everything You Need to Know about Home U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Develop- Renovation from the Number One Home ment. Available from HUD User, P.O. Box 6091, Improvement Expert. New York: Harper Collins, Rockville, MD 20849 (phone 800 245 2691), Avon Books. http:// www.huduser.org.

Residential buildings of historic significance Wilson, Alex and John Morrill. 2000. Consumer should be rehabilitated in accordance with the Guide to Home Energy Savings. 6th ed. following: Washington, DC: American Council for an Energy Efficient Economy. Heritage Preservation Services, National Park Service (NPS). 2000. The Secretary of the Interior’s The following publications are referenced in this Standards for Rehabilitation and Illustrated Guide- Guideline: lines for Rehabilitating Historic Buildings. Air Conditioning Contractors of America (ACCA). Washington, DC: National Park Service. Available Residential Load Calculation (Manual J). from NPS, Washington, DC 20240, Washington, DC: Air Conditioning Contractors of http://www.nps.gov or full text online at America. Available from ACCA, 1712 New http://www2. cr.nps.gov/tps/tax/rhb/stand.htm. Hampshire Avenue, NW, Washington, DC 20009 Publications useful for assessing the energy (phone 202 483 9370), http:// www.acca.org. efficiency of existing residential buildings include: Ambrose, James E. 2000. Simplified Engineering for U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development Architects and Builders. New York: John Wiley & (HUD). 1982. Applying Cost-Effective Energy Sons. Standards in Rehabilitation Projects. Washington, Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA). DC: U.S. Department of Housing and Urban 1999. Taking Shelter from the Storm: Building a Development. Available from HUD User, P.O. Box Safe Room Inside Your House (FEMA 320). 2d ed. 6091, Rockville, MD 20849 (phone 800 245 2691), Washington, DC: Federal Emergency Management http://www.huduser.org. Agency. Available from FEMA Publications, P.O. . 1981. Conserving Energy in Older Homes: Box 2012, Jessup, MD 20794-2012 (phone A Do-It-Yourself Manual. Washington, DC: U.S. 800 565 3896), http:// www.fema.gov. Department of Housing and Urban Development. . 1996. Design Manual for Retrofitting Flood- Available from HUD User, P.O. Box 6091, Prone Residential Structures (FEMA-114). Rockville, MD 20849 (phone 800 245 2691), Washington, DC: Federal Emergency Management http://www.huduser.org. Agency. Available from FEMA Publications, P.O. . 1982. Energy Conserving Features in Older Box 2012, Jessup, MD 20794-2012 (phone Homes. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of 800 565 3896), http:// www.fema.gov. Housing and Urban Development. Available from Appendix D—References D-3

Gypsum Association. 1999. Design Data—Gypsum Heights, IL 60004 (phone 847 577 7200), Products (GA-530). Washington, DC: Gypsum http://www.lightning.org. Association. Available from Gypsum Association, National Association of Home Builders Remodelers 810 First Street, NW, Washington, DC 20002 Council and Single Family Small Volume Builders (phone 202 289 5440), http://www.gypsum.org. Committee (NAHB). 1996. Residential Construction Institute for Business and Home Safety (IBHS). 1998. Performance Guidelines for Professional Builders Is Your Home Protected from Hurricane Disaster? and Remodelers. Washington, DC: National A Homeowner’s Guide to Hurricane Retrofit. Association of Home Builders. Available from Boston: Institute for Business and Home Safety. NAHB, 1201 15th Street, NW, Washington, DC Available from IBHS, 175 Federal Street, Suite 20005 (phone 202 822 0200), 500, Boston, MA 02110-2222 (phone 617 292 http://www.nahb.org. 2003), http://www.ibhs.org. National Concrete Masonry Association (NCMA). . 1999. Is Your Home Protected from 1997. Sound Transmission Class Ratings for Earthquake Disaster? A Homeowner’s Guide to Concrete Masonry Walls (Tek Note 13-1). Herndon, Earthquake Retrofit. Boston: Institute for Business VA: National Concrete Masonry Association. and Home Safety. Available from IBHS, 175 Available from NCMA, 2302 Horse Pen Road, Federal Street, Suite 500, Boston, MA 02110-2222 Herndon, VA 20171 (phone 703 713 1900), (phone 617 292 2003), http:// www.ibhs.org. http:// www.ncma.org.

. 1999. Is Your Home Protected from Hail National Fire Protection Association (NFPA). 1997. Damage? A Homeowner’s Guide to Roofing and Standard for the Installation of Lightning Hail. Boston: Institute for Business and Home Protection Systems (NFPA 780). Quincy, MA: Safety. Available from IBHS, 175 Federal Street, National Fire Protection Association. Available Suite 500, Boston, MA 02110-2222 (phone from NFPA, Batterymarch Park, Quincy, MA 02269 617 292 2003),http://www.ibhs.org. (phone 617 770 3000), http:// www.nfpa.org.

International Conference of Building Officials (ICBO). National Institute of Building Sciences (NIBS). 1996. 1997. Seismic Strengthening Provisions for Guidance Manual: Asbestos Operations and Unreinforced Masonry Bearing Wall Buildings. Maintenance Work Practices. Washington, DC: Appendix Chap. 1 in Uniform Code for Building National Institute of Building Sciences. Available Conservation. Whittier, CA: International from NIBS, 1090 Vermont Avenue, NW, Conference of Building Officials. Available from Washington, DC 20005-4905 (phone ICBO, 5360 Workman Mill Road, Whittier, CA 202 289 7800), http:// www.nibs.org. 90601-2298 (phone 800 423 6587), . 1995. Lead-Based Paint Operation and http:// www.icbo.org. Maintenance Work Practices Manual for Homes International Ground Source Heat Pump Association and Buildings. Washington, DC: National Institute (IGSHPA). 1997. Geothermal Heat Pumps: of Building Sciences. Available from NIBS, 1090 Introductory Guide. Stillwater, OK: International Vermont Avenue, NW, Washington, DC 20005- Ground Source Heat Pump Association. Available 4905 (phone 202 289 7800), http://www.nibs.org. from IGSHPA, 490 Cordell South, Oklahoma State Partnership for Advancing Technology in Housing University, Stillwater, OK 74078-8018 (phone (PATH). 1998–. The Rehab Guide. Vol. 1, 800 626 4747), http:// www.igshpa.okstate.edu Foundations (HUD 8590), vol. 2, Exterior Walls Lightning Protection Institute (LPI). Installation Code (HUD 8751), vol. 3, Roofs (HUD 8702), vol. 4, (LPI-175). Arlington Heights, IL: Lightning Windows and Doors (HUD 8724), vol. 5, Partitions, Protection Institute. Available from LPI, 3335 Ceilings, Floors and Stairs (HUD 8798), vol. 6, North Arlington Heights Road, Suite E, Arlington Kitchens and Baths (HUD 8796), vol. 7, Electrical/Electronics, vol. 8, HVAC/Plumbing D-4 Residential Inspection

(HUD 8797), vol. 9, Site Work. Washington, DC: American Concrete Institute (ACI). 1992. Guide for U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Making a Condition Survey of Concrete in Service Development (HUD). Available from HUD User, (ACI 201.1R-92). Farmington, MI: American P.O. Box 6091, Rockville, MD 20848 (phone 800 Concrete Institute. Available from ACI, P.O. Box 245 2691), http:// www.huduser.org or full text 9094, Farmington, MI 48333, online at Path Net, http://www.pathnet.org. http://www.aciint.org.

Underwriters Laboratories (UL). 1994. Installation . 1994. Guide for Evaluation of Concrete Requirements for Lightning Protection Systems (UL Structures Prior to Rehabilitation (ACI 364.1R-94). 96A). Northbrook, IL: Underwriters Laboratories. Farmington, MI: American Concrete Institute. Available from UL, 333 Pfingsten Road, North- Available from ACI, P.O. Box 9094, Farmington, brook, IL 60062-2096 (phone 847 272 8800), MI 48333, http://www.aciint.org. www.ulstandardsinfonet. ul.com. . 1997. Standard Specification for Repairing . 1994. UL Standard for Safety for Lightning Concrete with Epoxy Mortars (ACI 503.4-92). In Protection Components (UL 96). Northbrook, IL: Four Epoxy Standards (ACI 503.1-92). Farmington, Underwriters Laboratories. Available from UL, Michigan: American Concrete Institute. Available 333 Pfingsten Road, Northbrook, IL 60062-2096 from ACI, P.O. Box 9094, Farmington, MI 48333, (phone 847 272 8800), http://www.aciint.org. http://www.ulstandardsinfonet.ul.com. American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM). U. S. Department of Housing and Urban Develop- 1997. Standard Test Method for Penetration ment (HUD). 1996. Residential Remodeling and Resistance of Hardened Concrete (ASTM Universal Design: Making Homes More Comfort- C803/X803M-97e1). West Conshohocken, PA: able and Accessible (HUD 07107). Washington, American Society for Testing and Materials. DC: U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Available from ASTM, 100 Barr Harbor Drive, Development. Available from HUD User, P.O. Box West Conshohocken, PA 19428 (phone 610 832 6091, Rockville, MD 20848 (phone 800 245 2691), 9500), http://www.astm.org. http:// www.huduser.org. . 1997. Standard Test Method for Rebound . 1995. Lead–Based Paint Inspections. Chap. Number of Hardened Concrete (ASTM C805-97). 7 in Guidelines for the Evaluation and Control of West Conshohocken, PA: American Society for Lead-Based Paint Hazards in Housing. Washing- Testing and Materials. Available from ASTM, 100 ton, DC: U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Barr Harbor Drive, West Conshohocken, PA 19428 Development. Available from HUD User, P.O. Box (phone 610 832 9500), http://www.astm.org. 6091, Rockville, MD 20848 (phone 800 245 2691), . 1999. Standard Test Method for Effect of http:// www.huduser.org. Air Supply on Smoke Density in Flue Gasses from . 1997. Nationally Applicable Recommen- Burning Distillate Fuels (ASTM D2157-94 (1999)). ded Rehabilitation Provisions. Washington, DC: West Conshohocken, PA: American Society for U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Devel- Testing and Materials. Available from ASTM, 100 opment. Available from HUD User, P.O. Box 6091, Barr Harbor Drive, West Conshohocken, PA 19428 Rockville, MD 20848 (phone 800 245 2691), (phone 610 832 9500), http://www.astm.org. http://www.huduser.org. . 1999. Standard Test Method for Tension The following test standards are referenced in this Testing of Metallic Material (ASTM E8-99). West Gu i d e l i n e : Conshohocken, PA: American Society for Testing and Materials. Available from ASTM, 100 Barr Harbor Drive, West Conshohocken, PA 19428 (phone 610 832 9500), http://www.astm.org. Appendix D—References D-5

. 1989. Standard Test Method of . 1999. Standard Test Method for Determin- Compression Testing of Metallic Materials at Room ing Air Leakage Rate by Fan Pressurization (ASTM Temperature (ASTM E9-89ae1). West Consho- E779-99). West Conshohocken, PA: American hocken, PA: American Society for Testing and Society for Testing and Materials. Available from Materials. Available from ASTM, 100 Barr Harbor ASTM, 100 Barr Harbor Drive, West Drive, West Conshohocken, PA 19428 (phone Conshohocken, PA 19428 (phone 610 832 9500), 610 832 9500), http://www.astm.org. http://www.astm.org.

. 1999. Standard Method for Laboratory . 1993. Standard Test Method for Field Measurement of Airborne Sound Transmission Measurement of Air Leakage Through Installed Loss of Building Partitions and Elements. (ASTM Exterior Windows and Doors (ASTM E783-93). E90-99). West Conshohocken, PA: American West Conshohocken, PA: American Society for Society for Testing and Materials. Available from Testing and Materials. Available from ASTM, 100 ASTM, 100 Barr Harbor Drive, West Barr Harbor Drive, West Conshohocken, PA 19428 Conshohocken, PA 19428 (phone 610 832 9500), (phone 610 832 9500), http://www.astm.org. http://www.astm.org. . 1996. Standard Test Method for Field . 1996. Standard Method of Laboratory Determination of Water Penetration of Installed Measurement of Impact Sound Transmission Exterior Windows, Curtain Walls, and Doors by Through Floor-Ceiling Assemblies Using the Uniform or Cyclic Static Air Pressure Difference Tapping Machine (ASTM E492-90(1996)e1). West (ASTM E1105-96). West Conshohocken, PA: Conshohocken, PA: American Society for Testing American Society for Testing and Materials. and Materials. Available from ASTM, 100 Barr Available from ASTM, 100 Barr Harbor Drive, Harbor Drive, West Conshohocken, PA 19428 West Conshohocken, PA 19428 (phone 610 832 (phone 610 832 9500), http://www.astm.org. 9500), http://www.astm.org.

. 1999. Standard Test Methods for Flexural American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE). 1990. Bond Strength of Masonry (ASTM E518-99). West Guideline for Structural Condition Assessment of Conshohocken, PA: American Society for Testing Existing Buildings (ASCE 11-90). Reston, VA: and Materials. Available from ASTM, 100 Barr American Society of Civil Engineers. Available Harbor Drive, West Conshohocken, PA 19428 from ASCE, 1801 Alexander Bell Drive, Reston, (phone 610 832 9500), http://www.astm.org. VA 20191-4400 (phone 703 295 6300), http://www.asce.org. . 1993. Standard Test Method for Diagonal Tension (Shear) in Masonry Assemblages (A S T M Associated Air Balance Council (AABC). 1999. AABC E519- 81(1993)e1). West Conshohocken, PA: Test and Balance Procedures (MN-4). Washington, American Society for Testing and Materials. DC: Associated Air Balance Council. Available Available from ASTM, 100 Barr Harbor Drive, from AABC, 1518 K Street, NW, Washington, DC West Conshohocken, PA 19428 (phone 20005 (phone 202 737 0202), 610 832 9500), http://www.astm.org. http://www.aabchq.com.

. 1995. Standard Test Method for National Environmental Balancing Bureau (NEBB). Determining Air Change in a Single Zone by 1998. Procedural Standards for Testing, Adjusting, Means of a Tracer Gas Dilution (ASTM E741-95). and Balancing of Environmental Systems, 6th ed. West Conshohocken, PA: American Society for Gaithersburg, MD: National Environmental Testing and Materials. Available from ASTM, 100 Balancing Bureau. Available from NEBB, 8575 Barr Harbor Drive, West Conshohocken, PA 19428 Grovemont Circle, Gaithersburg, MD 20877-4121 (phone 610 832 9500), http://www.astm.org. (phone 301 977 3698) http://www/nebb.org. D-6 Residential Inspection Appendix E—Inspection Record E-1

Appendix E— Inspection Record

Building Name/Location

Lot size Zoning classification Year building built Date of alterations Total building area Applicable building codes Height limitation Setback requirements: Front yard Side yard Rear yard Other

General comments: E-2 Residential Inspection

Site Plan Note the following on the site plan:

� North arrow � Outbuildings � Utility lines

� Lot lines � Sidewalks and driveways � Water well, if any

� Building outline � Plantings � Septic system, if any

� Drainage direction(s) � Fences and walls � Drawing scale

Provide dimensions for all major site components Appendix E—Inspection Record E-3

Elevations Note the following on each elevation:

� All exterior doors and windows � Material types

� Important architectural details � Direction of view

� Floor-to-floor heights � Drawing scale

Supplement with exterior photographs as appropriate E-4 Residential Inspection

Floor plan

Note the following on each floor plan:

� North arrow � Exterior dimensions � Plumbing fixtures

� Floor level � Window sizes � HVAC equipment

� Wall thicknesses � Door widths and swings � Kitchen cabinetry

� Wall materials � Room dimensions � Scale

Show major structural elements in colored pencil or marker Appendix E—Inspection Record E-5

Inspection checklist

1—Site

Data Condition/needed repairs

1.1 Drainage Window well sizes Basement stairwell size

1.2 Site improvements Types of plantings

Fence dimensions Lighting types Driveway dimensions Sidewalk widths Step dimensions Retaining walls

1.3 Outbuildings Garage dimensions Shed dimensions Other

1.4 Yards and Courts Areaway dimensions Lighting dimensions Access

1.5 Flood Region � Flood risk zone (see local authorities) E-6 Residential Inspection

2—Building Exterior Data Condition/needed repairs

2.1 Foundation Walls and Piers See Sections 4.1 and 4.2 for masonry See Section 4.7 for concrete See Section 4.5 for wood

2.2 Exterior Wall Cladding Cladding material Thermal insulation

2.3 Windows and Doors Door types No. Window types No. Storm window type No. Storm door type No.

2.4 Decks, Porches, Balconies Size(s) Flooring material(s) Railing height(s)

2.5 Pitched roofs � Replace � Retain Covering type Flashing type

2.6 Flat Roofs � Replace � Retain Covering type Flashing type

2.7 Skylights Size(s) Appendix E—Inspection Record E-7

Data Condition/needed repairs

2.8 Gutters, Downspouts and Drains � Replace � Retain Gutter size(s) (1 sq. in. per 100 sq. ft. of roof) Downspout size(s) (one downspout per 40 ft. of gutter)

2.9 Chimneys Height above roof Flue size(s)

2.10 Parapets and Gables � Requires structural inspection

2.11 Lightning Protection � Protection required E-8 Residential Inspection

3—Building Interior

Data Condition/needed repairs 3.1 Basement/Crawl Space Floor height Floor material Wall material Insulating materials

3.2 Interior Spaces Room Dimensions Height Ceiling/wall material(s) Floor material Door size(s) Window size(s) Closet size(s) Trim No. 120V outlets � 240V outlet Heat source Skylights

Room Dimensions Height Ceiling/wall material(s) Floor material Door size(s) Window size(s) Closet size(s) Trim No. 120V outlets � 240V outlet Heat source Skylights Appendix E—Inspection Record E-9

Data Condition/needed repairs

Room Dimensions Height Ceiling/wall material(s) Floor material Door size(s) Window size(s) Closet size(s) Trim No. 120V outlets � 240V outlet Heat source Skylights

Room Dimensions Height Ceiling/wall material(s) Floor material Door size(s) Window size(s) Closet size(s) Trim No. 120V outlets � 240V outlet Heat source Skylights E-10 Residential Inspection

Data Condition/needed repairs

Room Dimensions Height Ceiling/wall material(s) Floor material Door size(s) Window size(s) Closet size(s) Trim No. 120V outlets � 240V outlet Heat source Skylights

3.3 Bathroom Dimensions Height Ceiling/wall material(s) Floor/wall material(s) Window size Height from floor Closet size(s) Heat source � 120V outlet � GFCI protected Lavatory: � Replace � Retain Toilet: � Replace � Retain Tub/shower: � Replace � Retain Ventilation source Appendix E—Inspection Record E-11

Data Condition/needed repairs

Dimensions Height Ceiling/wall material(s) Floor/wall material(s) Window size Height from floor Closet size(s) Heat source � 120V outlet � GFCI protected Lavatory: � Replace � Retain Toilet: � Replace � Retain Tub/shower: � Replace � Retain Ventilation source

3.4 Kitchen Dimensions Height Ceiling/wall material Floor covering Window size(s) Counter space, l.f. Overhead cabinets, l.f. Undercounter cabinets, l.f. Heat source No. of 120v outlets � Sep. 120V 20 amp refrig. outlet � 240V range outlet � gas outlet Dishwasher (20 amp.) � Replace � Retain Disposal (20 amp.) � Replace � Retain Exhaust fan: � Replace � Retain Other: � Replace � Retain E-12 Residential Inspection

Data Condition/needed repairs 3.5 Storage Spaces Location Size Location Size Location Size

3.6 Stairs/Hallway Ceiling/wall material Floor material � Three-way light control � Smoke detector Handrail ht. Railing ht. Tread/riser dim. Stair width Head room Structural integrity

3.7 Laundry/Utility Room Ceiling/wall material Floor covering � Plumbing connections adequate � Dryer vent Laundry tub: � Replace � Retain � Floor drain present Washer: � Replace � Retain Dryer: � Replace � Retain � 240V. outlet � Gas outlet

3.8 Fireplace/flues Opening Location Size Depth Appendix E—Inspection Record E-13

Data Condition/needed repairs

3.9 Attic Ht. of highest point Means of access Ventilation, clear area s.f. Signs of roof leakage Type of insulation Depth

3.10 Whole Building Thermal Efficiency Tests � Conduct pressurization test � Scan exterior for heat loss

3.11 Sound Transmission Control � Conduct sound transmission tests

3.12 Asbestos � Evidence of asbestos

3.13 Lead � Evidence of lead-based paint � Water test conducted

3.14 Radon � Radon test conducted

3.15 Tornado Room � Requires structural inspection E-14 Residential Inspection

4—Structural System

Data Condition/needed repairs

4.1 Seismic Resistance � Requires structural inspection

4.2 Wind Resistance � Requires structural inspection

4.3 Masonry, General Load bearing walls are:

4.4 Masonry Foundations and Piers Foundation wall material Wall thickness Pier material Pier size(s) Pier spacing Depth of footings � Structural problems

4.5 Above-ground Masonry Walls Wall material(s) Wall thickness Support over openings � Thermal moisture cracking � Freeze/thaw, corrosion cracking � Structural failure cracking � Wall bulging � Wall leaning � Brick veneer problems � Parapet wall problems � Fire damage problems Appendix E—Inspection Record E-15

Data Condition/needed repairs

4.6 Chimneys Chimney materials Depth of footings � Structural problems

4.7 Wood Structural Components Framing type (balloon, platform, timber frame) Floor members size spacing Floor substrate material Wall members size spacing Wall substrate material Ceiling members size spacing Roof members size spacing Roof substrate material � Deflection/warping problems � Signs of fungal/insect attack � Fire damage problems

4.8 Iron and Steel Structural Components Lintels, Columns and Beams size location size location size location � Lintel problems � Column/beam problems � Fire damage problems E-16 Residential Inspection

Data Condition/needed repairs

4.9 Concrete Structural Components Slabs, Lintels, Walls size location size location size location � Foundation/cracking problems � Interior slab-on-grade problems � Exterior concrete problems � Fire damage problems

5—Electrical System

5.1 Service Entry � Replace � Retain Capacity from street Amps: Volts: Overhead wire clearance � Electric meter adequate � Service entrance conductor adequate

5.2 Main Panelboard � Replace � Retain Main circuit breaker Amps: Volts: Grounded to � 15 Amp fuses/circuit breakers No. � 20 Amp fuses/circuit breakers No. � 25 Amp fuses/circuit breakers No. � 30 Amp fuses/circuit breakers No. � 40 Amp fuses/circuit breakers No. � Overcurrent protection adequate Appendix E—Inspection Record E-17

Data Condition/needed repairs

5.3 Branch Circuits � Replace � Retain Circuit Wire Wire Area No. Gage Capacity Served

� Circuits grounded to panel box � Wire insulation in good condition � Aluminum wire used E-18 Residential Inspection

6—Plumbing Data Condition/needed repairs

6.1 Water Service Entry � Replace � Retain Curb valve location Line size Material � Shutoff valve operable Water meter location

6.2 Interior Water Distribution Lines � Replace � Retain Pipe Pipe Fixtures size material served

� Thermal protection adequate

6.3 DWV Piping � Replace � Retain Pipe Pipe Fixtures size material served

� Vents, drains and traps operable Appendix E—Inspection Record E-19

Data Condition/needed repairs

6.4/6.5 Hot Water Heater � Replace � Retain Type Age Storage capacity Gal. Recovery Rate � Plumbing components adequate � Fuel burning components adequate � Controls adequate

6.6 Water Well Location Depth of casing Pump type Age Capacity GPM Depth � Pressure tank adequate

6.7 Septic system Location Tank capacity Gal. Age of system Size of drain field � Grease trap clean

6.8 Gas Supply in Seismic Regions � Service entrance has adequate clearance/flexible connection � Has automatic emergency shutoff valve E-20 Residential Inspection

7—HVAC System

Data Condition/needed repairs

7.1 Thermostatic Controls � Replace � Retain Location(s)

� Master switch operable

7.2–7.6 Heating System � Replace � Retain Location Fuel type Fuel storage capacity System type Age of heating unit BTU/hr output � Room ventilation adequate � Physical condition adequate � Operation adequate � Venting/draft adequate � Distribution system adequate � Controls adequate

7.7–7.10 Cooling System � Replace � Retain Location System type Age of cooling unit Electric service reqd. � Physical condition adequate � Operation adequate

7.11 Humidifier � Replace � Retain Humidifier type � Physical condition adequate � Operation adequate Appendix E—Inspection Record E-21

Data Condition/needed repairs

7.12 Unit air conditioners � Replace � Retain Location Capacity in Tons Volts Amps

7.13 Whole House and Attic Fans � Replace � Retain Location Capacity in cubic ft/min. E-22 Residential Inspection

Additional Notes

U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development HUD USER FIRST CLASS MAIL POSTAGE & FEES PAID P.O. Box 6091 HUD Rockville, MD 20849 Permit No. G-795 ______

Official Business Penalty for Private Use $300

February 2000