Beninu Andersen (208233) IP: 85.184.159.51 On: Mon, 27 Jan 2020 04:21:30 Subtitling Norms for Television
Beninu Andersen (208233) IP: 85.184.159.51 On: Mon, 27 Jan 2020 04:21:30 research, gives more visibility to young scholars’ work, publicizes research new translation and interpreting research community. It promotes trends new in channel to within optimize theLibrary EST’s functionas aforum for the The EuropeanSociety for Translation Studies (EST) Subseries is a publication EST Subseries http://benjamins.com/catalog/btl published books For all in this series, of an overview see please graduate and text books readers in theEnglish language. context.pedagogical includesLibrary The scholarly works, referencebooks, post- sometimes conflicting)socio-cultural, be in a historical,theoretical, applied and studies. Library The provides a forum for a varietyapproaches of (which may The BTL aims to stimulate research trainingand translation in and interpreting Benjamins Translation Library (BTL) by Jan Pedersen cultural references Subtitling Norms for Television. An exploration focussing on extralinguistic Volume 98 Barcelona Universitat Autònoma de Amparo Hurtado Albir Nouvelle Université Paris 3-Sorbonne Daniel Gile FUNDP (University Namur)of Dirk Delabastita Dublin City University Michael Cronin Binghamton University Rosemary Arrojo Board Advisory University Turku of Yves Gambier Editor General translation studies which do not exist in English or which are now out print. of methods, makes available documents from EST, and reissues classical works in
University Paulo São of John Milton Charles University Prague of Zuzana Jettmarová Bar-Ilan University Israel Miriam Shlesinger Associate Editor University León of Rabadán Rosa Universitat Rovira i Virgili Anthony Pym University of Vienna Franz Pöchhacker University Graz of Michaela Wolf Temple University Lawrence Venuti Amherst University Massachusetts of Maria Tymoczko UniversityBogaziçi TahirŞehnaz Gürçaglar Concordia University Simon Sherry Tel Aviv University Gideon Toury Honorary Editor
Beninu Andersen (208233) IP: 85.184.159.51 On: Mon, 27 Jan 2020 04:21:30 Stockholm University Jan Pedersen on extralinguistic cultural references An exploration focussing Subtitling Norms for Television Amsterdam John Benjamins Publishing Company / Philadelphia
Beninu Andersen (208233) IP: 85.184.159.51 On: Mon, 27 Jan 2020 04:21:30 John Benjamins North ·P.O.America ·Philadelphia 27519 Box John Benjamins Publishing Co. ·P.O. 36224 Box ·1020 other means, without written permission from publisher. the anyreproducedform,in maybe print,by book this photoprint, of Nopart microfilm, any or © 2011 –John Benjamins B.V.
8TM 902728392isbn 978 4 0 902722446 isbn 978 418’.03791--dc23 P306.2.P43 Televisionprograms-- 3.language. and media Mass interpreting.2.Translating and 1. Includes bibliographical references and index. p. cm. (Benjamins Translation Library, Subtitling norms for television : an exploration focussing on extralinguistic cultural refer Pedersen, Jan. Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data of Library Paper for Printed Materials, Library American National Standard for Information –Permanence Sciences of thispaper Thein used publicationthe minimummeets requirements of Titling. 4. Language and culture. 5. Discourse analysis. I. Title. ences /Jan Pedersen.
(Eb) 2011 (Hb ; alk. paper) 2011032359 issn ansi 0929-7316 ; v. 98) z39.48-1984. me Amsterdam ·The Netherlands pa 19118-0519 · 19118-0519 usa -
Beninu Andersen (208233) IP: 85.184.159.51 On: Mon, 27 Jan 2020 04:21:30 To subtitlers over all world. the
Beninu Andersen (208233) IP: 85.184.159.51 On: Mon, 27 Jan 2020 04:21:30
Beninu Andersen (208233) IP: 85.184.159.51 On: Mon, 27 Jan 2020 04:21:30 3.3 3.2 3.1 CulturalExtralinguistic References astranslation problems chapter 3 2.5 2.4 2.3 2.2 2.1 Norms ingeneraland particular chapter 2 1.2 1.1 Subtitling asaudiovisual translation chapter 1 Acknowledgement Abbreviations ofList tables ofList figures Extralinguistic CulturalExtralinguistic References (ECRs) Translation problems Norms, strategies and solutions The content of norms potencyThe of norms In search of norms The descriptiveparadigm Audiovisual choice Where ECRsare found and why 3.2.4 3.2.3 3.2.2 3.2.1 2.4.2 2.4.1 1.2.3 1.2.2 1.2.1 The nature of subtitling 3.2.5 Table of contents
The world of references What’s inaname? Defining reference criteria: LanguageSelection and culture Chesterman’s norms Toury’s norms A contract of illusion The constraints of subtitling The subtitling process The domains of ECRs 28 3 41 33 30 34 8 25 51 49 35 21 58 13 37 56 61 18 43 45 xvii xiii xv xi 25 41 1
Beninu Andersen (208233) IP: 85.184.159.51 On: Mon, 27 Jan 2020 04:21:30
Subtitling Norms for Television 4.3 4.2 4.1 Translation strategies: How it’s done chapter 4 6.3 6.2 6.1 Empirical subtitling norms for television chapter 5.7 5.6 5.5 5.4 5.3 5.2 5.1 Influencingparameters: Why it’sdone that like chapter 5 Transculturality: How well known an ECRis Product and process: Aquestion of perspectives A taxonomy for rendering ECRsinsubtitling Taxonomies of translation strategies How cultural references are rendered Technical norms: Subtitles coming and going Material The effects the of Subtitling Situation Media-specific constraints The Co-text: rest the dialogue of Polysemiotics: The interplaybetween channels HowCentrality: important an ECRis The independentExtratextuality: existence of ECRs 4.2.5 4.2.4 4.2.3 4.2.2 4.2.1 6.2.2 6.2.1 6.1.3 6.1.2 6.1.1 4.2.7 4.2.6 6 Substitution: Replacing culture (with culture) Generalization:withthe Replacing specific general the Direct Translation Specification:Explaining ST items Retention: Keeping ST elements TT inthe Discussion of development the A diachronic study ScandinavianThe SubtitlesCorpus The ESIST corpus Extratextual sources Using anEquivalent: Official The ready-made solution Omission: ECR Deleting the 4.2.5.3 4.2.5.2 4.2.5.1 6.2.1.3 6.2.1.2 6.2.1.1 121 Situational Substitution Situational Cultural Substitution by Target Culture ECR Cultural Substitution by Transcultural ECR Condensation rate Subtitle density reading speed Expected 115 123 83 132 122 114 135 71 115 96 151 111 138 142
79 95 133 124 106 130 74 113 100 77 110 89 91 97 85 92 105 121 69
Beninu Andersen (208233) IP: 85.184.159.51 On: Mon, 27 Jan 2020 04:21:30 Index Appendix B: Appendix A sources Secondary Sources Primary Sources 7.2 7.1 Prototypical subtitling chapter 7 6.6 6.5 6.4
Defaults of subtitling Brief summary Formulating subtitling norms Norm development over The time: case of Cultural Substitution Directness insubtitling Abbreviations Audiovisual material not corpus inthe articlesand webBooks, sites Supplementary material Main material 6.6.6 6.6.5 6.6.4 6.6.3 6.6.2 6.6.1 6.3.2 6.3.1 :
Glossary The Scandinavian The CorpusSubtitles Lower-level norms Guidance norms: Whether or not to aid viewer the Orientation norms: Foreign or domesticated subtitles Technical subtitling norms: Differences in subtitle density Differences of genre Long versus short vs.feature format: series TV films Not RsinSwedish easy so and Danish subtitles RsinSwedishEasy and Danish Subtitles 6.3.2.7 6.3.2.6 6.3.2.5 6.3.2.4 6.3.2.3 6.3.2.2 6.3.2.1
217
218 230 217 209 Official EquivalentsOfficial Omission Substitution Generalization Direct Translation Specification Retention 211
172 217 202 218 189
169 159 186 166 161 164 162 226 169 151 157 Table of contents 197 188 192 179 190 209 229 239 241 217
Beninu Andersen (208233) IP: 85.184.159.51 On: Mon, 27 Jan 2020 04:21:30
Beninu Andersen (208233) IP: 85.184.159.51 On: Mon, 27 Jan 2020 04:21:30 Figure O Figure N Figure M Figure L Figure K Figure J Figure I Figure H Figure G Figure F Figure E Figure D Figure C Figure B Figure A List ofList figures strategies Three TTsThree of an extract of Police Academy Simplified process-orientedtaxonomy transferof ECR Omission Situational Substitution Cultural Substitution Generalization –Superordinate Term Direct Translation Specification Retention Taxonomy of ECRtransfer strategies Distribution of ECRsacross series of episodes TV Norms, strategies and solutions potencyThe translationof norms Extratextuality ofLevels Transculturality
102 97 78
81 111
83
90
96 107
38 30
75 86
145
65
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Beninu Andersen (208233) IP: 85.184.159.51 On: Mon, 27 Jan 2020 04:21:30 Table 6n Table 6m Table 6l Table 6k Table 6j Table 6i Table 6h Table 6g Table 6f Table 6e Table 6d Table 6c Table 6b Table 6a Table 3c Table 3b Table 3a List ofList tables Monocultural ECRsrendered by same the Transcultural ECRsrendered by same the strategy ofOccurrences Substitution by subcategory The rendering of Monocultural ECRs Data for Data for Number of words TTs inselected Condensation rates cent) (inper inten rapid-dialogue Subtitle quantity and density following 2000norms the Subtitle quantity 1980s inthe reading Exposure and times speed expected reading Exposure and time speed expected Data about Scandinavian the Subtitles Corpus Corpus broken down by genre Data about distribution the series of ECRsinTV Bottom 15films ranked by # of ECRs and # of subtitles Top 15films ranked by # of ECRs and # of subtitles strategy in both TTsstrategy inboth TTsin both extracts following 2000norm the following 1980snorm the
Police Academy Daylight 140
174
142
175
143 133 133
135 128
140
158
166 129
64 62
62 136
Beninu Andersen (208233) IP: 85.184.159.51 On: Mon, 27 Jan 2020 04:21:30
Beninu Andersen (208233) IP: 85.184.159.51 On: Mon, 27 Jan 2020 04:21:30 tt ts tl tc svt st sl sdh sc p.c. oed n.y. nrk mtf imd ecr dtv dts dr avt
b S
Abbreviations Oxford English Dictionary The Internet MovieDatabase Audiovisual Translation Sveriges Television Source Culture Source Language CulturalExtralinguistic Reference TelevisionDigital Target Text Translation Studies Target Language Target Culture Norsk Rikskringkasting Source Text Master Template File Personal communication No year Descriptive Translation Studies Danmarks Radio ubtitling for and Deaf the Hard of Hearing (Internet version)
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Beninu Andersen (208233) IP: 85.184.159.51 On: Mon, 27 Jan 2020 04:21:30 Stockholm University for its support. The author would like to extendgratitude his Department the to of English at Acknowledgement
Beninu Andersen (208233) IP: 85.184.159.51 On: Mon, 27 Jan 2020 04:21:30
Beninu Andersen (208233) IP: 85.184.159.51 On: Mon, 27 Jan 2020 04:21:30 other media. silent, or at least non-verbal, stretches. Nevertheless, subtitling is read substantially more than rarely continuous foreign-language in programming, asthey, programming, like all include programmes (e.g. and news game shows) language, tend local in the to be and subtitles are . and complexities the of subtitling norms. It by this does empiricallyexploring of norms technical and culture-specific items. large-scale attempt made to has descriptively been explore normsthe of subtitling there are many still areas of subtitling remain which unexplored. Particularly, no upsurge inresearch into AVT that has place taken last inthe couple of decades, addsomething to will accumulated the ject knowledge field. inthe Despite the Carroll (1998).It is my sincere hope that present the exploration into sub the naturethe of subtitling, notably by Gottlieb (e.g. 1994,1997),and Ivarsson and subtitlinggual mentioned, could be and have we also earlier works academic on and Schröter (2005),Georgakopoulou (2010)and Mattsson (2009)on interlin (2001)andSahlin Neves (2005)on subtitling for deaf the and hard-of hearing attention from scholars in recent years. As examples of dissertationsthe this, by demic research into subject. the Consequently, subject the has attracted serious importantvery factor in people’s lives everyday and that strongly warrants aca up takes pers only 20 minutes of (SOU time their 2002: dinavien Swedes watch an average of 2.5hours of television aday ( spendanottries inconsequential of part day their reading subtitles. For instance, with subtitling language. local inthe This meansthat most citizens counthese of cinemas and on English-language television be TV will filmsprogrammes and entertainment industry, it means that agreat of deal what you encounter will in of how profuse aphenomenon it is. With domination the of Anglophone the main of mode audiovisual translation (AVT), you quickly will become aware If you spendany time in a non-Anglophone that country subtitling uses as its This not does meanthat they read subtitles for 2.5 hours, as manythepopular TV most of This monograph hopes someto shed light the emergence,on the development Subtitling asaudiovisual translation chapter 1 ), much of is which subtitled, whereas reading the of and books newspa 228). Mediamätning i Skan i Mediamätning 1 Subtitling is thus a ------
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Subtitling Norms for Television will be described. Since is this an described. empirical be andwill data-driven study, it within is set of outlined subtitles be of and and medium will this discussed, peculiarities the words, study the investigates mainstream AVT of mainstream TV. what is most frequently watched, as it was sampled during prime time. In other subtitling innon-Anglophone Europe. Furthermore, material the from is selected is in English, as that is by far most the common source language for interlingual most common of type subtitling, television subtitles, and sourcethe all material on isadissertationwhich based by present the author (Pedersen 2007a),is on the norms,fied which may not the samereflect reality. focus The the of present study, norms out into and them, to open the and compare also describe to them codi titling norms as possible. The this goal of monographthus is to subtitlingtease involved, be countries also will and aim the is to provide of as general aview sub has along and robust tradition of subtitling; however, data from other European subtitles.actual The maindata the in study comesfrom Scandinavia, an areathat this book, in greater is described in detail Section 6.1. andbook for technical norms extracting and for also application the model developedthe in of . ences to people, places, customs, institutions, etc. that food are to specific a Cultural Extralinguistic I call References (or ECRsfor short). These are refer translationa certain feature from texts the and to submit that to rigorous scrutiny. 1,000,000 words to asimilar scrutiny. Instead, what feasibly can be done is to extract vainbe to hope to submit corpus the of present the study, consists which of about hundred pages involving 16researchers, including present the author. It would thus entire would a45-minute be, of episode investigation single translation of every choice. To illustrate how Herculean that task for comparing data technical quantitatively. Scandinavian Subtitles Corpus, is probably largest the of its kind, and it is excellent versionstitled ofTV said filmsprogrammes. and Thisthe whichcalled corpus, is phoneTV filmsprogrammes and and Swedish,Danish some (+ subNorwegian) large quantities of data. done Thisbeen has by compiling acorpus of 100 Anglo place, and theoretical the laid framework down. be will sion of nature the of norms ingeneral and on take also subtitling will inparticular explained be inChapter 2.of will this There, a morethorough theoretical discus descriptivethe translation studies (cf. paradigm Toury 1995),and implications the The ScandinavianThe SubtitlesCorpus, sourcethethe examplesas be used whichwill of this in The structure this of monograph is as follows. First,this in chapter,the nature The translationThe featurethat been chosen hasforscrutiny close herewhat is If astudy like present the one aims at becoming valid, it has to investigate Text of Many Colours project, which is a book-size undertaking of several of project, several undertaking is which abook-size The The West Wing 2 However, it islarge too to enable the (1999) is used as the basis the as basis the the (1999)is used ------
Beninu Andersen (208233) IP: 85.184.159.51 On: Mon, 27 Jan 2020 04:21:30 Generally speaking, there are speaking, Generally three main of modes AVT: dubbing, voice-over There is no shortage of choiceAVT the in multifaceted mediascape of today’s world. 1.1 norms of subtitling on an based empirically reliable and current source. wantswho to gain access to tools for translation analysis, or to more learn about hensive subtitling norms. This monograph shouldthus be of interest to anyone has not only proven that is model the effective, but also generated fairly compre wish to apply it to. Furthermore, application the of tomodel the empirical the data analysing similar data, or –with adjustments –any translation data one would thus on empirical solidly based data, and it re-used canby be other scholars for applied on data, the to create was which used and adjust it.theoretical The part is of ECRs,was developed through analysis the of empirical data, and is model the whichtheoretical Thecal. part, is centred the on model for analysingthe rendering preconceived model. This monographthus is interactivelytheoretical and empiri and developed to fitpatternsthe foundthedata, in ratherthan havingthedata fit a created through empirical the work of analysing corpus. the It was thus created sourcethe text and world the outside text. the The data-driven is model and was on translation the situation, medium the and relation the ECRsand the between thirdThe containspart parametersthe that influence the choice ofstrategy, based consists part of an exhaustivesecond taxonomy of strategies for rendering ECR. The first part contains definitions and delimitation issues the of concept; the readingsuch subtitle speed, as expected density and condensation rate. an investigation see will intoAlso, norms technical the of Chapter 6 subtitling, and application the Chapter 6 sees of to model the corpus the and other material. treatment of cultural references these is outlined pivotal in the Chapters 3, 4and 5, micro-level decision made.that The model developed been forhas analysingthe uncovering signs of general subtitling norms without having other to analyse every issues. Thisthus is as away used of probing into general subtitlingbehaviour and (cf. Toury 1995: (TC) readerships. ECRscan for thus used be uncovering subtitlers’ norm initial towards source the culture (SC)and predictions their also about target their culture aboutdeal overall subtitling norms. ECRrenderings subtitlers’ the disclose attitude lem. By investigating how ECRsare rendered insubtitles, one can agreat learn studythis is that said couldto be present they asymptomatic translation prob question. The reason forcultural these choosing referencespoint the as focal of andculture, which you may not know even ifyou know languagethe certain in
The model which describes and which explainsThe describes model the rendering tripartite.of ECRs is Audiovisual choice 56), as they reveal foreignization how56), as they view they and domestication Chapter 1. Subtitling as audiovisual translation - - -
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Subtitling Norms for Television as situation the is much more complex than that. For one many thing, countries by Media Consulting Group (2007: otherthe would countries. all tries be This is, however,the as EU report prepared Europeern (i.e. geographically and Eastern central Europe) and subtitling coun old bad in which the dayswould those of be War Cold the known to be used as East French,German, Italian and Spanish are spoken. Traditional voice-over countries Traditional dubbing countries would bigthe be then language communities where dubbingtling, or voice-over countries, according to preferred their of mode AVT. tion on image visual the TV ofprogramme. film the or of actors) outcarried by asingle narrator (as opposedto dubbing, wholecast new uses which soundtrack, but turns down volume the and superimposes aTLtranslation, usually (SL) soundtrack with atarget language (TL)soundtrack. Voice-over keeps SL the and subtitling. . referred to Pedersen 2010b, on is much which based. this and Section 1.2 of . as countries like Norway, Greece and Netherlands the not does help norm the in Britain tend subtitled. to be However, to group U.K. the same inthe category rareand is this correct, inasense, as very foreign-language the products broadcast normally asubtitling labeled (cf. country e.g. Media Consulting Group 2007: country, as regards volume of foreign-language imports. The U.K., for instance, is viewer. TV the Apparently, cineaste the is more open to change his/her AVT preferences than ever, situation the is much more stable (Media Consulting Group 2007: subtitling is entering market, the inbig particularly cities. For television, how rather minor, yet important change place indubbing taking countries, where of mediascape. the For cinema, the there of is evidence and agradual far this as dubbing,tries subtitling or voice-over countries isof because dynamics the rather individual choice. comes to DVDs and on video demand, it is no longer aquestion of national, but itwhen comes to broadcasting (Media Consulting Group 2007: instance dubbing countries it when comes to cinema, the but subtitling countries were of and Bloc part Eastern the should thus voice-over be countries) are for have different policies according AVT to medium. andHungary Slovakia (which For more information on and this other audiovisual forms of transfer, reader the is For more information about voice-over, reader the is referred to Pageon 2007. Traditionally, countries there to atendency describe as either has been subti Also, labeling the of countries gives of askewed of mediascape view the that Another reason why it to is notsimplistically necessarily fruitful labelcoun
. 4 Subtitling keeps soundtrack, original the and superimposes atransla 3 Dubbing (or post-synchronization) replaces source the language 6) points out, amisleading oversimplification 70f). And it when 70f). 66ff). 66ff). 68), ------
Beninu Andersen (208233) IP: 85.184.159.51 On: Mon, 27 Jan 2020 04:21:30 or Zabalbeascoa 1996. or Zabalbeascoa . formerthe government promoted Ukrainian subtitling of Russian-language films, strong motor inAVT choice insome countries, however. In Ukraine, for instance, in writing subtitles if many of your viewers cannot read Politicsthem. remains a introduced in some of countries these for there reasons is no point of illiteracy; of Salazar, was (and remains) asubtitling country. Dubbing was, however, also France, was never Fascist. Furthermore, Portugal, under totalitarian the leadership tion, however, from that asseen fact the can fourth be the main dubbing country, today. AVT is thus to explain used why countries these dubbing use as main their form of cist or Nazi governments inthree of four the main dubbing countries inEurope The historical coincidence the adventof theand instalment talkies the of of Fas 1930s: in the main force dubbing when was introduced in bigthe dubbing countries in Europe making dubbing only the option. Nationalism is often claimed to have a been ofuse any language other than Italian on silver the screen(Guardini 1998: various countries. For instance, in1930sItaly, Fascist the government forbade the is usually mentioned is historical innature and on origin of focuses the AVT in removes or SL hidesthe soundtrack, language. local it boosts Another factor that since dubbingOne is language and, policy: to aslightly degree lesser voice-over, different. very be that norm the patterns for U.K. the and non-Anglophone countries are bound to foreign-language programming rare is avery bird inBritain. indeed This means analyst at as latter inthe all, countries, most of what is aired is subtitled, whereas
For more information on dubbing, reader the is referred to works the Chaume 2004b of Which as its chooses acountry mode main one on depends many factors. until today. show subtitled films. France of 1930’s the only ten of country’s the 4000cinemas were permitted to countriesin these sanctioning dubbing and forbidding or limiting subtitling. In and Spain and once Nazis the took power inGermany, legislation was introduced recently united countries of Germany and Italy. With of rise Fascism the inItaly heard for centuries inFrance and Spain and were evenmore forceful inthe vehement defence of national the language was common. These voices been had Dubbing was favoured incountries strong with very nationalistic currents where 5 Equating dubbing with totalitarian governments is an oversimplifica
[ … ] These countries] These have stayed strongholds of dubbing Chapter 1. Subtitling as audiovisual translation (Ivarsson &Carroll 1998: 10–11) 91), - -
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Subtitling Norms for Television by Media Consulting Group (2007: ten as times expensive as subtitling (1995: now. Dries’s own study indicates a more current difference,with dubbingbeing al.’s study might most the comprehensive be of its kind, it is somewhat dated by costthe of dubbing varies a great countries. between deal Also, even if Luyken et should not over-emphasized, be are ason they aEuropean based average, and al. (1991: Luyken et disadvantage of about being as 15times expensive as subtitling, according to (2007: grid)” even though dubbed/subtitled works represent at least 50% of programtheir out, language transfer on television makes up only “0.6%of broadcaster turnover reluctant to spendmuch money on AVT. As Media Consulting Group points requiring translation the of foreign-languageTV filmsprogrammes. and whereas currentthe one, is which more pro-Russian, law the in 2010 repealed Linguistic University.Linguistic . U.K. should adubbing be country, but that is not as it true, subtitles rare their Greece and countries the that made up former Yugoslavia. By that the rule, Iceland), Netherlandsthe andIreland, Belgium, Flemish-speaking Portugal, consequently Nordic the countries (Sweden, Denmark, Norway, Finland and Germany (and Austria), France, Italy and Spain. Main subtitling countries are foris true most of Western Europe, where dubbing is main the of mode AVT in in language communities consisting of more than circa 25million people. This background. like subtitling –is an overt form of translation, as is original the audible inthe as subtitling (1991: ures, cost the of voice-over is about 1/7 of dubbing, but as expensive twice still two speakerscan job. dothe According to Luyken etal.’s somewhat dated fig form of dubbing, as it not does involve cast of a full dubbing actors; one or whole cast new of dubbing actors. Voice-over as abudget described could be that, apart from translating the and editing of script, the dubbing requires a is clearly a great of deal variation here. The reason forthe difference in cost is land, dubbing costs are only about costs the of for twice those subtitling there so morebeing expensive main inthe dubbing countries. Funnily enough, inIce in traditional subtitling countries such as Scandinavian the ones, and subtitling great countries: between pattern the deal that being dubbing is more expensive I owe information the about the AVT situation to Dr. Kyiv of Ganna Kryvenko National Another very importantAnother very factor is financial:the broadcasting is industry It is oftensaidthat dictatesthe financial that aspect dubbingtakesonly place 42). From aproduction dubbing perspective, has economic the 105). On the other105). Onthe hand, voice-over dubbing, –unlike but 105). Dries (1995: 105). Dries 38). They, too,point outthat a the costs vary 14) advises that14) advises Luyken etal.’s figures 30) and Dries’ figures are supported 6 - -
Beninu Andersen (208233) IP: 85.184.159.51 On: Mon, 27 Jan 2020 04:21:30 Hochschule für Angewandte Wissenschaften. Angewandte für Hochschule . even ifnot on television, just as Media Consulting claims (2007: There arethus some that signs subtitling is gainingsome ground the cinema, in versions inScandinavia, in1990,only when dubbed the versions were available. Works and other animation studios are now dubbed released inboth and subtitled Shrek for pre-school children and cartoons and computer-animated feature films like countries, dubbing is traditionally exclusively foundTV infilmsprogrammes and cinemas showing subtitledGermany. films in ScandinaviaIn as in most subtitling to, as AVT habits die hard. For cinema, the however, it has lately to easier find been 1993). In end, the choice the probably boils down viewers are to what used TV the 1997: arguments on both sideof the subtitling and on sideof the dubbing (cf. bing tradition canto lead audience drops of about 30%”(2007: ing Group points out: “broadcasting a subtitled work in countries with a dub community, hard it is very to change it, at least for television. As Media Consult one is mostthe powerful. Once an AVT established has mode been in a language or amixture of voiceover and subtitling” (Media Consulting Group 2007: well. Furthermore, “non-national films arescreened documentary with voice-over, Nichewise. films for small audiences tendbe subtitledto in dubbing countries as almost invariably countries, dubbed inall regardless of main AVT other mode (Media Consulting Group 2007: to television, donot eventhough they have populations of more than 25million Czech Republic, Slovakia and Hungary are dubbing all countries it when comes try. However, U.K. the and Ireland are not only the exceptions as the to rule, this dubbing, and dubbing for used is also television French inthe of part coun the languagesthe bilingual inthe subtitles, French, is more closely associated with line and Swedish onBelgium,even other). the if That in onethecase also ofis subtitles incinemas with one subtitle language line per (e.g. Finnish on first the countries that have two official languages, Finland, e.g. tend to havebilingual gaining ground incinemas there, as inmany other dubbing countries). its major languages from Germany, Italy and France (eventhough subtitling is is mainly adubbing country, since it tends to import dubbed versions into of all Welsh and Gaelic, and for same the is true Republic the of Ireland. Switzerland to promote used is also subtitling and minority the languages Celtic imports
I owe information the about Swiss the AVT situation to Dr. Alexander Künzli Zürcher of It is probable that of factors the deciding AVT choice today, historical the afactorGenre is also that influences choice.AVT Children’s programming is (2001)or 55ff, Cintas Díaz 1999; al.Koolstra et 2002; Tveit 2009& 1989, Kilborn Toy Story (1995). However, animatedfrom films Disney, Dream 6). Chapter 1. Subtitling as audiovisual translation 10). There are fierce 66ff). 47). Gottlieb 7 Some Some - - - - -
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Subtitling Norms for Television choice, and it is thus asimplification about talk to dubbing, subtitling and voice- and tradition. The world today increasingly looks complexwhen it comes to AVT choice of main AVT main mode, the ones money, being medium, politics, genre Summing up, there are many factors that influenceboth national and individual following the describes situation from TV’s inDenmark: infancy nations Europe. in Eastern Also, Gottlieb and Grigaravičiūtė (1999/2001: for to acountry reappraise its choice, insome of seen can which younger the be their blockingtheir something important picture inthe there. For instance, subtitles (or in other positions than at bottom the of screen,for the instance ifthere is arisk of notdoes happen for European languages, but occasionally, subtitles may placed be instance, subtitles are on sometimes sideof the vertically placed screen.That the three lines. not Second, lines the need at be bottom the of screen.In the Japan, for to as aone-liner or atwo-liner, respectively), but it could occasionally consist of would rather be pointless. Normally a subtitle consists of one or two lines (referred of lines. In theory, you could cover whole the screen with subtitles, even ifthat erroneous.be First, asubtitle one could be single line, or it any could be number sible, it is clearly inadequate for present the and shown it purposes, be can also to display atranslation of dialogue.” the Even definition though this easily acces is that sounds something like “Subtitles this: are lines at bottom the of screenthat the rather on viewer the couch, the what subtitles are, you are likely to get an answer reader/viewer to understand said narrative. If you ask man the street, inthe or means2010), which that it is extraneous to narrative, the but essential for the Subtitling is aform of translation extra-diegetic (cf. e.g. Genette 1988or Cronin 1.2 situation may quite be complex as regards and media genre, etc. for itbook, is meant as shorthand for describing traditional the Thus,wheneverthe terms ‘dubbing country’ or ‘subtitlingthis in is country’ used over countries. As long as we are aware of terms, the we this, use however. can still most Before atelevision AVT becomes entrenched, mode however, it is possible The nature of subtitling genres that day no feature films have been voiced-over TV. Danishon agitated discussionthe […].Then director general of DR interfered, and since afterthe (male) professor had donebest his to threerender Frenchgirls in an buta small, enthusiastic Danish audience. However, practicewas this cancelled foreigntranslated films filmby a professor the lines all who read off-screen to Before introducing subtitles in1955[ on television on , evenifother forms of AVT are present and evenifthe … ] DR, Danish] DR, nationalhad its (few) TV main mode of mode AVT 76) -
Beninu Andersen (208233) IP: 85.184.159.51 On: Mon, 27 Jan 2020 04:21:30 interlingual subtitling. . but says more about medium the it inwhich occurs. 1998: contained (cf. points 4–7of the individual subtitles should as far and as syntactically possible semantically be self- reread of apart text the that s/he has or missed misunderstood. This explainswhy after reading. Unlike most forms translation,of cannotviewer TV backthego and of translation and refers that to fact the subtitles the follow image the and disappear even phoneme for phoneme. D, Like Econtrasts subtitling with traditional forms should ideally which match utterance original the word for word, and sometimes orcuts dialogue film prohibit it. Subtitlingthus is less synchronousthan dubbing, tend to linger somewhat afterthe end of an utterance,the constraints unless the of ance and starts, end at ideally end the of an utterance. Very oftenthough, subtitles notion that subtitles should come on screenat moment exact the an when utter understands SL the can (andjudge will) and translation. criticize the Drefers to the CintasDíaz and Remael (2007: tion replaces an existing channel. The co-presence the of ST makes subtitlingwhat adds channel asemiotic of information, whereas dubbing or e.g. transla literary contrasts subtitling with dubbing or traditional forms of translation, as subtitling and displayed in real-time. Bcontrasts subtitling with dubbing and voice-over. C tation, but not does work well for very live subtitling, where subtitles are written from other forms of translation. Acontrasts subtitling with simultaneous interpre ofEach emphasized the words to differentiate definition inthis serves subtitling F. and E. D. and C. B. using A. subtitling is: material from ST, the e.g. captions, street signs,or headlines letters. reproduce any material verbal ST. inthe Not infrequently, subtitles show written not translations. Finally, subtitles the do not only display instead dialogue; the they topthe left-hand corner screen.the Third,of the textsin subtitlesintralingual are supertitles?) displaying namethe and occupation of placed in could speaker the be
This definitiondoes not say anythingabout translation; it is open to both intra- and and of as part a as anacting Prepared Gottlieb has amuch more accurate definition. semiotic According to him, 157). F also contrasts157). F also subtitling with most traditional forms of translation, polysemiotic synchronous written communication additive language transient semiotic channel, semiotic text. 8 Code of Good Subtitling of Good Code Practice 55) call “vulnerable55) call translation”, as anyone who Chapter 1. (2001: Subtitling as audiovisual translation 15, emphasis original) inthe , Ivarsson &Carroll - - -
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Subtitling Norms for Television 4. 3. 2. 1. nels. These are: as afeature film or television programme, into four distinguishablesemiotic chan in question (cf. e.g. Gottlieb 1997: to presence the of two or more channels parallel of discourse constituting text the developed byhas been Gottlieb on many occasions. The term ‘polysemiotic’ refers on structure semiotic focussed the of text. the The concept polysemioticthe of text ably focussing more on physical the of delivery text, the whereas latter the is more polysemiotic texts. Thetwo terms are synonymous,virtually withthe former argu but from to comic speeches everything books. audiovisual in hisverbal) exhaustiveall of text types: survey not justTV filmsprogrammes, and . subtitled it media, means that, apart from material,verbal contain also a text will “ as to others mean it much will more. Here, follow we will Gottlieb’s definition of text indeed, can ‘translation’). To some, itmean only will written material,verbal and audiovisual text. identical to Zabalbeascoa’s (2008:24)four components or “types of signs” inan however. These four channels are fairly established by now, they andare the For of monograph, this purposes the four the channels above should suffice, aptly and ambitiously audiovisual the deconstructs text into ten different codes. text can, and explored has been, further, notably by Chaume very (2004a) who polysemiotic text.semiotic The composition of an audiovisual (orpolysemiotic) otic, as are any of individual the channels above, but together make up they a polysemiotic defined as ST + subtitles. The subtitles themselves are monosemi ST,semiotic and creates this asubtitled polysemiotic TT, can which be then channel.visual In way, this subtitles inharmony can be with entire the poly nel and subtitling all should inharmony be with flow the the of non-verbal However, intralingual subtitles may non-verbal the transcribe audio also chan (orthem editing and transcribing of case inthe them, intralingual subtitling). Subtitles primarily interact with two the channels, verbal editing and translating Zabalbeascoa then goes on goes then to exploitZabalbeascoa four these dimensions (audio, visual, and verbal non- any message containing verbal material Non-verbal composition visual: and montage Verbal displays visual: and captions Non-verbal audio: (background) music and sound effects Verbal audio: and dialogue the its paraverbal elements The texts, which of subtitles are part, an extra-diegetic are audiovisual texts or Thus,the definition of ‘text’ bea can controversial issue translation in (as 9 143). Gottlieb divides apolysemiotic text, such ” (1997: (Gottlieb 1997: 27, italics in the original). For original). 27, italics inthe 143, my translation) - - - - -
Beninu Andersen (208233) IP: 85.184.159.51 On: Mon, 27 Jan 2020 04:21:30 tions. Jakobson (1959/2004)gives three categories of translation: intralingual symbols, suchspecial as emoticons (2005: developed by Neves even further In has this been fact, by inclusion experimental of hard of hearing access to non-verbal the audio featuresTV ofprogramme. afilm or annotation extra the all use common to intralingual subtitles that give deaf the and hearing. These are interlingual subtitles (i.e.translations from languages) other that egories of subtitling, by producing efforts have made been by Neves (2005) to thebridge gap thetwo between cat nication through medium the of subtitling are invented. For instance, subtitles donot. Nor isdistinction this always clear-cut, of modes as new commu interlingualspeaking, subtitles said couldto be display translations and intralingual of communication and translation proper may or may not place. take Generally tion. Subtitles as such cannot properly be said translations; to be are they amedium subtitles. otic U-turn there, from written script to oral performance and back to written with scriptedthe of speech fiction. all,After we dealing are polysemi a with ( “the audience would aback taken by be reading of oddities the spoken discourse” transfersemiotic from one to mode another is probably Otherwise, thing. agood neous utterances, it reduction acertain as see near so gibberish, they due to the manywhen acarefully people made see verbatim transcript of own their sponta it when comes true is particularly to spontaneous, non-scripted In speech. fact, necessity crossing when over from to writing” speech (Gottlieb 2001: for editing: deletion “[…]the or condensation of redundant, oral features is a it is aform of (edited) transcription. onal. Intralingual subtitling, on as other the as vertical, hand, described could be translation or interpreting is horizontal innature, interlingual subtitling is diag or crosses over from SL spoken to mode TLwritten mode. So, whereas literary intranscription.as would case the be Instead, interlingual subtitling “jaywalks” lation, nor straight from spoken the to written the of code SL the or TL the TL, as ininterpreting, nor from written SL to written TL,as trans inliterary (2001: jaywalking spoken (usually) to mode written the semiotic this mode. Gottlieb has called from one language to another, but from also one to from mode another: the through four the channels outlined above. images, non-verbal sound etc., i.e. whole the polysemiotic message as transmitted
Gottlieb 1997: The questionthen remainsthewhether texts in subtitles aretransla One question or is whether that not discussed hassubtitles been are transla The movefrom the spoken thewritten to format withbrings it a necessity Interlingual subtitling is unique inthat message the is not only transferred 113). This may to when true degreedealingsuchnot be ahigh 16), inthat it not does go straight from spoken SL to spoken interlingual Chapter 1. 226ff.). subtitles for deaf the and hard of Subtitling as audiovisual translation pioneering 20). This ------
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Subtitling Norms for Television translation and by some less to than be translation. to many Due the constraints 2002or CroninCattrysse 2010). Subtitling by is viewed some as more being than thus no doubt be that subtitling is translation according to Jakobson’s definition. ers, and happens, this when intersemiotic translation place takes as well. Therecan effects thekindof “the phonerings” forbenefitthe their of aurally view challenged proper” (Jakobson 1959/2004: and are those interlingual, render they spoken SL into written “translation TL,so captionsOpen are kind of the subtitles that most people associate with medium the (notthat transcribe necessarily they verbatim, however) spoken SL into titles for deaf the and hard of hearing (SDH) or captions closed are intralingual in intersemiotic translation. Subtitling can fit actually intothreecategories. all Sub a novel for stage the and rendering eventhe into of apoem apainting as kinds of tion of translation wide, and it is very includes such phenomena as adaptation of translationinterlingual translation, and intersemiotic translation. Thiscategoriza pseudotranslation is the not does which have aST, and is which thus an in fact original. A well-known example a of . tigation translation in studies. . showing how translations are received, and how texts the conforms to notions of of pseudotranslations translation” (1997: that “[…]atranslation is any text that is accepted target inthe culture as a being on what constitutes atranslation, and follow Toury (1995)and Chesterman’s view more than translate, that. exactly does s/heIn also other words, I a take broad view in Nida’s (1964: as there views, with normally both degree of is ahigh dynamic equivalence (again blood’s point that asubtitler to needs domore than translate. However, Idisagree degree ofhigh formal equivalence (inNida’s (1964: Iagree with formerviews. the point, that subtitling can rarely said to be involve a titling is not translation, but much more. agree Iboth and disagree with these anothercueing, point madecould (and be is made by Wildblood 2002) that sub tasks than translating are involved insubtitling, such as segmenting, editing and rather than ‘translations’. of subtitled calling TTs ‘versions’ or ‘adaptations’ or some other weaker term, (at least on level) surface the from source the text (ST) that apoint made could be sometimestarget the differsso of text (TT) medium the much (cf. Section 1.2.3), A pseudotranslation, in Toury’s sense, is atext is which claimed atranslation, to be but Not buys everyone into rather this definition, wide even if many do(cf. e.g. Not that “versions” in House’s (1997: sense 159) sense) involved159) sense) in subtitling, and eventhough a subtitler does 59). Toury has successfully proved (1995: Poems of Ossian of Poems 11 can be an can of be object study within translation studies, e.g. by 10 Also, from aprocess point of view, many since so more 139) takes place.139) takes SDHsound often transcribes also (McPherson 1762).
161) have excluded to be inves as of objects 159) sense). Iagree159) sense). with Wild 40–52) that studythe written TL. ------
Beninu Andersen (208233) IP: 85.184.159.51 On: Mon, 27 Jan 2020 04:21:30 into film the itself; cf. Ivarsson 2002. more one-liners of use and a different airing processthe in cinema, the as subtitles are etched . commercialthe sphere, commission the is normally awarded to lowest the bidder. out, have as they had own their in-house subtitlers, but that is now changing. For nator of process the broadcaster, is apublic service first this leftstepbeen has broadcaster to subtitleTV programme. afilm or a Traditionally,thewhen origi Ivarsson (2002). accountsthe of other subtitlers, notably Wildblood (2002),Pollard (2002) and on is my based section own as a subtitler, experiences prescriptive guidelines, and for some of more the important differences). rate games video etc. videos, is fairly similar (cf. Ivarsson &Carroll 1998: subtitling for television, subtitling evenifthe of DVDs, cinema releases, corpo as rest inthe section, of present the study, primarily Iwill concern myself with of terms the and notions that inlater surface will of parts present the study. In this Remael 2007and any number of in-house guidelines), but rather to explain some to become asubtitler (there are more suitable texts for that, e.g.Cintas Díaz & be donebriefly, Thiswill very here the as is purpose not to instruct anyone in how ‘subtitling the I call situation’, to outline here process the Iwill try of subtitling. variation working inthe processes and conditions of individual subtitlers, what i.e. short actual the texts themselves. inmind that Bearing there is agreat of deal cess of producing “subtitles”, refer then will which to product the of process, this clarity addthat word the “subtitling” refer book inthis to practiceand will the pro the reality discuss practical of will subtitling.section This Let me forsakethe of semioticthe nature The discussed precedingsection the of medium of subtitles. 1.2.1 return to final inthe chapter, this after we have moreevidence. sion of subtitling whether is translation, and ifso, how prototypical it is, we will furthermore, latter the category isunder object the study here. As for discus the (or SDH) not does involve translation, whereas interlingual subtitling and does, ing from one natural language to another. This meansthat intralingual subtitling tion. Translation is here to taken mean interlingual language transfer, i.e. reword lation studies, translating then for interlingual subtitles is. certainly ‘translationese’. If pseudotranslations shown can be of objects to be study intrans
The processwith a starts subtitling company acommissionprocuring from a wayIn amiddle book, it is this when taken comes to definition the translaof These differencesThese technical character, aof are mainly suchas different speedsand reading The subtitling process Chapter 1. 12 The outline the of processthis in Subtitling as audiovisual translation 63–71 ------
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Subtitling Norms for Television is perhaps obviously of nature. apractical Even though film appearsbe movingto son for having frames, rather than of fractions seconds as unitsmallest the of time as ameasure used be of insubtitling, time representing 1/25of asecond. The rea European television (Ivarsson &Carroll 1998: hours, minutes, seconds and frames. There are 25 pictureframes second to a in anto be electronic clock that at starts of beginning the film, the thenand counts itself. Superimposed on is film the saidan whichelectronicbe time could code, are told to give priority to polysemiotic the text,which i.e.true ST,the is film, the version of film. the However,transcripts these are often unreliable, and subtitlers record any changes to screenplay original the and thus give arendering of final the scripts are not screenplays, original the but post-production transcripts, which of as ansource dialogue the auxiliary of information. More oftenthan not, these of her/his translation. The subtitler also often, though not always,receives script a receives either file adigital or an tape VHS analogue filmbasistheusethe as toof The subtitling company subcontractsthe commission freelance to a subtitler,who since 1990. process, namely that prices of (intralingual) subtitling have cut by been two thirds He points also to another related and important equally trend subtitling inthe 40 hours in 1980 to less than ten hours today, according to Lambourne(2006). fortime one hour of (intralingual) subtitled programming from approximately tion with shorter and deadlines heavier workloads have shortened preparation the to soundtrack.titles exactly the improvements These in technology, incombina software hasalso voicefunctions, detectionwhich helpthe subtitlerthe align sub long, or ‘nudging’ it cueing original so the coincides changes. with scene Modern that assist subtitlers the task, by intheir indicating whenever aline becomes too first translationtheand is done afterwards. Thesoftware programmes perks have donecess be can other the also way around, segmenting the so and cueing is done translating first, cueingthethenand subtitles ontolater. timethe code The pro done as you translate, or subtitler the can work screens, with twin segmenting and can either integrated be with programme, the cueing can the be case inwhich using one of anumber software of PC-based programmes for subtitling. film The henceforth. termused the Nowadays, be will most subtitlers work from home, is known by anumber of terms, e.g. spotting, cueing and ‘Cueing’ time-coding. subtitlesthe appear and disappear on screenat the proper the time. Thislasttask subtitles into TLand the subtitles the to cue onto electronicthat the so code, time important ones are to segment ST the into coherent subtitles, to translate the tude of tasks to (cf. juggle e.g. Nørgaard 1989or Gottlieb 2001: technically known as frames. pictures (i.e. ‘movies’), it is not continuous, but arapid succession of pictures, still The next stepthe in processthe is subtitling itself. The subtitler has amulti 141). Aframe could thus said to be 41–52). The most - - - - -
Beninu Andersen (208233) IP: 85.184.159.51 On: Mon, 27 Jan 2020 04:21:30 and zero frames. The a subtitleout-time be can of at anyframes. number of . titling company has an editor subtitlethe revises who file, looking for errors and beforetimes) handing it back to subtitling the company. In many sub the cases, rendering of Cultural Extralinguistic References. subtitler’sthe time.task This is highly relevant the to main object this of study,the grammes and topical shows, talk researching up takes aconsiderable amount of way subtitles. inthe In topical highly programming, such as current affairs pro understands of ST the aspects in order all to render such references inan accurate represented in subtitlesthe in a coherent way, and making sure that subtitlerthe meansalso making sure that any references, ST inthe cultural are or otherwise, spelling of any names or other material verbal that are retained to be TT. inthe It reducing or condensing content verbal the polysemiotic original inthe text. constraints of medium. the More about that presently, but means this as arule, toneeds adapt text the subtitles, inthe that so it spatial the meets and temporal The most importantediting, which meanscalled thatonebe could the subtitler and 4frames, and stays on until 8minutes and 37seconds. subtitle has appeared. The next subtitlethen comes on at 8 minutes,seconds 32 viewers the might subtitles; notlike between this otherwise notice that anew 0.16 seconds) before next the subtitle comes on. Therealways gap is small a very 32 seconds afterbeginning thefilm. the There of then a is gap of frames four (i.e. Piano 16 frames (i.e. 0.64seconds) after beginning this thecase film (in the of The example shows howthe first subtitle begins at8minutes,seconds 25 and example likelook extracted the below: out of times subtitles the marked. Converted into anormal textthe file, resultcan
The subtitlerthen proofreads and re-editsthe subtitlefile several (often Another task of subtitler the is to research ST. the This includes checkingthe The subtitler has tasks, other from apart segmenting, cueing translating.and The result the of subtitling activity is an electronic subtitlefile, the inwith and It is amere coincidence that subtitles both disappearance coincides with whole seconds ) and stays on air the for slightly more than 6seconds, until 8minutes and jeg ikke giver ikke jeg digenendefuld! Vær du for, glad 00:08:37:00 00:08:32:04 gå om bord idinstinkende igen! jolle Hun hellere vil steges levende end 00:08:32:00 00:08:25:16 Chapter 1. Subtitling as audiovisual translation 13 The The - -
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Subtitling Norms for Television electronic It code. time known has to been happen that is broken code time the Synchrony ST the and between subtitles the through of isuse the secured the taneously (cf. Pollard 2002: channels, such channel, as Discovery the may air inup to eight languages simul commissioner,original broadcasts who subtitle the (or file files, as international expensive process of applying for ISOcertification. that many subtitling companies have yet gone through time-consuming the and out.ried Idonot have information from rest the of Europe, but unlikely is seems there were no such companies inScandinavia present the when was car survey of translation quality (BSENISO9000:2005 and BSEN15038:2006).However, subtitlingin the process for any company to meet certified European standards required) ifso reviewing, by someone other than subtitler the is amandatory step of segmentedthe and translated text. As of November 2006, revising (and also uponcueingoccasionallycalled thepersonbe to do discrepancies. Thiscan also (henceforth p.c.), September 2004). explainedther to me by Johan Norberg of SDI Media communication, (personal is saved. I came into contact with process the as asubtitler and process the was fur bother about segmentation or In cueing. way, this agreat of deal and time money titlers, can on who focus producing translations into other TLswithout having to above.described The resulting subtitle filethen is given second-generation to sub template file. Thismeans that a first-generation subtitlercarries the tasks all out is rarely file a Genesis used. Instead afirst-generation translation asused master is subtitlers’the main done tasks. Thisalso whenis subtitling for television, but here, thus minimizing cost the for eachtranslation, by removing burden the of two of and cueing have done, already been allowing subtitler the to on focus translating, intralingual subtitle file the of ST. The advantage thisthat of is segmentation the (cf.file Gardnere.g. 2005: TTs effects their on and on national norms of subtitling is substantial. subtitlers.ual Such master template files are highly relevant the to present study, as means This basically files. that cueing the is done centrally, thanrather by individ simplify it evenfurther. done Thisbeen has by using master template Genesis or final product,there is an incentive among commercial subtitling companies to ago (cf. e.g. Ivarsson 2002),but as eachstep process inthe adds to cost the of the process (cf. Pollard 2002: subtitling error of However, all. can out this normally sorted be during airing the subtitles not will fitthe utterances screen,whichpossibly on is the most annoying and/or erroneous, match the case inwhich incomplete. be will In that the case, The final step the of thatthen is process the subtitle file isturned over to the When subtitling DVDs, subtitlers are often providedso-called with a ‘Genesis’ The subtitling process is much simplerthan it was as recently twentyas years 26). 30 or Georgakopoulou 2009: 26)) along with ST, the subtitles. of case inthe TV 30), which is basically an is30), which basically - - - - -
Beninu Andersen (208233) IP: 85.184.159.51 On: Mon, 27 Jan 2020 04:21:30 making these translationsmaking these directly from ST. the . aspivot Swedishtranslation, the word forSwedish ‘breakfasta from interference sausage’ turned into aDanish termcorresponding to ‘lunch basket’ through an oft-cited example (from“bøfsiden” www.titlevision.com). Here,‘breakfast is that pivot the translation may asource itself be of translation errors, as in goneall Danish inthe second-generation translation. effect One less beneficial generation translation had four rather serious translation errors, were which mainthe corpus of study this ( havethey aired. already been This might withhavefilm the a case been in generation subtitles, and may who spot and report any errors unless inthem, second reader second-generation (the subtitler) first- the scrutinizes who few lines of Norwegian Swedish inthe subtitles of second-generationthe subtitles. In main the corpus of present the study, there are a proofreading,poor you sometimestraces find the first-generationof translationin most master template files are in Scandinaviananother language, and as a result of today tend inEnglish, to quite be opposite the However, is true. inScandinavia may produced be inSweden, or versa, vice and most commercially films successful master templatethe contrary, On files. as master template in used e.g. files Croatia languagethe of pivotthe translation, and is this rarely it when case the comes to appearthese only translator’s the when knowledge not does include SL, the but only STthe (cf. e.g. Gottlieb &Grigaravičiūtė 2004).However, 1999or Zilberdik most of associated with pivot translation, one as removed it step makes TT further the from a co-ST) of second-generation the translation. There are a number of drawbacks first-generationthe cases, translation be considered could in fact the ST (or at least ten into same the subtitles as first-generation the translation, replacing it. these In much of labour the of editing.second-generation The translation then is justwrit subtitlers first-generation to the use translation as pivottranslation, as savesit them broadly mutually intelligible (at leastwritten intheir forms), common it is very for ignore it and work straight from ST. the In areas such as Scandinavia where TLsare second-generation subtitlers, may who it use as apivot translation that apart from translation original the code, time the is normallysent also to the 2009: provide, Holy the them some evencall Grail of DVD subtitling The production companiespositive economies the areto very that still scale they of (cf. e.g. Ivarsson 1989:
One beneficial effectOne of beneficial using a master template file is that you getextra an In early the days of using templates, there were some positive reactions to them A pivot translation is a translation from which other translations are made, rather than 34). However, there have many been negative reactions as well. One effect is 107), because of107), because savings the and intime money afforded. they What Women Want Chapter 1. The Simple Life Subtitling as audiovisual translation ), where Swedish the first- (Georgakopoulou (8: 8.25). 14 or to choose -
Beninu Andersen (208233) IP: 85.184.159.51 On: Mon, 27 Jan 2020 04:21:30
Subtitling Norms for Television lation memories and even machine translation for going from first-generation the subtitling world (cf. e.g. Imhauser 2002: individual subtitlers’ preferences. This hascausedsome tendency concernthe in that cueing ofis the not code time the changed to match any national norms or may, but rarely do, alter it, unlessaseriouserror is discovered init. That means must by code time centrallythe used cued second-generation the be subtitlers, who to not credit second-generation subtitlers. titlers may feel that are they not producing any work, original hence tendency the removed from task, what the is left is lesssecond-generation challenging. The sub segmenting,the cueing and editing (and pragmatically research)the also speaking than first-generation subtitling,which maycause some peculiarities. these of With kostkurv sausage’ ( the STthe appears. appear in aseparate subtitle end the credits when scriptwriters the or start name the when of of . bringswhich with it thorough editing of (spontaneous) Another speech. issue namelycussed, issuethe of switch semiotic the from spoken to written language, One briefly constraintsection. this in surveyed be will already dishasthey been are made in subtitling would incomprehensible be without knowledge of so these, what Gottlieb“infamous” calls (2004: formsall of translation are constrained. However, constraints the of subtitling are lation situation, for instance into deadlines, account, it is probably safe to say that Chaume (2004b)forby dubbing), and ifyou factors the all take of(e.g. trans the 1982). It has later shown been that other forms have constraints their as well stitutive, resulting insubtitling “constrained called being translation” (Titford The constraints of subtitling areso marked so commonand con seem as to 1.2.2 Fiederer &O’Brien. 2009). showing greater success rates (cf. Volk &Harder 2007;Armstrong etal. 2007or analysiscal and translation are memory explored are which for purposes, these Still, machine translation keeps developing, and techniques new using statisti tion, Iwas which involved insome years ago, but results the were discouraging. machine translation into other Nordic languages from a first-generationtransla to second-generationthe translations. There have experimentsbeen with Subtitlers (and subtitling companies) are normally credited, most often by havingtheir name The logical next Thestep logical after using master template files is of use coursetrans to Whether or not first-generation the translation as a is used pivottranslation, The constraints of subtitling ). The work second-generationthe of subtitlersperhaps is less interesting frukostkorv ) is very similar to Danish the word) is very for ‘lunch basket’ ( 219), and many translation decisions that 23). 15 fro ------
Beninu Andersen (208233) IP: 85.184.159.51 On: Mon, 27 Jan 2020 04:21:30 a word in soaps and sitcoms, inSL both (English) and TL(Swedish), is circa five characters. . That meansthattwo-liner, full a i.e. 72 characters should stay screenthe on for 6 of rule. 12characters 12cps the second, per something called has which been Carroll 1998: one-linerfull &Kay (deLinde 1999: mostit. writers speaking, Generally field inthe considersome threeseconds for a display called so (the or exposure inorder time) for able to viewer the be to read message contained in linesthe displayedto needs be for amount a certain of time It should, however, borne inmind that be most lines are not full. above. For older subtitles, ashorter line of 28–32characters is considered normal. two-liner 72 characters,full evenifthat is upper inthe given of half scales the subtitlingporary present in the study is considered to have 36characters, and a of andview this, to have around number for line of calculations, afull contem of present the study, there are examples of lines with as many as 42characters. In you fact, in actual regularly come across lines that are longer. In main the corpus guidelines give a maximum of 35 characters line (fewer per if italics are but used), shorterbe before process the was completely computerized. Current Scandinavian oldestthe of sources these and that for reasons, technical subtitled to lines used notedbe that low the figure of 28 stated by Luykenal. et maycausedbe by being its Luyken etal. (1991: a range of 30–40,Tveit gives 38as aScandinavian maximum (2004: range as to how many characters you can fit intoSchröter aline; (2005: Ivarsson (cf. Carroll 1998: & Capital letters are bulky, very and ‘m’ and ‘w’ uptake more space than ‘i’ and ‘l’ ing on afew factors. In subtitling, more italics need spacethan unmarked text. exclamation marks and blank spacesare characters. also key.a keyboard This meansthat in subtitling commas, e.g. stops,full dashes, out that a‘character’ defined as could be anyvisible result produced by pressing subtitling, as aword any can be number of characters. out that character the and not word the is most often consideredbasicthe unit in more than two lines in each subtitle. At point, this it should perhaps pointed be only fit acertain number of characters into aline, thatand youcan rarely use with them. is spatial the and temporal constraints and condensation the that bring these
The temporal constraints are closely the linked to spatial thatones, in the The number of charactersthat canbe fitted into asingle line depend varies, The spatial constraints of subtitling arethebased simpleon that fact youcan However, in abackground study (Pedersen 2003a: 8)Ifound that average the length of 64f) for TV subtitles for something TV of an average.64f) Gottlieb notes a limit 43) gives 28–38asmost the being common figures. It should 44). In texts academic on subtitling, there is quite a 7) and sixseconds for atwo-liner (Ivarsson & Chapter 1. Subtitling as audiovisual translation 16 It pointed should be also 107) whereas 27) states - -
Beninu Andersen (208233) IP: 85.184.159.51 On: Mon, 27 Jan 2020 04:21:30
Subtitling Norms for Television study out has set to investigate, and return we will to inSection 6.2. this The issues of readingand exposurespeeds times aresomething that the present research into factors these whether are into taken actually consideration inreal life. otic redundancy offerspossibility a to raise reading speeds. However,know I of no (as it would ife.g. long names and titles are retained subtitle), inthe intersemi the Conversely, audio verbal ifthe channel coincides with subtitles the extent to ahigh viewers’ reading is lowered speed by attention their on picture. focussed the being through non-verbal the channel visual inaction-packed the (as scenes), is case the of medium affects the also reading therespeed. If is much information coming complex lexis and syntax require longer exposure time.polysemiotic The nature audience. ofing TT the speed programming is oftengiven longerbecause exposuretimes, the of reduced read ever, as you normally are audience supposed to into TT the take account. Children’s (Gottlieb 2001: seconds (72/12=6)inorder for 90%of hearing the viewersable to be to read it 2009: whereas children’s reading hovers speed 120–140words between minute per (Georgakopoulou . television ‘speed normal limit’” (2001: tative terms [i.e. asimple word count of –inorder ST and not TT] to the exceed to close may 50%of –measuredtler dialogue tothe inquanti sacrifice choose Accordingdialogue. to Gottlieb, with up-tempo “[e]specially subti the speech, slightlydensed as aresult of switch the from spoken to written language. (cf. Wildblood 2002: of utterance original the inorder to maintain aconsistent subtitles inthe pace slow. is very dialogue the In lastthe instance, there are examples also of expansion condensation This is needed. is when often the case captions are subtitled, when or characters), as ST, the and that is what is meant by condensation. editedassay to so be (ideally) same the infewer thing, words (or at least infewer Something usually has left to be out,the TT or rather: messageremaining has to content verbal the all tling, ST inthe cannot always represented be subtitles. inthe of subtitling without discussing condensation. of constraints the Because of subti common. common, So that infact, it impossible is virtually toprocess the discuss tive term‘reduction’) property is not of anecessary subtitles; it is just extremely somewhich might find surprising. Yet condensation (orthe slightly more nega In Gottlieb’s defining features of subtitles,there is no mention of condensation, The condensation rate varies, depending on and pace the complexity of the Even ifcondensation is extremely common, there are no when afew cases ECI calculates adult reading at speed 750 characters or 180words minute per for adults 34). 20 or Neves 2005: 41). This is, however, rare, evenand slow is speech often con 17 Also, nature the affects ofreading speeds: TT the 138). Reality is more138). Reality complicated than how this, 20). Ihave found examples of extremely rapid ------
Beninu Andersen (208233) IP: 85.184.159.51 On: Mon, 27 Jan 2020 04:21:30 film the spectator knows very knowsthat well the actor spectator very the and character arefilm notsame,the watch fiction on television, or go the cinema.to For instance, “[i]n any fiction complaint that her armless state makes herwhen unrealistic. same The wetrue is ous spectators tend to enjoy beauty the of Venus deMilo, and not to make the of for disbelief moment the that constitutes faith” poetic (1817/1985: of likeart, a statue, a painting we or make of a use poem, “the suspension willing me firstLet quote Samuel TaylorColeridge. Whenever we encounter an object to present the study. It on nature isthe based of watching subtitled television. expand onwill here, as it tonature pertinent the is highly both of subtitling and In Pedersen (2007b),Iintroduce of idea the atacit contract of illusion, I which 1.2.3 dire as quantitative the figures suggest. compensated through other channels, total the loss so of information is not as “intersemioticof redundancy” so-called this (Gottlieb 1997: throughdialogue other channels, mainly through pictorial information. Because tunately, viewers the can pick up much of what is lost condensation inthe of reductions in subtitling are not random but respect, in this systematic. Also, for “intrasemiotic redundancy” (1997: is spokendensed language features, such as repetitions and so-called starts, false not aqualitative loss of information of same the amount. Instead, what is con condensation rate may average athird, but Gottlieb has shown that there is is said ST, inthe but situation the is not as as it bad The seems. quantitative results inmore condensation. written text as quickly as hearing people” &Kay (deLinde 1999: titles often come at a slower“in peoplebecausepace, deaf general do not read that studied they subtitling for deaf the and hard of hearing. Intralingual sub is less consistent with British the findings, butthis is probably due the factto of “a third” found literature inthe on subtitling (cf. e.g. Gottlieb 1997: Norwegianthe figures, consistentalso and with more sweeping generalizations found that average the condensation rate was is 31%,which well inline with tion rate as was 43%.In as high abackground study for present the study, I British subtitles for deafthe and hard of hearing. There,the mean condensa andLinde Kay (1999: quoted by Gottlieb 2001: is much lower. ANorwegian study of subtitling of feature films (Lomheim 1995, Britain, and nonsensical being reduced speech by 75% of original (insitcomthe
These figuresThese TT suggest that audience missesthe out on much what of A contract of illusion BBC). However,BBC). are these extremes, and average the condensation rate 51) found quite different resultstheir investigation in of 57) shows aquantitative reduction of 22–35%.De 101). De Linde (1995)agrees Linde 101). De and claims that Chapter 1. Subtitling as audiovisual translation 101), the viewers101), the are 19), and this 314). Seri 73). It Little Little - - - - -
Beninu Andersen (208233) IP: 85.184.159.51 On: Mon, 27 Jan 2020 04:21:30
Subtitling Norms for Television a few oral forms are retained subtitles. inthe Thelanguage is cleaned up; more changed is also code the from spoken to written. In means practicethis that only materialbal is inanother mode, writing instead of and speech, means this that is what actually people say. andthat viewers the to effect the the subtitles Theretacit is a agreement, a ‘contract illusion’of if thebetween yousubtitler will, suspend his or her inorder disbelief to enjoy film. the realization to get more pleasure from film. the In other words,theviewer has to an absurd number of without times evenchanging his but shoes, disregards this can easily realize that Forrest Gump could not possibly have across run America edge, and pretends that what s/he is watching took place inKorea. viewer Orthe that 1986: yet at the same musttime that believe are they for film to the work”Cordova (De Fresco (2006). . advice like results this scorned inafluent TT so thekind of by Venuti: same inthe self situation?” (LanguageLand 23,emphasis removed). Domesticating of illusion by giving advice such […]:How as “[T]hink would aSwede express her translation, Swedish original). italics inthe encourage guidelines also contract this his guidelines for Danish subtitlers: “good subtitles are you those “transparent” (Gottlieb 2001: worktheir as unobtrusive as possible. From practicecomes this on focus the a mitment to contract the of illusion, subtitlers the have to traditionally make tried titling, and contract the of illusion is somethinghave they internalized. contractthe of illusion. In subtitling countries, however, people grow up with sub requires quite of suspension deal willing agood of for disbelief viewers the to sign in another language from what is said. Taking into this all account means that it people say. And evenmore strikingly, ininterlingual subtitling, what is written is condensation issue. What you read is on average about athird shorter than what oftenthan not, hesitations, etc. starts false are excluded. Furthermore,there the is I propose that viewers the extend suspension this of to disbelief subtitles. the So, viewers the are to willing suspend disbelief, their and of as part com their Thisthe similar is to found in dubbing linguistic“suspension disbelief” Romero by of M*A*S*H 132). The same132). The goes forthe story,settingthe etc. viewerThe may know well signified. signified. polysemy,or any indeed playthat of signifier the the erodes coherence the of manifests itself as stress on immediate intelligibility and an avoidance of ofFluency assumes language atheory as communication that, inpractice, was filmed in theRocky inwas filmed Mountains, but disregardsthat knowl
18 In reality, of course, it is not. For one verthing, the 51) translation, or as Lindberg puts it at end the of are the dialogue, that dialogue, the what you read never notice” (my (1995: 60) - - - - -
Beninu Andersen (208233) IP: 85.184.159.51 On: Mon, 27 Jan 2020 04:21:30 excessive domestication, asmight this threaten actually contract the of illusion. Swedishthe broadcaster, public service Sveriges Television, actively discourage notdoes necessarily mean domestication, though. For instance, guidelines the of ers donot have option the of going back to of make sense aresistant TT. Fluency nature of subtitling makes “immediate intelligibility” a necessity. Television view I am not saying thatalways fluency is besttranslationthe strategy, buttransientthe Cronin, too, inconnectionwith fluencyideal the discusses AVT,saying that:
medium transparent. in pragmatic translation it rather is bad translation than good makeswhich the and morethe invisible mediator.the Inthe effect, mediumself-annulling is and paradoxThe is obvious. better The translation, the the more mediumthe successful Chapter 1. Subtitling as audiovisual translation (2010:27) -
Beninu Andersen (208233) IP: 85.184.159.51 On: Mon, 27 Jan 2020 04:21:30
Beninu Andersen (208233) IP: 85.184.159.51 On: Mon, 27 Jan 2020 04:21:30 the pseudotranslationsthe mentioned previous inthe not section, existence eventhe for study the of AVT, mainly it because not does really presume anything. Regarding prescriptive inastudy paradigm of AVT. subtitlers. whole, Onthe Ifind it hard to moreutilize thanparts the of certain sible world inthe of translation, literary but would which impossible be for most Venuti 1995),presume (particularly adegree of translator power that may pos be texts are mainly for used translator training. prescriptivist Other scholars, such as studies Newmark (TS), is more likely under “applied” to the fall branch, as his (1988: obligationsas ethical for translators to mark prejudice and fight for humanrights under prescriptive the (eventhough paradigm he offers prescription galore, such of translating” (1988: but of body knowledge the that we have and have to have still about process the champions, Peter Newmark “translation nor is neither ascience, atheory theory competing prescriptive the paradigm, one. According to one of its most oft-cited sort The of investigation carried out here be impossiblewould the in to undertake 2.1 explanatory), and not what translation translationof vast the phenomenon of) statementsor ethical on translation.point The here is to find whatout segment (a empirical of observation translation behaviour, and not on introspection or moral refined by (cf. 1980,1991&1995).Thismeans Toury that results on based are place such studies within descriptive translation studies as (DTS), developed and studies here, it about to makes talk sense descriptive laws, and it to makes sense differentvery things indifferent contexts. Since we are discussing empirical norm ing for. Norms, and related the concepts of conventions, and laws, rules can mean some common ground as to what norms are, and of sort which norms we are look If we are to uncover and norms the discuss of subtitling, we must first establish Instead, asCintas Díaz (2004) has shown, paradigm works DTS well the very The descriptiveThe paradigm 81f.)). In Holmes’s (1972/2004)taxonomy of discipline the of translation Norms ingeneraland particular chapter 2 19). But perhaps it is misleading to place Newmark’s theory should is like (and
be like. why , asis DTS descriptive- - -
Beninu Andersen (208233) IP: 85.184.159.51 On: Mon, 27 Jan 2020 04:21:30 Subtitling Norms for Television view of equivalenceview DTS, is always assumed, and question the becomes then to form of translation or not, caused by equivalencethe problems involved. In Toury’s an ordered accumulation of knowledge” (1995: rable, and studies the themselves replicable, at least in principle, thus facilitating that findings the of individualbe intersubjectively studieswill testable and compa of knowledge of translation “Only could grow: abranch of kindcan this ensure study tested by further could be others same inthe branch and thus total the sum Descriptive Translation Studies –and Beyond that he term)when presented his formodel inhis paradigm the 1995 monograph resultsthe of others presenting when result. their its ‘collectiveness’. It allows analysts to build upon work the of others, and include studyingwhen newer forms of translation. feature useful Another very of is DTS of aST is presumed This inDTS. adaptability useful paradigmthemakes very translation and not ST. the Toury regards translations target the culture, of as facts and his with analysesthe all begin . (1995: have governed pairs, these or all subgroups thereof” isolated pairs have studied, been pair compared can be with eachother ingreater detail. Afterlarge a number of as indicators of translation strategies, and “[o]nce established, members the of a cultural references, puns renderings. etc. and Coupled TT their pairs used can be pairs under investigation. ST/TT the Examples of coupled pairs are metaphors, “solution +problem” through the use methodologically seen of Thiscanbe “coupledpairs”. These are relationshipthe is at ST between and of heart the TT Toury’s of model analysis. and reader enters into equation the discussing when “acceptability” below), (see and original texts in targetthe language). Even if relationshipthe TT between there are many such relationships list ten, (they such as one the TT the between ship, that ST between and TT, is worth translation the scholar’s attention. Instead, and vanLambert (1985) point Gorp out that not only most the obvious relation establish what form equivalence this or takes, as Toury puts it: Using solves also paradigm problem DTS the the of subtitling whether is a This collective notion was one of Toury’s mainpoints (though he did not use The reason for this seemingly backwards presentation of+ problem” that “solution is presentation backwards seemingly this for reason The to be uncoveredto be is only way the postulate this [i.e. equivalence the postulate] was an exist between assumeddoes translation and its assumed source. What remains [A] descriptive study would always proceed from assumptionthe that equivalence what was transformed. realized,actually e.g. interms of what balancebetween the was kept invariant and 19 units (1995: regular patterns 38), which are38), which established and from extracted . He meant that results the of one 3). should looked for be may which 81, italics in the original). original). 81, italics inthe (1995: 86) - -
Beninu Andersen (208233) IP: 85.184.159.51 On: Mon, 27 Jan 2020 04:21:30 logos and everybody says that are they logos and going everybody there to eat (yet it is clear from the versionthe aired in Sweden, on Pizza TV3 Hut logos have replaced Tacothe Bell ment, an alternative version was made, where Pizza Hut issurvivor. sole the In was not Bell established in Europe at for time,the so reasons of product place eats atfranchise is Taco said to have everybody so survived, However, Bell. Taco such situation. In science-fiction movie the ing inconsistencies may found. be The followingsome is evidence anecdotal of one This situation is fortunately common, not very butwhen it happens,some confus s/he film is actual subtitling,something points himself Toury out (1995: on may atranscript based be TT and subtitler the may not have had access to the ST as presented to is on. viewer not the isThe samebased the as one the TT the co-presented as it were, with TT. the However, there may occasions the be when to cause expected unduebe consternation in subtitling, as STthe is ever-present, The first part of step 2, establishing a ST, is not something normally that would 3. 2. 1. that: either by analyst original the or an independent analyst. more knowledge and results the to verify of first the investigation) carried canbe out higher-level generalizations are sought. The repetition the of process (in order to gain of DTS. (cf. Even-Zohartem theory is 1978/1990),which often as seen an integral part At eachstep explanatory hypotheses are formulated. Step 1originates inpolysys 3. 2. 1. is aparaphrased abridgement: wholeTheschematically process in is described (1995: Toury
tentative generalizations and norms are formulated and discussed. coupled pairs are and extracted relationship the members the between of the TTs,the i.e. subtitled the TV filmsprogrammes and that constitutethe material, Formulate first-level generalizations. ontoEstablish source the TT the it, text and partic map of, (all or of) parts Present atarget text, and its standing target inthe culture. analysed are Cultural Extralinguistic References (ECRs,cf. Chapter 3); pairs is analysed. In coupled the case, this pairs that are isolated, and extracted ofmode AVT insubtitling countries; are presented and as is standing the subtitles discussed, of as preferred the TV For application the of presented model the means this here (cf. Chapter 6), The corpuscanbe extended and step 2 is repeated foreach additional text and pairs. ularly coupled pairs, and establish what relationship these between pertains Demolition Man Demolition Chapter 2. Norms ingeneral and particular (1993),only one food 38f). The following 38f). 76–77). - - -
Beninu Andersen (208233) IP: 85.184.159.51 On: Mon, 27 Jan 2020 04:21:30 Subtitling Norms for Television the usagethe of master templatepivottranslations Section 1.2.1), (cf. files may com TT, ST the ofbe final the butwhich is the only ST the of pivottranslation. Due to translation.TT one This thestepfurther makesremoved from what appears to English), and results the are invariably that there is interference from pivot the Danish to Lithuanian English, 2004,from via and Danish Zilberdik to Hebrew via ies have made of been pivot subtitling (e.g. Gottlieb &Grigaravičiūtė 1999,from a major language. The pivottranslation thethen immediate is TT. ST the of Stud guage to another minor language through of use the an intermediate translation in pivot translations are This used. often happens translations in from one minor lan gramme with subtitles the which are aired) is not is when ST actual the of TT the one that was aired. haveon case this aslightly based been different ST (e.g. acinema version)than the by cast). original the The subtitles, however,“Taco read still Bell”. TT must The in lip movements that Pizza Hut has replaced Taco through intralingual dubbing Bell channels, due to complaints from aviewer. that this inconsistency has nowfor rectified future been reruns of . that into look subtitling the process itself (as suggested by Mossop 2000),but to be oftenthe case.is this very There been have some attempts at experimental studies endthe products of norm-governed behaviour, i.e. translations the themselves, and (Hermans 1999: first step towards explanation theof choices and decisionswhichtranslators make” descriptive the as “in norms paradigm provide first the level of abstraction the and Theand discovery description of norms is the coreat of any empirical work in DTS 2.2 look. acloser deserves haswhich replaced equivalence point as focal the of (cf. DTS Hermans 1991: to predictused appearancethe of future translations. For reason, this norm theory, and to formulate norms (or evenprobabilistic laws) of translation, may which be The explanationsseek is to goal forpatternsthe found the descriptiveat stage “beyond” Theparadigm. lies goal titlethe as of Toury’s 1995 monograph suggests. languages as well. plicate relationship ST/TT the intranslations from English into other European Even ifempirical description is basis of the it DTS, is not reallyof goal the the Another situation where what appearsTV STpro the to film (the be or Johan Norberg SDI of Media has assured me (personal communication, August 2007) In search of norms 79). Methodologically, is this done retrospectively from studying 20 Demolition Man Demolition on Viasat 158), - - - -
Beninu Andersen (208233) IP: 85.184.159.51 On: Mon, 27 Jan 2020 04:21:30 descriptive norms of translational behaviour as arbitrary prescriptive norms. But newcomers profession. in the These newcomers mayperceive what as started solve kindof the problem at hand. Strong norms maytaughtand codified be to translation task. Internalized norms tell translators how and they others tend to Norms save translators from face a up thinking solutionthey time a new every ofsaid to collectiveexperience translators. the embody Hermans puts it like this: Norms say what translators do, how solve problem; they acertain norms could be discussing validity the ofwhile norms: are given to us by some authority. Chesterman (1997: have found an intersubjective existence. Prescriptive norms, on other the hand, translational behaviour that have widespread become so and accepted that they working translators” themselves. Descriptive norms are result the of regularities of norms may appear arbitrary, descriptive norms are created actually by “hard- these working translators” (1997: norms appear up set to by become bogeys nasty theoreticians to humiliate hard- that tells people what to do, what is ‘normal’, or some, as Chesterman puts it, “[f]or as some of sort arbitrary regulatory normative decrees, inother words, something The ‘norm’ concept may seen as parttheat firstglance of be prescriptive paradigm, may have uncovered anorm. From aresearch point of view: result, addmore your texts, verify generalizations and are ifthese repeatable, you tion: you atext, take for look regularities and to patterns, generalize from your try ofmethod uncoveringthe in norms.previoussec was Thedescribed method able to generalize norms across agreater population, text analysis is the
need toneed coordinate actions. their behaviour.of social For communication engaged to those process succeed inthe basicThe premisethat is translation, as acommunicative constitutes act, a form The norms and conventions translationof guide and facilitate decision-making. valid. to be other words, ifanorm is acknowledged to exist, it is automatically acknowledged […])argues thatpractice theory norms are validated existence: by in very their from above (and sometimes by evenimposed such an authority). The (the other imperative(the argues that theory) norms are validated by anorm authority, How dowe know that anorm There is valid? are twothis. basicviews One on collectively held values beliefs, and preferences and individual’s the collective, the between intentions, choices and actions, and mechanism is apsychologicalentity. and social It mediates individual the between and to underlying the mechanism accounts which for that behaviour. The [t]he term‘norm’ refers to both aregularity of behaviour, i.e. pattern, arecurring 53). And while it53). And that while may true some be prescriptive Chapter 2. Norms ingeneral and particular 56) describes the difference the 56) describes (Hermans 1999: preferred (1999: 80) 80) -
Beninu Andersen (208233) IP: 85.184.159.51 On: Mon, 27 Jan 2020 04:21:30 Subtitling Norms for Television it should clear be from context the inwhat termis the used. sense iswhich somewhat unfortunate, but it is common norm studies terminology, and in Figure A. This meansthat the term ‘norm’both a is hyponym and a hypernym, themselves are of part a clineand of translational social behaviour that is illustrated phrases like “uncovering norms of subtitling”. More specifically, however, ‘norms’ behaviour ingeneral, as in‘norm theory’, and that is way the it here is used in The term ‘norm’the study mayitself to describe be used of social regularities in 2.3 of type situation”in acertain (1991: course of aparticular actionoutselect of agiven of set alternative courses of action as Hermans puts it, norms] ”[the are there advantage taken to be of, helping one to becomes anorm.point This made been has by Toury, notesalso who that there is objectivelydecide or evenintersubjectively at what exactly point e.g. aconvention There is, however, adegree of overlapthecategories, between and it is hard to later abandoned. The terms inFigure A are probablythe most generally accepted. own “norms”. Also, Hermans’s labelfor “rules” 1991(162f) was “decrees”, atermhe as Hermans (1999: “convention” as ageneral same term,inthe way as most writers “norm”, use and some inconsistencies terminological field. inthe For instance, Nord (1991) uses onmainly Toury based (1995),Hermans (1999)and Chesterman (1997).There are Figure A. Figure Ais an attempt at of asummary terms of translational behaviour. It is The potency potency of normsThe The potencyThe translationof norms 79) pointed out, Nord’s “conventions” are much very like his Idiosyncrasies Conventions Regularities 162). Norms Rules Rules Laws
Beninu Andersen (208233) IP: 85.184.159.51 On: Mon, 27 Jan 2020 04:21:30 just researcher the because finds examplesthat go againstthe norm,this does quences. Norms tolerate also deviations, deviations ifthe are relatively rare. So, 1999: 84). (Hermans character”. Norms tell people what constitutes “proper” or “correct” behaviour arethey largely internalised”, but conventions, “[u]nlike norms have adirective mutual and expectation acceptance, and that, fact the on individual the level, “[l]ike conventions norms from derive legitimacy their shared knowledge, that is way the that people like you do things, or in Hermans’s (1999: tell you what people tend to do, norms tell you what you should do, because The main difference between norms and conventions thatare while conventions (1999: thus stronger than conventions, but norms spring from conventions. Hermans is broken, which is “frowned upon” according to Hermans (1991: and not does provoke generally justified criticism”,when a which normthecase is that are ‘weaker’ than norms: breaking aconvention is merely ‘unconventional’, erences only” (1997: weakest,“[a]t their conventions are merely fashions: statistical embody pref they another convention may which instead. have According served to Chesterman: ventions simply have they because done in past,the and so that there is always acommon interest”, serve they because and claims he also that people follow con in action,or inaction and are belief,which arbitrary, but perpetuate themselves (quotednoticed. Lewis by Hermans 1999: are firstthat the sign there mightbe a norm at work. noticed andbeen shared by others. For researcher, the regularities material inthe ‘regularities’,is called and are these patterns, recurring may which or may not have and preferences the are to describe used best of asingle translator. The next level 1995: 54). (Toury binding force (more within acertain homogenous thereof section) [i.e. anorm]” a heterogeneous group [i.e. aconvention] maywell acquire very much more general and subgroups. Thus, “what is just afavoured behaviour mode of within variation within population the under study, population the and between also in
As we have conventions seen, broken can be without any seriousconse ‘Conventions’ is first the where level regularities behaviourof becomesocially At bottom the of cline, the there are ‘idiosyncrasies’, are which fairly random, 81) describes the difference the 81) describes this: like binding character. At that point of to norms. wespeak begin of type situationa certain may grow beyond amere preference and acquire a onexpectation, sides,that adopted course all acertain be of action will in If aconvention sufficiently its purpose has well served for long enough, the Conventions are not norms […but…] conventions can become norms […] 55); he on goes to say that conventions “represent practices 81) defines conventions as “regularities Chapter 2. Norms ingeneral and particular 161). Norms are 81) words: - - -
Beninu Andersen (208233) IP: 85.184.159.51 On: Mon, 27 Jan 2020 04:21:30 Subtitling Norms for Television norms to need change with them. (Hermans 1999: constantlyto be readjusted as to so changing meet appropriateness conditions” opment as evolution fitting. isvery actually “Norms change becausethey need translation’ norm are two of mainthe combatants. The metaphor of norm devel of on-going the normwhere conflict, the ‘literal translation’ norm theand ‘free or his “evolution of translation memes” as an it, as he account seen calls could be Chesterman of his didthis; historical translation actually survey (1997: ofhistory translation written could be as an unfolding of series norm conflicts”. translation behaviour develops; according to Hermans (1999: deviationsthe (ifof ahomogeneous nature) norm. become anew This is how outnumber of cases the complying with norm, the normthe becomes dated, and stability” (Hermans 1991: not invalidate norm the itself, norms because “counterfactual acertain possess ferent kind from other the terms, inthat are they not binding same inthe way as rule. the no blank inthat spaceis ever inserted here spot, so opposite the behaviour is by practice, this proves which itIn arule. to Sweden, be on other the hand, space before first the letter the actual of utterance.Danish subtitlerEvery abides ‘speaker subtitlesin two-speaker so-called (the dash’.), there must ablank be thatis arule says that aftereachdashthat initiatesthe utterance of a speaker than e.g. conventions,trary however. In Danish subtitling, for instance, there and generally known. That not does thatmean haverules be to any less arbi examples in oftranslation rules are of grammar. rules the Rules tend fixed,to be ings and sanctions have effect the of conformingbehaviour. The most obvious At that point it might of better to be a‘rule’” speak (1999: appropriate,to be or backed up by strong sanctions, often outspelled explicitly. fied and authoritarian. According to Hermans, “[s]trong norms are strongly felt equal, second the line should longer. be ally, Swedishthe norm was replaced by normthe that said that other things being line interfered more with image the than alonger second line would, and gradu a long first line and a secondshort line were harder to process, thatand a long first other countries, e.g. in Denmark. In mid-80s,it the wasthat realized subtitles with in Sweden, perhaps as a‘rule’. it described is best However, it was not norm the in line with text, and it when you is full, move on to next. the This was a strong norm titling for along same the to as for be used time other of modes writing: you a fill One example of how norms change over is time that norm the inSwedish sub ‘Laws’ of translation are acontroversial issue, and are they of aslightly dif When we move beyond norms, we find ‘rules’,whichboth codi tendbe to 84). When technology and societal values84). When change, and technology societal translation 162). If of cases the deviation from norm the constantly 82). These 82). These strong feel 84), “[t]he internal 19–50), ------
Beninu Andersen (208233) IP: 85.184.159.51 On: Mon, 27 Jan 2020 04:21:30 is in passivethe voice. It lacks an agent. Translators are to have seen done well by to have seen be of will done they them, well” (1999: mans somewhat condescendingly puts it: “When translators dowhat is expected dance with contentthe of norm,the behaviourtheir meets with approval, or as Her way of doing something is what norm the is about. And inaccor people when act In other agrees words, on (tacitly or what explicitly) everybody asright the being the ‘appropriate’or constitutes According to Hermans, “[t]he intersubjective of sense what is ‘proper’ or ‘correct’ 2.4 plified above. supposed universal, to tend be whereas to behaviour, rules dictate local as exem predictabilityeven iftheir not level need 100%.Laws onare be local the thus is almost 100%.Laws tendrules to have general powerful predictive very power, Idiosyncrasies to give no predictions rise at whereas all, predictive the power of as acline being of predictive power, as indicated by 1991Toury the quote above. more explicit than originals” the (1997: law of explicitation in such laws, Chesterman while has athird added law to Toury’s dyad, namely sourcethe text translationsstructure in all (1995: and tend more to be flat or mainstream in characterthansource texts (1995: namely ofgoal He DTS. himself has tentatively formulated most the famous of laws, these mulation of universal laws of translation is ultimate, the and perhaps utopian, (TouryY” 1995: have following the greater/the the X,then structure: that “if likelihood the lesser Thelaws translationalof behaviour are predictive and probabilisticlaws, they and other authoritarian means, but through by observation translation scholars: are. rules Instead,e.g. laws are of auniversal nature, arrived at, not by legislation or
Once norms are formulated, cline the of termsseen infigurebe can A also the law of interference The content of norms the law of growing standardization accepted as binding norms within a(recipient) culture. their They are designed tofacilitatethe It is important to note that “laws of translational behaviour” are no directives. explanation 265). The originator this conceptof is Toury, and the to him, for , which means that “translators tend to produce texts that are , but inthemselves donot they oblige anybody, are unlessthey , which basically means basically , which that there tends of traces to be content of anorm” (1999: 71). prediction , which basically means basically , which that translations Chapter 2. (Toury 1991: 274ff). Hermans notbelieve does 274ff). of “real world” phenomena and/or 85). But note that sentence the Norms ingeneral and particular 82, italics in the original). original). 82, italics inthe 187, italics in the original) 187, italics inthe 267ff), 267ff), the the - - - -
Beninu Andersen (208233) IP: 85.184.159.51 On: Mon, 27 Jan 2020 04:21:30 Subtitling Norms for Television in here is question: the determines content who the of norms? recognize anorm, than taught to be content the of anorm. What we are interested time, it is more important able to be to know how norms work and able to be to out it when comes to training subtitlers: as content the of norms changes over and to good evolution lead the tially of translation. As Kovačič (1996)has pointed again, we encounter norm conflicts, but we havethatalready seen these are essen done well by Venuti, but not to fluency the bynorm. subscribe who Once those 1995: translation. This is, however, oddswiththe at prevailing norm of “fluency” (Venuti way of makingtranslator the visible, by makingreader the aware that s/he reads a advocateswho foreignization (1995: cally, (1999: ideologically” by others, as “[c]orrectness intranslation is relative –linguistically, socially, politi rect translation, and what as may correct by seen be some groups may scorned be whom? Hermans on goes to say that there is more than one way to produce acor produced according to norms the found ST, inthe or it whether should be TT shouldbe The initial norm hasthe whether with to do “adequate”, i.e. – – – norm system is broken down into three main branches: Toury has afairly complex of set norms on translation the based process. This 2.4.1 with others that constitute norms, here. as termis the used vating for kindof acertain behaviour, but it is only patterns the that s/he shares share with others. To individual the translator, patterns both may moti equally be regularitiesOther are idiosyncrasies, i.e. preferences personal not s/he which does samethe norms as her or his norms colleagues, and these uses inhis or her work. of norm-governed behaviour. In other words, to s/he subscribes cases, in these found inhis or her behaviour s/he which shares with others are as evidence seen to establishact norms. When it comes to an individual translator, regularities the impose own their norms of translation. Very often, however,groups these inter two groups,these there are commissioners of translations, are who known to but collectively) or from consumers the of translation, i.e. readers. the In between producers of translations, i.e. professionals the themselves (not as individuals, Instead,ful. content the of translation norms more often comes eitherfrom the prescriptive norms like Venuti’s must gain acceptance wide to become success – – – We have that already seen norms are intersubjective, constructs, so social Operational norms (1995: Preliminary norms (1995: The initial norm (1995: 11). So ifatranslator11). So translates inaforeignizing fashion, to s/hehave is seen Toury’s norms 85). There are many examples this, of such as Venuti, 56f) 58) 58ff) 20) or resistancy (1995: 24) intranslation as a ------
Beninu Andersen (208233) IP: 85.184.159.51 On: Mon, 27 Jan 2020 04:21:30 given type) concerninggiven type) what atranslation should (of like” type) be this (1997: normstancy are established by expectations the of readers of atranslation (of a a translation, and what a text should like to be constitute a translation: “Expec by consumers the or readers of translations. It is readers the what decide who is target language readership […]” (1997: “[…]productbecause norms are ultimately constituted byof the expectancies the and process norms. translationthe process. It is broken down into two main branches: product norms Chesterman’s norm on system originators isthe based of norms, rather than on 2.4.2 analysis of textual-linguistic normsbookshelves. can –and –fill does directness: is apivot translation That used? basic is a yes/no question,whereas the as some of others the easily investigated.could be One example is norm the of inevitably practice, mainin actual the textual-linguistic the will focus be norms, Toury’s norms should into taken be consideration analysing when translations, but pertinent, haveequally unequal leverage. they fact inactual While very all terms are somewhat ambivalent. Furthermore, in Toury’s system, norms all seem process into consideration, not only translation itself. The drawbackthat is the relate to micro-level the and govern of selection the lexis, sentence structure etc. of abridgment, relocation of passages etc.) and textual-linguistic norms, which two kinds: matricial norms, relate which to macro-structure the (degree of TT the before you can how decide to translate it. norm like putting seems before cart the horse: the surely you must first have a ST lation: are pivot translations tolerated? To me, placing norms these afterthe initial individual texts) should imported be and translated, and with directness of trans and transparent terms ‘source-oriented’ and ‘target-oriented’. criticism this iswriter? justified. Ithink Instead, here the will we more use neutral ofthose Target the Culture (TC)? AcceptableTT toreaders whom?the Theor ST 1999: is impossible.TT Second, concepts the are terminologicallyconfusing (Hermans tion textual ofpertinent the relationships” all (Hermans 1999: guage, is utopian.alwaysTT is Theadifferent text from the ST, and “areconstruc “Adequate Translation”, i.e. one that copy is aperfect of ST, the but inanother lan has Toury’s criticized terms on two counts: first,the aspiration of producing an produced“acceptable”, according to normsthe i.e. of targetthe culture. Hermans
Chesterman’s product norms are more often referred to as norms”,“expectancy The advantage of Toury’s norm systemthat is it is holistic: wholethetakes it The operationaltranslation thenorms actual to pertain activity. They are of The which (and preliminary types normswithtranslationtext deal policy: 77): Adequate by standards? whose Source Those the of Culture (SC) or Chesterman’s norms 64). These 64). These are in other words normsset Chapter 2. Norms ingeneral and particular 76) of ST the inthe 64). - - - -
Beninu Andersen (208233) IP: 85.184.159.51 On: Mon, 27 Jan 2020 04:21:30 Subtitling Norms for Television sible for his decisions. The – – – norms. The expectancy the professional norms are threeof different types: ers of translations, written by translators, is this acontinuous so reciprocal process. otherthe On hand, readers’ the expectations are as on read experience their based Toury’s holistic approach. Chesterman’s norms are preferred focus they because awaytake neutrality the of norm. the would not allow for kindof the translation that Venuti champions, and that would Vermeersee 1989/2000) of translation. Nevertheless, communicationthe norm must communicated” be (1997: not necessarily presuppose inan abelief objectively fixed message, that asignified, “communication norm”. He himself argues that “the [communication] norm does openthem to criticisms for prescriptive. being true of his This particularly is supremacy. Apossible drawback of Chesterman’s norms is that form their makes TT–readerthe relationship, but inChesterman’s norms, relationship this is given cess. Such a distinction exists inToury’s norms too, as “acceptability” with deals reader. Another advantage is that adistinction product is made between and pro One advantage of Chesterman’s norms is that emphasize they role the of the and fidelity. norm relation The forcalls effective communicationthrough translation. The – – –
The The norm relation The communication norm The accountability norm Chesterman’s process norms are professional norms, which are subordinate to The present drawwill model Chesterman’son norms, incombinationwith accountability norm communication norm norm communication [A] translator should insuch act away as to optimize communication, as required parties. translator himself or herself, prospective the readership and any other relevant met with regard to writer, original the commissioner the of translation, the the [A] translator should insuch act away that demands the of loyalty are appropriately text. similarity is established and maintained source the between text and target the [A] translator should insuch act away that an appropriate relation of relevant by situation, the involved. parties the all between deals with ST–TT the deals relationship, and on focuses equivalence is an ethical norm, is an makes which ethical translator the respon focuses onfocuses translation interaction, as social inthat it 69). He exemplifies then other skopoi (purposes, (purposes, (1997: 68) (1997: 69) (1997: 69) - - -
Beninu Andersen (208233) IP: 85.184.159.51 On: Mon, 27 Jan 2020 04:21:30 along linesthe of: “to solve problem, this I can solution use are abstractions. In other words, in giventhe situation s/he may something think likely that many translators are more aware of solutions than of strategies, as these norms, tells her which solution or solutions to given inthe use situation. It seems from.to choose His or includes which her experience knowledge of translation fication or omission. Thestrategies give her orhima number possible of solutions ways to render ST the message. These are strategies, such as generalization, speci At point, this s/he has –consciously or subconsciously –anumber of optional translatorThe comes acrosssomething the in thatST requires decision-making. in atext. a target text. In other words, it is product the of micro-level actual problem-solving solution is an instantiation of atranslation strategy applied at point aparticular in tell translators strategy which is appropriate given circumstances. the I justChapter 4, want to emphasise that strategies are not norms; instead norms a translation problem. developed Thisandfurther concept explainedbe in will directives, however. Instead, are they options; are they alternative ways of handling translationthe process and recoverable from translation the product. They are not recoverable as patterns product inthe of translations. of behaviour, present decision-making inthe process of translation and empirically first one, norms, shouldbe fairly definedwell by now as intersubjective directives At stage, this to idea delineateit acentralgood concepts. seems TS three very The 2.5 (cf. Chapter 5). nized. Toury’s norms are mainly discussion inthe of used influencingparameters that nature of relation the renderings ST between ECRsand are TT their scruti lations. professional Ofthe norms, emphasis the here is on relation the norm, in tool for explainingTTs differencesbetween that are produced for different popu byaccessed reader/viewer. the Also, concept the norms ofis auseful expectancy complicated process (cf. Section 1.2.1) often results ina productthat is effortlessly processence between and insubtitling, product, useful and where is a this very communication with reader.the Also, Chesterman’s norms foreground differthe tors make subtitling by necessity apragmatic form of translation, emphasizing nature of medium the and of because its constraints fac These (cf. Section 1.2.2). on reader, the and insubtitling, readerinfocus the is also due to transient the
For atranslator, three concepts these said canto be interact following inthe way. thirdThe conceptfromtakes us the the concreteto abstract level.translation A secondThe conceptthat is translationof strategies. These alsoare present in Norms, strategies and solutions Chapter 2. Norms ingeneral and particular a , b , and c . C is onethe - - - - -
Beninu Andersen (208233) IP: 85.184.159.51 On: Mon, 27 Jan 2020 04:21:30 Subtitling Norms for Television which normswhich derived can from be data. the pairs.patterns The of how thewhen and strategies arethe tell used researcher Strategies are thus abstractions of solutions that to categorize used can be coupled or his data, and to of make researcher sense the this, have will to categorize them. withis ahuge faced number of solutions, make which up coupled the pairs inher position, are as they arguably most the important tools of analysis. The researcher follows. activated in her or his mind, nor may consciously s/he be aware of normthe s/he may not something be of s/he which is aware. Nor may other the solutions become we normally situation”. inthis use That they recognized the different the recognized they strategies, butthattime, the most of they just “translated”. subtitlers at TitelBild (Pedersen in Berlin 2005b), where subtitlers the often respondedthat . practice. These normstaughtcanbe thenobserved to prospectivetranslators practice andbetween theory. The researchers formulate normsbased on decision-makingin the from translator’s the view. bit of asimplification, as normssaidbe could to present at morethan one level or her which strategy to to use come up with appropriate the solution. Figure B is a cess is opposite, the inthat norms the (consciously or unconsciously) inform him that result formulation inthe of norms. From translator’s the pro the perspective researcher solutions uses to establish strategies, are which topatternsthe find used andegies solutions from researcher’sthe and translator’sthe The perspectives. Figure B. From norm the researcher’s point of view, strategies amuch take more central One of attractions the of is feedback DTS the possibilities affords this Figure B is a simplifiedillustration theof relationshipbetween norms, strat I had opportunity the this at verifying professional aseminar with of experienced 21 Norms, strategies and solutions This is where This is the researcher comes in. perspective Translator’s Solution Strategy Solution Norm c is an instantiation of strategy Strategy Solution perspective Researcher’s x may or - -
Beninu Andersen (208233) IP: 85.184.159.51 On: Mon, 27 Jan 2020 04:21:30 that have established. been patternsthe have i.e. settled, adding when more data not does alter patterns the tigating an appropriate amount of data. The amount dataof is appropriatewhen instead,power; value the comes from patterns the that found, can be inves when such as coupled pairs to give is needed anorm validity. In itself, treatment the of an ECR makes indication for small a very of textual-linguistic norms, a great number of formulated.can be then It should pointed be out that since acoupled pair in itself to solveused kindof this problem kinds of under these circumstances, anorm can find more independent instantiations pattern,this of i.e.that Specification is wepattern find a that in havethey samethe both strategy.used the If researcher differentTTs andtwo in different languages, but the at first level of abstraction, accessible to viewers the of tion) to come up with two solutions to problem the of rendering In example this two the subtitlers have same the strategy (that used of Specifica career, but: aswhich, it turns out, has nothing to dowith failure personal or his mismanaged ple, David Brent from process works with an example from datathe in mainthe corpus. In exam this through description. their as practiceevolves, the and practiceand the as influence theorists describe it community, of become part basis for the they next the generation of norms, is what is practiced. When prospective the translators join then translating the are(who taught norms the from translator’s the In view). way, this what is taught
(2.1) To concretize discussion, this let us end chapterthe by illustrating how this Alton Towers Alton Towers amusement park. Back translation (of either subtitle) Alton Towers Forlystelsespark. Danish subtitle Alton Towers nöjesfält. Swedish subtitle Alton Towers. is of little value it when comes to explanatory or predictive The Office The : : The Office The names greatest the disappointment of his life, . The solutions. The are different, they as are in two : Chapter 2. Norms ingeneral and particular (The Office9:15.41) Alton Towers - - -
Beninu Andersen (208233) IP: 85.184.159.51 On: Mon, 27 Jan 2020 04:21:30
Beninu Andersen (208233) IP: 85.184.159.51 On: Mon, 27 Jan 2020 04:21:30 two TTs of same the ST knows, is this not Nevertheless, case. the division the non-strategic translation would read same, the and as anyone has who compared possible TL text segment for patches all eachSL of text segment. Otherwise, meaning that there isinvolved, no thinking nor that there is always only one As atranslator, that Ithink word the “automated” should not interpreted be as Lörscherthis has difference defined as follows: employment of subtitling strategies. Working from apsycholinguistic perspective, of-the-mill translation and require care special and extra active the and conscious that are more difficult to subtitle thanothers. elements These stand out run- from My as asubtitler experience has taught me that there are elements certain inatext 3.1 tern of ECRs. are defined Theand discussed. chapter finishes lookwith a the at distribution pat problems that are underhere, focus Cultural Extralinguistic References (ECRs), ing kindof acertain coupled pairs. Thethus paradigm. DTS the is model presented as a general model forDTS study of be instrumentalalso value for anyone out wishing toasimilar study carry within to bigger the these subtitling picture; its empirical solid means base that it could uncovers which subtitlingcation in Chapter 6, norms inScandinavia and relates rationale for lengthy this treatment is not only that is model the pivotal to appli the model is given serious consideration andin this twothe subsequent chapters. The This chapter introducespoint the focal thatthe of model is central book. The this to After a brief preliminary discussion abouttranslation problems in thegeneral, Translation problems as translation problems CulturalExtralinguistic References chapter 3 replacement of source-language text segments by target-language text segments. whereas […] strategic translatingstrategic non-strategic translatingnon-strategic is translating problem-solving in which is involved, is characterized by aproblem-free, automatic (1991: 88f, original) italics inthe
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Beninu Andersen (208233) IP: 85.184.159.51 On: Mon, 27 Jan 2020 04:21:30
Subtitling Norms for Television lems are given by practitioners and scholars alike indicates that are they highly at culture-bound problems insubtitling. attention the All that translation prob Hermans (1988)investigated proper names, and Nedergaard-Larsen (1993) looked and dubbing of wordplay, Toury (1995)looked at conjoint phrases and metaphors, field translationof studies. For instance,Schröter (2005)looked the at subtitling references. Translation problems have investigated been by many scholars inthe (cf. e.g. Wildblood 2002: lems are often given attentionspecial trade their by subtitlers describe they when morethe general and accepted term‘translation problem’ here. Translation prob with more neologisms terminological necessary, than is strictly revert to Iwill Vercauteren &Remael 2010).However, since translation studies is already riddled elements these studies Translation called CrisisPoints (TCPs; cf. Pedersen 2008or presented here. of strategic versus non-strategic translation apt is very for and useful model the (1994: translator, apoint made by also Gambier (2010: to depend agreatthese degree and on experience the competence of individual the difficult todraw what between very aline is routine and non-routine translation,as lem) are activated in translator’sthe mind. Finally, it should that added be it can be of translation strategies (or at least as many to solve as needed translation the prob Translation problems, on otherthe hand, are problems, and thus whole the range cause any problems, inturn, which, is due to ST the item not causing any problems. are not in non-strategic used translating, but that choice the of not strategy does differencebetween strategic and non-strategictranslating thus is notthat strategies do exist, never really becomeas activated, redundant. seen could be as they The translating, choice the is more or less obvious, and most options, eventhough they even for non-strategic behaviour. The difference is instead that in non-strategic ing that text are bound to involve strategies. Furthermore, there are always options, results inatext that is differentfrom thethe original, processes involved in produc translation. The argument infavour thisviewpoint of that is translation as always aregies always for used, forms all of translation, including nominally non-strategic translatorlem, the makes adecision” (2010:417).Instead, it is argued that strate no translation strategy at As is used. all Gambier puts it “even there when is no prob compoundmodel, adjectival the “non-strategic” should not to taken mean be that are as of objects valid certainly study own intheir right. potential value as indications of translation norms inaction,translation problems employed by subtitlers, and thus of general subtitling norms. Apart from their as symptomatic seen could evenbe they pertinent; of overall translation strategies Strategic behaviour is prompted by ST certain elements, and Ihave inprevious Translation problems have a great in common deal with Agar’s “rich points” explicitationA terminological made toat needs be point. this In present the 100ff) in that in cause they problems inintercultural100ff) communication on any 42), and examples of are these puns, songs, and cultural 417). ------
Beninu Andersen (208233) IP: 85.184.159.51 On: Mon, 27 Jan 2020 04:21:30 . . . . . My definition of ECR reads as follows: 3.2 (Hatim &Mason 1990: overcome incompatibilities those stand which way inthe of transfer of meaning” (including moral ideologies, systems structures); to and seeking sociocultural bilingual ability but bi-cultural also vision. Translators mediate cultures between lators with. As deal Hatim and Mason put it, translators to need have “not only serioustranslationcause very problems. Nedergaard-Larsen (1993)and Leppihalme (1994, 1997))show that may they made on treatment the of cultural items intranslation (e.g. Hermans (1988), nificancebecame apparentfrom theAlso, start. the many studiesthat havebeen varied, and symptomatic of translational the of style subtitler, the that sig their Comparative Subtitling Project (Pedersen treatment 2003b),the of was them so I found only a limited number of in my these pilot study on ESIST’s the based linguistic Cultural References. The reason forthis choicethat is eventhough key words” (e.g. 1997:15). we are discussing here, and are thus more closely related to Wierzbicka’s “cultural points refer also more cultural differences to deeper language in behaviour than problems, rather than establishing frames for languacultural differences.Rich points intralingually) can and occur at look solutions for translation particular term here, and instead focusing on translationthe situation (rich specifically somewhat vague too and general, and that is rationale the for not adopting that level of language from phonetic to discourse. However, Agar’s termis arguably
Cultural references are one of most the important translation problems trans translationThe problemsthat are under study here arecaused Extra by As situation. implied speech the in Regardless word of class, or syntacticfunction size. In a very wide sense of the word, the of sense wide In very a including e.g. geographical names. Including fictional ones. E.g. programme’s aTV target primary audience. Extralinguistic CulturalExtralinguistic References (ECRs) encyclopaedic knowledge of audience. this assumed entity by means of any cultural CulturalExtralinguistic Reference (ECR)is defined as referencethat is attempted 24 or process. The referent saidthe of expression may prototypicallybe 25 to be identifiable to be to a relevant audience Chapter 3. 223). 22 Extralinguistic CulturalExtralinguistic References as translation problems linguistic expression, 23 which refers which to an extralinguistic 26 as referent this is within the - - -
Beninu Andersen (208233) IP: 85.184.159.51 On: Mon, 27 Jan 2020 04:21:30
Subtitling Norms for Television different understanding the of term, or puttingthem off by forcing them toaccept common usage, and either then risking that some readersbring will with a them of language the vocabulary studied. Instead atermalready of in(fairly) modifying language, it is less ambiguous to metalinguistic use terms that are not of part the not just ‘realia’? use The firstreason is fairly general,that in abouttalking when not completely be wrong. So, term,ECR? Why why particular dowe this need exploited further be for demarcation purposes. reference to encyclopaedic the knowledge of audience, the something can which is demarcation what between is cultural and what is not. Furthermore, it makes is demarcation what between is within language and what is not. Second, there enable any analyst samethe of to sort extract samples from any text. First, there and definition the supplies a number of demarcationpoints that should ideally etc. that you may not know evenifyou know language the inquestion. The term In other words, ECRsare references to places, people, institutions, customs, food for instance, view, fictional references maycause as many problems as non-fictional references; not clear be that references to fiction are included). Fromtranslation a point of ences, is which arguably if‘realia’ case the (or was termused the at least, it would tion problems, there much not to be does seem inexcluding sense fictional refer would consist of fictional names and characters. In an investigation intotransla corpusthe consists of fiction, greatand a samplingthe deal of that is relevant here sampling.easy A more tangible problem is that ‘realia’ refers to and facts most of propositions spanning whole sentences? That is hardlysomething that makes for what are Truth-semantically facts? falsifiable statementsthat be expressed could in than one way. The definition of ‘realia’ refers tofacts thanrather references, and nition of ‘realia’ is insufficient needsthefor model the of presented here in more It is of course second the meaning that to present the pertains definition. The defi Online, meanings the of ‘realia’ are: is vague, and given can be anumber of interpretations. According to OED the meaning unequivocal,can be which brings us to nextthe reason. The term ‘realia’ erences refers to study the of mating the habits of jellyfish). Thismeans that the itnaturally; would hard be to claim that study the of Cultural Extralinguistic Ref creating create term,Ialso this meaning the of it (within confines the language,of expression meaning whose no one could have any preformed opinion about. By my definitionthemselves they of a differently,term use I have tomintchosen an It said couldthat be ECRsare references to and realia, pertaining that would 2. 1. purpose. purpose. Educ. Real things, actual facts, esp. facts, things, actual Real as distinctfrom about theories them. Sherlock HolmesSherlock Objects which may as Objects teaching used be aids but were not made for the N. Amer. causes as many (or as few) translation problems as - - - -
Beninu Andersen (208233) IP: 85.184.159.51 On: Mon, 27 Jan 2020 04:21:30 extralinguistic. The secondpointextralinguistic. The is to define what is part ofa language system and metalinguistic meaninga basically (such as and some of uses prepositions) number small and of a very nouns, which have linguisticrion, all expressions, except for words function (such as conjunctions outside language, would not make much If sense. that were crite selection the linguisticthe expression itself is extralinguistic, just it because refers to matters is entity the or process to ECR refers the which that is extralinguistic. To say that expression of part ECRis the always linguistic, and thus always intralinguistic. It ‘non-verbal’. Even ifECRsare are extralinguistic they expressed still verbally. The madeto here be is that ‘extralinguistic’ should one criterion. single selection but shown be it towards will end that the of combine section the they to make up coupled presented. be pairs will The different be criteriawill separately, introduced made here; be cepts instead, will working definitionsthat sampleto canbe used culture of presented model the here, asis on this amodel subtitling and not on language or culture and language) are insurmountable. practically Also, it is beyond scope the translation problems that are worth investigating. and subjective constraints of what constitutes culture would exclude many of the otherOn the hand, to go with ‘the elitist approach’, anumber of fairly arbitrary would become meaningless criterion as aselection for coupled extracting pairs. nothing to world. dowith external the If ‘all-inclusive the approach’ is chosen, it institutionscertain and language is only mind inthe of language the and user has is within language; is cultural; everything or cultureeverything is restricted to Culture and is language. so is everywhere on Depending your point of view, 3.2.1 issues that clarified in to need be order to account forsamplingthe process. facilitate sampling the of coupled pairs. As it turns out, there are demarcation still The term ‘ECR’ and its definition were thus toconstructed aiddemarcation and work for her thesis on translation the of allusions: Horatio Nelson.
Extralinguistic: relating to matters outside language The problems involved inexclusively defining the issuesstake at here (like Selection criteria: LanguageSelection and culture per se or two only scenes […]In way this become comparable they to characters. literary fictional characters forthe majority of readers and remembered as figures in one is concerned.who do not, Those i.e. historical figures, are mostlyreduced to The vast majority of humanssoon fadeinto afterdeathobscurity as posterityfar as . Thus, no attempt at producing any understanding new conthese of This is also the standpointThisalso is taken Leppihalme,by groundthe in Chapter 3. Extralinguistic CulturalExtralinguistic References as translation problems verb not and and be considered be asynonym for noun . The first point thatneeds ) would considered be (1994: 15) - - -
Beninu Andersen (208233) IP: 85.184.159.51 On: Mon, 27 Jan 2020 04:21:30
Subtitling Norms for Television knowledge, to access any of three examples. these It isto eveneasier acquire ency (3.3). Also, alanguage knowledge needs user about world, the i.e. encyclopaedic to an entity is which far more common real inthe world than examples (3.2)and issue, If get weanything, which back to will inSection 3.2.4). example (3.1)refers that three examples all refer to entities world’ the ‘in is (which another complex It claimed could be that three examples all refer to entities outside language, in signs. Consider following the three noun phrases: thatsign is guage, but as as you soon communicating start about you them, have alinguistic what is not, and complex that is avery issue. ECRsrefer to matters outside lan Pedersen 2005a).The present thehas advantageterm being lessof restrictive, and for case the some been has of also my earlier versions of present the (e.g. model 1993;Gottlieb term‘culture-bound’, the Larsen 2009)use instead of ‘cultural’. This in example (3.3). lish. It is only through encyclopaedic knowledge that aperson can access ECR the proper name, and proper names of people are almost completely opaque inEng Language &Culture private skills’ schoolwhere social richgirls learn ( might mean context. in this Clearly, is this not enough to access meaning the of ‘a is aschool, i.e. aseat of learning, and that also it finishessomething, whatever that constituting words “finishing” and “school”. You arethus able to understandthat it ofaccess part meaning the of example (3.2),inthat you know meaning the of the meaningbasic of you know English the language, but not English culture, you access can the still forthose moment the andatree atree, as call it were. So, if generally speaking, may not accessible be without knowledge about cultures, those but letus disregard connotationsspecial of cultures, trees incertain such as symbolic meanings which example (3.1)as as easily you can inany other language. There may of coursebe in. If you know English the language, you can access linguistic the expression in notdecidedly How an ECR. where This canis be? the this ‘cultural’ criterion comes mostthe typical ECRof examples. these Example but an (3.2)is ECR, also (3.1)is years ago, and has on taken almost mythical proportions. Still, example (3.3)is have existence actual real inthe world, whereas DavyCrockett about died 200 clopaedic knowledge about examples (3.2)andtwo (3.1),as these (particularly) (3.3) (3.2) (3.1) Cultural: relating to acertain culture Davy Crockett finishingschool treethe in language and thus which relations has sense with other linguistic the tree the 1998: . If you know English the language, you may able be to 485). Example (3.3)is even more cultural, in that it is a . Most studies area inthis (e.g. Nedergaard- Longman Dictionary of English (Midsomer Murders 17:10.15) (Forrest Gump 1.32.54) - - -
Beninu Andersen (208233) IP: 85.184.159.51 On: Mon, 27 Jan 2020 04:21:30 culturally illiterate inaculture language. this uses which For instance, aperson person might linguistically competent be inaforeign language being still while approach is which most to pertinent translation issues. It assumed be that will a conceptthe of cultural cross-linguistically, literacy is most useful as that is the turnas to we various the will domains that into. ECRsfall In present the model, In “the Section 3.2.5, information”basic mentioned above expanded upon, be will “cultural literacy”. It is defined by thus:Hirsch introducedbe here explored and on further under Transculturality section the is under parameterthe of Transculturality Another concept that will (Section 5.1). issue of delimiting ECRsaccording to ‘culture-boundedness’ dealt with be will to athird culture, is which neither SCnor the TC. the This issue,along withthe and versa. vice ECRs. For instance, there are English ECRsthat are inaccessible to Americans about aSource Culture (SC)rather than Source Language (SL), discussing when refers to “a people”, rather than alanguage here. It thus to makes talk sense with parenthetical the information provided therein. Note that definition the The definitionmakes in5b sense most thefor particularlypresent purposes, definitions pertinentmost here: or obsoletely with worship. Number four to links number five,which suppliesthe term ‘culture’.culture The first threeto pertain these of in its ‘agricultural’meaning in Katan 2004: any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as(quoted amember of society” complex whole includes which knowledge, morals, belief,art, law, customs and solved,to be however. Tyler formulated awidely quoted definition: “Culturethat is tinent to present the translation problem. The problem cultureof defining remains thus enables adiscussion on Transculturality per is which highly (cf. Section 5.1)
Another complication of asimilar nature is what to dowith ECRsreferring to one social class.to one social “culture” narrowly understood as an acquaintance with arts. Nor the is it confined domains of human activity from to sports science. It is by no means confined to world.modern The breadth thatof informationgreat, is extending overthe major To culturally literate be information isbasic the to possess to thrive inthe needed possible to separate from 5a.) sense this sense stage of its development or history. (In many contexts, esp. inSociology, it is not civilization,the customs, achievements, artistic etc., of a people, esp. at acertain b. civilization. […] manners; condition the of thus being trained and refined;the intellectual side of 5. a. (with
absol. 25). More OED the generally has at speaking, of least sixsenses the a and and The training, The development, and refinement ofmind, tastes, and Chapter 3. pl. ) A particular form orof) Aparticular type intellectual development. Also, Extralinguistic CulturalExtralinguistic References as translation problems (Hirsch 1987:xiii) -
Beninu Andersen (208233) IP: 85.184.159.51 On: Mon, 27 Jan 2020 04:21:30
Subtitling Norms for Television not very useful by useful itself,not as referents the very of most referring expressions said could be first place). level ofsubtitles the high knowledge, woulda very otherwise inthe not needed be assume knowledge of American culture, but not English the language (at least not movies (in her case Hurtado deMendoza Azaola has shown that Spanish subtitles of English-language well-informed about American culture, but fluent not necessarily very inEnglish. e.g. foris case the Spanish-speaking the minority is US,which inthe presumably literate,ally but have limited main inthe skills language very of that culture. This Grenadian culture. possible Thetrue: it is also reverse is forpersonculturbe a to limited knowledge of culture the of New and Zealand, know nothing at about all such aperson would myself, be who, despite writing inEnglish, this have fairly of many the cultures that have English as official their language. Anexample of fluent very could be in English, butknow still nothing, little, or very about one question answered has been negative inthe and are they thus considered ECRs: The followingthree examplesfrom havethe extracted corpus been becausethis all parent enough to enable someone to access its referent without cultural knowledge? operationalize sampling the process is this: ignored. These aretherefore consideredalso be ECRs. Theto questionused to but with extralinguistic culture the ties whose are strong so that cannot they be for and food sports, customs, arguably which saidintralinguistic, couldto be be There is a problematic intermediate area,which consists titlesof e.g. and terms one encounters, and are they rarely eponymously, used that so saves much worry. Proper names of people, places and institutions make up majority the of ECRs extralinguistic and culture-specific, e.g. proper names,these: like communicated through non-verbal the channel. visual much more. Particularly, it when comes to polysemiotic texts, culture is primarily guistic culture, value systems, systems, belief text selection, paralinguistics and so cultural, culture is amuch more complex issue than just ECRs;it involves intralin (3.2), is at hand. It is combined the force of two the criteria that counts, as exemplified in only accessible through encyclopaedic knowledge of culture, acertain that an ECR outsideto be language. It is thus only referentthe when is in some way cultural, i.e. (3.6) (3.5) (3.4) In summary, language and culture are intertwined. Thelanguage criterion is The majority simplycanbe detected of ECRs by intuition, they areas clearly finishing school finishing Chief InspectorChief Baltimore, Maryland Chester A.Arthur Forrest Gump Forrest . It should noted perhaps be that also eventhough ECRsare ) for release on DVD US and inthe Rico Puerto
Is the linguistic expression in itself trans (As Good As(As It Good 1.31.53) Gets: (Midsomer Murders 24:2.10) (Die Hard 3:1.32.14) - - -
Beninu Andersen (208233) IP: 85.184.159.51 On: Mon, 27 Jan 2020 04:21:30 sary will be brought be will sary into discussion. the tions are analysed, as much of context the (non-verbal as well as as verbal) neces context than monosemiotic ones. In present the model, individual when transla on depends context the a TT of utterance, the and polysemiotic texts have more larly inAVT, true translation where every solution sought to render an ECRin concept present inthe is used context. therefore warranted to some discuss of problemsthe with reference, and how this notionthe of reference and put it on sound theoretical footing” (1981: problemspected have attempts inthe arisen that have made to formalize been commentedbeen on before, for example by Lyons: of sorts “[a]ll previously unsus The ‘R’ in ‘ECR’perhaps is as complex an issuethe as ‘E’ theand ‘C’ are. This has 3.2.2 some degree of intersubjectivity might reached. be morethe borderline but cases, by accounting for criteria, Ihope selection that the of arbitrariness to It them. is therefore impossible to reach objectivity on some of with continua here, and any cut-offpoints these areon bound to havesome degree (2005: he noted that he was working with guidelines, rather than foolproof definitions ticular. For instance, Schröter when investigated translation the of language play, This is fairly common for studiesthe in humanities in general andlanguage par in culturality, rather than cultural/not cultural), there are bound grey areas. to be as criteria the work with converses rather than complements (i.e. e.g. degree of ever, of as all criteria the are general and leave very room for interpretation, and should give reader the an of idea how sampled ECRscan be from any text. How Expressions like last the three examples are thus not considered ECRs. In Example noun (3.11)the (3.9) and (3.10),or informal slang expressions, as inExample (3.11). within language the system. Examples of are these formal honorifics,Examples as in Some references are judged clearly to be intralinguistic, of because functions their
(3.11) (3.10) (3.9) (3.8) (3.7) Reference is, as Lyons notes, “context-dependent” (1995: The definitionscriteria the and above, in combination the exampleswith here 365), and that applies I think also this to presentthe model. We are dealing Defining reference boy Ma’am Sir Tea dance touchdown Chapter 3. boy Extralinguistic CulturalExtralinguistic References as translation problems is used inaderogatory is used fashion to ablack man. (You Only Live Twice: 13.3) (Mercury Rising: 25.3) (Meet Joe Black: 3.11) 294). Thisparticu is (M*A*S*H 5.6:1.55) (Die Hard 3:17.2) 226). It is ------
Beninu Andersen (208233) IP: 85.184.159.51 On: Mon, 27 Jan 2020 04:21:30
Subtitling Norms for Television of term;among the linguistic the one, those number 2d, as follows: ence’, but to enlist help the of of sense awider it. The OED senses again listsseveral am not here proposing to change meaning the of well-establishedthe term ‘refer worth investigation. of definition awider this, Because of ‘reference’ I is needed. linguistic definition of ‘reference’thus is insufficient to cases the all thatcover are Cultural References saidwhere could to be language culture, meets and apurely by other word-classes than nouns, and notof uses nouns. evenall Extralinguistic cover references inamore general may which sense, caused by be allusions created and for linguistic notion strictly the this, of reference isnarrow. too It would not caused by relation the alinguistic and between sign extralinguistic cultural reality, ever, presentthe to model is explore used translationthe all problems that could be appears. Specifically, reference be a would property of a noun in use. phrase How an utterance), it is how anoun phrase ‘hooks on to’ world, the or text the it inwhich the contextthe ‘ECR’ when refers to an expression ‘ECR’ case (inwhich could be However, specified. be will sense exact in most it cases, should clear be from expression and reference the apart, and whenever such an the occasion occurs, that referred to S.H.There are to tell it linguistic when the cases is necessary (unless you gave me”. In such is not what acase, seen reference the has been itself as someone “I might saw say: areference to Stephen Hawking article inthe conflated metonymically. foundThis is also usage in everyday of ‘reference’, reference and linguistic the expression that said triggers reference are often existence without linguistic the expression it, triggers which notions the of sion and its referent. However, asrelationship this into could not called be should thus thought be of as having sense. wider the as noun phrases direct attention to some thing or person (or The idea). ‘R’ in ‘ECR’ that broaderthe of sense 4a would include also technical linguisticthe of sense 2d, from other word classes as well, become apparent as will below. It should noted be By including of sense the investigation 4a,the is open to references or allusions pertain: also However, inorder to include more complicated of sense wider 4awill ECRs,the The abovesense of ‘reference’pertains the to model certainly presented here. In linguistics reference is aproperty of anoun phrase incontext (i.e. in as used The core notion of ECRrefers to relation the alinguistic between expres see objective reference objective or concept is related or connected to another or to world; inthe objects as also d. 4. a.
Logic is used in the sense of sense inthe ‘understand’), is used but alinguistic expression An allusion or directing of attention and and Linguistics , and attrib. . The act . The act or state of referringthrough which one term as as reference class to some thing or person. , property . - - -
Beninu Andersen (208233) IP: 85.184.159.51 On: Mon, 27 Jan 2020 04:21:30 and working in someone’s home’ as well asclass the implications. . powerthe to govern something or someone. . not or sense denotation. It is therefore to pertinent highly have adiscussion about tion. Traditionally inlinguistics, names are considered only to have reference but It is thus warranted to more look closely at issue the of proper names intransla (3.3) or wide the narrow of sense ‘reference’ is used. erence is mainly a property of nounthe phrase. Thistrue regardlessis whether of causing ECRs are not made up of verbs or adjectives, however, but of nouns, as ref instance, make noun the phrase an noun head ECRevenifthe were not initself an ECR(for Edwardian governess values associated with that era.There arethus two ECRs here: century,20th but term may the more used well be or loosely) or astyle system of allusive It sense. refers to Edwardian the the first decade the of era(specifically ECR there is another reference noun inthe embedded phrase, namely adjectival the language criterion, referred to linguistic inthe It sense. initself is which light is an also ECR, on the Granted, it is referent the of noun head the of Noun the Phrase(NP)that is example of is this (6.12)below: adjectives mightto refer, used sometimes be by definition wider the of 4a. An or allusive wider in the This sense. meansthat not only nouns, but also verbs and ECRhasEvery some form of reference, either narrow, inthe linguistic and/ sense 3.2.3 of an ECR’, or ‘ECR referent’ for short. Referent. translation. Therefore, ‘ECR’ should a linguistic expression and its referent, asmay this altered be (and lost) in indeed is much more germane apart to keep methodologically is difference the between relation an between expression and its referent core(the notion of ‘ECR’). What considered to stand for ‘Extralinguistic Cultural Referring expression) or the
(6.12) Most ECRsare proper names of some either sort, name the of aperson, as in Knowledge English would of give you information the that referent the is afemale with You to cultural realizeof English sense the need knowledgesociety of ‘a teacher’, ‘living Edwardian Davy Crockett Davy What’s inaname? Whenever such areferent is mentioned, referred be it will to as a‘referent an Edwardian governess an Edwardian table Edwardian an , which also refers, also , which but more inthe abstract and less context-based 27 , aplace, as in(3.5) but heavy on cultural the criterion. Chapter 3. . Thelatter is an ECR due the to premodifier, which would would also be an would be ECR).Most also linguistic expressions Extralinguistic CulturalExtralinguistic References as translation problems not Baltimore, Maryland Baltimore, be taken to taken mean Cultural be Extralinguistic (Midsomer Murders 24:34.22) 28 However, wethat find , or an institution, etc. governess and and an an - -
Beninu Andersen (208233) IP: 85.184.159.51 On: Mon, 27 Jan 2020 04:21:30
Subtitling Norms for Television are not considered translatable: Hermans has aquotefrom to effect this as far name is its reference, it would not translatable. be And traditionally, proper names what is translated is not sense, reference. If meaning the all that is inaproper conflatethe definition sense of and intension (1995: 1995: and intension the of an expression is defining the property thatof class (Lyons extension of an expression is class the of entities that are defined the expressionby nouns denote, whereas noun inan phrases utterance used refer. Similarly, the that act speech includes expression. the To put it simply, would this mean that referent of an expression is what isout singled by a specific and context-dependent of discourseidentified can which be thatby expression (cf. Lyons 1995: system. The denotation of an expressionthe entities all is the in world or universe is what that expression means, i.e. how it relates to other expressions inalanguage differencethe between reference, denotation sense. senseand The of anexpression cannot have only sense, reference. To ordinary language might users, this true be matters are dealt with. However, aproper whole the is also name, and as such, it an island that is long, and its component parts” (1995: andsense denotation of composite the expression is acompositional of function of whole. the whole The what is Lyons calls “a composite expression”, and “the ofIn sense likethe component the these, cases words contributes to sense the following examples of place names inNew York: at semantically transparent proper names made up of common nouns, such as the refer to as intension” (1995: arewhich semantically still opaque, but may which have “what some philosophers proper names, suffix amale ( In languages such as Latvian, in which gender markings are obligatory, even on property shared by (prototypical) all Johns in world,the i.e. extensionthe of not ‘male’ however sense, called minor? be It is asemantic feature. And is it not a John for true asemanticallybasically opaque name such as languages such as have English, they no descriptive content” (1995: to –entities (or of sets entities) insome possible world […]of themselves and in back as 1387(1988: (3.14) (3.13) The relevance the of above discussion fortranslation that is studies purposes Lyons makes aconcession, regarding names of historical people like , which is, which shared by entities all referred to by that name. Or is there? Could 81). This is fairly straightforward and according to Lyons,some scholars The Financial District Long Island 11). Lyons claims thatto pick “[n]ames out serve –or refer 295). This becomeseven295). This more manifestwhen looking the Financialthe District 81, emphasis removed). Thistrue: is -s ) would have inatranslation added to be of is a district in which financial inwhich is a district 82). John (The BoneCollector 46.16) (The (60 Minutes 3642:41.11) . Theresense in is no Long Island Long 295). This is Napoleon 78ff). The 78ff). John John is is . ? ,
Beninu Andersen (208233) IP: 85.184.159.51 On: Mon, 27 Jan 2020 04:21:30 . emperor of France would ‘emperor’. be Asynonymic expression of tions established can be around word the edge is similar to linguistic knowledge in that something resembling rela sense culturally literate language users in encyclopaedictheir knowledge. Thisknowl John. The proper names of well-known referents like Napoleon are stored by lished more or less arbitrarily by that fact the some people happen called to be Napoleon. tant exemplified those distinction between by compositional, i.e. proper names inamore traditional there sense, is an impor of component the and may parts, they thus translated. be (3.14) have not only reference but compositional also derived from sense sense the shown be compound laterwill on proper (inSection 4.2.3) names like (3.13)and of an ECR:grass is no longer in sold associatedto with be financial matters. History may also change the opaqueness our access to ECRis this more facilitated by that fact the we understand district the islandthe long, to be makes which it more opaque than referentthe of Financial District much degree. smaller The difference between(3.13) that and (3.14)basically is in tional sense share feature the +length. It to seems me that there is an element of composi it makes to no sense lump togetherthem with Long Island, N.Y. just they because that may hold water, but how many Long Islands are there? And ifthere are afew, and (3.14)classes? Granted, there are many cities that haveso financial districts, expression.the it entities the to make Does call sense defined by examples (3.13) the defined definingas to be property ofaclass of whichentities are defined by samethe (cf. Lyons 1995: on two counts: and sense (i)the intension the of an expression to mean seen can be that ECRinquestion the has no but sense, it has intension. But that is problematic semantics, it not does have. The contradictionperhaps could solvedbe sayingby are not unlikely of of to sense think the name, the according which, to traditional geographic location. But New when Yorkers about talk they Financial the District, length of island the referring when to it; it is more likely just areference to be to a degrees: average the to varying New Yorker would probably not about think the
When it comes to semantically opaque proper name are ECRswhich not I owe to this Dr. observation Smitterberg Erik Uppsala of University. Generic proper Generic names like the Financialthe District Long Island Long is more semantically transparent than . Napoleon Bonaparte entered a metronymic relationship Chapter 3. 82) and not (ii)if(i)does apply, intension the then has is not much facilitated by that fact the we understand Extralinguistic CulturalExtralinguistic References as translation problems , which is also present is, which also in Grassmarket John have only individual reference, estab Napoleon inEdinburgh, for instance. John John Napoleon : Ahypernym of and exemplified those by Long Island. Long The Financial District The Financial Long Island Long would be Our access Our of Napoleon , but to a the first first the 29 The The , as As As - - - - -
Beninu Andersen (208233) IP: 85.184.159.51 On: Mon, 27 Jan 2020 04:21:30
Subtitling Norms for Television characters, is referred to by Jimmy as: Sarah, a nosy young girl, has who cleverly tracked down Jimmy, one of main the An example should make clearer. this In example (3.15),from encyclopaedic knowledge, i.e. quasi-sense relations, is exploited intranslation. encyclopaedic knowledge. This meansthat between linguisticthe similarity and expressions like clustering around name” the (1995: by that name is what Lyons “a calls host of shared associations and connotations sign guistic sign relationssense of common nouns is relations that these all not pertain to lin the onyms. The important difference these between ‘quasi-sense relations’true the and And people, dogsand ships that are named aftersaidbe his himcouldhom to people pigs or with athirst Orwellian for power might nicknamed be with his family. newly-minted institutional or geographical names like Grace opaqueally (1996: to roots.cally meaningful However, as Manini points out, names are now gener 1997: like snakishly the wicked house of like properthe name names, inliterature, particularly meaning, form may inthe of carry actually puns, quasi-sense relations of kindillustrated the inexample (3.15). relations’, and related terms like ‘hyponymy’ and ‘meronymy’ include also will of ‘sense relation’ and ‘quasi-sense relation’ conflated, be will theand term ‘sense on quasi-sense relations.based For of sake the simplicity, henceforth, notions the ofpart language systems, have as they no may sense, undergo transformations example shows that evenproper names, are which not traditionally considered The referent the linguisticof is than sign moreTT the in ST. the in general This hypernym. The fictional in example (3.15)is that proper the name If we disregard omitted the profanity, change the intranslation that made has been (3.15) Another complicating issue regarding proper names is that proper certain Napoleon , 88). Ofcourse, most, ifnot proper all, names back etymologi traced can be Faith Back translation Swedish subtitle a girl detectivea girl en flickdetektiv Nancy fucking Drew Napoleon and Anglo-Saxon surnames like has, and is which shared by first the emperor of France and adog Napoleon Napoleon 162), but there are exceptions, like semantically transparent , but to referent the Napoleon. Any that sense linguistic the Grace Nancy Drew : : could even be said polysemous, couldto evenbe inthat other short undergo linguistic transformations are which on based and commonthe noun indeed belongs indeed to class the of detectives. girl 295). Nevertheless, in translation linguistic Slytherin Nancy Drew in Harry Potter inHarry (cf. e.g. Rowling Baker grace, or or (The Last BoyScout:Last (The 1.08.21) The Financial District. The Financial has been replaced has by been a Farmer, or phonaesthetic forms the Last Boy Scout not to mention Napoleon - - - - . ,
Beninu Andersen (208233) IP: 85.184.159.51 On: Mon, 27 Jan 2020 04:21:30 between properbetween names and common nouns, difference the being one of degree perhapsthe controversial standpoint of Jespersen that “no sharp line drawn can be proper names and common nouns. Therefore,the in model presented here,take I eponyms, it becomes clear that there is no clear-cut demarcation line between or may acquire from sense linguistic their form alone, as examples inthe knowledge, like example (3.15), District The Financial have compositional derived from sense component such parts, as example (3.14), countries). esty or grandeur (perhaps rather than megalomania or a lust for conquering other your share dogwill some of first the emperor of France’s features, such as maj leon, you are probably inspired by first the emperor of France and/or thathope people are not “marked by atotal lack of motivation”. If you name your dogNapo property, it claimed could be that proper names have which belonged to famous shared connotations clinging to of France’. As for third the property, we have that already seen there is ahost of Napoleon, referring when to first the emperor of France, such as first‘the emperor More importantly, there are many synonymic phrases of well-known names like synonyms;mological my own first name is a near-synonym of names. As for second the property, proper names have cross-linguistic certain ety as we have inlanguages seen, like Latvian, gender morphologyapplies to proper applying to genitive the and plural, the apply which to proper names as well, and Manini herself concedes – is only There true. partly are somethose likerules, most people’s encyclopaedic knowledge, such as John These four propositions are fairly fortrue non-meaningful, generic names, like iv. iii. ii. i. properties of proper names that apart them set from common nouns: names”, literary ingful are which of basically kindjust the mentioned. She lists four
Slytherin in other words, proper names are marked by a total lack of motivation. main the task ofwhile acommon name is to categorize, main the task of a proper names have no synonyms proper names are not normally governed by […] morphological rules. When all these complicationsWhen these all are that together; taken proper names may tent or connotations […] proper proper name is names to identify: donot convey any descriptive con on HermansBased (1988),Manini out carried astudy of what “mean she calls . However, not need they apply to names of referents that are entrenched in , not to mention that proper names can become common nouns as Chapter 3. ; that proper names may ‘import’ from sense encyclopaedic Extralinguistic CulturalExtralinguistic References as translation problems Nancy Drew Napoleon. And as for summarizing the fourth ; and that proper meaningful names Napoleon . The firstcriterion – as (Manini 1996: 161f) (Manini John , for instance. Grace - - - - -
Beninu Andersen (208233) IP: 85.184.159.51 On: Mon, 27 Jan 2020 04:21:30
Subtitling Norms for Television be hardbe to claim that have they an existence is which independent of people the of investigation, we cannot only mean ‘the real world’. As ECRsare cultural, it would tivity tells us that is this not so. Furthermore, as ECRs fictional are includedthis in sentence? Is world the something entirely separate from language? Linguistic rela world? And in that is who referred case: to by pluralthe pronoun inpreviousthe ‘the world’? Is it an objectively identifiable entity? Or is it howperceive we the surprisingly, turns this out acomplex to be issue as well. What dowe mean by within language, but rather inextralinguistic reality, i.e. world. inthe Perhaps not In previous the it sections, was established that referents the of ECRsare not found 3.2.4 and have which those much such sense, as tinuum expressions between have which little or no such sense, as generic rather than kind” (quoted by Hermans 1988: vidual minds, not acollectiveconsciousness, that first the thirdtheand world thus second inthe world, or inpeople’s minds, he because is referring to indi that of mind, the is mediator the first the between thirdtheand world. It is notion of world the of Popper ideas. on goes to explain how second the world, The inspiration for Popper’sthird world comesfrom Plato: it builds on Plato’s Popper’s of model three the worlds: referencethe may completely be lost. people team arefootball (these likely wrong in most contexts), and to others yet, to some it may refer to aband of troublemakers, to some it may to refer seem to a some, it may refer to rights acivil group, to some it may refer to party, apolitical thers issue complicated is even further by that fact the many ECRs, like longer exist; others, like ECRs. Some referentsall of ECRs, like tively world, inthe like culturethe created which ECRreferent. the It must thus said that be referentsthe while of ECRs may exist actually objec I am going to follow in Chesterman’s (1997: (Forrest Gump: 1.05.42)may mean differentthings to differentpeople. To The world of references relations; of arguments in themselves; and of problem situations inthemselves. possible of objects thought: world the of in themselves, theories and logical their world is world the of intelligibles, or of states; second the is mental the world or world the of mental states; and third the say, there are three worlds: first the the is physical world the or world of physical The world consists of threeat least ontologically distinct sub-worlds; I or shall Sears Tower King Kong (M*A*S*H5.6:5.10),have never existed. The (Sleepless inSeattle:is 12.30),this notfor true Oscar Wilde the Financialthe District ideas in the objective sense (Popper 1979: 12). In other words, there is acon 14ff.) footsteps here, and invoke (Fawlty Towers 11: 21.56), no 154, italics in the original) 154, italics inthe . : it is world the of The Black Black The Pan John - - - - -
Beninu Andersen (208233) IP: 85.184.159.51 On: Mon, 27 Jan 2020 04:21:30 exist inaST, and yet felicitous translations abound. – andyou reconstruct those only –textual all relations can those never inaTT that tous communication time. the same The place takes all abouttrue is translation: pletely and absolutely what another person wants to communicate, and yet felici impossible or absolute as perfect communication. You can never understand com to extent the or that absolute perfect translation is impossible, and it then is just as notion that translation is impossible. In one of sense, course, but is this true, only at of heart the “the untranslatability supermeme” (Chesterman 1997: more as worldviews case, the the inquestion reside indifferentcultures. This lies copy of reality (e.g. Popper’s first world). Cross-linguistically,eventhis TS, is as in ous factors, listed like above, those and that also auniverse of reference is not a He explains that people may not have same the universe of reference due to vari differencethis inhis discussion of a speaker’s “universe of reference” (1980: where are similar ideas to explain used differences of reference. Leech mentions differencebetween worlds has a counterpart inlinguistics, notably in pragmatics, ence, and inhow people interpret first the thirdand worlds. Popper’s philosophical same the worldview.exactly always There will be differences in education, experi complicated reason. for No very this to have two persons expected could everbe messagethe (e.g. film-maker) the thatand theviewer. of Communication always is here is to find a matchsecondbetween worlds, i.e.the worldview senderthe of of lation about is basically is communication, and translation the problem at hand though many of referents the of ECRsonly exist there, but second. the What trans fictional apes, but forthe so.present to do useful model it is very sure what Popper would have thought about application the of his philosophy to King Kong is brought into second the world.same The goes forthe referent the expressionof thirdin the world. Whenever he is mentioned, as in belong still to firstthe cemetery Lachaise world, but‘idea’the of Wilde now exists expression referent of expression the to transfer his thoughts on three the worlds to ECRs.In examples the above, the human activity” that exist third inthe world. of religion. According to Popper, human language is one of “products these of emphasis removed). This thehas implication that thirdthe world is not aconstruct admit that thirdthe world originates as productthe of human activity” (1979: or (as it autonomy the may called) be of third the world, and at same the to time worldthe of is ideas, man-made: “I suggest that it is possible to accept reality the pointsalso out He that third the world, quitemeet. contrary to Plato’s notion of
The worldthat is most interesting to us here is, however, notthird,the even aphilosopher,Being Popper propositions, mostly discusses but it is not hard , with exception the that he has never existed first in the world. I am not Oscar Wilde Chapter 3. belonged to first the world, earthly his remains the at Père Sears Tower Extralinguistic CulturalExtralinguistic References as translation problems belongs to first the world,the referent the of Fawlty Towers 11 (21.56),he 10), i.e. the 52ff). 52ff). 159, - - - - -
Beninu Andersen (208233) IP: 85.184.159.51 On: Mon, 27 Jan 2020 04:21:30
Subtitling Norms for Television cal viewer of cookery programmes, of viewer cal cookery for instance, and is this often (though not programmessports different might very be from secondthe world thetypi of other parameters. What is present second inthe world of of typical viewer the concept of ‘a typical viewer’. Thetypicalviewer varies according to genre and programmes are made with atarget audience inmind, it is helpful to the use tive viewers, should made accessible be within text the itself. AsTV films and to in text,their use and judge which they inaccessibleto be to prospectheir from third the world or entities from first the worldthat the producers want ble must have in mind secondthe worlds of prospectivetheir viewers. Concepts involved. When making afilm or TV producingprogramme, a those responsi someto degree be of similarity (ifnot equivalence)second the worlds between viewers, and makes this absolute communication impossible. Still, there has of fiction) arebound to differ more or less secondfrom the worlds their of sion (or have of who those what decided interlocutors the say, will case inthe rather than among influencing the parameters. influencingall parameters, thatand the is they reasonare treated section this in of part adomainBeing is, however, aproperty of individual ECRs,regardless of ways ECRsare inwhich perceived, rather than properties of ECRsthemselves. ECRs, such as Extratextuality or Transculturality, but shown, be are as these will dering of ECRsingeneral. There aresome parameters that apply to individual later in Chapter 5. Theparameters all apply the to subtitling situation theor ren makes domains differentfrom the influencing parameters bedescribed will which regardedbe as top the hypernym of ECRsinthat the domain. ‘ to what semantic field, or network, belongsan ECR to, suchthe domainsas more to divide into them useful different domains. The term ‘domain’ refers investigation much, very as most of are them nouns or noun-based, it is much Instead of dividing ECRsinto different word-classes,the whichnot does further 3.2.5 by of atypical viewer that genre. is not of atypical viewer that genre, intervention may considered be patronizing otherOn the hand, ifan ECRappears inaccessible to subtitler the s/he because consideredbe advisable for subtitler the viewer. to intervene and TT guidethe ofbecause cultural or linguistic differencessecondthe in world,then it could always appreciated fully by subtitlers. If an ECRis viewers inaccessible to TT always)the reflected in subtitles. Therelevel isa of complexity here that is not geographical names’, ‘government’ or ‘proper names’. The domain name could As communication, in all secondthe worlds of interlocutorsthe on televi The inclusion inadomain thebased on natureis each of individualThat ECR. The domains of ECRs - - - - -
Beninu Andersen (208233) IP: 85.184.159.51 On: Mon, 27 Jan 2020 04:21:30 (e.g. 8. Education (e.g. 7. Entertainment (e.g. 6. Government (e.g. 5. Literature (e.g. 4. (e.g. 3. (e.g. (e.g. (e.g. (e.g. 2. (e.g. 1. and are as divided follows: presentthe are model on material the based Scandinavian inthe Subtitles Corpus, to explain used can be subtitlingthey regularities. The domainsthat are in used are given inNewmark (1988),but are they into taken consideration inasmuch as and subdivided exemplified.further there are four top domains: geography, history, and culture, society are which then omy of domains found can be inNedergaard-Larsen (1993: “institutional terms” and “cultural terms” (1988: version of ECRsshould treated be intranslation. His domains are “proper names”, in translation theory. For instance, Newmark domains uses to categorize how his Mademoiselle buttake one example, guidelines the for SDI Media clearly state that titles like For instance, domains are often listed in prescriptive guidelines for subtitlers. To
iv. ii. i. Food and beverages Professional titles Proper names, into subdivided Weights and measures iii. In present the model, domains are not given overriding the priority that they There is thatevidence much domains affect how anECR is rendered ina TT. Brand names Geographical names Personal names Institutional names 100 yards college degrees college IslandConey the Foreign Office “Never Love aStranger” Linzer torts Detective Sergeant the Allegheny Truman Capote Truman or or Morris Minor Morris National Health Services Mister (You Only Live Twice: 52.57)) (Friends 915:11.15)) Chapter 3. (Cocktail: 9.14)) (Cocktail: must not translated. be There also is awareness of domains (Cocktail: 6.41)) (Cocktail: (Striking Distance: 1.08.46)) (Sahara: 33.50)) (Midsomer Murders 24:55.34)) (Midsomer Murders 24:22.17)) (Sliver: 23.53)) (Sliver: Extralinguistic CulturalExtralinguistic References as translation problems (Fawlty Towers 9:14.22)) (24315:22.24)) 70–84). Amore taxon detailed 211). In her taxonomy -
Beninu Andersen (208233) IP: 85.184.159.51 On: Mon, 27 Jan 2020 04:21:30
Subtitling Norms for Television audiovisual (mainstream) STs. that are most the common, as found corpus, inthe is which representative of most with inclusive and exclusive relations. The list above is merely alist the domainsof stitute ataxonomy of domains. Ataxonomy is ahierarchical mapping of concepts ‘other’ category. I want to point out that above the list of domains not does con The domains listed above are not exhaustive, as mightbe gathered from the generic 12. Other (e.g. 11. (e.g. 10. Currency (e.g. 9. Sports within another An example ECR. of an ECR would embedded be tion of conjuring up an intertextual allusion. ECRis an An embedded ECRnested name. On another level it belongs to domain the of literature, and has func the level, it is name, apersonal and has of function the referring to aperson by that example of a multifunctional ECR would (3.15) be tional ECRis an belongs ECRwhich domains to several on various levels. One how one ECR can simultaneously belong to more than one domains. A multifunc multifunctional and ECRs.Iintroduce embedded concepts these here to explain for subtitling behaviour, after which what is all we are exploring here. ing domains the ingeneral, of well it as society an functions explanatory very tool explanatorytheir power. So, as insufficient list evenifthe seen could be inexplain behaviour, however, and that fact the domains the overlap may increase actually domains of explaining listed purpose the above patterns certain serve insubtitling ofbecause difference the granularity in the differentbetween domains. The education. Thispart is inthatan effect the fact of the list is taxonomynot a proper the between names domain and some of others, the like government and remains utopian. My own contains list also many overlapping domains, especially that there much is so overlap domains between that afoolproof taxonomy probably ture. My point here is not to criticize Nedergaard-Larsen’s efforts, butpoint to out are subsumed under “geography”, are of these part society, also and history cul and ofis part of history the that a society society. Furthermore, inasmuch as cities top domains (geography, history, and culture). society Culture of is part society, of list the true above, as well as of e.g. Nedergaard-Larsen’s effortswith her four ing on worldview, and what priority is given to This what ofis ECR. the aspect Technical material There are many ways of constructingtaxonomy a or alist of domains, depend In order with overlapping to deal domains, it helps to resort to notions of a doublea Alberti feedback loop billion2 dollars pitcher moundthe (Broken 12.45)) Arrow: (For Love of Game: the 1.53.49)) (DieHard 3:15.36)) Nancy Drew Edwardian , above. On one in the per se ------,
Beninu Andersen (208233) IP: 85.184.159.51 On: Mon, 27 Jan 2020 04:21:30 different texts; it is not meantbe derogatory. to . verbosity andbetween distribution of ECRsis illustrated inTable to 3a,which the texts that enough is for good of investigation. this purposes the The connection surement of verbosity. Nevertheless, it give does an estimate of verbosity the of makes subtitlewith also which densedialogue, quantity asomewhat flawed mea sparse tend dialogue to have more one-linerstwo-liners and than unfilled texts texts withbetween rapid and with slow dialogue those Also, dialogue. texts with tool for gauging verbosity, as subtitles have to atendency reduce differences the as it were, through number the of subtitles. This measurement is notperfect a contain many ST verbosity scripts, the of so atext has gauged to be second-hand, appear Unfortunately, dialogue. inthe Scandinavian the Subtitles not Corpus does bosity. obvious, that viz. there is aconnectiondistribution the between of ECRsand ver reader is referred to Section 6.1. contains series. TV 50 films Forand 50episodes moreof details the corpus,on the STs the so init should representative be of ECR distribution in general. The corpus Subtitles Corpus,is which compiled representative to be tableau, of anormal TV tion inpolysemiotic texts. For at look we this, will data the Scandinavian inthe among STs can tell us agreat about deal nature the of ECRsand how func they we turn to matter the of translating at ECRs.Looking how ECRsare distributed found inSTs, it might to time at look be some data actual on ECRsinSTs, before Now that we have now defined, operationalized howand discussed canbe ECRs 3.3 options for rendering ECR. this if he is only mentioned of as part music the industry, subtitler the then has more text. If he himself is relevant the reference, his then name must reproduced, be but todepends some extent on of which two the domains is more relevant con inthe categories name personal and entertainment. How he is rendered subtitles inthe multifunctional ECR subtitling behaviour, Iexplore which inaforthcoming study. In that study, the mayECRs also have otherwithin them. ECRsembedded ECR in (6.12)
The first generalization one makecan about the distribution ofECRs is rather The overlap in domainsthat give rise to ECRsmultifunctional help explain “Verbosity” in this context is simply ameasurement how of many words there are in the Where ECRsare found and why 30 The more a text contains, dialogue the likelier thatit is many will ECRs an Edwardian governess Chapter 3. José Feliciano José Extralinguistic CulturalExtralinguistic References as translation problems is discussed. It is discussed. belongs simultaneously to the . It goes without saying that multifunctional - - - -
Beninu Andersen (208233) IP: 85.184.159.51 On: Mon, 27 Jan 2020 04:21:30
Subtitling Norms for Television Table 3a. and Danish versions. films by number of subtitles. The number of subtitles the is average the of Swedish theleft ranks topfilms 15 occurrence by ofECRs rightand the to the ranks top 15 Table 3b. bottom 15films ranked by ECRs and subtitle quantity are presented in Table 3b. Seattle, Notting Hill, L.A. five out the of topfilms 10 ranked byECRs even have the ( anECRin title bosity and of frequency It ECRs,as might expected. be is perhaps symptomatic that listsrecur inboth (hence there aconnection lines), ver the to so seems be between ECRs ECRs 40 41 42 43 44 44 46 47 48 55 60 62 68 78 90 10 12 13 13 13 14 15 16 16 18 19 19 20 20 21 If two the lists intable 3aare compared, one findsthat as many as eightfilms Karate Kid Karate My Best Friend's Wedding Collector Bone e Distance Striking e Last Boy Scout For Love of the Game Godzilla Fugitive e L.A. Con dential Hill Notting Sleepless in Seattle Coyote Ugly Gump Forrest Cocktail Die Hard 3 Top 15 lms Bottom 15 lms Stigmata Two Mules for Sister Sara Piano e Indiana Jones Anaconda Moonstruck e Mask I Know What You Did… As Good As It Gets You Only Live Twice Frantic Entrapment Jurassic Park Bridges of Madison County Daylight Top 15films ranked by # of ECRs and # of subtitles Bottom 15films ranked by # of ECRs and # of subtitles ... and Godzilla ). To make comparison the more valid, the Subtitles Subtitles 1,031 1,032 1,040 1,041 1,058 1,100 1,120 1,129 1,162 1,358 826 840 854 856 867 480 494 520 536 541 582 604 610 612 617 620 624 626 639 642 What Women Want Hill Notting Die Hard 3 Run Midnight Meet the Parents For Love of the Game Gump Forrest As Good As It Gets L.A. Con dential Meet Joe Black Karate Kid Karate My Best Friend's Wedding Moonstruck Jurassic Park Collector Bone e Top 15 lms Bottom 15 lms Watcher Anaconda Gold nger Piano e You Only Live Twice Arrow Broken I Know What You Did… GoldenEye Distance Striking Hard Spy Vertical Limit Police Academy Two Mules for Sister Sara e Mask Indiana Jones &the Last Crusade Coyote, Coyote, -
Beninu Andersen (208233) IP: 85.184.159.51 On: Mon, 27 Jan 2020 04:21:30 were not extracted, could as not they considered be Anglophone ECRs. . genre, has (approximately) to same the contain length, and expected could be a belongs series to same the of episode Each episodes. aTV with several series TV for is as ideal it purpose, the made series contains up of TV many instances of material Scandinavian inthe Subtitles Corpus.part The the corpusof that is toeasy predict distribution the of ECRs.Thiscanbe tested quite readily theon are represented at bottom the as well. ward either, as there are dramas among top the 15films, theand extrovert genres distributionthe of ECRsand genre. Yet, connection this straightfor is not very listthe in Table 3acome from genres. these Therethus is aconnectionbetween extrovert, having more to world links the outside text. the 13out of top the 15in romance tend to contain many as more ECRs.These genresbe described could otherOn the hand, films in mainstream genres like action, crime, comedy and as western the setting often contains few references the to non-western world. It is not surprising to find a western, (the latter classified can either be as drama bottom. theor comedy)near very little connection with outside the world. We thus find kindthatthe is character-driven, rather than tends action-driven, also to have sade two of three the adventure movies corpus inthe ( ECR list inTable 3b. Adventure also tend films to createtheir universes,own and Did Last Summer, Anaconda not surprisingthreethe tohorrorall find films the in corpus ( degree.to acertain Thetypical such genre be wouldhorror films, and it is thus as introvert,genres described could be inthat create they own their world, at least distribution the between nection of ECRsand of perspective text. the the Some text the and between link world, saidthe the ECRs couldto be there is acon ECR-friendly, to be seem and genres that donot make much of use ECRs.As verbosity andbetween of frequency the ECRs,but that is not whole the story. has extensive few ECRs.In yet dialogue, other very words, there is aconnection bottom 15for ECRs.Thisparticularly for striking is As Good As It Gets much predictability. thatseen This theis fact by three filmsthe of ( connection straightforward, is not very and one cannot really claim that there is of ECRs.Atotal of 7out of bottom the 15films appear both lists.on However,the
If verbosity and genre were only the factors that mattered, it would fairly be influencesGenre also the distribution of ECRs. There are certain genres that The lists in Table 3bconfirm the between verbosityconnection and frequency It should pointed be out that dinosaur various the names the of in species of and and Jurassic Park and Chapter 3. ) are among bottomthe 13 on list.the ofDrama, especially Moonstruck and Extralinguistic CulturalExtralinguistic References as translation problems Stigmata ) on top the 15list for subtitles are on the Two Mules for Sister Sara ) among bottomthe eight films the on Indiana Jones and the Last Cru As Good As It Gets The Piano The , near bottom,the I Know What You and and Jurassic Park, Moonstruck Jurassic Park , which , which 31 - - -
Beninu Andersen (208233) IP: 85.184.159.51 On: Mon, 27 Jan 2020 04:21:30
Subtitling Norms for Television Fawlty Towers 60 Minutes Band of Brothers 24 Name Table 3c. some ofrized more the salient about facts distribution the of ECRsintable 3c. series. of episodes the TV most influential forthe deciding distribution filmsof ECRsin are kept constant in amountsimilar of In dialogue. other words, parameters the thatthe to be seem have comparatively few ECRs. thecase for Thisalso is From findingsthe aboutfilms, to it be expected contain would quite afew ECRs. comedy. This genre shows much more variationthan perhaps could be expected. genrescrime low end up also on very ECRs,but really the interesting genre here is contain quite anumber of ECRs,but that didnot prove The case. the war to be and From findings the about films,that series action the itmight beexpected Life ECRsaresense, essence of the that programme. However, age number of ECRsin fiction, judging thedata by in Table 3c. It is not surprising to find that the aver comparable measurement across series. hour.per This is an extrapolated figure that I havecalculated in order to have a most relevant figure the foris series eachone displayedthelast in column: ECRs *Number of represented episodes Scandinavian inthe Subtitles Corpus, not altogether. Life Simple The Sahara Office The Midsomer Murders M*A*S*H Friends , which are, which non-fiction, also contain no morethan ECRs an average sitcom. As astarting point Ihave for series, discussion the onsumma ECRsinTV There seemsclear-cut between fictionnot be a andvery boundary to non- Table 3a displays various relevant corpus. inthe data series The about TV the Data about distribution the series of ECRsinTV Reality show Reality Documentary Comedy Crime Comedy Comedy Comedy Documentary War Action Genre 60 Minutes M*A*S*H episodes* # of and is that almost twice of as ina other the series, 12
4 1 5 3 4 7 3 7 4 The Office The 28 min. 56 min. 29 min. 99 min. 24 min. 22.5 min. 30 min. 47 min. 60 min. 42 min. length Average ,
but Friends episode of ECRs/ Average # Sahara 11 19 20 19 21 13 40 15 8 9 and
and and Fawlty Towers ECRs/hour The Simple Simple The 24 24 20 41 12 53 21 26 51 15 13 would - -
Beninu Andersen (208233) IP: 85.184.159.51 On: Mon, 27 Jan 2020 04:21:30 its genre, but subject the matter and inner structure of taken text to the need be individualEach text may gain some of its number of ECRsfrom its verbosity or The distribution seems insteadof ECRs be most to reliablysought the at text level. numberthe of ECRs found inatext, but donot they provide whole the answer. distributed way the are. they differentcannot series TV episodes provideof a reliable answerswhy to ECRs are This meansthat genre, theverbosity all and factorsother that are kept constant in inFigure overlap seen C,the can be isgreat too to warrant any such conclusions. Life Simple The For instance, from data the inTable that 3c,it would an expected of episode be episode, distribution the per range forms all rejects inmost of series predictability. of Brothers thickerthe lines marking coincidences of episodes. with highest.the white The linesalong thebars markthe intermediate episodes, at bar begins Each with lowest episode the the number of hour ECRsper and ends Figure C. range of ECRdistribution found corpus. inthe within eachseries or nearly for equal length, verbosity, genre, producer etc. Figure Cillustrates the ECRs are distributed among are which of episodes the eachseries, afterequal all of corpus the to make a it What does. might more be section revealing series is data to the use from TV the notdoes provide whole the answer to why distribution the of way the ECRslooks
Midsomer Murders Midsomer We have thus found that general factors, such as verbosity and genre, influence As Figure ( Cillustrates, series eventhough some TV greybarsThe inFigureillustrate C the ranges series. TV of ECRs/hourper In other words, as found before investigation inthe of films, genre as such Band ofBrothers CBS 60Minutes The SimpleLife Fawlty Towers Distribution of ECRsacross series of episodes TV The O ce and M*A*S*H Friends 24 would have only ECRsof the half an of episode 24 ) are fairly stable it when comes to distribution the of ECRs/hour 0 Chapter 3. 10 ceteris paribus ceteris Extralinguistic CulturalExtralinguistic References as translation problems 20 30 # ofECRs/hourperepisode investigation; inother words, how to see 40 50 Midsomer Murders, Band 60 70 The Office The 80 , but as 90
Beninu Andersen (208233) IP: 85.184.159.51 On: Mon, 27 Jan 2020 04:21:30
Subtitling Norms for Television Fawlty’s frustrated efforts to havethe hotel Thisremodelled. results ina total of down with little to earth, very reference to outside the world, and centred on Basil ences to British cultural life etc. However, Builders”, 2,“The inepisode the plot is many famous American people and places. an ECR;or and of purveyance alcoholic beverages, eachof has which aname that constitutes examples are resultsthis inaprofusion of form ECRsinthe of New York place names. Other heroes the sends of film this on multiple chases aroundwild goose New York, and however, respect, in this comes from structure the and plot ofvillain The film. the its verbosity (1,040subtitles). The most important reason for being its number one from an being actionmovie, from partly its length (131minutes), and from partly withthe film mostthe ECRs– into consideration for explanation afull of distribution the of ECRs.For instance, can versions, rather than just imported, to culture. appeal to American the TV (e.g. series British successful several TV Theresome is evidence forGottlieb’s beingright this. in Perhaps most strikingly, difference:this regarded as more being ‘local’ than American comedy. Gottlieb (2009)points to it comes to ECRs.When British it series, comedy comes has to often TV been cultural film, notand avery yet bottomalmostit is the at very the whenof pile programmeTV is. It unlikely seems that anyone would say that e.g. Fawlty Towers raising ECR/hour the figure for such as advertising, comics and television. This single episode thehas effect of to subplots the offor episode, the call which many with topics deal ECRs,as they runner-up One 9: 15,“The Withthe Mugging”, contains as many as 22,13 morethan the in mind. The average number of ECRsin an episode of perhaps evenintentionally so, as scriptwriters the may well have market export the illustrated inFigure C.Acontrary example would be onlyfrom average 5 series ECRs, the a far cry of 13, and topthe number of 28, as On the TV series side, series TV On the This thattells us cannot ECRs as a seen measurebe of howcultural film a or manage to pass on to audiences abroad. become popular programs, although having acquired something of acultfollowing abroad, have may not lend themselves to translation. As inpoint, acase British TV satirical Thematically,TV) some genres film (and are more “local” thanothers and Friends Forrest Gump Forrest Cocktail (cf. Table 3c). episode in the corpus, inthe inFigure episode asseen C.This canis be due , whose subject matter,, whose apart from romance, is blendingthe in spite of spite in , where hero’s the adventures brings himincontact with Fawlty Towers Die Hard 3 Friends rather than to alevel where it approaches level the for the Office the normally contains many refer satirical –gains its great number of ECRspartly because of because ) have made into been Ameri Friends the points the subtitles the which Friends , which is very global, global, is, which very is 8,but episode The Piano The is is - -
Beninu Andersen (208233) IP: 85.184.159.51 On: Mon, 27 Jan 2020 04:21:30 that number their enough). is high translation, can which tell us agreat about deal subtitling behaviour (provided channel. Instead, value the of studying of ECRscomes from behaviour their in since mostparticularly of cultural the message comes non-verbal the via visual much more complex than issue the of how many individual contain, ECRsthey programmeTV is limited. How culture is received through polysemiotic texts is or allusion, and beyond that, influence their culturalthe on impact filmof a or scriptwriter whenever the forused them of needs reference purposes the and/ really come from as indicators use their of culture inSTs. Afterall, ECRs are international and British Still, wethat find American
Fawlty Towers Friends Chapter 3. . This all . all meansThis that the value of studying not ECRs does didnot have many more than more the consciously M*A*S*H Extralinguistic CulturalExtralinguistic References as translation problems had the most ECRs of all the TV series series had most the ECRsofTV the all
Beninu Andersen (208233) IP: 85.184.159.51 On: Mon, 27 Jan 2020 04:21:30
Beninu Andersen (208233) IP: 85.184.159.51 On: Mon, 27 Jan 2020 04:21:30 ing, I will following, Iwill Chesterman’s (rather than Gambier’s) proposed solution to ‘translation strategy’ to denote what is descriptive problem of local-level solv (for textual the procedure) decision-making. of local decision-makingglobal and ‘strategy’ (for cognitive the process) and ‘technique’ in contrast to Chesterman (2005: This system also suggested is by Gambier (2010: a domesticating or inaforeignizing way, i.e. options the inToury’s norm”. “initial for overriding decisions, global-level such to as whether translate whole the text in solutions to translation problems. ‘Translation strategies’ should properly used be consistency, options these would ‘translation be tactics’, relate as they to micro-level ization’. But with any metaphor ifthe isused to be terminology on military based examples(cf. Section 2.4.1), of might which ‘Retention’, be ‘Omission’ or ‘General optionsthat describe they relating to what Toury “textual-linguistic calls norms” more so. If we consider what are normally ‘strategies’ termed intranslation, we find Not only is first the part the compoundof second misleading,the is arguablyeven not strategies all for rendering ECRsinvolve translation, later. discussed be as will it is ashence headingthe used of chapter, this even if it is slightly misleading, as distinction here. ‘Translation strategies’ is possibly most the established term,and acoupledvia pair comparison, it so –nor is not possible necessary –to make that indirectly through scrutiny the ofobserved end the results of processes, these i.e. instance ‘strategy’. For data the that monograph this on, processes isthe based are onfocus end the result, such as ‘shift’,whereas others the on focus process, for terms describing processthe or endthe result of a translation action. Some of these that Gambier (2010: audience.ECRs accessible to TT the how subtitlers render inTTs, them i.e. what translation strategies are to make used Having established what constitutes ECRs,it is now to time move on to discuss However, as it is fairly entrenched field inthe translationof studies to use It is perhaps symptomatic of metalinguistic the state of translation studies How it’s done Translation strategies chapter 4 412) and Chesterman (2005)are able to list about adozen 26–27), who suggests26–27), who ‘method’ as labelfor the 417, based on Gambier417, based 2008b), - -
Beninu Andersen (208233) IP: 85.184.159.51 On: Mon, 27 Jan 2020 04:21:30
Subtitling Norms for Television for of set the options translators have at and disposal performance their refers mediate competence level between and performance, where competence stands translation norms. As Hermans puts it: “[n]orms, that is, operate at inter the (1997: strategies, as ways of overcoming temporary hitches translation inthe process” assume that it is mainly at problem the points that translators have recourse to i.e. translation problems, or as Chesterman puts it: reasonable “[i]tseems to field, I havepossibly done enoughdamage terminological already. alternative would to invent be term,but anew by bringing termECRinto the the (2007: a more neutral term,such as Zabalbeascoa’s solution-type (2000),but as Marco ing what An windmill. alternative aterminological is basically would to use be problem-solving processes ‘strategies’ problem. terminological the decisions thus global ‘methods’ Iwill call and local parison” (Gambier 2010: 414), here. is which case the com product-to-product of as outcome “the commonly more or protocols, think-aloud either are denoted by strategies are almost invariably through accessed second-hand representation, latterthe term is arguably redundant (cf. Marco 2007: 261), since mental the processes that . 1985). Gorp audience and and TT audience the ST the &van TT andthe (cf. TT Lambert the relation and texts original TLand inthe TT relations the between between relations as well, notably relation the and world, the TT the between as well as the ST–TT inthe directly observable relation, are they oftencaused by and affectother ST–TT relation only. However, changes eventhough all caused by strategies are his later usage in2005).In other words, strategies are found analysis inthe of the source text” (1997: are from translation directlythe observable product itself, incomparison with the term,are the use Ishall sense thus forms of explicitly 1997: 92). knowledge concerning kindof acertain procedural knowledge” (Chesterman lation procedures, “[…]strategies then constitute accessible easily descriptive texts, etc. So, ifaresearcher is interested inuncovering norms of trans actual options translators use, and actually how, with what frequency, inwhat con refers to here are instantiations of translation strategies. Norms what describe ofto set the options selected” actually (1999: Translation strategies are mainly for used with dealing problem areas, Chesterman’s of use original “strategy” traditional: “Strategies, is very inthe By doing so, I am actually conflatingChesterman’s use of ‘strategy’ and ‘technique’, as 263) points out, termhas this not caught on intranslation studies. An 89f). Translation89f). strategies are central to any study to seeking uncover 89, italics in original; notethe that is this slightly differentfrom 32 , rather than confuse readerthe by fight 75). The optionsthat Hermans textual manipulation. They - - - - -
Beninu Andersen (208233) IP: 85.184.159.51 On: Mon, 27 Jan 2020 04:21:30 . . iconically to placed be left. the left rightto translationsand normally influentialtaxonomy very thus, or thatLatinbe it couldalphabet the from reads duebe to influencefrom Vinay Darbelnetandwho (1958/2000), arrangedtheir arbitrary context; inthis hence, one cannot help but wonder why is. this It could most oftentaxonomies.right the these to in Left right and are of course completely source-orientedthe is pole invariably left the one, target-orientedtheand one is more neutral terms ‘source-oriented’ and ‘target-oriented’. Interestingly enough, something similar. here we will As make of use pointed the out in Section 2.4.1, ticating (Venuti 1995),acceptable (Toury 1995),free, dynamic (Nida 1964)or or formal (Nida 1964) and onesthe toclose oppositethe arepole domes called foreignizing (Venuti 1995),exotic (Gottlieb: 2009),adequate (Toury 1995),literal, points writers: between strategies the of axes vary these to close one are pole called strategies along an axis of source- to target-orientation. The names theof extreme taxonomy constructed for rendering the of ECRsinsubtitled TTs. amoreand be there next inthe will section comprehensive presentation of the containssection This adiscussion of previoustaxonomies translationof strategies, 4.1 made reality fitthe map, ratherthan adjustingthe map to reality. wasbetween (i) a conflict theand (ii); had been wayother it around, I would have corpusin the was main the tool for constructing taxonomy, the whenever there translation strategies, and Scandinavian (ii)the Subtitlesdata Corpus. The actual dering of ECRsinto target texts, Ienlisted help the of (i)previous taxonomies of degree of categories fuzziness between humanities). inthe exclusive relationships categories the between (evenifthere is almost always a ably presented as taxonomies, i.e. hierarchical structures containing inclusive and of going from ST to TT. Categories, such as translation strategies are almost invari basis of having their arrived at been through same the or at least asimilar process strategies are categories into translation which solutions grouped can be from concrete the level of data, contains which translation solutions. Translation
The trend general sortwhen constructingthis taxonomy of is to arrangethe In order to construct a suitable taxonomy of subtitling strategies for ren the strategies are first the level of abstraction As was explained inSection 2.5, Hence Zabalbeascoa’sHence “solution-type”. Though not forpseudotranslations in Toury’ssense. Taxonomies of translation strategies 34 start withstart asource text, would which then Chapter 4. Translation strategies 33 , on the - - -
Beninu Andersen (208233) IP: 85.184.159.51 On: Mon, 27 Jan 2020 04:21:30
Subtitling Norms for Television by investigating general translation taxonomies (Vinay &Darbelnet 1958/2000and for were purposes the they which originally constructed. context, inthis should seen be purposes and not as criticism of for usefulness their and discussion the purposes, original below of suitability their for our present get as broad ofpossible. aview field the as taxonomies The presumably their filled asof objects varied their study. My reason for using apparent this is to eclecticism (cf.fied Gambier 2010: many differentcriteria Their and purposes. assumptions which – are rarelyspeci and justexposé present afairly of brief summary previous studies. benefit the of reader, and saveto heretrees, a will I few from refrain suchthorough a involved, internal their and relationships external and pros their and cons. For the 14 different2007a) I scrutinized previoustaxonomies; each strategy I described particular benefit particular separateof constructing categories for combinations. later discussed on,be will combining strategies is common, and I cannot any see combination of strategies warranted not one but two separate categories. extra As and translation the problems themselves separate, andthought also who that a like Newmark,fused, listed who same the category twice,didnot keep strategies Higgins, to failed who separate and levels; some global were local slightly con taxonomies were found lacking due infelicities, to methodological likeand Hervey was found compared when lacking, to especially be to Nedergaard-Larsen. Some is not necessarily arecipe for asuitable taxonomy, as Karamitroglou’s taxonomy more suitable than Gottlieb (1997).Again, acombination of culture plus subtitles ones, as long asof object the study was cultural. This meansthat Gottlieb (2009) is constraintsmedia-specific into account were more suitablethan the more generic tive When paradigm. it comes to it media, was found that that those took the due that to fact the Leppihalme, but not Florin, was working within descrip the as of object their study, and of Leppihalme’s these, superior, is decidedly perhaps relationship, however, Leppihalme as both (2001)and Florin (1993)had realia medium were more suitable than morethe general ones. There is no one-to-one Thatpurposes. is say,to taxonomies that had asimilar object of study sametheand the cific object taxonomiesof became,the more suitableseem for thethey present 1993; Karamitroglou 1998and Gottlieb 2009).Hardly surprisingly, more the spe on taxonomies for subtitling taxonomies for rendering culture (Nedergaard-Larsen 1992; Florin 1993;Leppihalme 1994&2001and Katan 2004).Finally, in Izeroed various forms of cultural items (Newmark 1988;Hermans &Higgins 1988,Hervey 1997 &Tveit looked 2004).Ithen at more taxonomies specialized for rendering Chesterman 1997)and moved then on to general subtitling taxonomies (Gottlieb Similarly to Gambier’s of translation (2008b)overview taxonomies, Istarted taxonomiesThe scrutinized were I constructed by many different authors for In dissertation the that much of present the monograph on is(Pedersen based 413) –for what constitutes were thus typology as agood - - - -
Beninu Andersen (208233) IP: 85.184.159.51 On: Mon, 27 Jan 2020 04:21:30 the STthe item or again versa. vice I will follow Gottlieb and firstthe call strategy forms of semanticTT that shiftsitem eitheris themore canbe used: than general taxonomynal inPedersen Substitution. 2003b) and this call there Then aretwo a better-known SCitem; follow Iwill Gottlieb inturn (who followed my origi that there is option the of replacing foreign the item, either with aTC item or When it comes to cultural phenomena, most writers agree also Section 4.2.3). common termLiteral Translation, for later discussed reasons (in be will which Direct Translation,and this call to avoid complexities the of perhaps the more optionthe of translating foreign the item; follow Iwill Nedergaard-Larsen here of categories that most writers agree on. Most agree that in manyis there cases most writers Omission. andthis there call poles In are these between anumber aconsensusis also that foreign the item omitted can be or follow deleted; Iwill sion follow TT; inthe Iwill Leppihalme Retention. (1994)andthis call There agree that there should acategory be for retaining foreign the linguistic expres almost infinitely, butthat the content thecategories of is fairly similar.writers All of previous survey the taxonomies, one findsthat thelabels categoriesof vary (2010: 413). strategies translation taxonomies, claims which that most such taxonomies consist of 5–7 but is this of course much less elegant. This is inlinewith Gambier’s of survey categorization to account for differences some ofbetween necessary strate the that there should at be least six categories,baseline or if not, there should sub- be options lie. Taking above the all taxonomies into account, pattern the appears to be however, are not levels, but these level, baseline the is which where most the basic one how uses: great aquantity and how diverse it is. What is most the important, cultural and situational. Much sub-division would on depend what kindof data like Nedergaard-Larsen’sgies, adaptation to TLculture, is which into subdivided specifications,Darbelnet). Therefurther be can also i.e. subcategories ofstrate source- or target-orientation, or direct and oblique strategies (as inVinay and line of categories. From generalizations, baseline, this there further can be like as successful models ofbe options the available to translators, abase need they indicateswhich that taxonomies may more be or less complex, but are ifthey to diminishes explanatory their power. Some taxonomies, like Katan’s, to much do too with fewtry too categories, and that andHervey Higgins have few categories too for useful topresent the be purposes. some, like Leppihalme 1994and Hermans, but more strikingly, Karamitroglou and manytoo categories for useful to present the be It purposes. found was also that ration and sub-categorization. Chesterman’s excellent taxonomy otherwise has
And should which sixcategories these Again, be? basing argument the on From my research into taxonomies the above and others, apattern evolves Another must which aspect saidimportant to be is degree the of elabo Chapter 4. Translation strategies gies, gies, - - - - -
Beninu Andersen (208233) IP: 85.184.159.51 On: Mon, 27 Jan 2020 04:21:30
Subtitling Norms for Television tency overtency versions time: of taxonomy the have previously presented been inthree torather make world the than trying fitthe model. Theweakness of it is inconsis so. The strength thisshouldbe of obvious:method the matchesmodel the world, cess: it changed has been findings whenever new have to do made it necessary on taxonomies the based previous inthe is result the section, of an empirical pro many during times process the of project. the current The taxonomy, which is taxonomyThe the in presentused evolved hasmodel and changed appearance 4.2 tion, Substitution and Omission. complete: tobaseline be Retention, Specification, Direct Translation,Generaliza present an effectivetaxonomy purposes, should havecategories six these at its It that,seem clearwouldSpecification. forthe second the and Generalization capitalized, to mark status their terms. technical asmetalinguistic . Equivalent,Official which is sonot much astrategy, as an equivalent awith very ing one sections by one, going from Retention target-orientation. presented with source-oriented the strategies first thenand onwards towards more Ategies. moment, the is retained, atraditional scale and taxonomy the be will subtitler’s view. after be doneSection 4.3 the in Thiswill presentation thestrat of from a process-oriented i.e. perspective, to atlook subtitlingthe process from a ing existing subtitles inmind. It is however possible taxonomy the to also view presentedbe from aproduct-oriented i.e. of perspective, with view analys the as not of all strategies the involve translation. Furthermore, taxonomy the will about different the strategies involvedtransferring in from ECRs TT, a ST to a made: toinsteadneed be of ‘translate’, verb the ‘render’ henceforth used will be able to atranslator for rendering ECRsininterlingual subtitles, afew remarks STbetween and TT. semantic operations, and would not of be much help for analysing shifts syntactic well. It should pointed be out, however, that taxonomy the primarily is on based but it functionto modified as a could tool be for analysing other phenomena as slightly different versions (in 2003b,Pedersen 2005a and 2007a). The taxonomyThe constructed been has primarily forthe rendering of ECRs, The strategies baselinethe be on of Figurepresentedwill D the in follow Before an taking in-depth atlook presentthe taxonomy of strategiesthe avail In monograph, this terms for the translation strategies and influencingparameters are A taxonomy for rendering ECRsinsubtitling 35 to Omission and ending with ------
Beninu Andersen (208233) IP: 85.184.159.51 On: Mon, 27 Jan 2020 04:21:30
O cial ECR TRANSFER STRATEGIES equivalent
Source oriented Target oriented
Retention Speci cation Direct Generalization Substitution Omission translation Addition Com-
pletion Superordinate Paraphrase Chapter 4. term Cultural Situational Complete TL- Calque Shi ed adjusted Transcultural ECR TC ECR Translation strategies Marked Unmarked
Figure D. Taxonomy of ECR transfer strategies
Beninu Andersen (208233) IP: 85.184.159.51 On: Mon, 27 Jan 2020 04:21:30
Subtitling Norms for Television Generalization may for used be e.g. government agencies. guage; no semantic alteration is made. Proper nouns are rarely translated, but it Translation Direct occupation or an evaluative adjective (Addition). (Completion) or by adding more semantic content, such as an adding someone’s than This ST the isdone ECR. by completing or fleshing out a name or anacronym Specification. e.g. by of use the italics. adapted to meet TL requirements. It markedcould be offfrom the rest theof text, Retention processes involved ineachof categories baseline the already here: however, it may helpful be to have brief description avery of main the gist of the status,special hence its placement outside baseline. the For orientation purposes, mental construction of world. the For each(sub-)strategy, one or two examples of writer and subtitler, the respectively) of typical viewers’ second world, i.e. their importantly, ‘the world’ constructed could as expectations be (from original the world, depending on referent the whether has physical existence or not. More world’ ‘The maythoughtbe of as either in Section 3.2.4). Popper’s first third or notion of ‘the world’; hence quotation the marks.earlier This issue was discussed relate to referent(s)their in ‘the world’. There are complex issues surroundingthe line category to illustrate processthe involved, and how ECR the and its rendering translation problem. heading. It emphasized should be also that strategies combined can be to solve a explained subdivided,may be andunder eachbaseline will further this in turn be is arguably neither (Omission). Most of strategies the have subcategories, which source- or target-oriented, but some are only vaguely (dashed lines), and so one strategy onEach taxonomy inthe baseline the inFigure Dis categorized as either decision, aSCECRmay have aready-made TL Equivalent. Official Official Equivalent constraints of medium. the perhaps more insubtitling used than inany other form of translation, due to the has successfully shown that Omission is alegitimate translation strategy, and it is Omission. TC. Alternatively, replaced ECRcould the be by something completely different. Substitution ItECR. done can be either by using aSuperordinate Term or aParaphrase. In following the aschematic sections, be figureprovidedwill base forevery . Here STthe ECR is retained in subtitlethe unchanged, or slightly The ST ECR is not reproduced in anyTT. waythe in (1995: Toury . The ST ECR is replaced by another eitherfrom ECR, the SC the or More information is added, makingsubtitled the ECRmore specific . This strategy makes the TT thanrendering . This lessthe the makesstrategy specific ST . The thingthatonly gets changed usingthisthelan is strategy . Either through common usage or by some administrative 82) - -
Beninu Andersen (208233) IP: 85.184.159.51 On: Mon, 27 Jan 2020 04:21:30 TL-Adjusted Retention, and first the into can thussubdivided these further of be or dropping an article. There arethus two subcategories:Complete Retention or adjustedbe slightly to TLconventions, meet for instance by adjusting spelling the by quotesTT and occasionally by italics (Marked Retention). Thecan ECR also SC to enter TT. the retained Sometimes the ECRis marked offfrom the rest the of Retention is most the source-oriented strategy, as it allows an element from the 4.2.1 information about audiovisual the all text Scandinavian inthe Subtitles Corpus. mation about provenance the of quote the is given inappendix contains A,which only text, running the will which give ST the origin of Additional an ECR. infor quote the ofseason series the derives from.besimple also There exampleswill in containalso information about number, episode and, whenever applicable, which plied, andthe finally referencegiven, is as above.the series, referenceTV Forwill subtitle not does contain averbatim translation, aback translation sup be will comewill first,then subtitles, in as many versions as necessary. Wheneverthe Gottlieb 1997or Schröter 2005). ST,the which is oftenthiskind in thecase of study (e.g. Nedergaard-Larsen 1993; and some similar factors, but it more is still precise than to just refer to namethe of slightly different versions, due the to presence or absence of commercial breaks quote. This referring process TV filmsis as notperfect, and programmes exist in screen. This shouldbe sufficient for anyone with access film the to to locate the duration of it; it simply gives apoint subtitle the when intime was visible on reference not does give of time the and beginning end of reference, the nor the utes andseconds fifteen from the commencement film the of The reference the endat the of quote meansthat the quote originatedthree min immediately afterthe quote, as in(4.1): ance from corpus the is quoted, origin of the that utterance is given inbrackets and of method presentation may more be than due at point. this system for referring to audiovisual an texts, so explanation of citation the system Nancy Drew concretize strategies. the There havesomealready been such examples (e.g. 3.15 translation solutions from Scandinavian the given Subtitles be to also Corpus will
(4.1) All full examples full haveAll will structure the of Example (4.1): The ST dialogue The following corpuswhenever citation book: thisan in utteris used method Retention: Keeping ST elements TT inthe Livet ersom enæske chokolader. fyldte Danish subtitle Life is like abox of chocolates…. ). To my knowledge, there is no consensus on agenerally accepted : Chapter 4. (Forrest Gump: 3.15) Forrest Gump Forrest Translation strategies . The - - - -
Beninu Andersen (208233) IP: 85.184.159.51 On: Mon, 27 Jan 2020 04:21:30
Subtitling Norms for Television where referents the found. of can STbe ECRsinthe the and TT the operation: text the level, representing ST the and TT, the and ‘the world’, is which trated as inFigure E.It simple is avery process which involves only two levels of ECR slightly to TLstandards. to mark inone fact this way or another, or transition the to ease by adjusting the ment into TT; the it is only aquestion of or whether not subtitler the has chosen is perhaps only of minor importance, as overall the effect is to leta foreign ele Marked or Unmarked Complete Retention. The subcategorization this of strategy as it involves “minimum the effort” component Levý’sof minimax strategy: (1813/2004: “leaves author the as much inpeace as possible and moves reader the toward him” letter ofto ST. the every In words the of Schleiermacher, it is astrategy which fidelity towardsthe ST,translatorthe as nottrue is only the to spirit, but indeed audience.to TT the In one Retention sense, is strategy that the displays most the below), as it offers no guidancewhatsoever Monocultural Section 5.1 ECR(see ever, not most the felicitous way of solving atranslation problem that involves a namely an American car, manifestations of exist which inPopper’s first world. retained TT.been inthe ECRhave ST the and Both TT same the referent, Figure E. Schematically process the involved strategyin the of Retention illus can be Retention is by far most the common strategy for rendering ECRs. It is, how In Figure how E we see ECR the MINIMAX STRATEGY. a minimum of effort. That is to say, he intuitively resolves so-called the for for that one of possible the solutions promises which amaximum ofwith effect solution; translation actual work, however, is pragmatic; translator the resolves Translation tends normative, to be theory translators to instruct on OPTIMAL the Retention 49). It should noted be that strategy is this often chosen by subtitlers, F Cadillac ST ECR leetwood Cadillac Fleetwood (Levý 1967/2000: (Levý F TT ECR Cadillac leetwood 156, emphasis original) inthe ‘ e world’ (Anaconda 1.06.39) has level Text - - -
Beninu Andersen (208233) IP: 85.184.159.51 On: Mon, 27 Jan 2020 04:21:30 tional information Omission (the of ECR the is space consuming. In cost the case, of this Specificationthe lossis someof addi more in line with writtenthe The code. major drawback thisthat of strategy is it somewhat elliptic innature, and Completion is the more TT inthe coherent and English between nection met at university, assuming that can viewer the make not the difficult too con university inquestion. It thus becomes clear evenfor uninitiated the that two the CompletionThe gives in(4.2) versionthefull the viewer TC the of name the of synoptic by story uttering: background her and between story is, her and ex-boyfriend she her begins very film the iar with ECRas SCaudience the the is. An example of would this (4.2),from be name. This disambiguates ECRs forthe TC audience,which may notbe as famil bined with other strategies), adding someone’s first name or completing an official Examplesof ECR. the include spelling out acronyms or abbreviations (often com of as part ST expression the ECR, side(i.e. linguistic inthe typically aname) sign, explicitation,be but would instances so certain of e.g. Generalization. 1997: avoided that termas alabelfor strategy, aspecific as manyscholars Chesterman (e.g. categoriesall that are to intervene used and explain an ST item. Ihave therefore translation scholars explicitation use inabroader way, however, and apply it to tation first inthe Iused (which versions taxonomythis of (Pedersen 2003a)). Many category, Generalization. Another common termfor of type strategy is this explici I have chosen to name category this Specification to show its relation to its sister This STis done ECR. in one twoof ways: eitherthroughCompletion or Addition. mation that is not present ST, inthe ECRmorethan the makingTT the specific Specification means retainingthe ECRin its untranslated form, but adding infor 4.2.2 “maximum effect” is another matter. copied (and possibly adjusted) and transferred to TT. the Whether to it leads also Therecanbe no doubt that Retention offerslittle effort, very the as ST ECR is just
(4.2) The label CompletionThewherelabel thecases material added latentis describes the in 71) tend to it use more generally. In that usage, Specification would certainly Specification:Explaining ST items We met at Brown University. Back translation: Vi mødtes Brown på University. Danish subtitle Sophomore year at Brown. My Best Friend’s Wedding : university , where main the character is asked what the and Danish ‘universitet’. The ST utterance is sophomore (My Friend’s Best Wedding 4.37) Chapter 4. ). Therefore, holistically Translation strategies ------
Beninu Andersen (208233) IP: 85.184.159.51 On: Mon, 27 Jan 2020 04:21:30
Subtitling Norms for Television cricket player’), Swedish the subtitler has rendered ECRinaway this that has wouldBotham unknown to be most Swedes, by so adding in Swedishthe subtitle of Example smug (4.3),where character very the David Brent strategy, translator the intervenes to TC guidethe audience. in seen Thiscanbe of name, the but of or as part sense the connotations By of using ECR. the this of Addition would needed. be render Ivy the connotations League of translation,in the but that is not point the here. Also, no attempt made to has been youspeaking, gain some information and some. lose There a shiftalso stylistic is also something which can be called the language the something called canalso which level –where be SL the and TLexist, It involves not only text the level -where exist ST the –and and ‘the TT world’, but reads “missil” and not “missile”. Also,cific. informationthe added translated been has intoDanish, the as subtitle out singled has been rendering to replace that is so more ST the TT the ECR, spe translation, inthe pened is which illustrated inFigure F, is that one of entities these kind of computer appliance, and there are probably more. several What has hap most commonly of to aspecies snake, but to missile the inquestion, also and a Sidewinder subtitles, however, are they rendered as ance, are they referred to simply as and firetheir missiles at missilesit. These were missiles, sidewinder but in an utter Godzilla is much more common, and is this what is illustrated inFigure F. In movie the is morethan the specific ST ECR. Botham’s persona, focussing only on his acricket being player.TT ECR Thus,the ish Empire, ahusband, and on. so Yet, ECRdisregards TT the other of parts all cricket player. For instance, he is acharity worker, arogue, an Officer the of Brit Botham Ian involved, as polysemy or hyponymy. In Example (4.3)it argued could be that meronymy is made it more accessible to Swedish the audience. (4.3) The Office The The linguistic process involved in Addition eitherbased is on meronymy, This involvesstrategy adding informationthat latentis notthe part ECR, in as Figure Fshows that Specification is a much more complex processthan Retention. Meronymy often is not involved very in Specification, however. Polysemy , some attack helicopters are inpursuit lizard of legendary the monster, Cricketspelaren Ian Botham Swedish subtitle: Ian Botham is apolysemous expression; it can refer to avarietyof entities, perhaps . The person. Theknown as BothamIan is manybeing a besides things Ian Botham Ian names someone has who influenced his life: could be seen as aholonym seen could be inrelation to the sidewinders sidewinders Brown University Sidewindermissiler ( Godzilla , but to dothat, some sort , i.e. ‘sidewinder missiles’. 54.09).In Danish the cricketspelaren (The Office9:1.31) cricket player (‘the - - - -
Beninu Andersen (208233) IP: 85.184.159.51 On: Mon, 27 Jan 2020 04:21:30 in the polysemioticin the context, it refers only to one such category. dant. Even ST ifthe ECRpotentially refers to Itcould thus said that be instance, inthis Specification the perhaps is slightly redun appliances are not most the felicitous to objects fire at fromit an attack helicopter. tells that viewer the ifyou want to bring down agiant monster, snakes or computer thus agreat of deal intersemiotic redundancy Finally, case. inthis common sense offer plenty of disambiguationthe missilesas areseen bothand heard;there is other polysemiotic channels, mainly non-verbal the audio and channels, visual mentioned,been co-text the offers so enough disambiguation. Furthermore,the precede utterance the that contains ECRinFigure the F, missiles have already However, incontext, no such disambiguation is necessary. In utterances the that above, ST the said ECRcould to be have intension awider ECR. than TT the first world objects. as it ECR, theoretically referstion than TT the to any number different of very The saidbe ECR. STECRcould to haveDanish as TT the more vague denota excluding others. the translated Thematerial added been verbal thenhas into one of meanings the of STthe the specified language at ECRhas been level, languagethe level. ofpart strategy of the Specification, thisillustratedand is thedashed by circle on manipulationthe of relations) sense place. take Translation may or may not a be or perhaps cognitive the level, where linguistic operations (such as translation and Figure F.
Linguistically speaking, Specification speaking, Linguistically leads to disambiguation. As exemplified As inFigure seen F, can be ST the ECRhas not retained been unchanged; Specification level Text ECR1 snake Appliance ECR2 sidewinder PC ST ECR missile ECR3 Translation n number of categories of sidewinders, sidewindermissil Chapter 4. TT ECR ‘ e world’ Language Translation strategies level - -
Beninu Andersen (208233) IP: 85.184.159.51 On: Mon, 27 Jan 2020 04:21:30
Subtitling Norms for Television often necessary information.often necessary rarely saiddisambiguation, to be but to provide viewers and with extra TT the missilesidewinder context)the entity referred to as missile of categories to one such category, i.e. from generic Specification is made,the Specification is not a case of disambiguation from set a it would perhaps better to be claim that viewer, for TT the for benefitthe whose viewersare who though there aware might TT be inmind, this of Bearing this. viewer, snake,ticularly the of whereas could this atypical TT not expected be even is not unlikely to know of other the that objects are referred to as par sidewinders, viewer.there are than sidewinders aTT missiles called Furthermore, ST the viewer viewer’s second world. An American might viewer more be likely to know that differencethe typical ina viewer’sST second world,TT as typicalto a opposed known than ST the ECRor (ii)shorter than ST the ECR. vidual solution level. It where may asubordinate useful be termis either (i)better to ST the viewer. The reasons for using it shouldsought insteadbe the indion inmost itbecause cases, increases cognitive compared the viewer for load TT the ‘pure’ form, as no real explicitation place. takes The is strategy quite rare, mainly viewer.TT Using relations strategy said the like could to sense this be use in their to surface structure,the using so not strategythe like does this normally aid the alteredlinguistic is also sign of course, but no additional information is added through meronymy or hyponymy, by adding additional semantic features. The cheese material.tic when simple Thisthecase is subordinationtakes place, suchwhen as more specific, by addingsemantic features, ratherthan surface-structure linguis subtitlinguseful strategy. opportunitiesthe for play on signifier, the so Specification is no doubtvalid a and nature of subtitles, amount acertain offor,called fluency is certainly even if it limits fied” (Venuti 1995: polysemy, or any indeed playthat of signifier the the erodes coherence the signi of practice, manifests itself as stress on immediate intelligibility and an avoidance of languageassumesof theory a as communicationbecauseThis “[f]luency that,is in is acausealso of what “the he calls violence ethnocentric of translation” (1995: resultinggies influenttranslation, as it not theonly for chews thefood reader, but regardsin particular as this amajor drawback of forms all of interventional strate (apart from its verbosity) and that is that it regarded could be as patronizing. Venuti to illustrate used could case, be ticular another drawback of using Specification The pointThe made above, aboutthe redundancy of using Specification this in par Another of aspect Specification in subtitlingthat be needs to brought up is Finally, it should noted be that Specification mayto makebe used a reference is rendered as ‘cheddar’. semantic the In cases, is changed load these either . Instead, Specification the wouldfrom proceed an unknown (were it not for . The reason for Specification asa subtitlingstrategy could thus 60). However, as mentioned in Section 1.2.3, due to transientthe sidewinder to an identified entity referred to as a sidewinder to the sidewinder sidewinder 20). 20). ------
Beninu Andersen (208233) IP: 85.184.159.51 On: Mon, 27 Jan 2020 04:21:30 Figure G. is illustrated inFigure E. made to transfer connotations audience or inany TT guidethe way. The process of ST the ECRis unchanged: nothing is added, nor subtracted. There is no effort produce neologisms. for morpheme (within confines the of obligatory shifts), including which cases tionalization on translation the was whether based process was done morpheme tell two the subcategories apart, as end-result the is often identical. Theopera loan translation (cf. Shuttleworth 1997: &Cowie lation”, whereas by Calque now is an established translation studies termmeaning tion is judged amore to be precise termthan Vinay and Darbelnet’s “literal trans on outcome the based and Calque Shifted. of Shifted Direct strategy: the Transla “literal translation” we can avoid ambiguities the associated with that term. what Ihere Direct Translation. call Thus by, using Direct Translation instead of scholarsOther (e.g. Newmark 1988: a synonym of word-for-word translation, and an antonym of “free translation”. term“literal 1997),the Cowie translation” in amuch is used broader as sense, to cover levels their both of literalness. Also, to some scholars (cf. Shuttleworth & strategies “calque” and “literal translation”. The Direct term Translation here is used of are these names the of companies, official institutions, etc. gadgetry technical nouns, and thus which have compositional translated. can which be sense Examples but it is not uncommon for rendering names the that are constructed of common The strategy of Direct Translation could hardlybe applied to most proper names, 4.2.3
Unlike strategies the of Specification Generalization,and semanticthe load In present the model, Direct Translation is into divided two subcategories, Vinay and Darbelnet (and Chesterman 1997: Direct Translation Direct Translation e Purple ST ECR Heart Translation level Text 75), use “literal75), use translation” as asynonym of 17). Granted, it is often hard to 94) have two strategies called Purpurhjärtat Chapter 4. TT ECR ‘ e world’ Language level Translation strategies - - -
Beninu Andersen (208233) IP: 85.184.159.51 On: Mon, 27 Jan 2020 04:21:30
Subtitling Norms for Television audience. TT the An example of is Danish this the subtitle of Example (4.4): referentthe for is amedal wounded being inaction. butaccessing ECR, the context the of example this makes it abundantly clear that cated. Apart from translation, the viewersTT in no effort made been to hasthe aid ECRrefer tofirst inthe same TT the the medal worldthe so reference is uncompli stems inSwedish have as is rule the fused, morphology. been ST the ECRand Both that definite the is suffixedarticle the to Swedish word, and thethat twolexical the Purple Heart series tion alone is involved at language the level. The example inFigurefrom G, the war Translation. However, process the is much simpler than Specification,transla as technician asks her how she wants lighting the and she replies: to florists,talking builders etc.the garden in the familyof mansion. The lighting In ofAllison beginning is the film, the busy arranging her father’s party,birthday assigned to Shifted the be subcategory. in(4.5), from This the case is would result inadifferentsolution than the theonethen example chosen, should exotic the between andgies, domestic. the If amorpheme for morpheme translation tion fence the source-oriented the straddles between and target-oriented the strate more unobtrusive (Shifted Direct Translation). Thus, thestrategy ofDirect Transla for translators to performsome optional shifts the on thatST ECR themakes ECR SLbetween and TL(cf. Vinay &Darbelnet: 1958/2000: is producedmade aCalque when are obligatory ones, required by differences the Lindberg’s compendium of Danish subtitling guidelines. The only thatshifts are audience, to TT the and odd itcontrary runs seem instructions to in also specific sponding Danish title, such as ‘kommissær’.Calque Thein(4.4) would definitely police of Captain (4.4) (4.5) A Calque is result the A Calque of stringent literal translation that may appear exotic to As inFigure three levels of seen G,all can be operation are involved inDirect Band of Brothers Danish subtitle: Captain of police like twenties the teadances. An orange glow, Back translation: tedanser. 20-talets som på Ett saffransgult sken, Swedish subtitle: glow. of Sort teadance twenties. Lights: not light, too and… not dark. too (Pause) I’m looking for asaffron politi-kaptajn would more oftenthan notbe rendered by usingsome corre are translated into Swedish. The obligatory shifts involvedmean (3:54.34)
is considered three morphemes aCalque, as all of 88). It is less source-oriented (Midnight Run: 51.38) (Meet Joe Black 3:14) Meet Joe Black - - - - - .
Beninu Andersen (208233) IP: 85.184.159.51 On: Mon, 27 Jan 2020 04:21:30 the followingthe examples) probably place takes more or less simultaneously with the In subtitler’s the mind, translation the example inthe inFigure H(as well as in processesthe involved inGeneralization (as well as inSpecification) is misleading. inadashedplaced circle here, as it is optional. The linearity the explanationof of a myriad of other phenomena; it is thus much more general. Translation is again (hence dotted the tially lines) refers to The Three Stooges, Laurel and Hardy and renderingsion of is much TT the greater than that of poten which ST the ECR, translated into Swedish and into inserted TT. the As regards reference, inten the would involve chunking levels. up The several hypernym (which is not an ECR) is ordinate to term,inrespect lighter forms of music, drama etc. andsection), an infinite number of comedyother groups, as well as most the of Danish subtitler subtitles, inthe used of acase Cultural Substitution; cf. next the kind of entertainment, butof true would this be also level STthe ECR refers to word for ‘entertainment’. The processbehind it worksthis: like thelanguage on to explain it. Attry text the level, ST the replaced ECRhas by been Swedish the rendered by aSuperordinate Term. Figure His somewhat complicated, Iwill so Swedish translation of hypernym the M*A*S*H matically, but Figure His an attempt to doso. It on isan based example from involved in Generalization is often quite complexscheparticularly to describe, tion, as hyper- the or holonym is normally translated into TL.Thethe process is generally longer, but more or less synonymic, apart from less being specific. through of use the aParaphrase, where ST the ECRis replaced by aphrase which replacing ST the ECRwith aSuperordinate Term. Alternatively, it done can be by exploiting relations sense form in the of hyponymy or meronymy, and thus somethingspecific by more general. This is done in one of two ways. be It can done The strategy Generalizationof entails replacing an ECR referringsomething to 4.2.4 has place. taken of Allison’s utterance, but main the argument here is that anon-obligatory shift arguedcould be that pragmatically shift this alters of somefocus the contentof twenties”, makes which it Shifted Direct Translation, ratherthanCalque. a It Swedishin the subtitles makes “tea dances” of head the NPrather the than “the The subtitling of
In Figure audience, is which inaccessible ST Hthe ECR, to TT the has been Typically, using aSuperordinate Term for Generalization involves transla Generalization:withthe Replacing specific general the (5: 6: 12.38), where ECR the tea dance twenties The Three Stooges, The Three Stooges Entertainment is still very direct, but very shift the in is still word order entertainment. The Three Stooges . To Katan’s use (2004: who could be said to be a certain saidcould who a tocertain be be is thus a very high-level super high-level is thus avery Laurel and Hardy and Laurel Chapter 4. has been replacedhas been by a Translation strategies 201) terms, it (which the the (which - - - - -
Beninu Andersen (208233) IP: 85.184.159.51 On: Mon, 27 Jan 2020 04:21:30
Subtitling Norms for Television rendering is not culture-specific as it refers ball brandsto in whichgeneral,canbe audience, replaced has by been atranslated hypernym, i.e. ‘the brand’. ball TT The In example, this ST the ECR her brother comments on fact: the (4.6). In example, this awoman hit has violently been and faceby inthe volleyball, ymy, and resultingthe item is rarelythen TT from as an seen can example be ECR, explicable way inthe represented inFigure H. identification of an appropriate hypernym. However,the process is more readily Figure H. (4.6) It is more common that hyponymy is involved strategy than inthis meron You brand whole the ball can [or see mark]. Back translation: Man kan hele se boldmærket. Danish subtitle: You can “Voit” totally see backwards on her forehead. Generalization –Superordinate Term ST ECR Stooges ree e Laurel & Hardy ECR Voit Entertainment Hypernym: , which was deemed inaccessible was, which deemed to Danish the level Text ECR etc. underhållning Translation (Meet Parents: the 58.59) TT ECR ‘ e world’ Language level -
Beninu Andersen (208233) IP: 85.184.159.51 On: Mon, 27 Jan 2020 04:21:30 of Generalization +Retention. The difference thestrategies between islinguistic of number their is Ian Thus, Botham. Additionsaidbe could oftenthe be to result said a tohypernymbe be of Ian there Botham: are many cricket players and one ahypernym.be Example in seen Thiscanbe (4.3) above, as ‘cricket player’ could of Specificationegy call I Addition,that in the information in added Additioncan to happen of function NPis the of deictic the when subordinate importance. renderingof (which, again, TT the is not an lost. ECR) is This thusalso is only likely nym meaning ‘a café’. With loss the of uniqueness of reference, function deictic the In example, this name the ofcafé aspecific been has replaced by a Swedish hyper her father Black, (Joe a.k.a.Death) for first the time: from Example (4.8),where awoman explains where she met an acquaintance of cle. However, uniqueness of reference is oftenGeneralization, lost in seen canbe as retained through of use the a proper name, and in (4.6) through definitethe arti ECRis four thatmight fact the characters TT the be shorter than ST the ECR. viewer, ECRto atypical TT reason the so for Generalization the cf. Section 5.1) in New York. Park Central is presumably afairly well known (i.e. Transcultural, (or New aquasi-meronym York, of) ifit so rains Park, inCentral it must thus rain The subtitles relatestill the to utteranceoriginal here,Central as Park part is a of that The fact effect: “A butterfly can flap its wings inPeking… example is from ofpart it. In Example (4.7)aholonym is which not used, has translated. been The not is hard to say, but as ST the is acomedy, it is not inappropriate. Example bonus (4.6)has added the of apun. being Whether is this deliberate or found any in virtually culture, it so is not As an ECR. an aside, renderingthe in
(4.8) (4.7) There arethe between strategies similarities Generalizationof theand substrat In Examples (4.6) and (4.7), specificity of reference is retained. In (4.7) it is Translation common is avery feature of Generalization, but it not need be This morning, café.at a Back translation: I förmiddags, ett på kafé. Swedish subtitle: This morning. Corinth The Coffee Shop. …and it rains inNew York. Back translation: …og detregner iNew York. Danish subtitle …and Park inCentral you get rain instead of sunshine. New York New Jurassic Park is not translated is completely normal, as it is well known. , where achaos theoretician is explaining butterfly the Chapter 4. (Meet Joe Black: 37.20) (Jurassic Park 45.19) Translation strategies - - -
Beninu Andersen (208233) IP: 85.184.159.51 On: Mon, 27 Jan 2020 04:21:30
Subtitling Norms for Television a cheese, so to speak, whereas all cheeses are cheeses whereas all toa cheese, speak, not so cheddars. In Example (4.8)above, always you when case the chunk down, as cheddar (inits is always sense) original Specificationwhen is used. By chunking up, you theretain reference,which is not it because notalso is does involve any breech of reference, which may case the be itself generates greater acceptability (i.e. of makinguse the it astronger norm), but audiences.of most Thispartly a TT is result of greaterits frequency, which in well, and that is that Generalization is more norms inline with expectancy the up more valuable subtitle spacethan Generalization. There is another reason as tion. One reason has mentioned, already been i.e. that Specification normally uses a much more common strategy than its down-chunking counterpart, Specifica relation sense the involved is not often so hyponymypolysemy. as WhenST ECR. Addition movement the is used, oppositegoes in the direction, and movement on ahyponymy producing item scale, that aTT than the is less specific on ofand In perspective ST the the based ECR. Generalization, there is an upward gers and dying amartyr. CJ was disseminated The of story by a songfolk that bears his name. his trainwhen crashed, thus keeping train the on tracks, the and saving lives his the passen of . retains contextually the relevant information about American this folk hero. subtitler has opted for deleting ST the ECRand replacing it with aParaphrase that Judging Jones that Casey would little viewers, Swedish be the known to TT the engine may have done, upon Tommy the which Jones Lee character clips: is a train crash and investigatingthe marshals are discussing what driverthe of the tion using a Superordinate Term. An example of is this (4.9).In for solving ECRcrisispoints that are complex too for Specification Generaliza or relevant connotations are kept by using aParaphrase. This is strategy mainly used of When ST the ST strategythe ECR. is this used, ECRis removed, but its or sense how can this cause problems towards end the of Section 5.7. might not have café the originally been referred to. We at look will an example of other way around, and the (4.9) Corinth Coffee Shop Coffee Corinth Generalization by Superordinate Term –or chunking up, inKatan’s terms –is Using a Paraphrase involves “reduction the to sense” (Leppihalme 1994: Casey JonesCasey was an American engine driver hero is famous who for remaining at his post I’m sure he didn’t leave engine. the Back translation: Han inte lämnade säkert loket. Swedish subtitle: Jones. he did a Casey I bet is part of is part extension the of a café had been Specified as the as Specified had been 36 a café a , whereas ifit the had been Corinth Coffee Shop Coffee Corinth (The Fugitive: 20.25) The Fugitive The , there , this , this 125) - - -
Beninu Andersen (208233) IP: 85.184.159.51 On: Mon, 27 Jan 2020 04:21:30 . audience’s TT the Danish the subtitle, understanding of however. longer while a took to liberate. the Thedifference between dates would probably not hamper title is, however, correct as datethe of Victory in Europe, as some countries – like Norway – and latter the date liberation is when is normally celebrated in Denmark. Thedate the in sub . completely differentthat the fits situation (Situational Substitution). the In first either a differentfrom ECR the SC theor TC (Cultural Substitution), somethingor This involvesstrategy removingthe ST ECR and replacing somethingwithit else, 4.2.5 than item the message. original inthe It STthe ECR. is, however, common very that superordinate terms are shorter ascase, superordinate terms, and paraphrases (particularly) may longer be than eralisation allows subtitler the to reduce text” the (2009: reasons of adhering to constraints the of medium. the As Pettit points out: “Gen Day’), is not used. paraphrase, though, as Danish the Equivalent, Official consideredcould be aTranscultural ECRfor audience. Danish the TT It a is still Example causes (4.10),which atranslation problem for audience, Swedish the TT ending would more be minds vivid inthe of Danish the audience. The ECRin Danes,the but not Swedes, the war, inthe took part to its ECRpertaining the so difference Thethe between crucial Swedish the and Danish audiences here that is at pictures of: Example (4.10),from ECR (i.e. its level of Transculturality,illustrated Thiscanbe by Section 5.1). see paraphrase and TT the degree the of audience familiarity of with the TT the pared toThere ST the ECR. maybe aninverse relationthe lengthbetween of
(4.10) Generalization can to either aid used viewer,be the above, as discussed or for The Paraphrase in questiongreatly may vary inlength and complexity com Strictly speaking, Danish the liberation took place on night the May between 4and May 5, Much of what is described in this section is based onMuch Pedersen is based in this section what (2007b). is described of Substitution: Replacing culture (with culture) …8. maj 1945 Danish subtitle: celebrations…the of capitulation the World Second inthe War. Back translation: …firandet av kapitulationen i andra världskriget. Swedish subtitle: V.E.…the Day celebrations. 37 Midsomer Murders , where acouple of people are looking Chapter 4. (Midsomer Murders 24:8.54) Befrielsesdagen 38 56). This is notalways the Translation strategies (‘Liberation - - -
Beninu Andersen (208233) IP: 85.184.159.51 On: Mon, 27 Jan 2020 04:21:30
Subtitling Norms for Television TC would originate of SC,because inthe heavy Anglophone influence. Therefore, vast majority of substituting ECRsthat would shared be SCand the between the going from English into most European languages, split this is not germane, as the using Anglophone Transcultural ECRsas cultural substitutes. probably subtitling when useful be for instance an Iranian into film German and culture” subdivision (Gottlieb:further This original). 2009,italics inthe would target audience” or into “replacement by aforeign element subcategorizedfurther either into “replacement by aforeign element three-way split of strategy, this of use the inwhich aTranscultural ECRwould be culture, would which known SCand be inthe both TC. the Gottlieb suggests a a better-known (i.e. Transcultural, ECRfrom SC or the a third cf. Section 5.1.1) Substitution. These are either to domesticatethe text by using a TC ECR or to use not second inthe subcategory. case the subcategory, ST the rendering; ECRand between there alink isits still that TT is and not does subcategorize strategy at the all. . . a great of deal effort part the theon of subtitler. It only involvesthe text level and Figure I. below detail as Examplein further (4.15). ECR or is illustrated TC ECR, inFigure J. be discussed the The figure ECRin will ECR. two subcategories: Substitution by aTranscultural ECRand Substitution by aTC presented model in the here, Cultural Substitution split only further into will be The process involvedthe in strategy of Substitution,be it by Transcultural There aretwo waystranslatorwhichthe in could avail her/himself of Cultural As inFigure process seen I,the simple, can be is very evenifit may involve I owe to this Mandana observation Taban University the of of Vienna. After proposingthisthree-way subcategorizationthis strategy, of Gottlieb abandons it, 40 Cultural Substitution ST ECR NYU TT ECR KUA ‘ e world’ shared level Text 39 However, when with target the known to the
Beninu Andersen (208233) IP: 85.184.159.51 On: Mon, 27 Jan 2020 04:21:30 In Example ST (4.11),the ECRrefers to trained himself not to laugh or smile: explaining to commanding the officer the of camp, Colonel Potter, how he has Colonelcharacter arather Flagg, called macho U.S. Army intelligence officer, is from athird culture. An example of is this (4.11)below, from ECRmay the cases, amorethese be widely known SCECRor aTranscultural ECR In least the marked form aTranscultural to replace ECRis used In ST the ECR. 4.2.5.1 across is only connotations. there even if what is a connection ECR, STthe is carried between ECR and TT the another, of because breach the of reference. Yet, as dotted the arrow indicates, nor translation is involved. As for reference, ST the ECRhas one referent, TT the ‘the world’; there is for no need language the level here, as neither relations, sense about subtitled the utterance might in(4.11):Flagg just as well have referred to “authenticitycalls problems” (1994: it is what Nedergaard-Larsen “credibility calls problems” (1993: credibility gap may appear subtitled when SC characters are to TC use ECRs; seen samethe era.Therethus is no credibility gapthe in subtitles. Putting it briefly, a Hardy and can comedians accessible to viewers the by replacing navian audiences.Danish The subtitler hasthe made reference to famous Ameri movies never made it to Scandinavia, reference the so would obscure to be Scandi 1930s onwards, are well who known U.S. inthe very However, used Generalization to renderused . what Gottlieb“the calls from feedback-effect the original” (1997: the Three Stooges era inwhich Hardy and Laurel
(4.11) This examplesamethe is the as in Figureone used H above,where the Swedish subtitler Cultural Substitution by Transcultural ECR I watched Laurel and Hardy movies for 100hours. [ Back translation: timer.Jeg i100 film ogGokke Gøg så [ Danish subtitle: myselfsmiling, Ijabbed stomach inthe with acattle prod. I watched ahundred hours of Three the timeStooges. I feltEvery like , who are well, who known very inScandinavia, and are who from roughly M*A*S*H , so the viewers the might, so notice ST–TT the difference here,through ; they were; they popular American comedians in earlythe the fifties, is set. The is set. only problemthat is he did not; he referred to The Three Stooges 51, my translation). There is nothingodd the Three Stooges by Swedish the equivalent of ‘entertainment’. … ] the Three Stooges Chapter 4. , 41 … acomedy from trio the (M*A*S*H 5:6:12.38) ] M*A*S*H Translation strategies 231) and Gottlieb the Three Stooges 93). Therethus is with with . Here, a Laurel Laurel
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Beninu Andersen (208233) IP: 85.184.159.51 On: Mon, 27 Jan 2020 04:21:30
Subtitling Norms for Television bland, depending on one’s point of view. to ECRs,but new to familiar ones, more and makes this TT the accessible or more said“standardizing” to be could also (1995: are more common and central. Following Toury’s firstlaw translation,of the effect removes more the exotic and peripheral ECRsand replaces with them ECRsthat level strategy choice) said “centripetal”could to be be (cf. Gottlieb 2001: subtitles. The TT the thisusedstrategy (if is effect overall profusely, or asa macro- rather than equivalence of information in(4.11). (Newmark 1988: (1964: equivalencethe of solution the is “dynamic”, rather than “formal” to Nida’s use at it all; felicitous is ahighly Pedersen: (see 2008)solution. The difference that is subtitle as containing might seen be then an ‘error’. Iclaim that it is not an error some disharmony audio verbal the between channel and subtitles, the and the max side of minimaxthe strategy, space-efficient, and also it involves a breach of Just like Cultural Substitution by aTranscultural strategy is this heavy on ECR, the as muchin peace as possible and moves writer the toward him” (1813/2004: to put it words in the of Schleiermacher, it is atechnique “leaves which reader the it completely removes aforeign element and replaces it with adomestic one. Or, domesticating (cf. Venuti 1995: In a more marked form, ST the ECR is replaced by Thisthe a TCis most ECR. 4.2.5.2 always afactor insubtitling. primarilyegies, Specification and Paraphrase,that it is space-efficient, which is less time-consuming. However, strategy has the advantage the over other strat tion, but Generalization, also offer which some guidance theviewers, to are much research to find a suitablecultural substitute. Other methods, Retenprimarily subtitler has to sacrifice much of her/his minimum effort, thisstrategy as involves max (1967/2000)strategy, inthat inorder to achieve maximum this the effect, and comfortable way. Furthermore, strategy this is unusual of in view Levý’s mini toviewer access ST the (or at least aTLrendering of ST the message) inan easy atLooking solutionthe from another subtitlerthe perspective, simply helps the another. So, inone way of looking at it, subtitler the is ‘lying’ to his/her audience. involves a breach of reference: STthe ECR has one referent, ECR has TT the “accountability norm” (cf. Chesterman 1997: that strategy creates the gap, an ethical and may thus go against subtitler’s the stitute, not strategy does this create acredibility gap. It argued, could be however, From subtitler’sthe point of view, unlike using a TC ECR as a cultural sub us at look Let what the use effects of Transcultural ECR Substitution has on 159) terms; we have a“communicative”, rather than “semantic” translation Cultural Substitution by Target Culture ECR 22). In other words, subtitler the has sought equivalence of effect, 19–20) of strategies all for rendering ECRs,inthat 267 ff.). viewersThe are not exposed 68). This is becausethe68). This is strategy 22), i.e. it 49). - - - -
Beninu Andersen (208233) IP: 85.184.159.51 On: Mon, 27 Jan 2020 04:21:30 American agent deduces following the about afellow agent: ous conversation on arapid based profusion of anagrams and abbreviations, an skopoi,primary humour, particularly as inExample (4.15),where, inahumor 5.7),but cf.skopos Section strategy appears the (purpose; intexts that have other strategy could therefore hardly in texts whereused be information is primary the to treat positionedacter seen SCbeing inthe aTC ECRas ifit were The aSCECR. and creates this credibility acertain gap. The credibility gaptriggered is by a char allow it and is applied to other domains, resultthe considered could be an anomaly for used also made-up ECRs. variability would not tolerated be for Equivalents.Second, Official thestrategy is audience, TT the there is agreat of deal variability ECRis chosen. Such inwhat TT Equivalents,Official for tworeasons. First, thewhen STECR is not known well to Substitution. not This does thatmean cases of TLECR all Cultural Substitution are bilingual dictionaries, means which that are they Equivalents Official produced by Transculturalthe ECRsrendered way inthis are and lexicalised, found inmost that ST the replaced ECRhas by been evidence Thethisthat aTC of is ECR. Viewers to and this, used to there be seem is probably not evenmuch awareness Kriminalvårdsstyrelsen length of would which forbidding be for any subtitler. Translation, as Danish the TC ECRwould have been an ECR referring to a Swedish institution.Danish The subtitler has Direct chosen of (4.12),where an ECRreferring to an American institution replaced has by been institutional name rendered being by TC Substitution is Swedish the translation tional names, government, education and and food beverages. An example of an norms of TC expectancy the the audience; inScandinavia, are they titles, institu a long-standing tradition for using Cultural Substitution. domains These with vary domains,to incertain viewers.the the when This is is strategy used where there is reference. breach Sometimes, this of reference subtle and is very barely perceptible
(4.15) (4.14) When outside strategy is this used domains the norms where expectancy the You an became M.A.at KUA. Back translation CAND. blev Du MAG. KUA. på Danish subtitle You received your Ph.D. at N.Y.U. Fængselsstyrelsen Danish subtitle Swedish subtitle Prisonthe Board : : : : kriminalforsorgens ledelse Chapter 4. (Tango and 30.53) Cash: Translation strategies (Spy Hard: 39.17) , the , the - - -
Beninu Andersen (208233) IP: 85.184.159.51 On: Mon, 27 Jan 2020 04:21:30
Subtitling Norms for Television One possible answer is that donot. they Instead, audience the interprets TT the not Danish,does has seem got her degree from University the of Copenhagen? a credibility cap opens up. How can that viewers the believe aspy, certainly who official equivalent.cultural When a substitute inused other is domains, however, tion indomains is used where cultural the substitute has of function the aquasi- broken” (1994: translations: “the illusion of translation the as alter the ego of is original the 1.1.3).Oras Gottlieb puts TL-oriented it, discussing when very (cf. Section of Copenhagen. tional agents receive education their at Faculty the of Humanities at University the of anagrams) is kept, at cost the of aslight credibility gap, as not many interna ‘the Universityof of) (apart of Copenhagen’. Thus,jokethe on a (based profusion abbreviation of ‘New York University’, for (inDenmark) the well-known anagram DanishThe subtitler has opted for substitutingthe (in America) well-known samethe sentence, is which from taken programmes from SC.There the aretwoDanish examples thethis corpus in of in only minor credibility gaps,programmes e.g.TC when TV are substituted for TV ibility gaps as cultural substitutes. ifused TC Other ECR Substitutions might cause connotations, e.g. Swedish ECRisentrenched too TT TC. inthe Thus, local withthem dishes thatvery carry TCwhen Cultural Substitution and food inthe beverages domain, is used ifthe to abysses, as it were. It claimedcould be that credibility small gaps appear even conveyed, hence adverbial the addition some “in relevant way”. referred to by an abbreviated form. It is important that proper the connotations are notations conveyed are well-known of those a(locally) seat of learning, commonly veyed, as illustrated by word the “similar” formula inthe above. In con (4.15)the breach of reference makes that impossible. Instead, it is connotations that are con TC Cultural Substitution is What used. is conveyed could reference; never be the X ECR as ashortcut of: (4.16) stands for the TT ECR. This gives This stands a ECR. clue for whatas to TT the is meantbe conveyed to when The use The use of TC Cultural Substitution may thebreak contract illusionof Credibility gaps saidcan ofto be be different magnitudes,from mere cracks we call we call Thementioned speaker whichsome an ECR is in relevant way similar the ECR to der gak” og“Husk lige tandbørsten”. Forestil mellem “Ugen digetkryds Danish subtitle Imagine across “Telly between Addicts” and “Noel’s House Party”. X 50, my translation). This may if thecase not be Cultural Substitu : ostkaka or Danish The Office The smørrebrød : , are likely to cause cred (Office 11:16.15) - - - - -
Beninu Andersen (208233) IP: 85.184.159.51 On: Mon, 27 Jan 2020 04:21:30 the STthe ECRand replaced it with something can which perhaps not called evenbe not does America, work audience. for TT the Instead, subtitler the has removed on collocate the based ‘the Professor and Gilligan’, is which awell-known ECRin As comedy the series (4.16) professor?”,the he snidely remarks: whereabouts of Professor a certain Ukrinsky. In reply to questionthe “Where is Hard Spy Gottlieb’s “resignation” (1997: strategy could thus considered be aquasi-omission strategy, and it is similar to by something that fitsthe situation, regardless This sense thethe of SCECR. of When using strategy, this of sense ST the ECR is removed, every and replaced 4.2.5.3 way by would set audience’s the be norms (cf. Section 2.4.2). expectancy prehensible to many viewers. The limits of using TC Cultural Substitutionthis in Swedishthe subtitler, it misspelled also as who to mention joke). the ruining The possibility, other Retention was (which used by impossible,been considering and time the spaceconstraints of medium the (not in (4.15), subtitlerthe not does have to explain what NYU is, which would have not reference, are conveyed inaspace-efficient andstriking way.writing By communicating connotations the of what were, context, inthis peripheral ECRs. ever, and not of version. It is aversion of show the onecase, of shows the mentioned, ‘get away with’ replacing British odd the program with Danish productions. In this to Danish seeing is used names replacing foreign names shows, of you TV might Anglophone formats. might The idea then haveTT that been audience the since a Millionaire? on that fact the many programmes TV (e.g. could speculate that reasoningthe substitutionbehind the might have based been der gak programmesBoth were mentioned inpassing, and Danish the substitutes (
An example of Situational Substitution would (4.16), from be spythe parody The advantage of using TC Cultural Substitutionthus is that connotations, if (DR) and Situational Substitution With his wife. Back translation: Med professorskan. Swedish subtitle: WithGilligan! . In example, this some to villains are make a young trying boy reveal the (ITV), Noel’s House Party Husk lige tandbørsten Husk lige Antiques Roadshow Gilligan’s Island 75). Don’t Toothbrush your Forget Husk lige tandbørsten Husk lige (BBC). Be that as it Be may, (BBC). it is aswift mode of (CBS)was never aired inSweden, joke the (DR)) are from same the genre. One (BBC)) are(BBC)) syndicated on and based Jeopardy! NUY ), may render joke the incom Chapter 4. (NBC), (DR), is such aformatted (Channel 4),how (Spy Hard: 1.01.37) Translation strategies Who Wants to be Ugen KUA - -
Beninu Andersen (208233) IP: 85.184.159.51 On: Mon, 27 Jan 2020 04:21:30
Subtitling Norms for Television TT item. TT The operational difference lackthe is ofthe between STECRconnection theand substitutethe inSituational Substitution is unlikely but an to be ECR, it happens. sor, and there is no connection two.the between Unlike Cultural Substitution, specific reference,TT itemwhereas the refers to any woman to a married profes wife series). inthe and Professor’s the wife probably (who didnot exist, as there is no mention of his Therethe is aconnectionbetween Professor and hiswife, but notbetween Gilligan rendering, as therea TT is item. no connectionST the ECRand between TT the on the story. the on (12.3), where Omission responsibly, there is of course effort the of testingalternative strategies. as doing nothing would involve little effort very indeed. However,when choosing any it case, is strategy that the is lightest on minisideof the minimax the strategy, strategies,baseline as it involves doing nothing, as opposedto doing something. In any form at other Onthe all. hand, as an it alternative seen can be other the to all strategy available, as it stops aproblematic foreign item from in entering TT the herself trouble the of looking up something not s/he does know” (1994:93). responsibly,alternative after all rejecting strategies, or irresponsibly, saveto him/ opted for out of laziness. As Leppihalme puts it: “a translator may omission choose are circumstances that make Omission only the viable option, but it may be also presentin the it model simply means replacing ST the ECRwith nothing. There As Toury has pointed out (1995: 4.2.6 Figure J. Figure Jillustrates process the involved inexample (4.16).The ST ECR has Figure Killustrates process, the on an based example from onDepending your point of view, Omission most the can target-oriented be Omission: ECR Deleting the Situational Substitution Situational Sears Tower ST ECR Gilligan is mentioned inpassing, without having any real bearing 82), Omission translation is avalid strategy, and professorskan Any woman a professor married to TT ECR ‘ e world’ level Text Sleepless in Seattle -
Beninu Andersen (208233) IP: 85.184.159.51 On: Mon, 27 Jan 2020 04:21:30 feet . translators. people; second inthe example, in Sweden Disney has issued decree the to their In first the case, ademocraticbody of representatives have theissued decree the to example metric the and Donald the Duck example is origin of inthe decree. the such as time-and-space the constraints of subtitling. The only difference between rendering ‘Kalleis Anka’ called inSwedish, and there is no translation-related reason for EquivalentOfficial being created decree’,‘by as it were, that the fact is is (almost) always given inmetres inDenmark. in Denmark, means which that whenever some measurement is given infeet, it instance, Danish the parliament that has system decided metric the should used be an Conversion ECRis needed. of measurements would into fall category. this For anEquivalent, Official some sort ofdecision official by people in authority over spiritthe of Hermans’s reasoning about “authentication” (2003: strategies, inthat process the is administrative rather than linguistic. Following The strategy of using Equivalentan Official is differentin kind the from other 4.2.7 explained next inthe section. on any based be of (with possible them the exception of Omission).be Thiswill is differentfrom baselinethe strategies in many ways, but it mayparadoxically to present, is which of adifferentkind, namely using Equivalent.an Official This Figure K.
rendered as ‘400 fod’ Danish in the subtitles of Omission is last the of categories. baseline the There remains onelast strategy Except contexts, in certain such as flightaltitudes, where (e.g. maybe feet used still Using anEquivalent: Official The ready-made solution Omission Donald Duck Sears TowerSears ST ECR in any other way. There maybe other reasons, however, Broken Arrow Broken 42 TT Ø Another typical example of an ‘ e world’ ‘ e Chapter 4. (10.5). level Text 39), for there to be Translation strategies Donald Duck 400
Beninu Andersen (208233) IP: 85.184.159.51 On: Mon, 27 Jan 2020 04:21:30
Subtitling Norms for Television in charge of case ECR(inthe the (4.17),probably Swedish the broadcaster who decisionthe is of much less importance and affects far people,fewer butsomeone decision, ofcial similar to case the parliament the decision to go Granted, metric. point here, however, is that anEquivalent Official been createdhas through an offi a combination of Specification (Completion) and Direct Translation (Shifted). The city emergency ward”, Equivalent Official the case, inthis been so createdhas using A back translation of Swedish the subtitle in(4.17)would read something like “the Cityakuten (4.17) drama series ence to TV the ated by decree, it is likely to become entrenched. However, that is not always the creating anEquivalent Official tend to merge. Once anOfficial Equivalent is cre as dictionaries. An example would that be These original). italics inthe areequivalentsthe you findstandard in bilingual alent is: “an ST item Xis of ECRhaving the entered TL.Chesterman’s the pragmatic definition of equivan version” (1994: equivalent), what Leppihalme a“standard calls translation […]apreformed TL existence through entrenchment (and should entrenched perhaps then called be well as –frowned functionally upon. much harder to explain why Danish the rendering in(4.17)is –prescriptively as translatorial behaviour. Without category the ofEquivalent, Official itbe would different so being fromkind in baselinethe strategies:thecategory explains certain trates one rationale for having Equivalent Official separate asa category, despite its Equivalent, and are unlikely to recognize other renderings. Example (4.17)illus wrath ofdecision-makers) official the viewers TT that is the Official used to arethe rendering in(4.17)less felicitous (apart from rather the slim risk of the incurring fication (Completion) and Direct Translation (Shifted). Whatmakes the Danish Equivalent is ‘Skadestuen’ (“the emergency ward”), on Speci based is which also Danish subtitle of passage, this on isRetention, which based as Danish the Official in authority overwhat This is actually ECR. the has happened thecase the in of Sweden. other All renderings would incorrect, be or at least unsanctioned by those that hasimported decided series) the Frihedsgudinden Another example is (4.17), from Apart from ‘equivalence by decree’, anEquivalent Official may come into E.R. Danish subtitle: Swedish subtitle E.R. 94). It said couldthat be “preformed this TLversion” is evidence inDanish. It should pointed be out that two ways these of : invariably E.R .: translated into agiven (1997: TLas Y” Coyote Ugly E.R the Statue of Liberty . should rendered be as ‘Cityakuten’ in where someone makes a refer (Coyote Ugly: 1.13.23) is always rendered 9, ------
Beninu Andersen (208233) IP: 85.184.159.51 On: Mon, 27 Jan 2020 04:21:30 Second LieutenantSecond common.tion, as in(4.21),is very Therebe could an objection here,saying that Swedish, amore so name specified is entrenched in Swedish. Cultural Substitu referred to as comments.ther The (originally French)referred alwaysto in(4.20) fairy-tale is Examples (4.18)and (4.19)are fairly uncomplicated, but rest the some need fur (4.21) (4.20) Specification (4.18) Retention illustrate. Here we have Equivalents Official on: based on somethingbased completely different,the as following examples tomay serve is Culturalso Substitution. Specificationoccasionally is used, butbe canit also is most common to Retention, use but Direct Translation common, is also and to it as However, has this not caught well, on and very most people inSweden refer still but sounding similar to a phrase in Swedish which means ‘the Life of Lord’). Our Life of Brian of category). this For instance, Swedish the Equivalent Official of Monty Python’s reason a is for(andthis whycase “established equivalent” is aless felicitous name
(4.22) (4.19) Official EquivalentsOfficial onbased be can justabout translationany strategy. It Life of Brian. Peter Plys Danish subtitle: Winnie Pooh the None of theabove fänrik Swedish subtitle: Lieutenant Second Cultural Substitution Riddar Blåskägg Swedish subtitle: Bluebeard Skål Swedish subtitle: sitcom][the Cheers TranslationDirect NATO Swedish subtitle: NATO (1979) is Riddar Blåskägg is same the as Swedish Ett Herrans Liv (i.e. ‘the knight Bluebeard’ or ‘Sir Bluebeard’) in (apun meaning roughly ‘an awful ruckus’, fänrik . The answer this to objection is Chapter 4. (Tomorrow Never Dies5.55) (M*A*S*H 5:4:8.39) (Coyote Ugly 46.18) (Notting Hill 18.26) Translation strategies (The Piano 55.54) - -
Beninu Andersen (208233) IP: 85.184.159.51 On: Mon, 27 Jan 2020 04:21:30
Subtitling Norms for Television not on any based cases translation called be then cases strategy at these Could all. unrelated to make connection the posed to Swayze’s greatest box office success, the totally producers’ original the blessing). By using that title inSweden, audience the is sup Swedish distribution of have film the powerthe whatevercall to it wantthey (with thatpowerful title of the canbe a marketing afilm tool, in those andcharge the of Kin Another example is that Swedish the Equivalent Official the 1989 of movie Plys ‘parent’ strategy. Here, there is no linguistic to SCECRwhatever, link the as lents inacategory of own their and not merely as Transcultural examples of their aresame; they corresponding terms, i.e.Equivalents. Official Anglophone army, a while that are they not same, the similar. just very A to target-oriented, and is this arguably way best the ECR renderings to view when Substitution rarely doso. Omission obviously never results and inan Generalization ECR, and Situational never involve (word for word) translation. Nor strategies doall involve ECR; aTT some of donot which involve translation; Retention, Substitution and Omission As we have there are seen, many strategies for rendering subtitles, ECRsinto TT 4.3 illustrated by Example (4.17), Equivalent,to Official the use so to do doesbut s/he neglect at her/hisas peril, own formed solution already in place. It is of course subtitler’s the choice or whether not is unlikely that atranslation be there will problem.becausethere This is is a pre equivalents. tion problems; Equivalents Official are created by some permanent authorityas tors. Situational Substitutions are produced by translators for individual transla entrenched equivalents that are evoked repeatedly by many independent transla instances, are which rarely repeated. Equivalents, Official the on other hand, are positive. Situational Substitution to temporary pertains solutions adhoc for single category? The answer thelast to question is (perhaps hardly surprisingly)the in solutions that donot fit anywhereDo the Equivalent Official we else? need really of Situational Substitution, which is something of a ‘waste-basket’ category for , starring Patrick Swayze, is would back translate into ‘Plush Peter’, i.e. referring to himas aplush toy. Example (4.22)demonstrates one rationale for withEquiva dealing Official The taxonomyThe in Figure thetranslation Dbased on is product, and source-it is The most important Equivalentsof Official aspect is whenthat one exists, it Product and process: Aquestion of perspectives Dirty DancingDirty (1987). In Equivalent lastOfficial the two cases, is fänrik E.R Dirty Fighting Dirty is an officer the in Swedisharmy. They are the not . . Thisbeexplained could the fact by Second LieutenantSecond is an officer in an Next of Peter - - - - -
Beninu Andersen (208233) IP: 85.184.159.51 On: Mon, 27 Jan 2020 04:21:30 remove a troublesome thus ECR, helping viewers the access utterancethe of which interventionalbeing than change minimal in nature, as subtitler the intervenes to neither interventional nor change.minimal It arguedcould be that it is tocloser or Omission her access ECR. the has here placed on side-linebeen the as being tion, supply as they with viewer more TT the (or other) information to help him The interventional strategies be would Specification, Generalization and Substitu Translation, rendering addnomaterial new as they of to TT the ST the ECR. changeminimal strategies would Retention, be Equivalent Official and Direct to move text the tocloser TC the (cf. 1813/2004: Schleiermacher Instead,pen. intervention out would audience, carried be to aid TT the and thus for a subtitler tomore intervene to make aTT foreignized, evenifit may hap would to inmost lead target-orientation. cases because This is it be unlikelywould would more oftenthan not implythat SCECRs are retained, and intervention labels).groupingbaseline The egy similar,be very would still as minimal change labels are on Leppihalme based 1994: clopaedically, intertextually –and or ‘interventional deictically strategies’ (these ‘minimalbe change strategies’ ency accessed ECR canthe when be used – ideally ing ECRsfrom Figure Dare replaced and top new the categories would instead causing it.somewhat This self-evident is fact notalways appreciated. translation problem, before s/he can hope audience to help access ECR TT the the ence access ECRs.In other words, subtitler the aware to needs be that there is a awareness forof (iii) iswhen called is battle the half helping when audi TT the it said couldthat speaking, be Generally access viewer ECR. the to aid TT the In other words, if(i)or not (ii)does apply, subtitler the would intervene ideally iii. ii. i. access an ECR: perhaps grasping its more salient connotations. of utterance the of it which and is knowing apart ideally what it refers to, and notsen to) aid viewers to access ECRs.By accessing Imean an making sense ECR, and for also purposes discovering and when how subtitlers have to (or tried cho itview from of perspective translation the the process. for This is useful didactic issues such as domestication and foreignization. However, it possible is to also analysing appearance the of finished if particularly texts – one is interested in
Extra-diegetically: through interventional strategiesExtra-diegetically: by used subtitler. the through co-text the or context.Deictically: orEncyclopaedically through intertextually: knowledge of world the or other In process the relevant the perspective, top categories of strategies for render texts. It argued could be that there are three can main viewer ways aTT inwhich 200, whereare they as translation used strat Chapter 4. Translation strategies 49). Thus,the ------
Beninu Andersen (208233) IP: 85.184.159.51 On: Mon, 27 Jan 2020 04:21:30
Subtitling Norms for Television shown. These are, however,samethe as inFigure D. figure is slightly simplified, compared to Figure D,the as subcategories are not two argumentsthese has made me place Omission inFigure middle inthe L.This hand, it not does addany rendering material of to The TT the ST the force ECR. of it by is apart of saving grappling worry the viewer the other Onthe with ECR. the Translated, inExample as seen (4.17) is for instance not uncommon thatbefore aST ECRis Specified being Directly and Omission. utterance of Situational true of is which also ECRis the which apart, Substitution, ECR according to definition the above,that in theviewers can sense makethe of to asimilar ECR(Cultural Substitution). help They thestill viewers the access give viewers the access tobut ST the ECR, of to sense the it (Generalization) or iar to The them. interventional strategiesGeneralization and Substitution do not helpcan still viewers the somewhat by giving ECR a form the that is more famil strategies Equivalent Official and Direct Translation add noinformation, they yet but it is somewhat more complex than figure the suggests. The minimal change change minimal the and interventional the strategies. There is boundary,such a itbecause gives impression the that clear-cut there is avery between boundary Figure L. As mentioned before, inreal-life subtitling, strategies are often combined. It Figure Lis simplified not thatonly in the subcategories are missing, but also Simplified process-orientedtaxonomy transferof ECR strategies Generalization Retention ECR transfer strategies Minimal change Interventional Speci cation translation Direct E.R. The linguisticallystrategies describe equivalent Substitution O cial Omission -
Beninu Andersen (208233) IP: 85.184.159.51 On: Mon, 27 Jan 2020 04:21:30 more than one strategy. wherecase strategies combine; subtitlersthe may not aware be that have they used processthe may internalized be and subconscious.the in true Thisparticularly is subtitlers themselves are consciously aware of what choices make, they of as part how ECRsare transferred from ST to TT. It not does necessarily mean that the
Chapter 4. Translation strategies
Beninu Andersen (208233) IP: 85.184.159.51 On: Mon, 27 Jan 2020 04:21:30
Beninu Andersen (208233) IP: 85.184.159.51 On: Mon, 27 Jan 2020 04:21:30 become clear below. The first three parameters the ECR to pertain itself, either in Thelabels someof parameters these of may seem opaque, buttheir meaning should 7. 6. Co-text 5. 4. Polysemiotics 3. Centrality 2. Extratextuality 1. Transculturality parameters are: degree, and may combine to aid subtitler orthe obstruct inhis or her work. These arethough they listed separately, are they intertwined and interact high to avery translation problems. as causes seen forbe textual-linguistic the choices that have made to solve been renderedECR has been way inacertain inaTT. The influencing parameters can ECR is rendered in aTT, influencing the parameters to explaincanbe used translationif the strategies to presentedexplain used can be inChapter 4 influencethe decision-making of subtitlerswhen it comes to rendering ECRs. Thus, Gottlieb (2004),Pettit (2001),Bartoll (2009)and others. by scholars TS such as Newmark (1988: strategies. these use Aspectsof circumstances these have touched been upon before there are many circumstances under which it may justified, be evenor necessary, to ofularly more the true target-oriented strategies, like Cultural Substitution. However, as subtitlers ifthe seem are rather taking many too with ST. the liberties Thispartic is Some of strategies the outlined previous inthe chapter and free it may very may seem Subtitling Situation Media-specific constraints parametersSeven have generalized from been data the corpus. inthe Even This chapter contains an attempt to sum the factorsup (orparameters) that Why it’s done like that Influencingparameters chapter 5 77–81) and Florin (1993) and regarding AVT, how why an an an an -
Beninu Andersen (208233) IP: 85.184.159.51 On: Mon, 27 Jan 2020 04:21:30
Subtitling Norms for Television Leppihalme points out that: now accessible and be onscale, are aglobal thus culture-bound. not very However, This impliesthat manythat ECRs once were familiar peopleonly to in cultureone will worldern “are extremely interconnected and entangled with each other” (1994: Transculturality. This notion, as Welsch explains, explores howcultures the in mod From acommunication most the perspective, salient of influencing all parameters is 5.1 last one applies to matricial norms (cf. Section 2.4.1). apply to operational norms: first the six apply to textual-linguistic norms,whereas the translationthelastand to pertain media-specific, two in general. The parametersall relation to world the (1and 2)or inrelation to text the and (3).Parameters 4 5are contains adiagram of what is known inAnglophone and what society is known in edge. audience,ST and TT respectively, through encyclopaedic their or intertextual knowl audiences. InTT other words, it how decides by an easily accessed ECRcan the be applies to individual cultural items rather than to whole culture systems. monograph, inthis is used is asomewhat more complicated concept, however, and 1997: Transculturality is related to concept the of cultural distance (cf. e.g. Leppihalme operative: predictability that for might used be stretches of unproblematic translation is not point made by is also Taylor, claims who that it when comes to culture, linguistic the or s/he to needs whether intervene audience to help This to TT the access ECR. the audience or to whether decide not has TT has the knowledge to try about ECR, the Applied to presentthe model, means this that before rendering the an ECR, The degree of Transculturality of an ECR reflects how familiar it is the to ST and
Transculturality: How an ECRis well known 4), i.e how closely related two cultures are. The notion of Transculturality, as it Leppihalme also discusses this parameter this Leppihalme discusses in her also work on allusions. Her model prerequisite for interlingual operations. Comprehension thus requires a intra-close and interlinguistic analysis as a degree of extra-linguistic knowledge, usually intuitively by accessed ST receivers. components as well, e.g. to linked being and atime place and requiring acertain [a] message has its language component but it has many non-linguistic audience is attuned toof mind the set source the text culture. translation. Here translator the is on his/her own ingauging to what extent the discounted, firstlypatternsthe in sourcethe of language, in particularly and Where texts are governed by cultural mores, predictability largely can be (1994: (2007: subtitler 198). 80) 10) - -
Beninu Andersen (208233) IP: 85.184.159.51 On: Mon, 27 Jan 2020 04:21:30 ECRs would found be inatext. neither SCnor the TC. the greater The culturalthe distance,the more Monocultural tance for analysis the or whether not ECRis the known inother cultures are which Transcultural ECRs,it is SCand the TC the that are relevant here. It is of no impor knowledge.paedic Perhaps label‘Monocultural’ the is slightly misleading, as with the audience thanTT it is to relevant the ST audience, owing to differences inencyclo erent of an assumed ECRcan be less to identifiable be the to majority the of relevant Transcultural ECRswould found be inatext. isunless this what is relevant forculturalthe text. the Thedistance, smaller the more for instance connotations all of audience, not ECRneed accessible the be to TT the would rare, be but sufficiently accessible for understanding the text. That means that SC and TC. the It not accessible need equally be for audience, ST the and TT as that tures; it is enough for it accessibleto be to membersthe of culturesthe involved, i.e. the ( exist SCor inthe it could come from TC the or athird culture (e.g. 7-Eleven audiences, as it TT the assumed could be known to SCand be the inboth TC the (e.g. shouldwhich retrievable be from common encyclopaedic knowledge of ST the and Figure M. Trans This results three in relevantmethodologically levels of Transculturality, whichcall I in that it includes also what is Finland, and what is shared by two the cultures (1994:
Anaconda A Monocultural ECRcauses atranslation problem, ref the because arises which A Transcultural ECRis an is ECRwhich not bound to source the culture, but cultural ECRs,Monocultural ECRsand Infracultural ECRs. (
As Good As It Gets Levels ofLevels Transculturality : 7.53)). This does not: 7.53)).This does thatmean cul be accessible an ECR to needs all in : 32.03)).The referent of a Transcultural ECRcould either not generally known ineither of cultures the involved. Monocultural Transcultural Infracultural ECRs ECRs ECRs Chapter 5. 96). The present differs model Influencingparameters Jacques Cousteau - - - -
Beninu Andersen (208233) IP: 85.184.159.51 On: Mon, 27 Jan 2020 04:21:30
Subtitling Norms for Television used as anused allusion, due to being memberstheir viewers, for of SC, the than TT the edge. The viewersST have a muchgreater chance of accessing a Monocultural ECR a Monocultural difference critical ECR;the that is of different knowlencyclopaedic group. For subtitling it is of purposes, no importance that not ST all viewers can access understandwho pun,the have satisfactionthe of feeling clever or belonging to a select puns, may not accessiblewhoallusion,the be viewers. Those to recognize all those like obscure to some ST viewers. Thispart is the of nature allusions,of which, not unlike more, there are anumber of ECRsthat as function allusions and may which slightly be below)tural (see to a general audience consideredcould be Transcultural. Further subculturea certain of viewers, many then ECRsthat would considered be Infracul intended the cally target audience and genre of ST. the If genre the is one attracts which parameters influence also thiscategorization, notthe least Subtitling Situation, specifi has adifferentlithic entities, level as everybody culturalof literacy. Many the of other cultural. Neither ST the audience audience nor should TT regarded the be as mono at level a below relevant the ST audience level. . prototypical in that referentthe definitionthe ECRs, as per in Section 3.2, of accessiblebe intra-diegetically through ST. the Infracultural ECRsare not gapthe SCand the between TC. the evant audiences, ST and i.e. TT people inthat subculture, may which well bridge Mono- or Transcultural, depending on how well known would to rel they the be ing to subcultures. The ECRs mentioned in such texts would either be Infra-, mean ‘subcultural’. There programmes are TV and made for films people belong is treated in ST.the It should perhaps emphasized be that ‘Infracultural’ not does ence. This difference by ascertained can analysing be way the ECR the inwhich people know who ECR is the negligible compared to total the relevant ST audi Brooklyn, for instance), but that is not point. the The point is that number the of ST audience would who know ECR(people the Street living on in Cranberry context or co-text. the There would of courseafew potential be members of the struck relevantthe ST audience (e.g.ECR: this audience, knownto or asbe it even by local too is specialized too majoritythe of not viewers. TT being their whom encyclopaedic knowledge of ECR the in question cannot assumed, be due to be assumed be within encyclopaedic tothe knowledge be of ST the nor TT the An Infracultural Not members all of to SCneed know the an ECRfor it regarded to be as Mono Infracultural ECRs would not cause translation problems, would as they No negative connotations are intended: termsimply the refers to ECRsthat are known : 1.16.29)). In these cases, reference: 1.16.29)).In cases, these must instead achieved through be the 43 ECRis typically bound to Source the Culture, but it could 19, Cranberry Street, Brooklyn ( Moon ------
Beninu Andersen (208233) IP: 85.184.159.51 On: Mon, 27 Jan 2020 04:21:30 what it is, and gets description adetailed of Latino this sausage. Since chorizos then, that it was an Infracultural ECRat acharacter time: the asks awaitress to explain night Run about Pocahontas it too: had become aTranscultural Similarly, ECR. film inthe in U.S.,the but not in Sweden, whereas after 1995, peoplemost in knewSweden attention. Before 1995, releasedDisney its publicized highly film Transculturality parameter. What happened two the versions between is that in 1995, difference (5.1),the canbe explainedreadily not the unusual,by but inExample would ahypernym be of dering ST the ECR In example, this two different strategies have been chosen the by subtitlers for ren dressed bikini. inafringed Flanagan sarcastically then inquires: in Jamaica, “Doug” Douglas directs Brian Flanagan’s Coughlin attention to awoman from text. The level of Transculturality variesalso overtime. diachronicThe Example (5.1) that what is a Transcultural ECRinone text may aMonocultural be ECRinanother encing parameters, such as that of assumed the knowledge of target the audience, so there are some greyareas. from others the way. inthis cut-off The points carefullyif even chosen, been have very lation problems are most the revealing, and it therefore out to makes single these sense ever, asof object the current the is model to uncover norms, ECRsthat the cause trans from that is which not known by anybody to that is which known by overlap categories, the between as there are not much so three different levels as a cline on reality for operationalization In purposes. real life, there is agreat of deal ECRs are thus marginal ECRs. erent is within encyclopaedic the knowledge of audience”. this Infracultural prototypical ECRsshould “identifiable to be arelevant audience asref this
(5.1) The level of Transculturality ECR of a varies specific somewith the of other influ threeThe levels of Transculturality construct, imposed form a methodological Cocktail Do youDo mean Pocahontas? Back translation: Menar du Pocahontas? Swedish subtitle from 2004 ca. The Indian princess overthere? Back translation Indianprinsessan där borta? Swedish subtitle from 1989 ca. Who? Pocahontas over there? from ECR 1988,the may serve to illustrate may serve In this. example, this on is which set abeach Pocahontas.
the ECR the : Pocahontas chorizo In 1989,Generalization as was ‘Indian used, princess’ Pocahontas . In 2004,Retention This was in used. isitself (1.00.53)is treated inaway that makes it clear : Pocahontas, was a Monocultural ECR: it was known Chapter 5. which received which agreat of deal Influencingparameters everybody. How (Cocktail 42.51) (Cocktail Mid ------
Beninu Andersen (208233) IP: 85.184.159.51 On: Mon, 27 Jan 2020 04:21:30
Subtitling Norms for Television ( may indistinguishable virtually be from an Infracultural ECR(e.g. ‘Lancaster Square’ Internal if it is constructed for textthe (orof series texts) at hand. A Text Internal ECR that exists in a culture, independent of textthe at hand. Conversely, an ECR is Text is Text If External. it not, does it is Text Internal. Thus, a ECR External is Text an ECR parameterThis has whetherwith to do an ECRexists outsidethe ST or not. If it does, it 5.2 ignorantbe of this. portrayedcharacter as being knowledgeable is– who otherwise about – would food sequence would probably have altered, been as it could that have the peculiar seemed ing have become available not only throughout U.S., the but inEurope as well, mak ECR Julia Hugh Roberts, Grant are of part and first Connery the Sean world. Thus, the universe. In our universe, are these of part third the all world, and only actorsthe Hill, Here,set. too, James is athird Bond world whereas artefact, characters the in is ashared feature of our universe and universe fictional the which in and since he is fictional, part he is of Popper’sthird world (the world Thisof ideas). world universe. fictional in this In our universe, however, culturalhe is a artefact, of explainedcould be through notion the of universes. fictional the universeIn fictional fictional, well as long be do very they not as have existencethe in text at hand. This himself to in Bond Goldfinger of would this be process of intertextuality, ifit becomes well known outside of its source. An example according to definition the in3.2. strategy. As with Infracultural ECRs, Text Internal ECRs are not prototypical ECRs, no impediment from Textthe world External to limit his or her choice of translation are fairly unproblematic from a translation point of view, as subtitlerthe would have compositionalthe of sense constituting the words This of meansthat ECR. the they notation beyond what establishedcan be within textthe (orof series texts) or through textually.two categories These are purely referential andcannot have anysense or con Infracultural ECRsand Text Internal ECRswould attempt to achieve reference intra Truman Show Goldfinger chorizo e.g. Anna Scott or William Thacker, are part the firstof world that of fictional An originally Text Internal ECRmay become an Extratextual ECRthrough the James Bond Extratextuality: Theindependent existenceExtratextuality: of ECRs (11.31),but Text (and External Transcultural) acharacter when compares aTranscultural Had ECR. aremake there been of film today, the this , James is an Bond participant, actual and hence of part Popper’s first : 28.39)).This is unproblematicfrom translation a point view,of both as is Text in External James Bond Notting Hill Notting which is which Text Internal he when introduces himself in (1.45.41).This showsthat ECRs External mayText Notting Hill Notting and
Text Internal in Notting Hill Notting Goldfinger; Notting Notting is is a - - -
Beninu Andersen (208233) IP: 85.184.159.51 On: Mon, 27 Jan 2020 04:21:30 typically be the subject the matter,typically be or atimportant least avery TV theme of film the or level and (1989: global local the on at least two levels: macro-level the and micro-level, the orthe whatcalls Séguinot Whenscale. establishing centralitythe of an ECR in a text, one has to atlook ECR the This is one the of most important influencing parameters, and it works gradual ona 5.3 versely, Text Internal ECRstend to mimicText ECRs in order External plausible. to be different texts, however: it wouldalways be Text Internal in Conits text). original of intertextuality, Text asuccessful Internal ECRmay become ECR(in atext External rendered subtitles. inthe illustrates The figure also how, through meanderingthe ways opposed to Text Internal originate ECRs,which text, inthe and howhave all they to be Figure N. sitcom connections These is set. areillustrated inFigure N. a sitcom are normally made to sound plausible for culture the movie the inwhich or ECRs.ForExternal instance, (Text the Internal) names of characters the inamovie or Text ECRs,inthat External Text Internal ECRsare often constructed to mimic Text is interviewed. Connery Sean reference would always Text Connery to be Sean eveninachat External, show where
Figure to illustrate Nseeks how Text ECRsenter External text the from SC,as the There alink goingalso is the in oppositebetween direction Text Internal and Centrality: How importantCentrality: an ECR is
Extratextuality Text external ECRs Source culture Subtitles Polysemiotic Text internal TEXT ECRs 24). If an ECR is central on macro-level, the it may Intertextuality SL-inspired names etc. Chapter 5. Influencingparameters -
Beninu Andersen (208233) IP: 85.184.159.51 On: Mon, 27 Jan 2020 04:21:30
Subtitling Norms for Television hero’sthe car (and hero’s the wife’s lover), and his wife Sarah wants to know: of movie the Monocultural. Thisillustrated is Example (5.2).by This example is from beginning the central on micro-level. the There may be a forneed then interventional strategies if it is discourse forward, is referred to later on, or of is trigger the ajoke, it then would be sion and used, being responsibly at that. However, ECRfor ifthe instance local carries as asingle item inalong list of there ECRs,then is agreat of of deal evidence Omis discourse on micro-level.local the If it is peripheral on micro-level the as well, such oneral macro-level. the treatment The of it wouldthen depend on how central it is to is just mentionedtheperiphthen inpassingECR be would film, afewinthe times County Madison other strategy than Retention orEquivalent. Official To render the county in programme at hand. It would more be then or less impossible to render it by using any based on Donaldbased Duck’s beinga cartoon character, rather his gentle than of because manners. . audience.accessible to TT the probably why Danishthe subtitler chose to substitute for it something that would be just once, it is central on micro-level, the as butt the of Joe’s sarcastic reply. This is STthe ECR( well known, and thus accessible (b)unlikely to have blown up hero’s the car. lent of made aCultural Substitution here and replaced himwith Danish the Equiva Official children’s programme, TV unknown is virtually in Denmark, Danishthe subtitler has In Example (5.2),presumably because (5.2) The cause of Donald Duck’scause The of being unlikely to blow carsup differs from Mr Rogers’ as it is Donald Duck Danish subtitle Sarah: Who Joe? fuckdidthis, the How should Iknow? New subtitle -Donald Duck. didthis? -Who devil the Back translation Hvor detfra? skulle vide jeg New subtitle -Anders And. -Hvem fanden gjorde det? Joe: Mr. Rogers. (Pause) How hell the should Iknow? TheLast Boy Scout Mr Rogers as anything other than ‘Madison’ would slightly be absurd. If an ECR . In way, this viewers the are presented with an is ECRwhich (a) : : ) is very peri ) is very : : . Some unknown person or persons have just blown up pheral on macro-level, the appearing film inthe Mr Rogers, aharmless and avuncular host of a (The Last BoyScoutLast (The 18.07) Bridges of 44 Even if - - -
Beninu Andersen (208233) IP: 85.184.159.51 On: Mon, 27 Jan 2020 04:21:30 the film film the It may simplify referring the process in other ways as In well, as inExample (5.3). it may enough to be refer to it by using apronoun subtitles inthe (Generalization). thing is referred and to dialogue inthe at same the clearly time visible picture, inthe decidingwhen how much audience guidance For needs. TT the instance, ifsome interplay channels the between may more be complex. information on different the channels is overlapping, i.e. redundant. Instead,the notion regarding how channels semiotic interact. It not does have to mean that the eter of Polysemiotics. The difference that is Polysemiotics bea would more general through audio verbal the channel. there is only readinghead a talking where news, the messagethe comes almost solely low level of polysemiotic interplay means that there is little such interaction, e.g. when screen action,as well as displays and sound combining effects to create a message. A polysemiotic the channels,tion between e.g.there when is intense and dialogue on- above. level of Ahigh Polysemiotic interplay means that there level isof ahigh interac is often adegree of overlap, or intersemiotic redundancy,them. between nels (displays and captions). information, channelssemiotic these All carry and there thesound effects), verbal audio channel (i.e. thevisual the dialogue) and chan verbal channel visual verbal (i.e. picture),the non-verbalthe audio channels (e.g. music and four channels semiotic inpolysemioticTV texts (e.g. filmsprogrammes): or the non- Gottlieb TT.the (1997: As was explained in Section 1.2, are forms of translation isosemiotic (Gottlieb 1997: (Gottlieb 1997: aretext, they because of part apolysemiotic text (cf. Subtitling Section 1.2). is additive ent from other forms of translation. Subtitlesfrom differ the common notion targetof parameterThis is central,that in it whatis heart of the at makesvery subtitles differ 5.4 occasion. on every The in between. subtitler basically has to decide the levelCentralityon of each of ECR micro-level,the down to ECRsthat are peripheral on micro-level, the and everything level, over ECRsthat are peripheral on macro-level, the and ECRsthat are central on of of ECRCentrality,think scale agradual from ECRsthat are central on macro- the macro and micro-levels are labels. It methodological basically is thus more helpful to
From asubtitling point of view, Polysemiotics has into taken to be account Gottlieb’s notion of intersemiotic redundancy is closely connected to param the parameterThe of Polysemiotics Gottlieb’sbased on is reasoning, as recapitulated As mentioned at Centrality works of head the section, this on and ascale, the Polysemiotics: Theinterplay between channels As Good As It Gets 141), it adds information, translation literary unlike or dubbing (which , the leading, the lady returns home to findcar a carrying 146), where ST the is replaced by Chapter 5. 143) distinguishes between Influencingparameters - - - - -
Beninu Andersen (208233) IP: 85.184.159.51 On: Mon, 27 Jan 2020 04:21:30
Subtitling Norms for Television and non-verbal (b)the channel: visual picture inthe acar is seen and non- (c)the – is supported by channel: visual verbal (a)the licenseplate the inscription “M.D.”, her house. In example, this audio verbal the channel – her short utterance of “M.D.” background music and becomes how thrilling, she knows that there is a doctor in ofsort explanation to explain would why necessary be she becomes upset, why the As practiceof the marking physicians’ cars way inthis is unknown inSweden, some (5.3) –she gasps:thrilling to herpened sickly son, she becomes upset, and –as background the music becomes M.D. licenseplates parked outside her house.that Thinking something has hap presentation. constraints,of media-specific the whichthe is next influencing parameter this in eager to advantage take of co-textual redundancy than are other translators, because translation, form of and discourse. every indeed However, subtitlers may more be point. task atperform the every explained at some point earlier or later co-text, inthe subtitler the not does have to information If co-text elsewhere inthe dialogue). (the an ECRis disambiguated or tion other inthe channels semiotic polysemiotic inthe text, there may overlapping be parameterThis is fairly uncomplicated. Justthere as maybe overlapping informa 5.5 drama the ported of her short utterance. audience as to confused reasonTT the for background thrilling the music, sup which ence dark inthe for as to trigger the her reaction. That would have havealso the left more cumbersome explanation for her reaction, or alternatively audi leaving TT the briefto the Paraphrase use instead of having strategy in (5.3), to come up with some car non-verbal inthe channel visual (i.e. picture) the makes it possible for subtitler the (normally displays pertinent picture inthe are subtitled). Second, presence the of the twothe channels verbal means that subtitler the only has to subtitle message the once for subtitles. the First, redundancy the caused by identical the information between audioverbal channel: background thrilling the music. This thehas following effects This parameterThis is of course not to specific subtitling; pertains to it any form of Co-text: The Co-text: rest of thedialogue A doctor’s car! Back translation En läkarbil! Swedish subtitle M.D! : : (As Good As(As It Good 1.04.07) Gets: - - - -
Beninu Andersen (208233) IP: 85.184.159.51 On: Mon, 27 Jan 2020 04:21:30 subtitlers, guidelines, subtitling companies, broadcasters, Internet the and even tions arising from Subtitling the Situation often havesoughtbe fromto elsewhere: rarer for an analyst of subtit Unfortunately, translation briefs are extremely rare inreal-life sub Situation included would be inwhat ideally Nord “translation calls briefs” (1997: Toury’suse that The facts influence the Subtitling (cf. Section 2.4.1). terminology translation strategies to text the pertaining as awhole, i.e. matricial the norms, to individual considerations combine to form overall translation goals or overarching is centered on translation the situation (cf. e.g. Chesterman 1998: This final parameter is not fromlysed text the alone or from interplay the text the and between world. the What parameters the outlined far this have incommon is that ana can be they 5.7 parameter the may well be that very most exerts influence all. of may become second nature way, inthis to Seen them. constraints media-specific the space to space-consuming use strategies like Addition or Paraphrase. constraints (inslow weak can be and dialogue), subtitler the may have ample and time rendering ECRsinsubtitling of rapid other Onthe dialogue. hand, media-specific the ECRs, however, but it means that Omission is sometimes only the viable strategy for Condensation tends to affect materialthatverbal in Section 6.2). is less centralthan that well with international tallies condensation developed ratesfurther be will (this quantitative condensation rate is about athird inScandinavia (Pedersen 2003a),and condensed. be A logue previouswill study by presentthe author shows that meanthe oftenthe subtitlers’restrict options. Thismeans that in rapid conversation, dia the and infamous and time spaceconstraints of subtitling” (Gottlieb 2004: on being used ECRs in subtitles. Apart from switch, semiotic the there are “the famous 2009: as a‘hybrid’seen form, containing some oral features written inthe form (cf. e.g. Pettit formalized transfer inthe from SL to TL.In some countries, however, subtitles are switch from spoken the to written the word, means which that text the gets somewhat there are two constraints thatto rendering the pertain of ECRs.One is semiotic the there so is no reason to go into again them here.Section 1.2.2), Suffice it to thatsay The constraintsmedia-specific of subtitling been addressed have earlier (in 5.6
Subtitlers are always aware of constraints, media-specific the thatso condensation The effects ofthe Subtitling Situation Media-specific constraintsMedia-specific 53 for French subtitling). Nevertheless, constraint this oftenCompletion leads to ling to acquire. This meansthat the answers the to ques in the text, the but rather about about Chapter 5. the text.the parameter The Influencingparameters titling, and even 207), and the 219), which 219), which 59). - - -
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Subtitling Norms for Television – cluster; list the is not meant exhaustive: to be tions, and following the are but afew examples of most the central questions ineach influencestrategies. local Subtitling Situation influences global strategies, i.e. matricial norms,which in turn ous parameters decision-making, influence i.e.the local textual-linguistic norms,the Situation important is so inconnection with rendering the of ECRs.Just as previ the lator’s strategy for global text”the (Leppihalme 2001: is well known intranslation studies; “the choice on strategy depends of trans the local ation, many invery because pivotal cases, explanations of subtitling behaviour lie here. TV-guides. Nevertheless, to Subtitling it the take is crucial Situation into consider down to subtitler’s the own preferences.Section 2.4.1): These the initial affect (cf. norm producing TT, the from national norms, in-house via guidelines and translation briefs forysed such aclaim substantiated. to be more preliminary norm. acceptancy-based However, more of should film be the anal preliminary norm than Danish the adequacy-based subtitler, to seems have who had a movie. inthe villain It indicates also that Swedish the subtitlers may have had amore remark viewers the take TT atthe facevalue, and that think not skopos take into account, and is arguably less felicitous, also as it is likely to make ST,in the informal high being equivalence, to Nida’s use terms. However, does this little awareness of skopos the ofRetention film. the gives priority the informationto subtitlersthe have gone for Retention, rendering shows awareness of skopos. this In two the Swedish versionsthe of corpus, in film the (at to amuse, least partially) and as Danish the subtitler has re Scout to illustratewell serve skopos-related the considerations here.film ( The replaced by Danish the Equivalent Official of translator) wants where textthe to do. Example (5.2) in Section 5.3, of translatingthe activity. It is what someone commissioner(the and/or of TT the the “[T]he skopos of atranslation or is goal […]the purpose” (Vermeer 1989/2000: – – – – – – – What and style register ST? inthe is used What genre is ST? the What are production the norms for of type text? this What is skopos the of text? the TheSource Text theThe of aspects Subtitling Situationcanbe broken down into clusters of ques The importance of translationoverriding strategies for micro-level decision-making The next question concernsthe thatproduction normsSection 2.4.2) go into (cf. ) belongs to hybrid the genre of actioncomedies. The skopos filmthe is of thus Donald Duck Mr. Rogers 140). Thatwhy is the Subtitling in the inthe as ‘Mr Rogers’. This shows Mr. Rogers created joke the here, it Danish subtitles may Mr. refers to the TheLast Boy Rogers was 230) - - - - -
Beninu Andersen (208233) IP: 85.184.159.51 On: Mon, 27 Jan 2020 04:21:30 being the abovementioned the being ily include mainstream material, but there are afew special-interest presumed to have some background knowledge. The corpus was designed to primar and that for calls less intervention from subtitler, the audience could as TT the be Transcultural, but not necessarilyversa. vice whereas for a younger audience, e.g. cultural, at least initsEquivalent Official form (for Sweden: ‘Ardenneroffensiven’), Battle of the Bulge is Transcultural for differentTT audiences. For a mature audience, ECRs such as The agegroup is important,the as subtitlercan make different assumptionsabout what – – – retained by Danish and Swedish subtitlers alike. of Brothers and jargon are commonly retained subtitles inthe of WWIIdrama the series influencethe choice of strategy for rendering ECRs equipmentbe wouldhow military TT, inorder to reproduce register. the Atypical example of how genre and register rendered well be very using Retention there (when are noEquivalents) Official the in fessional jargon, for instance, would this entail many Infracultural might ECRs.These however, influence the on ECR renderings is substantial. the If ST contains much pro not into style take account as much perhaps as they might. When it comes to register, 2003: Chiaro 2008 or Zabalbeascoa may influence renderings of ECRs, butperhaps only marginallyso. Recent studies (e.g. formality to to use reproduce utterancesthe of different charactersthe in ST. As such it rendering matters, ECRs.Style also as it tells subtitler the what and style what degree of punch to secure used to be lines (cf. discussion the about edy, humour then is most the important and aspect, interventional strategies may have and changeaspect, minimal strategies other Onthe used. couldhand, be ifit is acom is. For instance, ifit is adocumentary, information then would most the important be skopos of text, the inthat genre the clue is best the as to what skopos the of text the rendering of ECRs. strategy for global the what of sort translation ismade. to be This in the turn affects
– – – Special-interest programmes on television presume special-interest audiences, audience have TT the knowledge?Does special What is general the level of education audience? of TT the What is age the group audience? of TT the Audience TT As for and styles registers, registers are most the important consideration when The question regarding genre is arguably closely related the to one regardingthe . For instance references to troop the transport aircraft (Band of Brothers 6:1.02.59)could perhaps considered be Trans Band of Brothers 313) also show313) also that many AVT professionals do Beverly Hills 90210 . Also, inEurope, Chapter 5. (Simple Life 5: 2.41) would be Mr. Rogers CBS 60Minutes Influencingparameters C-47 programmes, one above). (6:38.50)are could be could be Band Band The The - - - -
Beninu Andersen (208233) IP: 85.184.159.51 On: Mon, 27 Jan 2020 04:21:30
Subtitling Norms for Television this isthis something is which rarely admitted by involved, those has higher primetime TV age group and composition the audience. of TT the More importantly, eventhough can fairly acquire. easily Partly, might airtime the assist subtitler the inassessing the few pieces of information subtitler that is generally aTV supplied with, and analyst the TV programmeThe airtime of a is important forseveral reasons; also it is one the of – – different context. Swedish subtitlers programme, inthis alike mightwhich not have in a case the been explain why ECRs such as presumed to have some background knowledge about American society. This would considered aspecial-interest programme. The audience this of programmebe could that considerations eventhough these influential may very the be during subtitling questionnaires with double follow-ups, but received only 17 ans typically, arecent worldwide study on subtitling rates (Reyntjens 2005)sent out 329 lines are closely and kept –salaries –particularly very secrets,inmost Rather cases. (Media Consulting Group 2007: anddeadlines prices falling becomes whatactually “an some call unsolvable equation” ofperspective AVT the as sector awhole, problems the of rising volumes, shortened to interventionaltakes use strategies, nor to research ECRsproperly. all from the Seen well, there of is evidence some subtitlers not always able being asideit time to the set ventional strategies time, take and as some subtitling companies donot pay very have. Also, since subtitlers mainly are paid by quantitative their output, and inter Interventional strategies time, take and that is something subtitler the which may not – – – tendswhich tosolutions. affect channels often commission subtitlesfrom companiesthat master use templatefiles, ered educators, to be might which imply more interventional strategies. Commercial obligations towards viewers their regarding reading and speed, are often also consid subtitlers.experienced prestige and gets more attention than daytime TV, and it is often subtitled by more – – – – – The identity the of broadcaster matters.also channels Publicservice have certain Who is broadcaster? the be aired?When film the will Broadcasting The pragmatic considerations hardare very forthe analyst as dead to ascertain, What and experience competence subtitler the does have? What is financial the remuneration? What are deadlines? the Pragmatic considerations AOL, America Online 74). (47: 20.28) is retained by Danish and wers. This means - - -
Beninu Andersen (208233) IP: 85.184.159.51 On: Mon, 27 Jan 2020 04:21:30 Specification,thewrongthem in led and infact direction. This also anexample is of that subtitler the audience to help has tried to TT the access ECRin(5.5.)through the assumed it apainting, to be as that is what Picasso is primarily famous for. It is ironic but it is not picture. inthe seen The subtitler has clearly not researchedthebut ECR, The Picasso referred this exampleto in the famousis Picasso statue Plaza, Daley the on Plaza, and are that: they over advised awalkie-talkie Example (5.5), some U.S. marshals are chasing Kimble Doctor across Chicago’s Daley example appeared less than aminute In same inthe TT this before Example (5.4). by research poor are found, such then aconclusion becomes warranted. The next is into taken whole the account, TT when and more such errors potentially caused ple, eventhough it contains two rather grave errors same inthe sentence. However, constraints of Subtitling the Situation might have on basis of the been just one exam Example (5.4) not does warrant any such conclusion. One cannot conjecture what the in that answer the to any one of questions the above would have ‘low’. been In itself, have in be This could fact, turn, been. attributable the to pragmatic considerations, research of part subtitling the process out has not carried as been well as it might two translation shifts (orperhaps the term ‘errors’ is justified here) that be must the nym of leprechaun, another Irish icon, but never of a shamrock. The reason forthese any age. The Swedish word ‘troll’perhaps could at a stretchsaidbe a to hyper public office Chicago, in similar that to of mayor or councilman. S/he be could of elderly’, and In Example (5.4), on P.A. the comments parade the and it makes following the suggestion: ditional Irish culture, such as leprechauns and shamrocks. In background, the avoice There is a St. Patrick’sDay paradeChicago, in and many references are made tra to found inExample (5.4), from process, analyst the most often have to conjecture abouttheir nature. solutionsThe
(5.5) (5.4) He’s towards running Picasso the painting. Back translation Han springer mot Picassomålningen. Swedish subtitle He’s going east towards Picasso. the We must dress up our elderly as trolls some time. Back translation Vi måste ut troll klä våra nån gamla till gång. Swedish subtitle one of weeks. these We gotta dress Alderman the up as ashamrock a shamrock a the Alderman the has become ‘trolls’. An Alderman is a person holding a high : : : : the Fugitive, the has been rendered has been as Swedish the equivalent of ‘our could be explained could be through parameter. this Chapter 5. (The Fugitive: 1:20:44) Influencingparameters (Fugitive: 1:20:18) - - -
Beninu Andersen (208233) IP: 85.184.159.51 On: Mon, 27 Jan 2020 04:21:30
Subtitling Norms for Television or more of pragmatic the considerations have subsection inthis low. been described examples, These ECR. alongtaken TT with evidence, other make it probablethat one ent of of ECRin5.5is the part extension the of ST the ECRbut not of Specified the how Specificationcanbe problematic,the since refer as mentionedSection 4.2.4, in -
Beninu Andersen (208233) IP: 85.184.159.51 On: Mon, 27 Jan 2020 04:21:30 people ought to doare not necessarily same. the people do, what people say do, they and what particularly people say that other sources.because This I is have foundoccasions several this in on studythat what This differencetaken been has into account when working extratextualwith supposed to regulate behaviour. Toury points out that: about texts made by translators, editors etc. and prescriptive statements that are sources are quite simply translated texts, and extratextual sources are statements for a reconstruction of translational norms, textual and extratextual”. Textual application.this According to Toury (1995: In order to uncover subtitling norms, many sources can and have in used been 6.1 The rest the of chapter adiscussionsees the findings.of has aquantitativesection and qualitative investigation of rendering the of ECRs. and condensationspeed rate, mainly from aquantitativethird The perspective. comparison of norms technical of subtitling, investigating such factors as reading on investigation the which out. wassees carried an international Thesection next big picture of international subtitling norms. Thesection first presents the data second is intrinsic, in that it uncovers subtitling norms and relates to the these show how works model the applied when to asubstantial amount of material. The TTs. The reason forthis two-fold: is the first is instrumental, that in itmeant is to empirical data form inthe of Swedish and Danish (and some Norwegian) subtitled In chapter, this that model the was presented previous inthe chapters is applied to Material Empirical subtitling norms for television chapter 6 with every possible circumspection. with every formulate anorm,are and they biased, and partial should therefore treated be merely by-products of existence the and activity of norms. any Like attempt to immediate representations thereof. Normative pronouncements, by contrast, are productsprimary of norm-regulated behaviour, and can therefore as taken be [t]here is afundamental differencetwosource: types these of between Texts are 65), “[t]here are two major sources (1995: 65)
Beninu Andersen (208233) IP: 85.184.159.51 On: Mon, 27 Jan 2020 04:21:30
Subtitling Norms for Television of norm-regulated behaviour. always to translated the secondary texts themselves, as texts are products primary as well” (1999: of non-empirical bathwater, we donot have to throw out prescriptive the baby Chesterman metaphorically puts it: “[…]evenifwe aim totranslation rid research empiricalbasically study, for prescriptive taking norms into account as well, or as explanatory power, affect as they subtitlingbehaviour. There is thus aplace, ina norms,duction are onhave norms, ifthey expectancy based especially which, tive as paradigm, in-house guidelines more oftenthan not express accepted pro of guidelines into material the not does place present the study prescrip inthe help many newcomersbearingstheir their in findnew profession. The inclusion tain amount of control over actions the of practitioners. Guidelines, for instance, The subtitling profession an is still areawhere prescriptive norms acer exert 6.1.1 nies, something which has also been the policy for since autumnthe policy the nies, somethingSVT been which has also of 2006. (henceforth: DR)Radio often commissions its subtit due to well-known the that broadcaster fact Danish the public Danmarks service much differenceDanishbetween commercial subtitlers.and Thisis publicservice in prescriptive norms Danish the subtitling between companies, and not indeed to Cathrine Højgaard (p.c., March 2007).Therethus is no expressed difference Danish subtitlers working for multinationals often rely Lindberg, accordingon founderthe of TitleVision, Niels Søndergaard (at www.titlevision.com). Even the [‘A subtitling’] about few rules TV from 1989,possibly with annotations the of founderthe of Dansk Video Tekst, inhis IbLindberg, follow unwritten the norms of profession, the expressed or to views the subscribe by from of those multinational the companies mentioned above. Instead, subtitlers adjustments, according to Norberg (p.c., January 2007). subtitlers apply to Norwegian their and Danish subtitlers as well, with only minor like SDI Media, are multinational, and guidelines the that apply to Swedish their and difficult can be for outsiders toacquire. Some the of commercial companies, much. very do guidelinesnot These though these vary are oftenguarded jealously, subtitlingSweden, every company follows its own written of set guidelines, even Text. The use of guidelinesgreat varies a between Sweden deal Denmark.and In subtitling companies: SpråkCentrum/LanguageLand, SDI Media and Broadcast Norwegian Norsk (henceforth: Rikskringkasting NRK),and from commercial broadcasters:public Swedish service Sveriges Television and (henceforth: SVT) in-house guidelines from subtitling companies. The guidelines comefrom two In present the study, prescriptive present norms be will form inthe of In Denmark, there are rarely any official guidelines eachfor company, apart Extratextual sources 18). Thatbeingsaid, it shouldbe thatstressed sources these are les from commercial compa Nogle regler om TV- tekstning - - - -
Beninu Andersen (208233) IP: 85.184.159.51 On: Mon, 27 Jan 2020 04:21:30 is so scarceis so in this project. generously volunteered by NRK), and my non-fluency in Norwegian,why is data Norwegian . subtitlers, were they not produced under normal subtitling conditions: STs the was in nature. experimental Even thoughTTs the were produced by professional one has access tomany so TTs of samethe ST. However, drawbackthe was that it pilot study. It indetail. Also, was possible it everything to is scrutinize rare that relatively sizeof of small part the ESIST the corpus made it for Iused ideal a one Finland Swedish), but regrettably no Norwegian, versions of ST.the versions of project. this included These fourDanish and four Swedish (including www.ESIST.org). tling companies from around world the Imhauser (for details, see 2002or further slow, as well as fast The dialogue. versions were produced by professional subti include challenging subtitling problems, like a song, cultural elements and very The resulting corpus consists of 48 subtitled versions threethatof short extracts gathered data on subtitling practicesfrom over all world the year inthe 2000. uphas set acomparative subtitling project. In project, this organisation the The non-profit European Association for Screen Studies in Translation (ESIST) 6.1.2 or telephone. informants, answering direct questions or e-mail inface-to-face via interviews is invaluable the help Ihave received from subtitlers and as acting policymakers do.they And finally,the most importantsource descriptive secondary of norms titling and translation, where professionals express opinion their about what Georgakopoulou 2010)and articles(e.g. Pollard 2002;Wildblood 2002)on sub norms are monographs (e.g. Ivarsson &Carroll 1998;Tveit 2004;Neves 2005; 1984; Nordisk Språksekretariat sources 1989). Other descriptive of secondary about ideas their procedures, courses of action,strategies etc. (e.g. Mathiasson from conferences on subtitling, where subtitlers and put policymakers forward nature.sources descriptive These secondary arethe in form of proceedings data,ical but are they supported also sources by of secondary adescriptive interest to note where empirical and prescriptive norms doand donot concur. ECRs and as asource also of information for data. technical Also, it might of be In-house (with caution) used be guidelines will to support and explain data the on
I carried outI carried apilot study for present the project by using Scandinavian the The descriptive normsthat are uncoveredthis in study arebased on empir This, in combinationwith problemsTTs acquiring of Norwegian from (apart so files the The ESIST corpus Chapter 6. Empirical subtitling norms for television 45 The The - - -
Beninu Andersen (208233) IP: 85.184.159.51 On: Mon, 27 Jan 2020 04:21:30
Subtitling Norms for Television based on descriptivebased norms). to category the of extratextual sources, and contains prescriptive norms are (which be referredwhichwill from Code, to Thetime the time in to present study,belongs general,kept and very most subtitlers would probably agree with norms the init. subtitling. In order applicable to be to as many countries is as possible, Code the ESIST.org). This is an attempt at producing internationally guidelines valid for byoped Jan Ivarsson and Carroll Mary (1998: bigger.times data originating from Scandinavianthe Subtitles nearly Corpus, which is also 200 translation project. Thedata from the ESIST corpustherefore is notthe as as valid totime work withassignment this would than they have spent on an everyday were decontextualized and there of is evidence subtitlers the given being more tigation. To certainty reach about full national all Scandinavian norms, no fewer of uncoveringpurpose any national norms, of is which goal the present the inves studies generate more generalizable data, but are not still general enough for the 1995;PisekLinde 1997;Gottlieb &Grigaravičiūtė 1999or Gottlieb 1999).These ambitious attempts at analysis are often two,based on three TTsor four (e.g. de again on other material. (1995: general descriptive knowledge of discipline, the by way inthe Toury described in many of studies the mentioned above. Also, ways can addinsmall they to the to illustrate,used ifnot to prove, points of translation theory, is which case the mental value for introducing and testing be and can methodologies, also they that no one is interested inmore studies. case Yet, studies case have an instru commentedhas been on by scholars such as Gambier put (2008a),who forward it is case, this the is hard to draw any general conclusion from research. the This 2000; Remael 2003;Schröter 2004,or Muños 2003,Zilberdik Gil 2009).When film only (e.g. Titford 1982; Guardini Cintas 1998;Díaz 1998; Hatim & Mason research many is that very studies are studies, case i.e. corpus the one has been retrievableeasily quantitative inSection 6.2. data of kinddescribed the yet not large so that it impossible became to investigate, apart from comparably corpus that was large enough to warrant general conclusions on national norms, size of acorpus for aproject likeamatter could this be of some debate. Iwanted a ScandinavianThe SubtitlesCorpusthe is main corpus the of present study. The 6.1.3 ESIST adopted has also the The problemthat is analysingtranslations time-consuming. is very Even more One problem that has plagued discipline the of audiovisual translation 36ff.), in that36ff.), in can they provide tentative generalizationsthat canbe tested The ScandinavianThe SubtitlesCorpus Code of Good Subtitling of Good Code Practice 157–159, or ESIST’s web page www. , waswhich devel - - -
Beninu Andersen (208233) IP: 85.184.159.51 On: Mon, 27 Jan 2020 04:21:30 my knowledge. . subtitlersexperienced than e.g. daytime soaps. The result is acorpusthat contains titles. Typically, subtitling the of high-profile programming carried is out by more character, and often this results in more effort going into the production of sub Programmes that are aired at primetime generally tend of to be ahigh-profile prime time, inorder viewing to make an effort quality subtitling.good securing of The material was manually recorded tapeson VHS in Sweden Denmarkand at films. In other words:the corpus consists of mainstream of mainstreamAVT TV. somemeets prior quality conditions, like only including Academy Award-winning mostthe typical and common material, rather than to include only material that is most the mainstream form of AVT inScandinavia, it to makes apply sense it to therefore mainstream incharacter. as Idonot this aproblem. see subtitling As TV screensScandinavian at TV primetime inan average year. The resulting corpus is of corpus the material was to collect that would broadlywhat reflect seen on is (rather than DVD or VHS)should The used. general be forgoal the compilation (cf. SOU 2002, overall inthat (cf. country Gottlieb 1997: mostthe widely read translated medium in Denmark, and most the read text type patterns as national that described can norms. be Furthermore, subtitles is as TV largebe enough to evenout idiosyncrasies the of individual subtitlers and reveal as is possible to handle within timeframe the of project. the sions about subtitles. Even data ifthe gene programmesand TV should investigated, be Danish eachwith both and Swedish something that concerned ordinary people. databe about limited phenomena, and Iwas interested inmore general data about Limiting corpusthe wayin this would generate reliable data. However, would this guage versions, albeit language versions that are rarely independent of eachother. advantage of readily being available, searched easily and containing multiple lan 18 family films on the corpusDVD in forthesis his (2005). DVDs havegreatthe tively, one could at look genre aspecific or medium, such as Thorsten Schröter’s Romero Fresco investigated (2006)who Spanish the dubbing of and Van investigated (2002),who Besien Dutch the subtitles of TTs,more specific suchseries, the TV as studiescarried out like a by to handle, even for a major study like It this. would perhaps better to be on focus thousandthan several TTs wouldSuch needed. be acorpus would impossible be
With aforementioned the arguments inmind,that Idecided 100differentfilms Incidentally, it largest the is also subtitling corpus for ever used astudy this kind, of to all subtitling norms inSweden and Denmark, it was as large acorpus Mediamätning i Skandinavien i Mediamätning rated from corpus the may not warrant conclu Chapter 6. 153) and Swedish the situation is similar ), it that was decided subtitles for TV Empirical subtitling norms for television 46 The corpus should Friends Blackadder, Pelsmaekers . Alterna or or - - - -
Beninu Andersen (208233) IP: 85.184.159.51 On: Mon, 27 Jan 2020 04:21:30
Subtitling Norms for Television 2. 1. using following the criteria, were which met more or less well by corpus: final the that adhered to general the as goal closely as possible, corpus the was compiled (6 Oscars) and programmesand TV themselves range from high-quality films like reasonably high-quality subtitling (with afew exceptions). The quality filmsthe of 7. 6. 5. 4. 3. The material shouldbe random, that in it shouldbe compiled from films and The corpus should consist of 100 Anglophone STs,withDanish and Swedish Non-fiction as several genres well as of fiction beshould represented. There and commercial publicBoth broadcasters service should represented. be and terrestrial satelliteBoth channels TV should represented. be It was TTsThe shouldbe aired contemporarily.criterion This was not quite met, Feature shouldbe series TV films representedand episodes of equal in numbers, ifnot time. inequal The corpus consists of 50 featurefilms and from Novemberperiod 2003to November 2004. one year. The material was recorded manually in Sweden Denmarkand the in programmesTV aired at primetime on Danish both and over Swedish TV TTs. Danish gian TTs, as well as double independent versions of some of Swedish the and world.the This criterion was met, theand corpus containsalso 36 Norwe of audiovisual material is Anglophone, inScandinavia both and inmost of TTs. The reason for choosing English as SL is obviouslythat the vast majority In order to investigate influence the factors, several of and construct acorpus (where main the skopos is dissemination the of information) and fiction is quite adifferencewhat in strategies translatingwhenare used non-fiction thus apoint inincluding and contrasting two categories. these thatto suspect the might this reflected in subtitles be produced, thereand is channels,TV as latter the have also arole to play as educators. There is reason There is adifference in commitment between commercial and service public satelliteNRK. The channelsboth countries,TV3 in are and Swedish Kanal 5. and Norwegian and TV2 and and DR 2 Danish and DR 1 TV4 and 2 SVT 1 nels, has since everyone access to The these. channelsterrestrial are: Swedish appropriatedeemed that most material should come from chan terrestrial to get diachronic indications of norm development from material. the contemporary TTs. This turned outbe to an advantage, as it made possibleit as main of the corpus body the had complemented to be with nine non- subtitles. tend to have much than feature denserdialogue films, thisand may the affect ferences intranslation on format. the strategy based Sitcoms, for instance, 50 episodes of TV series. This criterion series. was included, ofepisodes TV there as mightbe dif The Piano The (3Oscars) to reality shows ( The Simple Life Simple The Forrest Gump Forrest ). - - -
Beninu Andersen (208233) IP: 85.184.159.51 On: Mon, 27 Jan 2020 04:21:30 translation is. . Scout cepts and manybelong films to morethan one genre. For instance, ing genre the breakdown of corpus the inTable 6a,as genres are unstable con (2000: strengthened by academically Neale’s taking of major exposé genres into account informationbased by (as used e.g. Schröter 2005: iswhich viewer-driven and large enough considered to be asafe source of Internet- genre labels it given has on been Internet the Movie Database (henceforth IMDb), TV of filmsprogrammes the and accordingthe fairly dominantto (the broad of) on culturalbased expectations (2003:187).In it case, this means that Ilabeleach sis, insteadmake of use Iwill what convention Staiger social the calls method, ofpart agenre. tion and assume that most –ifnot –films, have all traits generic that themmake of present the purpose study, follow Iwill Neale’s (2000: like musical, the western, the horror the film theand do not belong to any genre. The classical genrefilms better-defined the are ones, constitute one category of films, fromand that, it followsthat there arefilms that what genres are. However, it turns out that film studiessome has in difficulties determining exactly points out, should into taken be account researching when audiovisual translation. central concept infilm studies, adisciplinewhich,Chaume as (2004a) quiterightly instance, want ifthey amused, to be watch they acomedy. just as viewers genre take into account to decide watch they when afilm. For many subtitlers genre take into account work they when (cf. Gottlieb 1994: research field, inthis e.g. O’Shea (1996) Gottliebor (1998), and safeit is sayto that translationthe reflected in be strategies involved. There alreadybeen somehas is acomedy, film if the thethenTT is skoposto amuse,the of thisand should titling is genrethe act TV toprogramme film which the orbelongs. For instance, I would evenargue that single most the influencing factor the on skopos of a sub When subtitlingthe films, concept of genre is closely related thatto of skopos.
I will notI will here go into discussion adetailed on problems the of genre analy The notion of genre itself turns complex outbe a very to concept indeed. It is a tant criterion. dom inhis or her choice of strategy, cf. Gottlieb 2001: (where skopos the more often is to entertain, theand subtitler has morefree The problem in translationthe difficulties similar is to of pinning studies down a what would probably by most described people as belonging be to hybrid the 51–141). However, discussion the above should kept be inmind view when 47 Some, like (2003),are Sobchack of opinion the that genre films Chapter 6. Empirical subtitling norms for television 355). Thiscategorization then is film noir film 9f) more inclusive defini 9f) 58), so this is this an58), so impor . However, for the TheLast Boy 70), ------
Beninu Andersen (208233) IP: 85.184.159.51 On: Mon, 27 Jan 2020 04:21:30
Subtitling Norms for Television Horror Drama Crime Comedy Adventure Action Genre Table 6a. it when taken comes be stance will to genre. as i.e. adrama comedy, but here it grouped has been with pure comedy such series, simply labelled been as ‘action’ Also, genre ‘action comedy’, but for of simplified this purpose the breakdown, it has . commonis avery and popular format, and comedy tend rerun tomany series be and there are many reasons for First, this. comedy –and sitcom the particularly – to get aneater table is not really helpful. romantic reminiscences of an player ageing baseball in of story bloody the aplatoon of soldiers during same WWIIinthe category as the as a‘drama’ seen be (it is series one of labels the available on but IMDb), to place and Denmark during year the of compilation. – of matching the and compilation process. For instance, there is series one war TV genresbetween long inthe and short the format low, is so but that an is effect also ness of matching the process. It is perhaps unfortunate that degree the of overlap with regard to genre. This is a result theof compilation process, theand random Total showsReality Documentary War Western Romance Sweden, war labelled could which films, be of both butthere were no matching ones. Band of Brothers Fawlty Towers When it programmes, comes to TV the more than of half are these comedies, As inTable seen can be material 6a,the corpus inthe is unevenly distributed The Guns of Navarone of Guns The Corpus broken down by genre . When examples of subtitles are amuch discussed, more nuanced Films – 50 16
2 3 3 6 8 9 3 but to my knowledge no war films were bothaired in Sweden (1961) was aired in Denmark and TV programmes TV 50 28 M*A*S*H 4 4 7 3 4 48 is usually described as a ‘dramedy’, is usually described Now, Now, Band of Brothers Three Three Kings For Love of the Game (1999) was aired in could also could also just just -
Beninu Andersen (208233) IP: 85.184.159.51 On: Mon, 27 Jan 2020 04:21:30 few hundred episodes (“Days Lives” Our of on www.tv.com). . **There are probably more subtitlers involved,TTssome as were not credited. *Extrapolated from subtitle files. Number of subtitlers involved Number of subtitling companies involved Number of genres Total number of words inTTs Number of subtitles Number of Target Texts Number of Target Languages Name Table 6b. Table 6b contains of asummary some general data about corpus. the including data about subtitlers, subtitling companies, dates of etc. collection forused investigation the inSection 6.2. continuous subtitling from variousTV filmsprogrammes, andwhich have been ten one-minute infull, transcribed, with dialogue of extracts mid-to high-speed andtranscribed annotated, and rest the remains untranscribed. However, Ihave thousandseveral hours. Instead, passages containing ECRshave extracted, been available form, indigital as task of the transcribing whole the corpus would take subtit (the Only parts It consists of VHStapes and some subtitle files, and it user-friendly.is not very titles Corpus was constructed for present the study, but reused canby be others. Universities of Lund and Göteborg (www.englund.lu.se).Scandinavian The Sub parable translation parallel corpus like the 100,000,000 words of searchable data available on-line. Nor is it an instantly com enormous the material targetsual inseveral languages (Valentini 2006).Nor is it acorpus like audiovisual corpus parallel two countries becomes an almost impossible task. soap operas, tend to have many so episodes thatfact other formats, common, such as drama, very isparticularly which also results which times, inmany opportunities for recording. Secondly, it is due to the
Data about individualTV filmsprogrammes and given is in appendix A, ScandinavianThe SubtitlesCorpus is not acorpus samethe of kindthe as For instance, Data about Scandinavian the Subtitles Corpus British National Corpus British Days of Our Lives Our of Days le files, which le files, are not available thefor material)all of it are Forlixt has run for has run 46 seasons this far, eachcomprising season a , which contains, which searchable on-screen audiovi Chapter 6. (www.natcorp.ox.ac.uk) which contains 2 (3including Norwegian the material) Scandinavian The CorpusSubtitles 52 Swedish, 32Danish (+9Norwegian) 6 Danish, 6Swedish (+NRK) 11 Approx. 900,000 117,393 (133,603incl. Norwegian material) 205 (241including Norwegian the material) 49 English Swedish Parallel Corpus Parallel Swedish English that matching the between episodes Empirical subtitling norms for television * (+ 110,906incl. No.) at the ** - - -
Beninu Andersen (208233) IP: 85.184.159.51 On: Mon, 27 Jan 2020 04:21:30
Subtitling Norms for Television Swedes.thus section seeks This touncover the quantitative norms of condensation subtitlers have room for more space-consuming translation solutions than the is significantly in higher Swedish subtitlesthan Danish in subtitles,then cultures it when comes to norms. technical For instance, condensation ifthe rate subtitles, it must established be there whether are differencestwo these between datacomesthe book in this from a comparative study of Swedish and Danish make an investigation into norms technical the of subtitling. Also, since most of a more linguistic investigation into norms the of subtitling, thus we will have to of subtitled translations that cannot disregarded, be and before we move on to decisions are linguistic, or stylistic, cultural. are The aspects thustechnical afacet subtitlers’ decisions are thus affected regardlessaspects, these by these whether of lation that isaspects technical subtitlers the have to work with. Many of the Much of what makes translation for subtitles differentfrom other forms transof 6.2 similar), it so should sufficient be make to the comparison at wordlevel. STs and subtitled Swedish TTs alike is circa five characters (andDanish morphology is very However, Ifound in aprevious study (Pedersen 2003a)that mean the word length in English . 3. 2. 1. titles are displayed and These measurements viewed. are: second investigate TT–TT the reader relationship, inthat explain they how sub surements, third the of investigates which ST–TT the relation, first the while and bound to affectthe process normsthat in country. norms ofexpectancy one of countries the allow significantly longerTTs, this is tion rate, reading exposure speed, and time subtitle density. In other words, ifthe and display patterns underlying Scandinavian subtitles. This includes condensa are made. At stage, this no measurements of differences ininformation load or structure STences between and TT, presented as areduction percentage from ST to TT. rate Condensation inminutes.length of TT the on subtitlebased quantity (i.e. number the of subtit into, as measured by number the of subtitles minute. per This measurement is Subtitle density of exposure time. to read a subtitle, as measured by averagethe number of characters second per reading speed Expected What investigated be will are section inthis three different quantitative mea An alternative would condensation the to base be rate on characters, rather than words. Technical norms: Subtitles coming and going , defined as the , defined as numbertranslation TT of subtitlesthe is divided , defined , defined as asimple word , defined as the speed with which the reader is expected withwhichthe the, defined as is expected reader speed 50 count of quantitative the differ les per TT), divided by divided the TT), les per Danish - - - - -
Beninu Andersen (208233) IP: 85.184.159.51 On: Mon, 27 Jan 2020 04:21:30 quoted by and lower subtitle density than other the Scandinavian countries (cf. Ivarsson, subtitlers that Swedish subtitling has a tradition of slower reading speed expected condensation rates).be aconsensus There also to seems amongScandinavian subtitlehigher density), without necessarily implying shorter texts (i.e. lower would result in a greater number of subtit ken lines (cf. Mortensen and Ivarsson, quoted by Lomheim 2000: Swedish professional norms, on other the hand, have more focused on spo the it would eradicate more cavalry the effectivelythan any Indians could have. The tance at bottom the of screen,and the ifasubtitle at was inserted that moment, quotes an example from awestern where dis inthe atroop is seen of cavalry medium film closely, inthe adhering rathercuts. rigidly to Nørgaard (1989: and condensation the rate. straightforward connectionnumber the between of subtitles (i.e. subtitle quantity) and least” the Danes decidedly (113, my translation). He thus seems to make a lation), and he concludes that “Swedes condense most, the Norwegians alittle less, version, 650 in a Norwegian version and 500 in a Swedish version” (113, my trans claimed that “a subtitled may film perfectly have about 850 subtitlesDanish ina professionals, such as Norwegian the subtitling executive Nordang, in1989 who pursuits.academic, that The facts one finds the in literature indeed come from ofsorts measurements thought can be of as belonging to professional, rather than short one-liners.several forward, more because information conveyed can be two-liner than in inafull connection condensation between rate and subtitle density is evenless straight it for notspeed, case need the which be films do not contain much dialogue. The works according to formula: the subtitle high reading density expected =high relationshipthe reading and subtitle speed expected between often density very majority in the true of but cases, it not need for be individual films. Eventhough have reading and lowest the speed highest the expected condensation rate. This is est subtitle density (i.e. highestthe number of subtitles minute) per would also and version the exposurespeed speaking, time. Generally ofwiththe high afilm arethese not as straightforward as relationship the reading expected between of exposure time. There are connectionsother the between measurements, but and result the is how many characters to second read per is viewer expected the characters inasubtitle by number the of seconds subtitle the on screen is exposed calculated itsis reading length. Theby dividing expected speed the number of sure time, i.e. how long asubtitle must displayed be on screen,depending on reading is closely connected speed with measurement the Expected of expo
There Denmarktraditionallyhas ain been practice to followthevisual There have notmanybeen previous studies kind,thisperhaps of becausethese Lomheim 2000: 115, and Søndergaard, www.titlevision.dk). Nordang’s Chapter 6. les per minuteles per in Danish TTs (i.e. a Empirical subtitling norms for television 114–115). This 122) ------
Beninu Andersen (208233) IP: 85.184.159.51 On: Mon, 27 Jan 2020 04:21:30
Subtitling Norms for Television produce 70% longer TTs than Swedishtheir colleagues. That wouldgive them – in density and condensation rate is warranted, it would mean that Danish subtitlers like, ifNordang’s because and data true, his isconnection subtitle still between importance to present the study to unravel what present the situation really looks and developmentthe of from mediascape the 1990s the to 2000s. the It is of great roughly of from Nordang’s period the claim. produced by Swedish the broadcaster early inthe public 1990s,i.e. SVT service on Norwegianbased TTs, from as his might figures, expected be but on subtitles 2004). But informationthe is conflicting, as Ivarsson’sTTsdataTV on is not son claimed that statements their were on empirical based data (p.c., November and television 650inthe version” (1998: average 90-minute is 900 film forthe cinema version, 750 for thevideo version titling statement is not uncontradicted, however. Another source, much-cited the informants. reports, monographs with and Swedish interviews and Danish subtitlers, as acting material ofary adescriptive nature form inthe used, of been has conference also by Swedish and Danish subtitling makers, as informants. acting policy Second on extratextualbased sources, like guidelines for subtitlers, and statements made other such texts corpus inthe as well. Most of data the fromthus 1980swill the be Swedishwith both and Danish subtitles from that era,eventhough there are some only one feature ( film data limited. from be In 1980swill the Scandinavian the Subtitles Corpus there is titles from Scandinavian the Subtitles Corpus. For reasons, practical empirical the onfrom mainly empirical based 2000swill be the data of agreat number of sub unfortunatelydata will from two the periods of be slightly different status. The data one investigate will which contemporary from norms, be 2000s.The the will which oneods, regarding older norms, make of use will which data from 1980s,and the 1980s and 1990sit to makes at look sense development the intwo differentperi generally applicable norms, with data from other countries. Sweden, Denmark and Norway, but broaden discussion the will to include more a diachronic The perspective. data the in main investigation here comefromwill We now will turn to at look developmentthe of threethe normstechnical from 6.2.1 Swedish colleagues. subtitling terms –infinitely more room for elegant subtitlingsolutions than their It is possible that norms the have changed due to advances intechnology Due toDue changes andin mediascape the that technology evolved during the by Ivarsson and Carroll, claims that number “[…]the of subtitles inan A diachronic study Police Academy ) and four of episodes asitcom ( 71). Oninquiry, Nordang both and Ivars M*A*S*H Sub - - - - )
Beninu Andersen (208233) IP: 85.184.159.51 On: Mon, 27 Jan 2020 04:21:30 *This measurement beingbased ona lineis ‘full’,whichthe 2000s in means having 35–37 characters. reading speed* Expected Two-liners One-liners Table 6d. from seen theThiscanbe figures in Table 6d. days These in Europe, subtitlers tend translateto more the dialogue”of (1998: inmost countries speed tle nowadays is much faster than it was 30or 40 years ago. Ivarsson and Carroll put it: “a glance at old cursory subtitle liststhat verifies subti but that also subtitles often follow a slowerthanpace the maximum.prescribed Swedish subtitling had lower reading than Danish, speeds period inthis expected Danishthe version and for 6.37cps Swedish the version. This shows not thatonly contained rapid and speech continuous subtitles, gives an example of for 9.12cps thought. Astudy of an excerpt of 1980sversions the of However,in between. differences the notseem begreat as to as one might have lowest, the being ing speed Danish highest, the and Norwegian spanning gap the by Ivarsson, Lomheim and Søndergaard above, with Swedish the read expected * characters second per reading in speed Expected Two-liners One-liners Table 6c. 1980s looked as inTable 6c. isk Språksekretariat, exposure reading 1989)the in and time speed expected seminar], Mathiasson 1984), översättarseminarium nordiskt från Rapport sources.tive According secondary to figuresfrom Ivarsson and (1982) Kumlien Thedata mainly thebased readingduring 1980s is on expected speed on descrip 6.2.1.1
This measurement beingbased onalineis ‘full’,whichthe 1980s in meant having 28–32 characters. Generally speaking, expected subtitle expected reading are speaking, speeds Generally increasing. As The figures in evidence Table 6c the of give further national differences stated Expected reading speed Expected Exposure time and expected reading followingExposure and time speed expected 1980snorm the Exposure times and expected reading followingExposure and times speed expected 2000norm the * SVT 9–14 cps 5–7 sec. 3–4 sec. Nordisk TV-TekstingNordisk Sweden 7–10 cps 6–8 sec 4 sec. Chapter 6. 10–14 cps 5–7 sec. 3 sec. Commercial ([report from Nordic the translators’ Sweden Sweden Empirical subtitling norms for television ([Nordic subtitling], TV Nord
Norway 7–12 cps 5–6 sec. 4 sec. 12 cps 6 sec. data No Norway Police Academy Denmark 10–14 cps 5–7 sec. 3 sec. Denmark 9–12 cps 5–6 sec. 3 sec. , which , which 66). - - - -
Beninu Andersen (208233) IP: 85.184.159.51 On: Mon, 27 Jan 2020 04:21:30
Subtitling Norms for Television disappear not inthe distant too future, are as SVT now doing what DR has long 2004, my translation). Chances are, however, that difference small even this will cottage” rural every has to time read, according to Åkerberg at (p.c., SVT October is inline of with goal their making subtitles that “even little old woman every in broadcasterpublic allows slightly service longer exposure for time one-liners. This 2010).The thatOctober separatesonly detail still the countries that is the Swedish found inmany national and international guidelines, e.g. inFlanders (Remael p.c. broken)be is becoming an international standard subtitling, for TV (which is rule more This on rule. 12cps the properly as a norm, as described canit Swedish commercial and Danish prescriptive norm is identical, and centred also us more than that Norwegians We rule. to 12cps the subscribe that see the also ferences countries the between are but all gone. The data notNorwegian does tell there more being characters line and per other factors. technical Second, dif the and Carroll noted,reading are speeds expected 2000s,due the inthe higher to 6 seconds’ exposure time, 12cps. reading of equals which an speed expected . and there agreat to seems be for research need further area. inthis the Thisalso is connectionthe reading and between exposure speed thus time remains unclear, exposure isshortdays time too these (p.c., 2004).The situation October as regards hand, Åkerberg claims that elderly the inSweden have complaining been that the gians, exposure cut could time fairly be (2004: drastically by Tveit and published in 2004. His results suggest that at least for young Norwe tion of Scandinavian viewers’ reading and exposure speed was time conducted 1999; Tveit 2004: wasthis discontinued acouple of ago decades (Maud Kampmann, p.c., October ers’ to have used reading SVT a research speeds. team that looked into but this, age viewer. The problem herethat little is very research donebeen has view on viewers, eitherviewers as Åkerberg’s all quote above indicates, or aver an ideal prescribe an exposure that time is supposed tothe reflect the readingof speed more is only about 1%,and Norwegian the evenlower. mean to seems be Swedishthe and Danish proportion of subtitlesor with aduration of 7 seconds of threeof episodes onds’ duration inany Scandinavian subtitling days. these For instance, TTs inthe and not empirical data. In real-life subtitling, it is rare to find a subtitle of 7 sec 2006). ItCarp must stressed that be figures the table in 6d arebased on guidelines, doing,been and contract much of subtit their Two things stand out we when compare two the tables above. First, as Exposure readability. are times on expected based Thewriters of guidelines Cf. e.g. Ivarsson &Carroll (1998: 59). To my knowledge, only the recent research into ques the Midsomer Murders
65), claim who thattwo-liner should a full not exceed in the Scandinavian inthe Subtitles Corpus, both ling off to commercial companies (cf. 59–64). On the other59–64). Onthe 51 and it can be Ivarsson ------
Beninu Andersen (208233) IP: 85.184.159.51 On: Mon, 27 Jan 2020 04:21:30 Total M*A*S*H M*A*S*H M*A*S*H M*A*S*H Police Academy episode Film/Series Table 6e. empirical data about subtitle quantity Scandinavian inthe Subtitles Corpus. on Swedishbased films. The data on subtit and 500subtitles for aSwedish version of afeature film and Ivarsson claiming 650, dence from Nordang and Ivarsson, with Nordang claiming 850subtitles for When it comes to subtitle density, as mentioned above, there is conflictingevi the 6.2.1.2 conclusion is warranted by prescriptive the and data. experimental for rapid segments dialogue with continuous subtitles, even though a more general rather limited on and rapid based only. dialogue Thus,the conclusion true only is and data. experimental The empiricaldata supportsthis conclusion, butthis is however, asconclusion this is on primarily prescriptive based data for lines, full replaced almost completely by a Scandinavian norm. This shouldbe qualified, and thating everywhere, different the national normsScandinavia in have been prescriptive norms inScandinavia. As late as 2004,Tveit (2004: a mere slower. 0.21cps ghost The the 1980s of normsseems to die hard,though. excerpts difference: showed small the avery was Swedishreading expected speed reading than Danish the speed ones, on average. My results on rapid dialogue ESIST corpus shows that Swedish the versions had amere slower 0.3cps expected almost completely, and is this verified by descriptivedata. My research the on channels.semiotic and syntax of subtitle the are, and on particularly interaction the with other the on how many characters there are inasubtitle, but on also how complex the The complicated issuefurther is that the fact by is notreading speed based only is no agreement on, little and knowledge very of, reading of actual speeds subtitles. reason why Ihedge term ‘reading the speed’ with premodifier the ‘expected’:there
The conclusionthat canbe drawn that is readingare expected speeds ris As we have prescriptive the seen, norms for Scandinavia have converged Subtitle density 5:24 5:7 5:6 5:4 Subtitle quantity 1980s inthe 1970 subtitles Denmark 304 279 325 355 707 58) claimed amore substantial differencethe between Chapter 6. 1381 subtitles Sweden le density inTable on 6eis the based 197 215 213 214 542 Empirical subtitling norms for television Danish, lexis - -
Beninu Andersen (208233) IP: 85.184.159.51 On: Mon, 27 Jan 2020 04:21:30
Subtitling Norms for Television find, however,that there was significant differencebetween the norms the of two Ivarsson or Nordang were more accurate about situation the 1980s.We inthe do data isthis limited too is based to warrant any definite conclusion as whether to byported data from non-paired TTs Still, material fromthe on period. the which on average 42.6%more subtitles than Swedish the TTs and findings these are sup Swedish TT. The total number of subtitles involved showsthatTTs Danishthe had subtitle 30.4%higher hence also density, as TTs the are of length, than equal the ofthat Danish the TT 1,513 subtitles (inDanishthe version of instance, variation the Swedish 442(inthe is between version of numberin the of subtitles for films. Scandinavianthe In SubtitlesCorpus, for is film of course completely meaningless in isolation,there as are huge differences Ivarsson’sin between and Nordang’s figures, butthe subtit twothe countries during 1980s. The the featurefilm shows a pattern somewhere countries it when comes to subtitle density. This should . in subtitles/minute Subtitle density Captions % one-liners in subtitles/text Average subtitle quantity Table 6f. with its more than 100,000 subtitles, offer much more reliable results. reliable.notScandinavian series very the of TV films The 100 and Subtitles Corpus, than Danish. the However, on isfewer this based than 700subtitles, that so figure is that study, experimental inthis average the Swedish subtitle density was 3.3%lower suggestswhich that difference the incondensationgreat. not be need very wepattern find a of moreDanish one-liners and more two-liners, Swedishfull forward relation subtitle between density and condensation rate. In 1980sdata, the lower condensation rate for Danish the data, or as there straight is no necessary The figures in Table 6e show asignificant Moving on to then yearthe 2000, wethe find ESIST in data for subtitle density A t -test for matched pairs an yielded error probability <0.05. of Subtitle quantity and density following 2000norms the Police Academy Swedish TTs 753 35.9 6.4 5.8 Films shows subtitle a30.4%higher quantity, and Meet Joe Black Danish TTs 812 35.3 52 6.9 5.8 differencethe between norms of ). What is more important is Swedish TTs not le quantity for one single be equalled to amuch equalled be 359 27.3 9.2 1.6 TV series TV The The Watcher Danish TTs 382 10.0 27.3 1.3 ) and and ) - -
Beninu Andersen (208233) IP: 85.184.159.51 On: Mon, 27 Jan 2020 04:21:30 in 15% of the Danish the –butin 15%of Swedish the none of –TTs. . TV series. . is more or less equal, Swedes dotend to have more two-liners than full Danes. subtitling (cf. Lomheim 2000: practice would aresult be of well-attested the Danishof on focus aspect visual the screen,ratherthe than to cover alonger stretch of bottom the of screen. the consider that it would less intrusive be to place subtitles left-hand inthe corner of liner. The reason for breakingthe line is presumablythat some Danish subtitlers ish two-liners were shorter, actually inmany short cases enough to fit into a one- may some remaining be still effect this of old norm, however, as many Danthe of cession of shorter subtitles, we which found 1980ssubtitles. inthe true to There be liners (cf. Søndergaard, www.titlevision.com), and Danes the have aswifter pro oldthe conception that Swedish subtitles tend to have alarge number two- of full percentage of one-liners material inthe from two the countries. This is contrary to 756 subtitles. havingtypical Danish having film TT 832 subtitles typicalto aTT Swedish non-contemporary TTs, Danish the TTs have 10.4%more subtitleswith a film, per (less than 0.1%difference)tical subtitle densities. After removing these the and removed.be TTs produced with aid the of master template have files almost iden materialalso that produced has been with help the of master template files must material, and to give an accurate of current view the situation, material this and tors. One is that Scandinavian the Subtitles Corpus contains non-contemporary in1989.However,as case the being data the qualified to fac needs for be several found 1980ssituation, inthe and from it 70%Nordang the is afar cry postulated a in DanishThe differenceseen. seriessmaller, filmscanbeiseven TV for with may table.as inthe they seem In table, the adifference of 7.8% more subtitles Swedishbetween and Danish TTs. significanttistically difference in subtitlequantity (and hence in subtitle density) Schröter (2005: centage of one-liners, and how many captions (on-screen text ST, inthe what figures forthe main corpus. Additional informationgiven is aboutper the
Danish of lead 6.4%.This a in asserts itself differencemuch smaller than was One fact thatOne fact may come is as that asurprise there is no real differencethe in Table relevant 6f reveals several The first facts. onethat is theresta a isstill Thedata presented in Table 6fcontainsthe subtitle quantity and density A However, this explanation not does hold water subtitles the when are centred, are as they t -test for matched pairs an yielded error probability <.001for of films both and 349) calls “written349) calls texts”) were subtitled film/episode. per 113–16). So, eventhoughnumber the of two-liners 53 However, are facts the not as straightforward Chapter 6. Empirical subtitling norms for television having 54 This ------
Beninu Andersen (208233) IP: 85.184.159.51 On: Mon, 27 Jan 2020 04:21:30
Subtitling Norms for Television Denmark has been drastically reducedDenmark drastically has since been 1980s.The the difference in subtitle ference insubtitle quantity and hence of subtitle density Sweden between and medium is feature the film. entertaining people, there is to atendency make characters more talk than ifthe particular. If there is only acommercial hour half (22–23minutes) available for is due intensity ingeneral, to dialogue higher the and series sitcoms inTV in on average series TV have about 44%more subtitles minute per than films. This episode. ever-changingthe message on by sign the hotel the introduction inthe of each Danish, but not Swedish,the subtitler of in captions is not series really relevant. inTV It is merely due that to fact the the translated whenever necessary, by Swedes and Danes alike. difference The small . The condensationwas scrutinized. Danishthe in version this excerptof was 26.1% from condensationthe rates might have looked like during 1980sera,an the excerpt numbera high of short one-liners. Instead, inorder to get an example of what samethe amount of text fitted can be into alow two-liners number full of as into means that subtitle density measure not need agood be of condensation rate, subtitle density, there agreat was also differencethe in number of one-liners. This and 22.2%for Danish the ones, but difference this is not statistically significant. ESIST figures show a mean condensation rate of 24.1% forthe Swedish versions, show not acondensation, but an firstthe slow excerpt has dialogue, whereandvery the averageDanish subtitles intensity thedata ofthe in based ESISTseen on This dialogue. the is corpus,where The condensation rates naturally substantially vary in subtitling, depending the on 6.2.1.3 countries. (e.g. France) has much subtitle higher densities of than those traditional subtitling enough, her data suggests that DVD subtitles from traditional dubbing countries differencessmaller Scandinavianfor subtitle density in her study, but interestingly ofuse master template files are included.Georgakopoulou (2010: density is now 10.4%,or evenas low as 6.1%,ifsubtitles produced through the The conclusion section this in thatmustbe any way you look at theit, dif The comparison of subtitle series shows TV density filmsthatbetween and Thedata captionson surprising.is not very It merely showsthat captions are We saw previous inthe that section eventhough there was agreat difference in This is a mistakethat frequently is made, e.g. by Nordang 1989. Police Academy Condensation rate Condensation which contained which rapid and dialogue continuous subtitling expansion Fawlty Towers rate of 0.9%.Onaverage, however, the has chosen to translate 239) found even 55 as as -
Beninu Andersen (208233) IP: 85.184.159.51 On: Mon, 27 Jan 2020 04:21:30 (Ivarsson, p.c. 2007). December already early in the 1980s, but met resitance who from conservative forces organisation in the . Swedish condensation rate is 37.4%,but again there the is no statistical significance. are presented inTableDanish The 6g. mean condensation rate is 35.3% theand ofextracts rapid and dialogue continuous subtitles were prepared and figures the 1998: 157). Carroll breaks (cf.tactic point 6 and 7of the but that is justifiedthrough the practice of line-breaksmaking coincidewith syn There aretwo-liners withstill longer firstsecond than being lines today,produced (cf. point 20of the line contains which only afew words. This is nowpractice generally discouraged viewers’ eyesto travel alonger distance ifyou have first line afull secondand a intrusivesarily on picture, the and (ii)it user-friendly, is not very as it requires the (and perhaps rather obvious) reasons for giving up practice:(i)it this is unneces that some subtitlers kept on adhering to it well afterthisdate. There are two main mid-eighties, according to Brunskog (1989: onpractice, isnorms which based for ‘ordinary’ writing, was discontinued inthe wouldthis give line the 32+one blank space +four letters =37characters). This has 32characters, means which that word the “höra” would not fit thaton line, as orsyntactic semantic break; linethe is simply broken firstthe when linefilled (it is In linethe break Example 6.1, is made at a place that not does coincide with any The of atwo-liner.illustrated Thiscanbe practice by a subtitlefrom TT a of Swedish the first to line fill dency of subtitling completely before second shifting the to line Danish subtitlers is true. excerptthis at least, Nordang’s claim that Swedish subtitlers condense more than lower than original, the whereas it was 41.3%lower Swedish inthe version. So, for
(6.1)
Karate Kid Karate To get asample of 2000scondensation rate inSweden and Denmark ten Another feature of 1980snorms the was that Swedish subtitlers had aten The Code was co-authoredCode The by Jan Ivarsson, to makethe changewho struggled at SVT hear it… My buddies would like to also Back translation: höra det… Mina kompisar vilja skulle också , which was, which produced around 1990:
56 Code of Good Subtitling of Good Code Practice Chapter 6. Code of Good Subtitling of Good Code Practice 38), even though Example 6.1 shows38), even though Example 6.1 Empirical subtitling norms for television , Ivarsson &Carroll 1998: (Karate Kid , Ivarsson & 57.29) 158). - - -
Beninu Andersen (208233) IP: 85.184.159.51 On: Mon, 27 Jan 2020 04:21:30
Subtitling Norms for Television The The show Truman Sliver Police Academy Office The The Country Hi-Lo Friends Daylight Cocktail Band of Brothers Anaconda Table 6g. The Fugitive The Entrapment The Bridges of MadisonCounty Collector Bone The As Good As It Gets Anaconda Film/episode Table 6h. we can thus compare TTs the directly. This is done in Table 6h. Scandinavianin the Subtitles Corpus, Ihave access to matching subtitle files, and general subtitling situations. For ten of films the episodes series and TV four the of I have able and been to go compare further data, is which representative of more circumstances,under these but more research Fortunately, this. to verify is needed condense an amount. equal ThereScandinaviansaidbe a could to norm at work have ample (as time ESIST inthe data), subtitlers from countries both to seem it existed. Thus, is fastthewhen dialogue the (as excerpts), in when or subtitlers situations, and one would have to find asignificant expected difference here, if investigated. However, material the here is representative of twosubtitling specific and Danish condensation nowadays, only that none was found material inthe sented inTable not 6gdoes prove that there is no differencebetween Swedish Thelack of significancethe in findings thefrom ESIST and material that pre Condensation rates cent) (inper inten rapid-dialogue extracts Number of words TTs inselected Danish TTs 11.85 33.50 26.19 37.67 33.33 24.63 47.56 46.20 49.50 42.44 # of words in Swedish TTs 5,524 4,601 6,160 5,605 7,506 3,081 Swedish TTs 20.00 40.10 32.97 43.26 28.40 31.34 47.57 44.30 42.42 43.99 Danish TTs # of words in ( Continued 5,108 5,077 6,359 5,656 8,328 3,179 )
-
Beninu Andersen (208233) IP: 85.184.159.51 On: Mon, 27 Jan 2020 04:21:30 be duebe to nature the second-generation of translation from Swedish to Danish. . condensation rate. Theresome is data fromNorwegian five films whichsuggests is a connection (if not a straightforward reading and one) speed expected between ably safe to say that aconvergence of norms has place taken here as well, as there on amuchbased larger corpus parallel of about five million subtitles. do not have validity for independently subtitled films, despitetheir findings being as that corpus didnot contain any independently subtitled Danish TTs, results their slightly longer, but had slightly variation less lexical than Swedish the TTs. However, TTs produced with aid the of master template files, and foundthatTTs Danish were norm. Volk and Harder a much (2007)used bigger corpus of Swedish and Danish excerptsthe infinding asignificant differencebetween the in table 6hthus confirmsthe difficulties found the in ESISTdata the and data from ones, but once again is this not statistically significant, according to a wethat findTTs Danishthe contain on average 6.0% more wordsthan the Swedish utes ( length of This film/episode. the the in varies in between56 min tablematerial 6h figure,this depends notas only the variableon intensity,of dialogue but also the on TTs.the The average number of words listedtable in 6h is not a really relevant condensation actual the rate is for eachTT, Ihave so had to for settle comparing of scope the present the investigation, it has not possible for been me to tell what Average Total Sahara Midsomer Murders Midsomer Murders Midsomer Murders My Best Friend’s Wedding Meet Joe Black L.A. Confidential The Country Hi-Lo Film/episode Table 6h.
Thedatascarce from the 1980swas for thisvery measurement, but it is prob As Idonot have STs, access to transcribed and as transcribing is them beyond They concedeThey that the difference they betweenfound Swedish and Danish subtitles may Sahara (Continued) ) and 178minutes ( 24 18 17 Meet Joe Black # of words in Swedish TTs 84,493 6,035 4,353 6,626 4,826 5,986 6,134 9,464 8,278 6,349 Chapter 6. ). What is relevant, however, is that Empirical subtitling norms for television Danish TTs # of words in 6,297 5,230 5,809 6,434 11,442 9,542 6,316 6,399 89,585 4,808 Danish and Swedish the
t -test. Thedata 57 - -
Beninu Andersen (208233) IP: 85.184.159.51 On: Mon, 27 Jan 2020 04:21:30
Subtitling Norms for Television disappearing commented has been on before by professionals like Mortensen Scandinavian countries. ference. findings These Georgakopoulou thoseconcur of with (2010: centper or less, and inmost it cases was evendifficult to findsignificant any dif key mea 1990s. Onall gation of situation the 1980s,have inthe during smaller become drastically the by Nordang in 1989,and were which found degree) (toinvesti inthe asmaller We have thus found that differences the Denmarkbetween and postulatedSweden 6.2.2 broadcaster alone.service perhaps not trusted,as iton be few texts is(i)too based and (ii)texts from public the that Norwegian subtitlers condense evenmore than Swedes do, but data this should produced of with use the a master template all file, in probability a Swedish one. versions. Itservice pointed should be also out version that Danish the was TV3 Swedish and Danish versions, but Danish the commercial between also and public Subtitle density quantity Subtitle Condensation rate reading speed Expected Table 6i. Swedish version for commercial television (Kanal 5). two Danish versions, one and commercial (DR), one and (TV3) public one service light atlook an example or two. The followingthe is measurements forfilm the supports that point. by Lomheim 2000: inter-Scandinavian subtitling convention is than closer everbefore” (quoted practices of SVT, DR and NRKare converging, that so late inthe an nineties, (quoted by Lomheim 2000: The fact that The fact the differences the between national subtitling norms are As in Table seen can be 6i, differences the are negligible notthe between only To illustrate levelling the of norms, technical the it might interesting be to . The main corpus containsthree different yet roughly contemporary versions: Discussion of development the Data for Daylight 116, my translation). Thedata the in present study strongly surements, norms the of two the countries differed by ten 7.14 785 45.1% 10.6 cps DK TV3 114). Similarly, Ivarsson pointed out that “the 7.02 772 47.6% 10.6 cps DR 6.85 754 47.6% 10.8 cps SE Kanal 5 259) for the Day - - -
Beninu Andersen (208233) IP: 85.184.159.51 On: Mon, 27 Jan 2020 04:21:30 Denmark, were eventhough they written in1989. by that fact the Lindberg’s guidelines are considered generally still in valid to be of subtitles the of (p.c., 2004).There October be did notseem to any reasons forDanishthe version to upgrade subtitles that are older than 6–7years, have ifthey opportunity the (p.c., subtitles are from SVT updated is ifafilm afterrerun more than five to ten years dated.point This corroboratedfurther is Åkerbergby at SVT,who claimsthat have had option the of buying old the subtitles, it didnot, were as these clearly nel, difference time the the is most important factor here. Even if Kanal 5might is oftenit that commissioned isTT true anew filmwhen is a airednew ona chan it was originally airedsimilar: on DR and shown in2004.Even on Danish TV3 if whereas first the version SVT, was on publicservice Denmark in thecase as is son for is this that Swedish new the version was aired on commercial the Kanal 5, whereas was Swedish produced. anew TT It could not argued be that rea sole the was reused, unchanged, was film the when Danishrerun on television in2004, tocloser Danish the 1990TT. It important is also to note that Danish the version ments. When we at look newer the Swedish version, however, figures all are much great differencethe between Swedish Danishtheand figures threeall measure on early 1990s,it becomes clear that adhere they to norms the of 1980s.There the is a Subtitle density quantity Subtitle Condensation rate reading speed Expected Table 6j. by aSwedish commercial company. broadcaster,1992 by public the service and one Swedish version produced in2002 film: Danishone version, produced in1990, one Swedish version produced in ple of development. the Table 6jshows measurements the of three versions of that haswho done converging? the Once again, norms are losing predictability. their This meansthat the national norms arebecoming blurred thatand the old national
When comparing twothe versions of subtitlesthe that were produced in the It is safe to say that Scandinavian the norms have converged drastically, but October 2004).NorbergOctober at SDI Media claims that company’s their is policy Data for Police Academy Police Academy 7.36 707 26.1% 9.12 cps DK 1990 to be updated. to be findings These are corroborated Chapter 6. 5.65 542 41.3% 6.37 cps SE 1992 Police Academy Empirical subtitling norms for television 6.99 671 32.1% 8.25 cps SE 2002 may serve as an may exam serve - - - -
Beninu Andersen (208233) IP: 85.184.159.51 On: Mon, 27 Jan 2020 04:21:30
Subtitling Norms for Television ST dialogue: ofbe texts the supplied, infigurewill O butthe followingtranscription is a the of interested and in technical aspects not meaning at stage, this no back translation nium, and “Swedishthe Kanal 5” subtitles were produced in 2002. As we are only column are Danish the subtitles 1980sand inthe both after used the millen new like. The subtitlesfrom “Swedish follow SVT2” the 1980s norms. the middle In subtitles. Figure Oillustrates what difference the thetwo between norms can look Swedish norm that has developed more, and become more like Danish the norm. subtit SVT2 Mahoney’s cheeky remark about “meeting women” is completely absent from the detail, naturally this influencesthe message conveyedTT.the in For instance, even has one subtitle more than Danishthe TT. Without going into much too Kanal the Danish the and 5TT speaking, are Swedishsimilar; new the very TT two the otherbetween versions is 68to 61infavour of Danish the text. Generally howsee much text less material verbal contains, SVT2 the whereas word the count titling, it is obvious reading is lower that speed expected the as well. It isto easy where Danish the version has 10).Also, assegment this contains continuous sub Figure Oillustrates slower the subtitle density text of(only SVT2 the 7subtitles It may fortime be an illustration of differencesthe between 1980s and 2000s As from seen argument the can be above, and illustrated inFigure O, it is the – Meeting women, sir. – What hell inthe are you doing? – Okay, let’s thighs. the see – 555–2467,sir. – What’s your telephone number, Thompson? – No, sir. you– Do live around here? – Thompson, sir. – What’s your name, cadet? – Get back inline.– Get NOW! – Sir, can Ihave asecond with you? inline,– Back Mahoney. – Mahoney, sir. – Your name? – M…Dirtbag? – What’s your name, dirtbag? Come on, come on, Ihaven’t got day. all thighs. The Come on. Eyes front. Telephone number. Er, listen, Er… Idon’t really belong here. I’m not right for place. this les. (Police Academy: 15.18–16.01) - -
Beninu Andersen (208233) IP: 85.184.159.51 On: Mon, 27 Jan 2020 04:21:30 only inconvenient, but somewhat also and uncertain imprecise. This meantthat TV subtitlesthe programme film the when or was aired taped,whichor was not electronicthe Before code. time subtitler the was this used, had to manually cue most important change technical was introduction the of cuing through aid the of subtitling screens (cf. Tveit 2004: softwarethe whichallowsof for more charactersper subtitle. Integratedfilm and reasons, first the being technical, secondbeingtheand globalization. linked to what remains is why seen There to is case. this the be appears twobe types of to subtitle density for Swedish subtitles since then. (Ivarsson, p.c., November 2004).There thushas almostbeen an 20%increase in figure based wason aboutfilms 100 subtitled the SVT in first half by the1990s of to average the of 650subtitles that Ivarsson and Carroll found (1998: Subtitles for equalized Corpus when has time 771Swedish subtitles, compared This indication is confirmed that the fact by the Scandinavianaverage the film in Figure O.
...genast!! In iledet... Ni förstår, jag passar inte inhär... Mahoney. Får jag prata lite er. med Vad heter du, dinskithög? Vad du håller med? på Får låren. på jag se Snabba på, –555–24 67. –Vad har du för telefonnummer? – ompson. –Vad heter du, aspirant? Swedish SVT2 jag har inte hela dan mig. på The improvements technical include the use of PC’sGottlieb (cf. 2001: We have thus that seen Scandinavian subtitling norms have converged, but Three TTsThree of an extract of NU! – Gåtilbage ikøen. – Jeg hører her... til ikke – Har etøjeblik? tid De – Tilbage ikøen,Mahoney. – Mahoney, sir. – Dit navn? – Møgsvin?! – Hvad du, hedder dit møgsvin? – Møder kvinder, sir. – Hvad fanden laver du? Kom nu, har jeg hele ikke dagen! Må lårene?Godt. se jeg – 555–2467,sir. lige frem. Telefonnummeret.– Se Hvad erdit telefonnummer? duBor her inærheden? – ompson. – Hvad du, hedder kadet? Danish Police Academy 26) make for more and easy accurate The cueing. Chapter 6. Empirical subtitling norms for television Bums! –In...i dig. ledet...med –Jag ska inte vara här... –Ett ögonblick, sir. –In Mahoney. iledet, –Mahoney. –Ditt namn? Vad heter du, sopprot? –Trä ar kvinnor, sir. –Vad gör du? hela dan mig–låren! på Jag så. Se har inte Visa låren. 555–2467, sir. Titta rakt Telefonnumret? fram! Vad är ditt telefonnummer? – ompson, sir. –Vad heter du, aspirant? Swedish Kanal 5 71). Their 31),
Beninu Andersen (208233) IP: 85.184.159.51 On: Mon, 27 Jan 2020 04:21:30
Subtitling Norms for Television (p.c., February 2007). implementation at may SVT have astaken long as until 1991, according to Åkerberg inplace since 1981,accordinghad been to Ivarsson (p.c.full 2007).The December on other the only beganusing it in1985for budget reasons, technology evenifthe cueing at differentpoints time. in DR usingstarted it in1981(Gottlieb 2001: can largely explained be by that two fact the countries these introduced electronic density, as it makes it to easier have more subtitles. (p.c., January was2007), who a subtitler at DR at time.the It affects also subtitling and Denmark, according to SVT’s Åkerberg (p.c., 2004),and October Gottlieb condensation. improvements These havealtered both in readingSweden speed for shorter exposure reading times (which means and speeds) lessexpected higher inadvance, cued titles could be at right frame exact whichallowed the of film, the moredeal condensation. The introduction of electroniccueing meantthat sub there hadroom to be for error, to lead longer which exposure and times agreat (2003: number channels of TV has grown from 47in1989to more than 1500 in2002” mediascape. Gambier states that, EU(15countries[at “[i]nthe the time]), the norms to it. fairly early inimplementing change the and fairly also fast inadapting their on an2010). Seen international Denmark scale, and to Greece have seem been early 90s,according deSnerck, to Erik of head Flemish VRT (p.c. November ofin1984,but use the code time the had complete automatisation only inthe appears tosimilar to have Sweden, very as Flemish been Television implemented before 1983 (Amina Oassfi, p.c. Novemberdevelopment 2010). The Belgium in cueing started in Neves,1984 (Josélia p.c. November 2010), and in Greece The change took place at sameroughlythe time as well. In Portugal, electronic hasthrough had ing asimilar effect the purposes subtitling countries in Europe. earlythe 1980s. that earlier the implementation of system new the changed norms the already in lingered into early the 1990sinSweden. In Denmark, however, data the suggests titlers, lower the reading and speeds subtitle density of 1980smay the well have some after time they are necessary. strictly Thismeans that for conservative sub to time take comein technology into effect, and full old norms may linger on for explains agreat of differences deal the foundthedata from in Changesthe 1980s. withcode, its possibilities of shorter exposure and times subtitle higher density The difference in implementation cueing of by using the electronic time greatThe differences that were betweenfound Sweden Denmark and the 1980s in Globalization affects also subtitling norms,throughpartly changesthe in It likely that very seems effect the of usingthe electronictime code for cue 182). Many of channels new the are international, and many of use which 31). SVT 31). SVT - - -
Beninu Andersen (208233) IP: 85.184.159.51 On: Mon, 27 Jan 2020 04:21:30 through of use the freelance subtitlers come who from commercialthe sector, companies as well,service donot eventhough these master use template files, to platefrom seen the files, production companies’viewpoint, the is reader referred though. For discussion on afurther problems the of producing master good tem manynot to be seem objections to standardization the from Swedish the side, dedicated to such subtitles (e.g. “Viasat-kiks” at www.titlevision.com). There do some Danish viewers and professionals, from seen ‘blooper’-sites can which be tation, meant which less sensitivitycuts. to film The latter change has angered cide with Danish, the and that Danes the had to ‘put up with’ Swedish segmen of Scandinavian norms was that Swedish the exposure was time reduced to coin innovationstechnical above. discussed One major change standardization inthis national norms had already converged a great at deal time, the of because the earlythe 1990s.According to Norberg of SDI Media (p.c., 2004),the October master templateScandinavianthe files, subtitling norms were “harmonized” in inSwedishcal and Danish TTs produced way. inthis In order able to be to use isthis rarely done, and that explains why subtitle the density identi is practically ity of adjusting wish. As ifthey code, time the is this something of anuisance, master template file to producesecond-generation translations havepossibilthe language versions, regardless of language typology. The subtitlersthat the use subtitlesvides globally. They produce master templatefiles as pivots formultiple exampleful of such a commercial subtitling company is SDI Media, which pro producedwhich multiple language versions using master templatepower A files. lenged by more the cost-efficient norms the of commercial subtitling companies, companies. market madeTV room for channels commercial TV and commercial subtitling of second-generation subtitles.what Thisalso is happenedtheballooningwhen Scandinavian norm, master templatewhich be cut couldused, would files the cost Scandinavian unity, but perhaps mainly for reasons. practical If there was apan- 1989: scholars voiced adesire for a Scandinavian norm (e.g. Gottlieb 1989: subtitling inmid-1950s(Gottlieb 2001: inparallel,oped but largely independently, since dawn the of Scandinavian TV broadcasterby public the in each country. service In Scandinavia, had devel these norms. international subtitling companies, prefer who to international use subtitling
Georgakopoulou (2009: The ‘commercial’pan-Scandinavian norms seem to have theaffected public The national norms, established companies, the by publicservice were chal In had its 1980s,eachcountry the own subtitling norms, and were these set 110, Nordang 1989: 115 or Lemhagen 1989: 32f). Chapter 6. 28). In 1980s,some the professionals and Empirical subtitling norms for television 135) partly driven135) partly by of asense 17; Ivarsson ------
Beninu Andersen (208233) IP: 85.184.159.51 On: Mon, 27 Jan 2020 04:21:30
Subtitling Norms for Television that only provide adigest of ST. the of knowledge this Because of SL, the there is now less tolerance for slow subtitles subtitles the use more as support than asmeans sole their of accessing ST. the When watching Anglophone television, many Europeans today said couldto be 10–15 years ago (p.c., 2004). October style” two-liners, or full Danes because are better at understanding English than influencethe from the commercial whichnorm makes more theuse of “Swedish- DReven the subtitles appear to have become more “massive”, perhaps as aresult of inDenmark.in exposuresmaller toAccording seems time be to Heide Olsen, accordingDR, to Heide of head Olsen, subtitle production at and DR, change the roborated guidelines. by Nor SVT the has any there been change official policy at place, but not quite to rate the of commercial subtitling, something is which cor exposurethe has time dropped, eventhough change no official policy taken has bringing norm new the with According them. to Åkerberg (p.c., 2004), October investigation Danish DVD of subtitles. . from date from early the follow 1990sall 1980s norms, the from asseen data the can be from inforce those 20years later, inSweden. as those Versions corpus inthe that 1990s. DanishThe data suggeststhat the normsfrom the 1980s are not as different (p.c., ofScheer SVT 2004),have October lived on well into first the half the of morebeen or less unaltered since 1960s,according the to veteran subtitler Monica ent study suggests that norms the of inSweden 1980s,which the to have seem byported data the from Scandinavian the Subtitles Corpus. Thedata the of pres (like Sweden) that were somewhat late in implementing changes.the This is sup well established in Scandinavia both and in restthe of Europe, even for countries brought on bysubtitling and technology new globalized the market to be seem norms (2005: from medium this is likely to occur. (Norberg, p.c., make 2004) DVDalso October translations, some so influence translations,all regardless of language. Many companies, including SDI Media than Scandinavian new eventhe norm allows. adhereswhich to Anglophone and cueing, it has much shorter exposure times DVD version of is distributed a film translated,be to it comesGenesiswithfile, a ably intensified been due to influence fromothermedia, notably DVD. When a As Schröter (2005: A greater knowledge of English is no doubt aprerequisite for norm the change. Schröter demarcation the used year of 1995for investigating AVT modern For instance, (2002: Estrup Police Academy 130) and this seems very felicitous.130) and very seems this By norm 1995the changes in Table 6j. Another example is aSwedish version of 139) points out, of use the master template has files prob
25) found expected reading speeds of up25) found reading to in herof 20 cps expected speeds 58 This file is then used to makeused tofile then This is Cocktail - - - -
Beninu Andersen (208233) IP: 85.184.159.51 On: Mon, 27 Jan 2020 04:21:30 ently from Swedish the subtitles produced inSweden, due to influence the from ESISTthe corpus, there is aFinland and Swedish that TT behaves rather differ comes to norms technical are differentfrom monolingual ones. For instance, in for bilingual countries, such and as Belgium Finland, preconditions the it when process may have gone inScandinavia than insome further other countries. Also, there is some (e.g. from evidence Georgakopoulou (2010:258)to suggest that the here: there while have similar developments been in most subtitling countries, density and probably condensation also rates. However, there has acaveat to be & Remael 2007: of course, areas inthe particularly of punctuation and alignment (cf. Cintas Díaz monized in ways similar to Scandinavianthe countries. There are differences, still suggests that norms technical the of most subtitling countries probably have har now Media. operating This international Bee onlevel as Red aglobal development One such example Broadcast is BBC Ltd., which is a spin-offand from BBC the tling companies should have affected most subtitling similar ways. countries in very number of international channels and concomitant the of rise international subti ment in technology, albeit with some years’ delay ballooning insome The cases. context. Afterall, most subtitling countries have gonethrough samethe develop It is thus fairly to easy generalize from study the inScandinavia to alarger European trend,eral at least inEurope. Media Consulting Group points out that: version of alterations film the aired when again in2004, sametheand applies to a Swedish wellwas adjusted so tonorms new the that it was reused again with only minor unjustifiably long first lines. Conversely, a Swedish 1996 version of in 1995,and shows hallmarks the of all old the norms, including two-liners with late example of 1980snorms the is a Swedish version of norms new the als, made work their easier, require as they less condensation. One muchbeen resistance to change. the This is probablybecause forthe profession longerto them use than others. whole, Onthe however, there not seems to have of As decade. the 1980snorms the were well established, some subtitlers tended well into millennium. Not new the surprisingly, there is ambivalence middle inthe latterthe of part 1990sis the much more similar to data from versions produced and there are more examples corpus. like inthe this Thedata from versionsfrom from has 1990,which 647subtitles, whereas aSwedish version from 2004has 766,
The developmentcaused globalizationby and innovations technical is a gen “ programs countries” inseveral This is mainly due the developmentto of internationalcustomers sellingtheir activity is now key factor the conditioning development of businesses. sector [t]here no can doubt be that internationalization the of industries technical the Sleepless in Seattle 102ff.), butthere alevellingbeen has of subtitlereading speeds, produced in1996and rerun in2004. Chapter 6. Empirical subtitling norms for television Frantic which which was aired The Fugitive The (2007: 43) ------
Beninu Andersen (208233) IP: 85.184.159.51 On: Mon, 27 Jan 2020 04:21:30
Subtitling Norms for Television central hypothesis inher thesis on reduction levels insubtitling. The explanation accordingoriginal dialogue, to e.g. Georgakopoulou (2010: is aclear for tendency subtitles indubbing countries to reproduce more of the ket, subtitles are now produced ingreat numbers countries. even inthese There obviousthe reason that are they dubbing countries. However, for DVDthe mar bing countries rarely have any well-established subtitling norms to rely on, for traditionalbetween subtitling countries and traditional dubbing countries. Dub found inEurope. One great differencecanbe foundthe in subtitling norms ing bilingual subtitles. toeasy imagine that weaker the norm inFinland comes from pressures the of hav of FST Översättning versionering och inFinland (p.c., November 2003),and it is that. In Finland, is this only astrong norm, not an absolute according rule, to Paro samethe line. This would not happen in Swedenthere as is an absolute rule against Finnish subtitling norms. For instance, there is an instance of two speakerssharing template they file,are of coursethe first become to standardized, the and in end, in independent subtitles. However, insubtitles produced with aid the of amaster Georgakopoulou’s study, that subtitle density is norm the least resistant to change had.file Nevertheless, seems likely,it thebased on results the of present study, and somethingbe like 1,031for movie, particular this aswas this what ECI template the much more likely that variation the is much and smaller that it may likely to very produced If them. we were to at look subtitle files produced in 2010, e.g. seems it pre-standardization, which is proved by that fact the ECI bought ratherthem than stand here. them This assumptionthat thebased fact onfilestheis were produced amanifestation likelihood is inall of 1980sand early 1990snorms, as we under version and 1,118for Portuguese the version. It should noted be that variety this Fortries. instance, she found a great variety in subtitling density variousthe between European coun i.e. previously produced subtitlebought files by ECI to addtheir to DVDs, and to 16cps. guidelinesthe of TitelBild (2004: similar to Scandinavian the above. ones discussed Another token of is this that rapidly, very cued whereas Greek the norms followed patterns that were more norms, Sokoli (2009)found that Spanish subtitles shunned omission, and were files. Genesis For instance, in her comparison of Greek and Spanish subtitling of condensation, same the and cueing, same the exposure of as time those the tois suggest evidence that subtitlers from dubbing countries similar levels use from neighbouring subtitling countries, but instead from of those SC.There the is likely that to be norms the that are countries inthese are used rarely imported There aresome major differences intechnical subtitling to be normsstill For her 2003thesis, Georgakopoulou (2010: Beverly Hills Cop 2 13) inGermany prescribe reading of speeds up varied between 691subtitles between varied for Greek the 252) examined so-called “assets”,252) examined so-called 235), who made235), who it a - - - - -
Beninu Andersen (208233) IP: 85.184.159.51 On: Mon, 27 Jan 2020 04:21:30 right, That extracted. from can be atype which meansthat samethe ECR maybe tion reappearing when same inthe TT, it was only once. extracted rendering.ECR +its So, TT unlessan ECR was rendered through adifferentsolu corpus.each inthe than double figure the of thatST ECRs is five STs were represented three by TTs renderings of The them. main whyreason the TT renderingsnumber is moreof than necessary. In way, this 2,403ST ECRswere along extracted, with 5,028TT through an under-producing process, extraction far more ECRs were extracted with context, their on aresult sheet. In order to avoid missing Monocultural ECRs and potentially the scrutinized, all Monocultural ECRsinit were noted, along outwas carried manually. (i.e.TV asubtitledprogramme) ATT film or a was and small, too deemed would thus have risked skewing data. the The extraction were not of part investigation, the but are saved for future investigations, as it was ish and Danish TTs Scandinavian in the SubtitlesTTs Corpus. The Norwegian The ECRs underfrom discussionsection werethis in extracted the 205 Swed 6.3.1 spective, where general norms of subtitling are discussed. an be internationalwill discussion whereresults these are put inabroader per ish and Danish subtitling it when comes to ECRs.In following the there sections, thusin general. section This containsthe results the of main investigation of Swed translation problems are handled and tell us something subtitling about TV norms dinavian Subtitles Corpus. Hopefully, should this spread some light on how these Swedish and Danish subtitlers have rendered Monocultural the Scan ECRsinthe Thiswhere is it should start getting interesting. section, thiswe look In at how 6.3 presentedmodel previous inthe chapters to material the corpus. inthe display rates. This meansthat thesection, canwe in next ahead go and applythe pared without making allowances for quantitative differences of condensation and TTs ofTV filmsprogrammes and adhere the 2000 to norms,canbe com they national norms are now that small so as long Danish the as both and Swedish the well, once subtitlers to template the become used file-inspired norms. that maywell determine fate the very of independently the produced subtitle as files
Each film or episode of a TV series is consideredseries TV film be a Each or episode text in to of a its own andOnly types not tokens were from here extracted texts; the type means ST The implications forthe present study arethat the differences the between How references cultural are rendered Easy RsinSwedishEasy and Danish subtitles Chapter 6. Empirical subtitling norms for television ------
Beninu Andersen (208233) IP: 85.184.159.51 On: Mon, 27 Jan 2020 04:21:30
Subtitling Norms for Television sites, or from way the it was presented; as known information or not). To separate to confirmused its status as (either hitsthroughInfracultural few on SC very thatsuspect most people didnot know about it, and Internet the could be then STin the inaway that made in(conspicuously) accessible, deictically one would Infracultural from Monocultural ECRs.To put it simply: ifan ECRwas presented in combination with how ECRwas the presented ST inthe were to separate used Internetthe to separate Text Internal from Text searches ECRs.Google external ence but not to TC the audience. The demarcation wascarried outwiththe aid of translation problems, are as these only the ECRsthat are known to SCaudi the main investigation. The reason forthisthat is only Monoculturalcause ECRs as Infra-, Trans- or Monocultural. If Monocultural, ECRwas the included inthe categorized either as Text Internal, or Text and External, ifText either External, school moreextracted than once from different texts. Therecord is held the by ECR gies othergies than Retention’. lent isunderstood to as an be abbreviation of ‘Official Equivalent onstratebased not done, been unlessnecessary, and figures inthe that followwill Equiva Official to make actually distinction. the Innecessary present the study therefore has this considered change minimal strategies, donot which rarely it alter is ECR, very the entrenched. However, Equivalents Official as both Retentionand strategies are there is another Equivalent Official lurking somewhere, which hasbecome not hardcan be Retention the to when decide isEquivalent Official the when and to separate Retention solutions from solutions onEquivalents. Official based It other consultations can solve problem, the whereas it is somewhat more difficult strategies. As regards most strategies, baseline some simple Internet searches and differencein the granularity in Equivalentsbetween Official baseline the and strategiesbaseline and of use the anEquivalent. Official These issues originate and that problem perhaps predictably appears as demarcation issues the between taxonomythe outlined inChapter 4. explainedmodel and inChapters 4 5,and assigned to one (or more) category in Scandinavianoriginal writers. important to go into texts the and investigate how treated ECRhas the been by the tells you something about how well known an ECRis inScandinavia, but it is of articlesfrom many major Scandinavian newspapers. The number of hitsalone TLs,likein the Transcultural from Monocultural TLdatabases with ECRs,Iused texts original After the preliminary extraction was carried out, every ST ECR extracted wasAfter the ST ECRextracted wascarried out,preliminary extraction every There is only one problem involvedTT renderings in assigning to strategies, renderings of TT ECRswere extracted analysed accordingAll also to the , which was extracted seven times, from times, different seven seven was, which extracted texts. Mediearkivet (www.mediearkivet.se), is which asearchable corpus high - - -
Beninu Andersen (208233) IP: 85.184.159.51 On: Mon, 27 Jan 2020 04:21:30 to deduce Text the Internal nature of ECRs,as whole the town these is proclaimed have namesakes in many towns across U.S. the In it thatcase, was particular easy or etc. fake inthe town of ECRs, nal as was explained in 6.5.2. Typical examples of are this streetthe names that is that for Text Internal credible, ECRsto be have they to mimicText Exter Fawlty Towers is not fictional. simple There isa very reason thisfor problem, and house on however,times, you would have actually to go to Torquay andifthere is see a in that it gives analyst the quick access to information about things. Some these big efforts in terms of research.Sometimesthe Internetcansolve the problem, or acompany is fictional be or to researchable,just local too without unjustifiably graphical and institutional names. It hard very can to be tellaplace name whether indistinguishable from Infracultural the ECRs. case This particularly foris geo from main the investigation. 152 ST Text Internal renderings ECRs,along of with 316 TT were them excluded caught by process, extraction the and were which thus potential borderline cases. is aTextlocale Internal The ECR. thatones concern us here thatare those were Internal corpus, ECRsinthe as character namefictional the ofand every every investigation were Text Internal ECRs.There were of coursethousands of Text constraints.media-specific Dutch subtitles (2010: is inaccordance with e.g. Delabastita’s findings third-languageof lexical items in or retained, latter the ICR the when was case the inathird being language. This i.e. as of objects translation. This meansthat most them of were eithertranslated SLthe ther nor any of TLs. the The ICRs weretreated as such by most subtitlers, or ‘madam’, slang expressions, or words ST in the from third languages, i.e. nei included process. extraction inthe Most of were these either honorifics, like ‘sir’ course many more ICRs corpus, inthe than these but 53were these ones that were renderingsand of were 114 TT these excluded study. from further There were of considered intralinguistic, to be rather than extralinguistic innature. 53ST ICRs with Monocultural ECRs. investigationthe has thrown some lights on nature their and relationship their cultural ST ECRsintheir contexts. briefly Instead, discussed here, be will as they excluded from main the investigation, were as they not considered Mono to be
Lancaster Square There was a demarcation problem here, as Text Internal ECRs aresometimes Another group of ECRsthat were and extracted later excluded from main the Some of excluded the cultural references were excluded were they because Thecategorization of ECRs resultedbeing ECRs in1,497 the extracted of 16 Elwood Avenue16 (28.39) which all sound very credible, sound very all (28.39)which and probably which 213). There werecases a also of few omission, mainly due to Seahaven (Fawlty Towers 2:0.42)to make sure address the of (The 9.16),likeTruman Show: Chapter 6. Empirical subtitling norms for television Wells Park (6.22) - - - - -
Beninu Andersen (208233) IP: 85.184.159.51 On: Mon, 27 Jan 2020 04:21:30
Subtitling Norms for Television the characterthe David Brent, but coincides by also which with famous series the ITV Upstairs, Downstairs explains double the reference. Thetwo instancesother arefrom lubricant real inthe world (Text This is External). of course meant as a which pun, of an undercover agent (Text Internal), but name the is which also of an aerosol Internal. These are two different referents, beingone (Transcultural)External Text and beingone Text ECRbelongsthe to two categories of ECRs.Ihere refer to linguistic signs referring to i.e. through Polysemiotics the or co-text the (cf. (cf. Section 5.4) Section 5.5). to audiences. original the therefore They seek to them make accessible deictically, senders must consider categories both inaccessible to be encyclopaedically, even treatmentthe similar. of very can them be This is that due the fact to the original life. From asubtitling point of view, difficulties these are ofminor importance, as Textto be Internal, made company up by TV the setting the toof be Truman’s Tinkerbell (6.2) of Transculturality. Example (6.2)comes from reality the show however,case, where an ECRis arguably ambiguous three categories all between above,described and that worked well. There very interestingparticularly is a were separated from Monoculturalthe ECRs through Internet-basedthe method renderingsECRs, along of with 838TT from them, main the investigation. These Text Internal ones, i.e. Infracultural the ECRs.Ihave excluded atotal of 396ST Danishences between and Swedish subtitlers’ handling of text Internal ECRs. to accommodate constraints. media-specific the There were nosignificant differ little causeis very for using any interventional strategies, apart from what is needed translated.be Aconsequence is of accessible ECRsbeing that these deictically there simply retained. be If have they compositional that sense is relevant, can simply they tion problems, and are thus for easy subtitler the to render. In can most they cases, ECR and it used Text Internally,beingthat effects the of puns or innuendos. In writers the penis. three cases, have these ‘borrowed’ aTranscultural Text External swordExternal of King Arthur, but directlysubject the matter Brent’s of poem, the writtenalso by Brent the character. In context, this referent the is indirectly Text the that name (1971–1975). The other is There arethree rather interesting cases of double referencethe corpus, in where We now come to Text the category External of ECRsthat similar to is the so Text Internal cause they ECRsare no transla normally accessible deictically; Klokkeblomst Danish subtitle: Swedish subtitle: Tinkerbell WD-40 (The thetitle Office 11:16.19), ofa game show invented by (Spy Hard: 0.06), contextwhich in this is codename the Excalibur Excalibur (Office 8: 27.51), the title of a poem, poem, the (Office 8:27.51), title of a (The SimpleLife 6:20.16) The Simple Life Simple The The Office The . One is : - -
Beninu Andersen (208233) IP: 85.184.159.51 On: Mon, 27 Jan 2020 04:21:30 tural ECRs can have Equivalents Official thatand (ii) using an Official Equivalent term.ThisLatin example is brought intothe discussion to showthat (i) Infracul could become one ifit entrenched, became as it may to easier relate be to than the The ECR. Swedishwhich is aDirect term, Translation, is probably not, but it Latin TheDanish the used term by subtitler is Equivalentan Official the of ST after eaten:it had Jurassic Park for case ticularly the much flora and fauna, as exemplified inexample (6.3), from notdoes preclude possibility the of its having anEquivalent. Official This is par pared to none for Text the Internalthat ECRs.The fact an ECR is Infracultural might disagree with me. cultural present inthe investigation, even though Danish the subtitler of (6.2) Retention for To ECR. this sum up, ECR(in6.2.)was the judged Infra to be in (6.2)as wellother as Swedish all and Danish subtitlers of show the have used (cf. discussion the in3.2.3).Itker Bell should noted be that Swedish the subtitler referents, consideredwhich could be homonymsto be of Transculturalthe Tin ThisEquivalent Official Bell. would not benormally considered to apply to other she rendered ST the ECRby usingEquivalent Official the the of original Tinker Danish subtitler judged ECRinexample the Transcultural (6.2)to be as well, as (a) written as two words and (b) Transcultural. It is interesting to note that the Pan Peter has double reference, dog’s the because name coincides with that in of fairy the not as famous as it later became on, it was categorized as Infracultural. The ECR However, aswas first this the series the of show,when Paris Hilton’s dogwas thus knowledgeable about Paris Hilton and and objects associated with pets her. audience.TT Thetypicalviewer of ever, an argument made couldfor be it Monocultural, being ifone considers the as text the is non-fictional, and thus Tinkerbell exists outsidethe text. How heard).that The fact part it is the notof text does pooch themake Text Internal, and reference the is always clear through Polysemiotics the or dogis (the seen bringing up more context is that it is referred to on many differentoccasions, The referent the ECRin(6.2) of is Paris Hilton’s dog, theand reason for not
(6.3) There were cases 3 of Equivalentan Official used to ECR,render as an com Västindisk syrén Swedish subt azedarach Melia Danish subtitle: West Indian lilac , afterwhom named. likelihood all it was in The ‘original’ Bell is Tinker , where Dr. Sattler Ellie is worried about of health the atriceratops itle: Chapter 6. The Simp The Empirical subtitling norms for television e Life le would interested be inand (Jurassic Park: 49.34) ------
Beninu Andersen (208233) IP: 85.184.159.51 On: Mon, 27 Jan 2020 04:21:30
Subtitling Norms for Television Danish and Swedish subtitlers’ handling of Infracultural ECRs. Infracultural study. ECRsinthis There were no significant differencesbetween ventional strategies account for just about 1/50 of renderingsthe of extracted the constraintsmedia-specific demand. from Apart Generalization, the interother is that there is hardly any for need interventional strategies, apart from what the accessible deictically. Aconsequence of accessible ECRsbeing these deictically indicative of relatively their peripheral status, and of that are fact the they generally sion or Generalization. In about are 1/10of they cases the translated. is this All simply retained and are in1/5of they cases the rendered either through Omis lems; are hence they to easy render. In 2/3of caught cases the are net, inthe they arethey normally accessible deictically, and thus cause they no translation prob more dark inthe than ST original the does. is(which prototypically aminimum change viewer strategy) can leave TT the dling of Transcultural ECRs. were no significant differences between Danish and Swedish subtitlers’ han Text Internal and Infracultural ECRsare normally deictically. accessed There subtitler’sthe Transcultural part. ECRsare encyclopaedically, accessed whereas that Transcultural ECRsare accessible without intervention extra-diegetic on message, rather audience. than to findings TT guidethe These support the idea as previous inthe categories, Generalization was mainly to shorten used the renderings, with Generalization TT the all making up lion’s the share. Here, have evenhigher. been The interventional strategies made thanup less 10% of to Monocultural share ECRs,the ofEquivalents Official Retentionand would andcorpus extracted not been just ones the that might considered be close to be ings that were from extracted corpus. the Had Transcultural the all ECRsinthe which are intertwined to some degree, make uprender some 80% of TT the all should audience. wellas they known be to TT two the In strategies, these fact lems. Many of have them Equivalents, Official be or can rendered Retention, by and Infracultural ECRsinthat are they unlikely to cause any translation prob encyclopaedically. Transcultural ECRshave that incommon with Text Internal accessible for ST the coherent. to be Instead, Transcultural ECRsare accessible ST producers donot to need make sure that Transcultural ECRsare deictically sible deictically, just like other ECRs,but not need becausethe This be. they is were excluded from main the investigation. Transcultural ECRsmay acces be rization process, 898Transcultural ST renderings ECRs,along with 1,873TT Trans- or Monocultural, hence abundant the over-extraction. Afterthecatego did Monocultural ECRs.In many it cases is hard an to whether ECRis decide The extraction The extraction processalmost yielded as many Transcultural ECRs as it To summarize findings the about ECRs:like Infracultural Text Internal ECRs, ------
Beninu Andersen (208233) IP: 85.184.159.51 On: Mon, 27 Jan 2020 04:21:30 Monocultural ECRs. that interventional strategies are employed indeed to amuch degree higher for howabout Monocultural the ECRswere rendered, as displayed inTable 6k, proves accessiblethem deictically, might eventhough this happen nonetheless. Thedata audience,by TT the and therefor need is no particular STthe producers to make definitionbe accessible ECRsper cannotto these encyclopaedically be expected that Monocultural expected be for ECRscall more interventional strategies, as cally, makes which to easy them render using change minimal strategies. It can subtitlers.categories These of ECRs are accessibleor encyclopaedi deictically howsection other the categories of ECRsare rendered fairly effortlessly theby that azero rendering counted is also as arendering. We saw also previous inthe contexts, renderings and of has 1,887TT this –keeping yielded them inmind further. Suffice it to thatsay 906 STECRs were judgedbe to theirMonocultural in separated from other the categories of letus refrain ECRs, so from discussing that approaches. audience extra-diegetically, as indicative seen could be of overall their translation translation problems, using strategic behaviour access toECRs the help TT the causethey translation problems, and waysthe in subtitlerswhich the solve these reason for having Monocultural point ECRsas focal the of present the study: audience,TT evenifit might insomeThisthe accessible is cases. be deictically category,this could not assumed be accessible to be by encyclopaedically the gation: Monocultural ECRs.AMonocultural by of ECR, virtue its inclusion in gives thesection This results the of main object of study the of present investi 6.3.2 Swedish and Danish guidelines prescribe. Swedish and Danish subtitlers. measures are rendered through the of use a(usually metric) Official Equivalent by warrantedbe about to or talk arule, atstrong least avery norm, here: for adistance of ten kilometres, is which not inDenmark. case the It could thus thatbeing for historical reasons, Swedes have an entrenched of use term‘mil’ the dinavia). This appliesDanishboth to and Swedish subtitles,the only difference system (apart from of case the flightaltitudes, which are measuredScan in in feet ofEquivalents Official this in domain normally entails conversion the to metric anEquivalent. Official The domain in question is ‘weights and measures’. use The category of Transcultural ECRs,but exclusively is also rendered through of use the
It previous inthe how was described section Monocultural the ECRswere It is interesting to note that one domain specific not neatlyonly falls intothe Not RsinSwedish easy so and Danish subtitles Not surprisingly, is inline with what rule this both Chapter 6. Empirical subtitling norms for television Weights and - - -
Beninu Andersen (208233) IP: 85.184.159.51 On: Mon, 27 Jan 2020 04:21:30
Subtitling Norms for Television Total EquivalentOfficial Omission Substitution Generalization Direct translation Specification Retention Table 6k. tions might have inindividual arisen therefore The cases. will rest section this of strategies can reveal more about national differences whatand problems soluand Whatof ECR. remains investigated to be breakdown the is whether of individual non-significantthiscategory in thecase for also as wasthe of ECR, categories other strategies than other categories As of ECR. for national the differences, these are bined strategies slightly more than Swedish the subtitlers have. subtitlers, making up 40.2%,due that to fact the Danish the subtitlers have com or 40.3%by Swedish the subtitlers, whereas by it in387 cases Danish is the used ing to chi-square tests. In end, the interventional strategies are in385cases used nationalthe preferences found intable 6k are not statistically significant, accord slightly more, in50.7%by Danish the subtitlers. However, differences the between changemal strategies are in48.3%of by used cases the Swedish the subtitlers, and poweringly common as it was marginal inthe categories. whole, On the mini the frequently. Retention most the iscommon still but strategy used, it is not as over audience inaccessing ST the ECRextra-diegetically. ECR to accommodate constraints, media-specific the ratherthan TT to assistthe by far, Generalization, was mainly for used shortening linguistic the of sign the ECRs.Tonal that that added could be most the common interventional strategy Substitution) made up only about cent ten per or slightly more for Text the Inter 75 and cent. 85per Interventional strategies (i.e. Specification,Generalization and Translation and of use the anEquivalent) Official made grand upa between total of mately 2/3of and cases, change the minimal the strategies (i.e. Retention, Direct other ECRs.For other the categories of ECRs,Retention inapproxi was used Table shows 6kindeed that Monocultural ECRsare treated differentlythan It can thus said that be Monocultural for call ECRsindeed more interventional What Table 6kshows is that change minimal the strategies are much used less The rendering of Monocultural ECRs Numbers 956 109 103 224 361 32 69 58 Swedish TT Per cent 100.0 11.4 10.8 23.4 37.8 3.3 7.2 6.1 Numbers 123 221 390 964 89 76 43 22 Danish TT Per cent 100.0 12.8 22.9 40.4 9.2 7.9 4.5 2.3 ------
Beninu Andersen (208233) IP: 85.184.159.51 On: Mon, 27 Jan 2020 04:21:30 of multifunctional gadgets. In scene, Qpoints this out acar to and Bond says: is givenBond his inevitable briefing by Q, as he receivescustomary his consignment accessible Monoculturaldeictically ECRis (6.4)from dic knowledge, it may oftenbe accessible anyway. deictically typical A example a of cally, as it presumed could be accessible to be through ST the audience’s encyclopae for need ST the particular producers to make aMonocultural ECRaccessible deicti with other strategies to render an ECR accessible. Second, even though there is no strategy for rendering Monocultural ECRs. First, Retention might combined be are misguided, there because are circumstances under Retention which is avalid renderings that Swedish the and Danish subtitlers have produced using Retention However,audience ECR. to access TT the not does this mean that 751TT the all strategy for rendering Monocultural not ECRs,asstrategy does this help TT the combination of Retention and other strategies, such as Omission. bination is typically of Retention and Direct Translation, evenifthere are of cases Marked, and inmost strategy otherwas the combined cases, with others. The com of in about cases, the 17% of it cases the was Adjusted rarely it slightly; was very and Danish norms here: Retention in its was used Unmarked forms in about 70% strategies. or it Unmarked. could be It happens also that Retention is combined with other of text the by of use the italics or quotation marks, Marked Icall which Retention, dards (TL-adjusted). If it is retained unchanged it marked can be offfrom the rest Complete Icall which Retention, or it adjusted can be slightly to TLstan meet of Retention. The withoutTT canbe ST ECR renderedthe in any change all, at there are three subcategories of strategy the As was explained inSection 4.2.1, 6.3.2.1 findingsthe the of present be study relatedwill to international subtitling norms. outside factors, like master templatetaken intobe will account, files, whereand up taken generalthe be again where discussion will next various inthe section, dedicatedbe to investigating individual the strategies and subcategories, their and
(6.4) twspitdoti eto 4.2.1that Retention is not most the felicitousIt was pointed out inSection Thedata from the corpus shows no significant differencesbetween Swedish Retention specially equipped Astonspecially Martin DB-5 You’ll using be this Back translation: Astonspecialutrustade Martin DB-5. …ni ska använda denhär Swedish subtitle: Astonthis Martin DB-5 with modifications. You’ll using be Chapter 6. Empirical subtitling norms for television Goldfinger . In example, this - - - -
Beninu Andersen (208233) IP: 85.184.159.51 On: Mon, 27 Jan 2020 04:21:30
Subtitling Norms for Television access aMonocultural ECRdeictically. The majority of Monocultural ECRs ren deictically. or Polysemiotics)the makes Monocultural audience ECRs accessible to TT the thing else. There are manywhere thecases, similar context (throughthe co-text pointed out, but on camera the car, focuses the then to exclusion the of every degree of high Polysemiotic throughalso avery interplay: car the is not only demonstrative pronoun, plus that fact the car the is referred to again later), and throughThe ECRin(6.4) is accessiblethe co-text the (the use deictically of of U.S.: the freeway to Pacific the Coast afamousand uses quotefrom the expansionist past Confidential tion for rendering Monocultural ECRs. One example of is this (6.5) from nation of strategies); there remain where cases it is less felicitous to Reten use accessible audience for through TT the other means (such as deixis or acombi importance, as that skopos. is only asecondary subtitles. STthe That TT inthe it is accessibleonly superficially then is ofminor it acandidate for Omission. To retain it is to retain some of foreignness the of micro-level. It is oftenthere colourjust to addlocal the to narrative,which makes ECR rendered through Retention way inthis would peripheral evenon be the tional information. not This does normally matter becausemuch,typical a very and limited acquaintance donot with ECRs;they the get any form of connota knowledge of streets the inquestion. Granted, shallow gives this viewers the very that street the names mention they are that exactly –street names –without prior are discussing route which is fastest the to take, and situation the makes it obvious co-text makes nature their inferable. For instance, in dered through Retention are names, geographical particularly names, and their (6.5) The nature the of ST ECR may makealso possibleit TT foraudiencethe to Even ifmost renderings using Retention are felicitous, ECRis the because this remodelled Astonthis Martin DB-5 You’ll driving be Back translation: i denne ombyggede Aston Martin DB-5. køre skal Du Danish subtitle: “Go west, America” was slogan the of Manifest Destiny. Back translation: var Manifest Destinys slogan. “Åk västerut, Amerika” Swedish subtitle: “Go west, America” was slogan the of Manifest Destiny. , where apolitician is opening construction the of final the stretch of Notting Hill Notting (Goldfinger: 22.15) (Goldfinger: , the characters, the L.A. - - - - -
Beninu Andersen (208233) IP: 85.184.159.51 On: Mon, 27 Jan 2020 04:21:30 ST ECR, it worksST also ECR, counter constraints. to media-specific the explanatory phrase. ECR Second,is asmore a specified consumingspace than the thefind material to complete needed an incomplete or ECR, to find some relevant side of minimax the strategy.because This is it requiressome labour, either to goes against influential two factorsvery in subtitling. First, it is heavy theon effort tural ECRs in corpus.the The reason for beingso rareits is arguablythat its nature According to data the in table 6k, it on was used 101 occasions to render Monocul Specification thestrategy baseline the least is used of strategiestaxonomy.the in 6.3.2.2 audience.(6.5) accessible to TT the here).dancy Thus,Danish,the but notthe Swedish, subtitler hasthe ECRin made retained word inthe “America” same inthe utterance; there is adegree of redun of its connotationsthat left, has been traditionof patriotic (the connotations are by a Paraphrase which has keptlittle of very In original sense. the only fact, one again. In Danish the subtitle of ECR (6.5),the micro-level: it is only to create used of asense tradition, and it is not referred to means that it is peripheral on macro-level.the It fairly is also peripheral on the co-text offer any guidance;thisthe is thetime conceptonly is referred to. This concept and Polysemiotic the interplay non-existent. is practically Nor the does constraints do notpermit media-specific an explanation the ratherof complicated wanted to evoke. Thecauses ECR complex ahighly translation problem theand access connotations the of tradition and American patriotism that speaker the own encyclopaedic knowledge can helpTT access them it.audiencecannot The throughcally co-text the and Polysemiotics the and neither subtitles the nor their audience not does know what of Manifest Destiny was. However, not does this matter much, very as TT the audience. TT the It audience is not now an TT the error; knows what slogan the vention from subtitler, the reference the would inaccessible be to majority the of thatfact self-evident. The choice thetranslationof in strategy did nottake into accountthe means absolutely nothing to majority the of Swedes, and termis the inno way are familiar with term the ‘Manifest Destiny’, according to Hirsch (1987: Swedish subtitler. The problemthat is eventhoughculturally literate Americans The ECR
“Go west, America,” said old inthe days. they Back translation: sagde deigamle dage. “Drag vestpå, Amerika,” Danish subtitle: Specification Manifest Destiny Manifest Destiny is very much is very aMonocultural and without ECR, inter was rendered through Unmarked Retention by the Manifest Destiny Chapter 6. Manifest Destiny Empirical subtitling norms for television refers to. It is inaccessible deicti (L.A. Confidential 1.02.05) has been replaced has been 186), it - - - -
Beninu Andersen (208233) IP: 85.184.159.51 On: Mon, 27 Jan 2020 04:21:30
Subtitling Norms for Television tion would thus astrategy that be subtitlers resortfeel to that they when an ECRis This maybecause be it is costlyboth in terms of effort and subtitlespace. Specifica tional made up vast the majority of occurrences. it was found that personal, names, geographical they be or, less frequently, institu no to clearseems be pattern here, contrary to findings the aboutRetention, where Completion countries, inboth and strategy is the rarely combined with others. level it when comes to Specification. Additionsomewhat is more commonthan is no significant difference the between national norms even the on subcategory may of or part sense the connotations be Addition. this Icall of ECR. the There or an acronym is spelt out. Completion. this Icall Alternatively, material added the more oftenthan not meansthat a name or an abbreviated expression is completed, materialadded may to expression the pertain sideof linguistic the which sign, for reasons. methodological Combination with Retention is most the common with two of other the strategies, Specification Generalization,and areruled out a quarter and athird of instances. all This is despitethat the fact combinations significant,tistically according to a chi-square test. languages.in both The national differences foundthe in subcategories are sta not sion one gets from samples the is that results the natural inmost sound very cases subtitlerthe 1.2.3) between audience. and (cf. Section TT the The impresoverall exoticdo not at very look and all, would thus not upset contract the of illusion mightCalque sound exotic or unnatural, is this far from common. Most Calques are produced by Direct Translation. It should pointed be out that eventhough a Translation. account Calques for alittle more than of half renderings the all that renderingthe has undergone non-obligatory shifts, andthus is a Shifted Direct SLences between and TL structures, result the is aCalque. If is this not case, the morpheme analysis, afterallowances making for obligatory shifts due todiffer renderingIf derived can from TT be the STthe ECR through a morpheme for renderings. common, as Table 6jshowed, making up atotal of less cent than 8per of all However, as away of rendering Monocultural strategy is ECRs,the not very Direct Translation considered could be prototypical the strategy insubtitling. 6.3.2.3 and spaceto make sure audience that can TT the access ECRextra-diegetically. the Monoculturalvery and central to also andhave dialogue, the they when time the In conclusion, Specificationthe leastis common baselinethe of strategies. The ECRs rendered by Specification come from amultitude of domains. There Specification comes in one twoof forms:the inSection 4.2.2, As described The combinations are interestingparticularly makethey as between aboutup Direct TranslationAs stated comprises inSection 4.2.3, two subcategories. Direct Translation Direct - - - - -
Beninu Andersen (208233) IP: 85.184.159.51 On: Mon, 27 Jan 2020 04:21:30 entities that are well known ST intheir contexts, usage this is restricted. however, for occasionally used institutional names, but are as these real-world but there wereSection 3.2.3, none translated corpus. in the Direct Translation is, Personal names may of types translated, certain occasionally be in as discussed degree on similar to those Specification. The STECRs come from most domains. apparently using it synonymously. Danishthe film, the subtitlersamethesolution chose the as Swedish subtitler did, ECRandthe moved on. Theresome is evidence forthis, as lateron a occasion in for asolution enough meaning audience that to carry help seemed access TT the on adiscussionbased of above the length. Instead, maywell have they very opted is more than one state penitentiaryinIllinois, perhaps most famously at Joliet. State nois Illinois Department of Corrections. Had Swedish the subtitler chosen to retain appears only to be one penitentiaryat Menard, according to website the of the general is thanwhich not ST the for ECR, case the Swedish the reference, as there uniquenessthe of reference of but ST the ECR, expression the as such more is still Menard, would The this case. the definite be the article in Danish rendering retains Swedish reference more is also general, and ifthere were more than one prison at simpler path and gone for amore general expression. It argued could be that the ence to state the of Illinois omitted. has been Danish The subtitler has a chosen retained. Thetype ofinstitution – constraints. media-specific the Thegeographic location the of been prison has STunfriendly ECRhas undergone quite afew changes, undoubtedly due to In Swedish the subtitle of Example rather (6.6),the cumbersome and subtit Statsfængslet Menard-fängelset murder of his wife and sent to: This examplefrom is In four there cases, are eventhree-way combinations. One such example is (6.6). pattern, but there are combinations also with Omission andEquivalents. Official
(6.6) When it comes to Direct Translation and domains, findings the aresome to It is probably likely not that very subtitlers the of (6.6)made choices their The state penitentiary)prison (alt. Back translation: Danish subtitle: Menard prison (alt. penitentiary) Back translation: Swedish subtitle: Illinois State Penitentiary at Menard instead of Menard The Fugitive The , the TT ECRwould have TT , the more been general, as there , where Dr. Richard Kimble is sentenced for the penitentiary – Chapter 6. Empirical subtitling norms for television has been translated, has been but refer the (The Fugitive: 12.05) Illi le- - -
Beninu Andersen (208233) IP: 85.184.159.51 On: Mon, 27 Jan 2020 04:21:30
Subtitling Norms for Television not nearly as common as in marginalthe categories. For Monocultural ECRs, only on Monocultural renderings ECRs, shortened arrived at TT by Generalization are rendering was shortersingle TT In than STcases. the findings the ECRinthose condensation, rather than to help viewers the access ECRs.Thus, the almostevery findings Generalizationon the was ECRs, other tendency to choose for reasons of forfrequency Among rendering other the categories of ECRs(cf. Section 6.3.2). tional strategies. It only the was also interventional with any used strategy to be As Table 6kshowed, Generalization clearly is most the common of interven the 6.3.2.4 using strategy. this no significant differences the between found nationalwhen it practices comes to form of Direct Translation, and are these infrequently only very exotic. There were rareis avery way of rendering Monocultural are ECRs.Calques most the common Johnny Lawrence, declines offer the of “a brew” on account this of year’sbeing exampleA typical of is this (6.7)from defaultthe is definitely case thewhen Paraphrase is longerthan the ST ECR. rendered by apronounpersonal with support the of Polysemiotics. the However, geneity. Paraphrases may for short, instanceasaST when ECRhas very been be matical and other kinds that have generated rendering. TT the umbrella term‘Paraphrase’, rather transformations the than to describe of gram ent linguistic processes, including translation, but it makes more the use sense Furthermore, nature circumlocutory the of Paraphrase the involves many differ process.the Translation is often an integral part Generalization the of process. are(generally they Retention +Generalization) and that is due to nature the of of There cases). the cases of combinationsarefew very involvingGeneralization most common way of rendering an ECRusing Generalization inabout (used ¾ itwhen comes to Generalization. The use of a Superordinate is Term by farthe ing is aParaphrase. hyponym, or some render form of TT the circumlocution case inwhich is used, ordinate Term to replace is used ameronym, ametonym or –more commonly –a constraints. ers’ chances of accessing ECRs,and the only secondarily by media-specific the shortenedthe renderings motivated to be seem primarily by concern for view the 40and centbetween 50per were shorter thanAlso, ST the ECR. inmost cases, In summary, Direct Translation alone, i.e. not combined with other strategies, Paraphrases are interesting, very not inspite of, but of because hetero their There are once again no significant differencesbetween the national practices As stated Generalization inSection 4.2.4, comes intwo kinds. Either aSuper Generalization Karate Kid Karate , where main the troublemaker, ------
Beninu Andersen (208233) IP: 85.184.159.51 On: Mon, 27 Jan 2020 04:21:30 India, her totaking see Fawlty and Basil when queries he this, adds: about he oncetalks agirlfriend had. He says that to impress he had tried her by graphic names, of as in case the (6.8) from become generalized into common nouns. also This appliespersonal to and geo for atendency is also names of kinds, but all perhaps brand particularly names, to Monocultural is replaced by aSuperordinate Term is which Transcultural. There entertainment, and on. so In most acommon cases noun referring to something domain represented here: names of kinds, but and all food beverages, sports, also lationthelast is ofyear school’. ‘This of but not identical. In TT, this Johnny’s utterance is paraphrased as aSwedish trans have access to an earlier of Swedish solution film, the this and TT there is similar, morewhich oftenthan not TTsresult inidentical indifferent languages. also I same back translation were in(6.7);they produced using amaster template file, Scandinavian equivalent. Incidentally, it is no coincidence that TTs both have the of helping audience to TT the access meaning the of is mentioned film) elsewhere inthe sacrificingbe must worth the for greater good that tomorrow, schoolstarts but subtitlers both must have felt that (which fact this utterancethe TT thusand sacrificed, hasaudiencethe been is oblivious the fact of is more than three as times long As as ST the ECR. aresult, adverbial initial the of The Paraphrase (“one used school”)year leftinhigh to render the STECR by saying: his last chance to straighten up school. He inhigh his act his starts explanation
(6.8) (6.7) When it comes to Generalization and domains, there are ECRsfrom every At acricket match. Back translation: Til cricket-kamp. Danish subtitle: At cricket the stadium Back translation: På cricketstadion. Swedish subtitle: …at Oval. the I have oneschool year leftinhigh Back translation of subtitles: both Jeg har etår school. tilbage ihigh Danish subtitle: Jag har ett år kvar school ihigh Swedish subtitle: As of 8A.M.tomorrow, I’m asenior. Chapter 6. Fawlty Towers Empirical subtitling norms for television a senior , where Major Gowen (Fawlty Towers 6:5.24) , which has, which no direct (Karate Kid: 11.04) a senior - -
Beninu Andersen (208233) IP: 85.184.159.51 On: Mon, 27 Jan 2020 04:21:30
Subtitling Norms for Television either an ECRfrom Target the Culture (TC), or aTranscultural In ECR. Situ by something else. In Cultural Substitution, rendering consists TT the of an ECR, forms, common the denominator that being ST the ECRis removed and replaced it was explained that SubstitutionIn comesdifferent Section 4.2.5, intwo very 6.3.2.5 pun. the preserve ated with geographicalthe location. solutions Both Generalization, use and both solution is even more general: Oval the of cricket the stadium with common the noun thatthecategory signifies which to as butt the used has been of apun. The Swedish subtitle the replaced proper name in ametonymic to (taken mean sense ‘the Indian national cricket team’), and this In ST the of example (6.8),it becomes clear that Major the term the has used practices. chi-square test no revealed the significance differences in the between national strategies. After removingthe ‘combinations’category, being small, as too a are rare, and rare it is very for Cultural Substitution combined to be with other Cultural Substitution using aTranscultural ECRand Situational Substitution mostthe common kind of using Substitution for rendering Both aST ECR. Total Combinations Situational Target Culture ECR Transcultural ECR Table 6l. Substitution. it inmore detail, hence Table 6l, displays which breakdown the of results the on normstriking shift. Forthat reason, it mightbe helpful to presentthe results of historic the discuss will development of strategy, this since it is at of heart the a ing strategy with this others. In of discussion the chapter this section (6.4),we fitsthe situation. withtheAs other strategies,there possibilitythe is of combin ational Substitution, STthe ECR is removed and replaced by anything else that As inTable seen can be 6l, Cultural Substitution using aTC ECRis by far belongs. This is a very typical belongs. way This is a very of usingGeneralization. The Danish Substitution Occurrences ofOccurrences Substitution by subcategory Numbers 103 89 3 6 5 the Oval the Swedish TT has been replaced has been by activitythe associ Per cent 100.0 86.4 4.9 2.9 5.8 Numbers 123 103 12 3 5 Danish TT Per cent 100.0 India 83.7 2.4 4.1 9.8 - - -
Beninu Andersen (208233) IP: 85.184.159.51 On: Mon, 27 Jan 2020 04:21:30 the dialoguethe was rapid and ECR peripheral the even on micro the level. In present the corpus the of study, subtitlers both Omission used for that ECRoccurrence, as example of more frequently?) in other countries. Hurtado de Mendoza Azaola (2009: . of Hardy and two of have which displayed: already been replacing that result the oftenfelicitous. is very audience.TT creates no credibility gap, but neither it does render ST the ECRaccessible to the STthe ECRare notes, the not people. The Swedishsolution Retentionbased on though linguistic the expressions are names of historical figures. The referents of aminorthis problem. Granted, ST the ECRsdonot really refer to people, even as somewhatST surreal, subtitler described the could be may have considered movedhas suddenly been to Denmark, causes which acredibility gap, but as the joke. By referring to Danish money, however, subtitles the suggest that action the refercould also to last names or nicknames of people, actual thus completing the Danish 500,100and 1,000kroner notes, respectively. At astretch, names these sions for Danish notes, bank namely dollar notes have original inthe replaced by been common Danish slang expres In Danish the subtitle, names the of presidents the countenances whose the grace sive party: movie reproducedcase, here as Example (6.9).It comes from comic the book-based namespersonal rendered by TC Substitution, except for arather complicated domains,names; in these used when no credibility gaps appear. There were no domains, are which titles, education, and food beverages and institutional
(6.9) Donald Duck Cultural Substitution using aTranscultural rare, ECRis very despite fact the Target Cultural Substitution on was used ECRsof various, yet restricted There is evidence of ThereCulturalevidence is of Substitution using a Transcultural (perhapsbeing ECR used The Mask Franklin, Grant Jackson och Swedish subtitle: Plovmand, Hund ogTudse. Danish subtitle: (Shows bundles of cash The Mask: No. Butbelieve I friends my are. Perhaps youknow them. Are youBouncer: on list? the Gilligan (4.11)and replacing (5.2).There are only 5 Swedish examples, one which of is rather , where main the character to bribe his way tries into an exclu beingreplaced by ) Franklin, Grant and Jackson. Mr. Rogers Robinson Crusoe Chapter 6. Plovmand, Hund ogTudse 59 There were Danishonly 12 occurrences, with the Danish Official with Danish the Equivalent Official Empirical subtitling norms for television in Spanish subtitles of of subtitles Spanish in The Three Stooges , which refer, which to the (Mask: 35.32)
Forrest Gump Forrest 78) found an with with Laurel Laurel - - .
Beninu Andersen (208233) IP: 85.184.159.51 On: Mon, 27 Jan 2020 04:21:30
Subtitling Norms for Television to to renderingthe inadifferent way. the If subtitler did not re by aTranscultural ECR has place. taken However, it possible is to also analyse characters in Deliverance In Example (6.10),Finch is quoting aline from famous the rape film inthe scene (6.10) laughs, and he utters: Finch, is moving and his body making noises as to simulate intercourse sexual for ambiguous. It comes from sitcom the not thwarted, will be guest’s he the (behind Basil interjects so back): ever, guest the is cleverer than making it Basil, hard for himto prove anything, but smugglesguest into agirl also his room, prompts which to intervene. Basil How ape than ahuman Ontop being. of offending Basil by his looks and manners,the FawltyBasil offencetakes at one thewhomof guests, he considersbe moreto of an Situational Substitution is (6.11),from itECR (which not), does as away coherent. of makingTT the Another example of “resignation”.(1997) called The is strategy notso much away of rendering a ST isECRs, which perhaps not since thing, it abad amounts basically to what sis is more correct. Mossop 2000or Lörscher 1991),it is probably impossible to know analy which of translators’ decision-making process such asprotocols think-aloud (cf. e.g. tion. Without of methods introspective assessment (Chesterman 1997: Piggy (6.11) Deliverance Situational Substitution is least the common of strategies all for rendering , then the strategy used was not strategy used the , then Cultural Substitution at but all, Comple Come on, Miss Piggy! Back translation: Kom igen, Miss Piggy! Swedish subtitle: piggy! Squeal, you Neanderthal pimp! get you,I’ll Back translation: din Neandertal-alfons! Jeg nok skal fåram dig, på Danish subtitle: get you,I’ll you ponce! slippery Back translation: Jag dinslipprige dig, ska ta sutenör! Swedish subtit get you,I’ll you Piltdown ponce! (1972).The Swedish subtitle instead has a reference to one theof The The Show Muppet , and instead thought that ST the reference to was indeed le: , so it, so argued could be that Cultural Substitution Fawlty Towers The Office The , where office the bully, Chris . In this particular episode,. In particular this (Fawlty Towers 8:28.37) cognize the allusion the cognize (Office 11:2.38) Gottlieb 136 ff.) Miss - - -
Beninu Andersen (208233) IP: 85.184.159.51 On: Mon, 27 Jan 2020 04:21:30 man (a so-called missingman found, was link) allegedly (aso-called was which later proven aforgery. to be . This surprising,is notas ECR. very Monoculturalper definition ECRs are not It is fairly rare that anEquivalent Official used is for rendering a Monocultural 6.3.2.7 pursued here.further as study this is not about quality assessment insubtitling, issuenot the will be Leppihalme’suse term.However, as Centrality is often defined subjectively, and more central ECR is omitted, and that consideredcould be irresponsible, to of omitted, ECRcan be provided that it is peripheral enough. Occasionally, a strategy. differencesbetween Swedish Danishand subtitleswhen it comes the thisto use of for Omission combinedto be with other strategies, and there were no significant illustrate much, not there any so will be examples It subsection. inthis is fairly rare includes only complete deletion, and giving examples of zero renderings not does ization, subsumed under heading, this my Omission has no subcategories and it Unlike Leppihalme had (1994),who other forms of reduction, such as General 6.3.2.6 one, as there of to is style alink the NPof original the ECRis the which part. alliterationthe of it. It is thus of acase Situational Substitution, ifnot aprototypical insteadsen to copy of style the insult, original the by recreating not but sense, the Swedish subtitle has no reference to prehistoric man at as subtitler the all, has cho man, Danishthe so solution was considered oneto be of Generalization here. The found. However, whererefers specifically actual German prehistoric valley to a fossils of man were rendered by another geographic location in Danishthe subtitle, com, and on not prehistoric adocumentary man) to explain it. The ST ECR was it would not in accordance be with skoposthe of STthe (which after is all a sit viewers, andconstraints eventhoughmedia-specific the were fairly in(6.11), weak andtory fraud associated with Piltdown are not accessible to most Scandinavian is premodifierthe theof noun phrase, i.e. more archaic form than Danish.the What is interesting from an ECR perspective, ishead rendered through Direct Translation, eventhough Swedish the termis a of ST the utterance, with one difference:the derogatory final noun phrase. The The subtitles in(6.11) similar,are very morealso and or less verbatim renderings
When it comes to Omission and domains, results the show that any kind Piltdown is ageographical location in Surrey where prehistoric an alleged early fossil of Official Equivalents Omission Neanderthal in common usage refers to awhole subspeciesof Chapter 6. Piltdown. Empirical subtitling norms for television 60 The connotations of prehis Neandertal , which - - - -
Beninu Andersen (208233) IP: 85.184.159.51 On: Mon, 27 Jan 2020 04:21:30
Subtitling Norms for Television lent or not,on reference based works and web sites. fairly aDirect Translation to whether easy decide has status the ofEquiva Official ‘mean they because same the thing’.two These reasons incombination make it EquivalentsOfficial become easily entrenched, even for Monocultural ECRs, other reason is that, as semantics the are not changed SL between and TL,these where andecision official easy trace, is film to booktitles, asin or or The sports. demarcation problems, for two reasons. One is that often these appear indomains Translation are by far most the common. a source ofEquivalents, Official and the of rest,Cultural Substitution and Direct itso has not done been present inthe investigation. Specification rare is as very to separate Equivalents Official Retention on based fromother cases Retention, of nations) and 22Danish (of 2were which combinations) corpus. inthe cases generally known TC. inthe There were only 32 Swedish (ofwhich 3 were combi (6.12) (6.12) (a)and (b)were produced by same the subtitler for same the episode. InspectorChief Barnaby’s title. It should mentioned be that Danish the subtitles of (6.12), from cultural substitute instead. used has Four been examples of found can this be in anEquivalent Official used,been it has oftenturns out a semi-entrenchedthat Substitutions are Equivalents. Official In some renderings where it thatappears EquivalentOfficial ‘fänrik’ M*A*S*H 5:4(e.g. (8.39)). However, all not Cultural it when case comes titles; for to military instance, a ofcases Target Cultural Substitution, might quasi-official. eventhough they be asEquivalents Official onbased TC Substitution are more accuratelyas described areas, –varietyinthese whereunexpected many terms that might thought be of decisionsofficial taken, however. evidence The this for is found the in great and – such asexpected, titles and institutional names.such few Therebe seem very to beverages. Most originate, however, indomains wheredecisions official be could nate inless controlled domains, wheredecisions official are rare, such asfood and Translation. Also, some ofEquivalents Official the onbased TC Substitutionorigi in society, do not they so become entrenched on Direct based as easily as those semantic content; instead, similarity the is less straightforwardly on function based demarcate from other of cases TC Substitution. One cannot rely on similarity of Official EquivalentsOfficial onbased TargetCultural Substitution are much harderto EquivalentsOfficial onDirectbased Translation do not manycause very itAs is time-consuming was explained inSection 6.3.1, and often impossible Many Equivalents Official are thus onbased Cultural Substitution. This the is b. kommissarie a. kommissarie Swedish subtitles: Midsomer Murders kriminalinspektør vicekriminalkommissær Danish subtitles: , where we find different versions(Detective) of second lieutenantsecond (Midsomer Murders 24:1.02.10) (Midsomer Murders 24:22.2) has Swedish the - - -
Beninu Andersen (208233) IP: 85.184.159.51 On: Mon, 27 Jan 2020 04:21:30 that ‘kommissarie’/’kommissær’ substitutes not only for kaptajn’ (Midnight Run: 51.38)inDanish. If one reverses process, the one finds 1.11.43), ‘politiinspektør’ (Police Academy: 6.28)and neologism the ‘politi- ‘chefinspektør’Confidential:‘kriminalinspektør’ (L.A. 6.47), Distance(Striking Confidential: 6.47) ‘intendent’and (Police 6.28)in Academy: Swedish, and as is rendered not only as ‘kommissarie’/’kommissær’, (L.A. but as ‘polischef’ also However, throughout corpus the includes (which quite afew ‘cop movies’) Kommissarie (6.13) Equivalents ‘kommissarie’/’kommissær’, as exemplified in(6.13). As for American titles, police where semi-entrenched cultural substitutes are phrase listed with amodifying Evidence of found can this be inbilingual dictionaries (e.g. Norstedts 2000) are semi-entrenched cultural substitutes that are ‘almost’ Equivalents. Official cultural substitutes are not entrenched enoughEquivalents, Official to be they ment, institutional names, education and and food beverages. Even though the EquivalentsOfficial also are found, namely the in domains of titles, govern tural Substitution commonly is so and felicitously domains inthe used where thing that worries average the viewer. likelythe This whyis reason very Cul be anEquivalent. Official fact The that all cultural not substitutes seemthat to established titles comes as quite asurprise. Confidential 2.03.29). This great when variety it comes what to are all after fairly Lieutenant or at any level of analysis. Swedish and Danish it practices when comes to rendering the of ECRsof any kind cause any credibility gaps. viewers may of asEquivalents think them Official they and would thus not entrenched, if not sufficiently entrenched be to proper Official Equivalents, the substitutes quasi-official called equivalents. could be they As are somewhat such as “ung. motsv.” (short for ‘approximately equivalent to’).cultural These
Official EquivalentsOfficial actually Official are Equivalents isprobably not some Therethus is a strongbetween link Cultural Substitution theand use of In sum, no statistically significant quantitative differences were foundthe in Kommissær Danish subtitle: Swedish subtitle: Captain d. kommissarie c. överkommissarie (24315:25.12), Detective kriminalkommissær kriminalkommissær Captain Chapter 6. (Mercury Rising: 25.44)and seems to seems have Scandinavian the Official Empirical subtitling norms for television (Midsomer Murders 18:35.05) (Midsomer Murders 17:8.27) (Tango and 11.08) Cash: Captain Sergeant but for also Captain (L.A. - - -
Beninu Andersen (208233) IP: 85.184.159.51 On: Mon, 27 Jan 2020 04:21:30
Subtitling Norms for Television multilingual media-market, for instance SDI-Media or European the Caption of using cost-cutting this by is which used device, many companies the serving that chapter. This in was itself nothing surprising,that as self-evident is a effect itwere similar when came to very kindof the data technical in that was surveyed generation translations produced with aid the of master template or files) Genesis from other sources, as discussion the now turns international. on Scandinavian the based with Subtitles modified findingsother be Corpus will Toury’s norm of “directness of translation” (1995: us now at look some other factors, like origins the of TTs and there investigate words, subtitling norms areain this has converged more or less completely. Let Denmark were found application inthe of for model the rendering ECRs.In other No significant quantitative differences the between national norms of Sweden and 6.4 Section 4.3.1). . thus agreat opportunity for investigating and whether to what texts degree these produced through aid the of master template (henceforth: files MTF texts). Here is translation would reproduced be ine.g. aGreek second-generation translation. reason that to suspect translation the solutions found in aSwedish first-generation first second-generationand translation are mutually intelligible. There is thus no familiar with first-generation the translation language, thelanguages or if the of through of use the master templatesecond-generationthe if files translator is It should, however, pointed be out that it is only likely that translation is affected independent interms of translation are as they it when comes to data. technical polysemiotic texts produced through aid the of master template files are as little exploiting for subtitlers. the Therethus is that reason Scandinavianto suspect advantagesthe interms of efficiencyof using the pivot translationmake it worth 2004) that second-generationthe subtitlers should only on focus original SL,the to reiterate here. them Even though it claimed has (Norberg, been p.c., October there so is no need of practicehave this inSection 1.2.1, discussed already been opportunity, are as they paid less than first-generation the subtitlers. The drawbacks advantagethe of saving labour for second-generation the subtitlers, this use who as apivotused translation for second-generation the translation. This has practice first-generationthe translation that comeswiththe master templatefile is often ing Institute (cf. Georgakopoulou 2010: It was found in Section 6.2 thatIt TTs was found inSection 6.2 had which same the cueing (i.e. second- There are 17 matched texts “Matched text” refers to Danish the and Swedish TTs same the ST corpus in the of (cf. Directness insubtitlingDirectness 61 in Scandinavianthe Subtitles Corpus that were 225). As was discussed in Section 1.2.1, 1.2.1, 225). As inSection was discussed 58). From now on, findings the -
Beninu Andersen (208233) IP: 85.184.159.51 On: Mon, 27 Jan 2020 04:21:30 (6.15) from course, but looking it at when striking is particularly Paraphrases, as inexample employed.been This is notfortrue strategies such Retentionas or Omission, of ever.solutions The actual may look quite different, the even if samestrategy has same solution TTs. inboth used being It is not always straightforward, so how example (6.14)is atypical example of not only same the strategy, but eventhe on first-generation the based hewhen made his TT translation. thatBe as it may, ish subtitler thought and this, that Danish the subtitler simply went along with it, were locatedset. Or city was inthe chances film the inwhich arethat the Swed that it inferred could be from context the that Donaghy meant that clean-ups the TTs.both Evidently, subtitlers both must have thought that it was peripheral, and refers New to administrative (the York subdivision of) City, omitted has been in As inExample seen can be Monocultural (6.14)the ECR saneringsarbeten. up sites, is which exasperating, as Amelia Donaghy finds out. says:She lector indicated adegree of similarity text. inthe The example comesfrom was same Swedish the the inboth and Danish TT, as inexample (6.14)below, it ing eachECRwere compared then matched inboth texts. If strategy employed the Transcultural and Monocultural ST ECRs were isolated. The strategies for render MTF texts and independent texts, and from eachof groups, these extracted the maythey cause translation problems. (cf. Lörscher 1991)whereas Monocultural ECRsrepresent strategic behaviour, as uncomplicated to render, said couldto be represent they non-strategic behaviour Transcultural ECRsare here used as acontrol group. As were they found to be how similar MTF texts are compared to TTs that were produced independently. cultural ECRsthat were from extracted corpus the have to investigate used been treatmentThe of Monocultural ECRs, as treatmentthe well as those of Trans ECRrenderings as atoolstructed, for used could be gauging similarity the of TTs. are alike. Assuming that treatment the of ECRsis indicative of is con how aTT
(6.14) The method used for Theused this investigationmethod is as follows. The corpus contains both , where NYPD the are tracing a killer, and for to need check they this clean- There are about adozen clean-ups going on. Back translation of subtitles: both et dusin oprydninger. foregårDer omkring Danish subtitle: pågårDet ett dussintal Swedish subtitle: There’s about adozen clean-upsscattered acrossthe five boroughs. For Love of the Game . In the baseball match. In baseball the that on goes throughout Chapter 6. Empirical subtitling norms for television (The BoneCollector 38:48) (The the five boroughs, The Bone Col Bone The which which ------
Beninu Andersen (208233) IP: 85.184.159.51 On: Mon, 27 Jan 2020 04:21:30
Subtitling Norms for Television umpire, Murdie: Bill teams, and prompts this commentators the to utter following the remark about the there film, the occasionally is fierce animositythe between players the of opposing Total MTF texts subtitled texts Independently ST ECRsrendered: Table 6m. subtitled and MTF texts, result the is as given inTable 6m. using same the TTs. strategy inboth If is this broken down into independently Danish the both and Swedish the TTs. This meansthat about 80% were rendered corpus.the atotal Ofthese, of 728ST ECRswere rendered by same the strategy in different.may very look more complex strategies, like Generalization and Specification,solutionsthe Retention and Omission, inevitably to same lead the solution as well, but for same the solutionindeed For is used. independent TTs, some strategies, like strategy, inMTFtexts, it is oftenthat thecase not sametheonly strategy, but whereas it is fairly common for subtitlers of independent TTs same to the use ‘domare’/‘dommer’, means also which ‘judge’.two These examples showthat ECRs are worded Paraphrases their quite differently. The problem here that is both differencethe the between Monocultural ECRs phrases have by used subtitlers both been audiences to help access TT their It should obvious be from back translations the in(6.15)that eventhough Para (6.15) As mentioned inSection 6.3.1, 898Transcultural ST ECRswere from extracted become areferee. MurdieBill may soon Back translation: blive boksedommer. MurdieBill kan snart Danish subtitle: a differentkind of fight. MurdieBill may have to arbitrate Back translation: en annan kamp. sorts MurdieBill måste kanske döma Swedish subtitle: MurdieBill from goes umpire to referee. Transcultural ECRsrendered by same the TTs strategy inboth normally translated by same the word Swedish inboth and Danish:
by different strategies 170 147 23 by thesame strategy umpire umpire 728 193 535 (For Love of Game: the 30.30) and and referee % same strategy , they have, they 81.1 89.4 78.4 -
Beninu Andersen (208233) IP: 85.184.159.51 On: Mon, 27 Jan 2020 04:21:30 . . Monocultural ST ECRs for independent but high, texts might seem is this still little more than cases. the half tural ECRs, whereas for independentlythe subtitled make texts, upthese just a MTF texts is almostfor as high Monocultural the ECRsas it is for Transcul the texts are different in nature. percentage The of same-strategy renderingsthe in Total MTF texts subtitled texts Independently ST ECRsrendered: Table 6n. final the subtitles. Tablegives 6n the results forthiscategory of ECRs. tlers (i.e. strategic subtitling), and inturn this would to lead greater derings. as case, interventional the isthis indeed solutions make up about of half ren the exploited with some frequency. AsinTable seen could be 6kinSection 6.3.2, troublesomethese ECRsand to leads varietyof this ahigher strategies being tional solutions would sought be by subtitlers the audience to help access TT the muchbe lower. SinceECRsoften these cause translation problems, interven little more than 3/4. same strategy, whereas correspondingthe share for independentthe texts was a Almost 9/10of Transcultural the MTFtexts ECRsinthe were rendered by the pointedbe out, however, that there is more variation independent inthe texts. same inany TT, regardless of its status as MTFor independent text. It should using anEquivalent, Official thatand means that mostthe be will renderings rendering aTranscultural ECRthrough other strategies than Retention or by ECRs only for call non-strategic translating. In most there cases, is for no need dered by samethe strategy. perhapsThis is surprising,not as very Transcultural
Thedata in Table 6n clearly shows how independently subtitled and MTF The share same-strategyof solutions for Monoculturalto ECRs is expected As from seen can data the be intable 6m,most Transcultural ECRs are ren This differencesignificantis ( This differencesignificantis ( Interventional solutions for call some creativity on of behalf subti the Monocultural ECRsrendered by same the TTs strategy inboth
62 by different strategies 323 293 30 p p 63 = 2.42*10 = 0.000361)according to achi-square test. The percentage The same-strategyof renderings of Chapter 6. –16 ) according to achi-square test. by thesame strategy Empirical subtitling norms for television 583 198 385 % same strategy variation in 64.3 86.8 56.8 - - - - -
Beninu Andersen (208233) IP: 85.184.159.51 On: Mon, 27 Jan 2020 04:21:30
Subtitling Norms for Television (perhaps superfluouslyso) sayto that independentlyTTs produced samethe of if Scandinavian subtitles differ, as we have found herethat do,they safe it is very dinavian subtitles were more alike than subtitles from other of parts Europe, so ish sample from she which perhaps overgeneralizes), found she also that Scan subsequent reuse on DVDs. In her study (which is admittedly on asmall based independently produced subtitles that were bought “assets”) by ECI(so-called for well with findings the very Georgakopoulouof (2010: dently produced TTs of same the ST are different very from each tarry other) yet resultthe be of samethe These strategy being used. results (i.e.that indepen was illustrated inexample (6.15), dently to one solution only choice the being logical for subtitler. the Secondly, as dently. In other words, influencing the parameters may combine indepen to lead was rendered through an identical solution by two subtitlers working indepen problems, as was illustrated in example (6.4), where referencethe to Bond’s car mainly due to two factors. First, not Monocultural all ECRscause translation (6.16) of ECRs. similarity of ingeneral, MTFtexts pertains and is not limited to rendering the ST.the The nottext in (6.16)does contain any ECRs; instead, it showsthat the twothe TTs are given to facilitate access to subtitles the and comparison with is instead given before subtitlesthe in example.the Also, back translations of not ST–TT the relation, not ST the juxtaposed with subtitles, the will be but relationown business. Asis what TT1–TT2 the is of interest primary here and an adventurer catch an anaconda on with shouldor their they whether carry Anaconda how may similar they The be. rather lengthy examplefrom (6.16) is an extract texts become.these at look Acloser two MTFversions of afilm reveals just ST different. are very indeed The results forthatthe MTFin texts they showstriking are howvery alike – – – – Source dialogue: But Iguarantee Iknow This guy. does. who don’t know shit about shit the we’re inout here. And neither doI.Okay. you guys dois you question and you criticize. But just remember, you snake? goddamn your eyes. completely lucid right now. it’s Ithink you to guys need open up who You know where you are? You’re of middle inthe jungle. the Okay, all Yo, hold up. How we go to hospital from the Cale taking to catching a Have Ilost my mind? No, Ihaven’t lost my mind. If anything, I’m Have you lost your mind? , where characters the are arguing about should they help whether umpire/referee , solutions different, may very be 233 ff.), who233 ff.), investigated - - - - -
Beninu Andersen (208233) IP: 85.184.159.51 On: Mon, 27 Jan 2020 04:21:30 That guy. But Iknow does. who about situation the right now –but none of us know shit You just question of middle in the jungle? the you Do that we should catch snake? When didwe decide It is you should who open your eyes. No, Iam completely normal. Are you insane? Back translation: Han där. Men jag vet vem som gör det. om läget just nu. –men ingen av oss vet ett skit Ni ifrågasätter bara Fattar ni att skulle vi fånga orm? När bestämde vi ärDet nisom borde öppna ögonen. –Nej, jag är helt normal. –Är du galen? Swedish subtitles:
understand that we are att niär mitt idjungeln? and criticize- och kritiserar- och Chapter 6. This guy. But Iknow does. who about situation the right now –but none of us know shit of middle in the jungle? the that we should catch snakes? When didwe decide It is you should who open your eyes. No, Iam completely normal. Are you insane? Back translation: Ham her. Men ved, jeg hvem dergør. om situationen lige nu. –men ingen af osved enskid spørgsmål I stiller Fatter Iikke at skulle vi fange slanger? Hvornår besluttede vi, erjer,Det derskulle åbne øjnene. –Nej, erhelt jeg normal. –Er du sindssyg? Danish subtitles: You ask questions you Don’t Empirical subtitling norms for television understand that we are , at Iermidt ijunglen? (Anaconda 51.56–52.22) and criticize - ogkritiserer –
Beninu Andersen (208233) IP: 85.184.159.51 On: Mon, 27 Jan 2020 04:21:30
Subtitling Norms for Television demonstrative pronoun last inthe subtitle. back translations the when Especially tion positive to a negative structure in arhetorical question. The next shift, from to make, have not marked. been The first non-obligatory shift is a reversal from a stretchin this of text. Obligatory shifts, i.e. thatshifts the TL forces translator the bold. As inexample seen can be (6.16), there were only three rather minor ones than Danish the TT. non-obligatoryTTs All thetwo between shifts are marked in assumption is supported by that fact the is Swedish the slightly more TT idiomatic first-generationtranslation, Danishtheand second-generation a translation. This where TTs the were produced, it assumed could be that Swedish the version is the nearly identical back translations. on working the Based process of SDI Media, dent, compared when especially to ST, the different is which very from thetwo TTsthetwo between The similarities are greatmuch too forthembe indepen to i.e. that have they produced been serially, rather than with same inparallel the ST. anything external, else but rather preferences the of individual the subtitler. Iam appearance the enced TTs of final the was not nationality, norms, guidelines or Volk &Harder 2007). translations on first-generation based translation (cf. mentionedSection 1.2.1 in realization is probably what has prompted experimentation the with machine lated more or less automatically, without resorting to strategic behaviour. This is left forsecond-generationthe translator is stretches transwhichof canbe text tors have to dois to copy solutions these own intheir TT. This meansthat that all solved bybeen first-generation the translator. second-generationthe All transla as Swedish and Danish, translation the problems that exist ST inthe have already ligible languages, and languages between that similar, are very structurally such on subtitlers’ the In part. asecond-generation translation on mutually based intel there much is not very differencebetween strategic and non-strategicbehaviour translation files, problems are no longertranslation problems, so andto speak, with second-generation translations produced through aid the of master template can no longer as indicative seen be of translation behaviour. In dealing when fact, rather than two indepen in table 6n: that MTF texts are more or less same the text in differentlanguages, resentative of kinds of these texts. Example (6.16) illustrates findingsthe displayed text. There are MTFthattexts differ more, but whole,the on example (6.16) is rep how two similar the TTs are. are compared to ST, the is which quite different, it shouldbecome apparent just to to Example (6.16)is arandomly chosen piece of intense from dialogue aMTF It should apparent be that one of TTs the in example ( In my pilot study for project, this Iclaimed that variable the that most influ Thedata found in Table 6n showsthat inMTF translationtexts, problems ask questions , is not very , great,is not very norfrom is shift the a distal to a proximal dent TTs. 6.16) is based on6.16) isother, the based ques ------
Beninu Andersen (208233) IP: 85.184.159.51 On: Mon, 27 Jan 2020 04:21:30 between Swedishbetween and Danish subtitles appear, is which that that Danish subtitlers If MTFtexts the are removed from corpus, the astatistically significant difference 6.5 Swedish and Danish subtitles of present the study. ling international subtitling norms, effect the which of we havethe already in seen normsthe inherent template inthe files, thisand would havethe effectlevel of ofstyle eachcountry”, it much seems more likely that subtitlers conform will to Instead of ensuring that “language conformwill files the to appropriate subtitling swiftly and efficiently and template files are undoubtedly a way of doing that. estimated” (2009:33).In today’s world, subtitles have produced to be increasingly that [i.e. they template files] offer to subtitling vendors[which] cannot be over ofbecause financialthe factors involved, whatand perceivesshe as flexibility“the subtitling of style eachcountry”. true, but Thisalso is quite unlikely to happen, central role inorder to ensure that language conformwill files the to appropriate and true, edly that it “would require practitioners from over all world the to play a samethe regardless of atemplate whether is file or used not, thatand is undoubt second-generation subtitler. like that,even incases constraints the of cueing would the limit choices the of the ably not apply to languages that differ more, like Swedish and Croatian. However, translator, unlesss/he disagrees with suitability the of solution. the It would prob predict that samethe of sort solution would followed be by second-generationthe by used first-generation the been translator, thethenand minimax strategy would with assistance the of ST, the to understand what of sort translation solution has languagesthe only have enough close to for be second-generation the translator, guages as diverse as Dutch and or German, Spanish and Catalan.because This is broadlybe mutually intelligible written intheir forms. It might even apply to lan guages are as closely related as Swedish and Danish, or enough close indeed to follow minimax the strategy and produce similar TTs. very for her or himto doso, and presented evidence the shows section inthis that they differentfromTT the first-generation TT. However, there incentive isspecial no mark on TT. the second-generation The subtitler may of course produce a very tion no longer applies. The individualsecond-generation subtitler leaves little very place intranslation studies. However, it when comes to MTFtexts, observa this (2005: of course not alone it made inmakingobservation; e.g.this by was also Schröter
It claimed has (e.g. been by Georgakopoulou 2009: Thesection findings this in probably apply to any situation where the lan Norm development overcase of time:The Cultural Substitution 364, 367),and it could probably regarded be as something of acommon Chapter 6. Empirical subtitling norms for television 34)) that ST the remains ------
Beninu Andersen (208233) IP: 85.184.159.51 On: Mon, 27 Jan 2020 04:21:30
Subtitling Norms for Television make statistics, forpoor it when particularly comes very to aphenomenon as rare werewhich subtitled late inthe eighties and early Granted, nineties. four episodes plemented by some older material. Notably, it contains four of episodes for object the it which was compiled. As explained inSection 6.1, it com has been investigations; lion’s the share of it consists of contemporary subtitles, aswas this Substitution whole inthe corpus. ational Substitution is rare; there were renderings on only Situational based 11TT Swedish subtitlersbe on past.will inthe The Culturalfocus Substitution, as Situ warrantedseems to make an in-depth study of Substitution by as used Danish and ferences two the national between norms, but have those now disappeared. It thus Danish subtitling norms. This meansthat there havesome been rather dif striking are removed, there are no longer any significant differences between Swedish and ference is due to some being their older texts corpus, inthe these when because strategy of the used Substitution 57%more oftenthan Swedish subtitlers. This dif uttig of subtitling andRhys-Jones Griff triggers as forthe change citedHeide Olsen the policy: of titles. Interestingly enough, informants both cite TV-series starring Mel Smith early Cultural 1990s,when Substitution phasedout to started be inDanish sub (according to Højgaard and her colleagues) there was achange in the of policy subtitlingpublic (according service to Heide Olsen) and commercial subtitling education, government, titles, and and food beverages is distinctly dated. In both oftice using Cultural Substitution outside domains the of institutional names, (Heide p.c., Olsen, June 2006)and subtitlers (Højgaard, p.c., May prac 2006)the (Scheer, p.c., June 2006). confirmed by a Swedish subtitler active whobeen hasfor more thanyears thirty entrenched quasi-official equivalent kind. was the also actual practice this That was norm has always against been using Cultural Substitution, apart from semi- the 2006 and Jörgen p.c., Bengtsson 2004)subtitling October companies, Swedish the 1999andOctober Åkerberg, p.c., June 2006)and commercial (Norberg, p.c., June ing to Swedish representing policy-makers public both service Danishwith both and Swedish subtitling professionals and Accord policy-makers. to differused morewhen it comes this to strategy, carried Ioutseries of interviews a ticating translation strategy. norm onceDanish tolerated expectancy amore frequent of domes use highly this Cultural Substitution causes no credibility gap. Therethus is possibility a that the single Swedish example is predictably and food inthe beverages domain, where tain three examples of strategy, this Swedish the subtitles contain only one. This as Substitution. Nevertheless, whereas Danish the subtitles of con episodes these The ScandinavianThe SubtitlesCorpus is well notsuited very for diachronic The situationDenmark in different. looks According to Danish policy- To investigate further production the whether norms inDenmark and Sweden Not the 9O’Clock News and Højgaard subtitling the of (Kampmann, p.c., Alas Smith and M*A*S*H makers ------,
Beninu Andersen (208233) IP: 85.184.159.51 On: Mon, 27 Jan 2020 04:21:30 of cartoon this sitcom.occasional This usage in Sweden, frowningtheand that recently, presumably that thinking it would acceptable be surreal context inthe upon asubtitler when of (PedersenCopenhagen 2006).It is evenmore symptomatic that it was frowned presentedwhen to Danish subtitling students, e.g. at MuTra the conference in played present inthe study were occasions on greeted several as “old-fashioned” developmentthis that some of Danish the Cultural Substitution examples dis never to fond haveseem very of strategy. been this It is perhaps symptomatic of tion to degreedonowadays. past ahigher inthe than they Swedish subtitlers or Specification (SVT). eralization (LanguageLand/SpråkCentrum, SDI Media), Retention (SDI Media) usage domains inthe mentioned above. Instead, recommend they of use the Gen lines forbid actually or discourage of use the Cultural Substitution, apart from its out that ifthere is anEquivalent, Official itused. beshould currentSwedish guide Danish subtitling guidelines donot mention Cultural Substitution at but all, point ofselection Danish guidelines is rather meagre; Lindberg’s by now somewhat old guidelines, result the coincides with empirical the data presented study. inthis The countries likely is also to have place. taken DVD subtitling and master template a levelling files, of norm differences between Also, more when subtitlers came incontact with other language versions through culture, would they no longer accept Danish substitutes for Anglophone ECRs. that know they is which more all, likely, butsame)the effect is the of Anglophone Danish Substitution norm. When Danish viewers knowing started (or all thinking ST soundtrack. factors These likely causes are also very the downfallof the of old waythe for norm harmonization and reading higher supported speeds, by the English language and culture language insmaller communities inEurope paved shifts apply this to norm shift as well. Globalization the and greater knowledge of plausible very seems that some of underlying the reasons for norms technical the what was within viewers’ norm 1980swas inthe not 1990s.It inthe expectancy thattime Substitution this norms shift Denmark. took in place In other words, norm shift in normstechnical for subtitling generally at approximatelysamethe where it was found that there was amajor werewhich inSection 6.2, discussed businessmen for British ones. credibilitythe threshold” (1994: News within arelatively of time. shortDanish The period subtitler of a multitude of British ECRs,and were aired inDenmark (though not inBritain) Jones
Everything thus points to Danish subtitlers resorting to Cultural Substitu If one at looks situation the today, as represented prescriptively by in-house It is hard not to draw to aparallel development the of norms technical the . This is probably coincidental, from thatapart the fact both shows contained is evenreported by Gottlieb to have admitted that had “overstepped they The Simpsons The 50, my translation) substituting when Danish Chapter 6. tried to use the strategy toinSweden the use tried Empirical subtitling norms for television Not the 9O’Clock - - - -
Beninu Andersen (208233) IP: 85.184.159.51 On: Mon, 27 Jan 2020 04:21:30
Subtitling Norms for Television subtitles is equivalent to what is present ST. inthe not cause credibility gaps, as audience the assume will that inthe what see they have implication the that of use the Cultural Substitution domains inthese would that is this why Cultural Substitution common is so domains. in these This would equivalent standing or are assumed by audience the Equivalents, Official to be and suggested that substituting the domains ECRs in these often have a quasi-official andtitles, food beverages, government, education and institutional names. It was Cultural Substitution is mainly for used ECRsfrom domains the to pertaining subtitles are now more with alike regard to Cultural Substitution. Furthermore, late 1980sor norms early that of 1990s,so expectancy Swedish the and Danish tion of ECRsthan Swedish norms norms.then changed The expectancy the in thus as follows: norms to allow used Danish more expectancy Cultural Substitu Section 2.3). accompanies it, are indications that is this not but arule, anorm, inSweden (cf. Substitution on is never used geographical names. The credibility gap involved in includes anested geographical name, New York ST, inthe TT. inthe Copenhagen system, but it causes still acredibility gap. The reason forthisthat is also the ECR could arguably either an called institutional be name or of part educational the ity gaps. three Ofthe examples mentioned above, multifunctional the ECR more closely and if definitionthe see proposed abovecan account forthe credibil cause credibility gaps, 5of were which dubious. It is to time at look examples these and most of cases Direct Translation donot affectthe muchtext very all. at Omission make text the more standardized; of use the anEquivalent Official some Direct Translation) cases make text the more foreign; Generalization and Cultural Substitution causes credibility gaps; Retention and Specification (and in about oddnessof the solutions. certain It should perhaps pointed be out that only others donot. By using definition, this there is no to need rely on subjective feeling tively why of cases Cultural certain Substitution cause credibility gaps and why used normally not is Substitution Cultural totioned treat SCis inthe seen aTC ECRas ifit were aSCECR, credibility gap could perhaps thus defined as be appearingwhen a characterposi Cultural Substitution to render is used above-mentioned ECRsinthe domains. A a TC ECRas ifit were However, aSCECR. credibility gaps donot appear when credibility gaps, appear which acharacter when to positioned treat SCis in the seen Party are found, still as inexample (4.15), stitution outside aforementioned the domains, norm of traces old the expectancy Even if the expectancy normsEven inDenmark are expectancy ifthe now against using Cultural Sub The findings ofdevelopment norm when it comes toCultural Substitution are There wereoccasions 10 the incorpus where Cultural Substitution was felt to and (6.9), Franklin, Grant and Jackson NYU . This definition explainwould objec , (4.16) , above.three examples These cause Telly Addicts and Noel’s House in domains where NYU - - - - -
Beninu Andersen (208233) IP: 85.184.159.51 On: Mon, 27 Jan 2020 04:21:30 pronounces it as above. as it pronounces . could hardlycompensation, called be however, 33occasions, as on TT these the all ted and rendered then by another strategy on subsequent occasions.cases These of 33 occasions out of renderings atotal of that 5,028TT an ECRwas first omit vicinitythe of ST ECRs,but whole the TTs ECRs.It for TT happened on atotal rare. It rare is also Scandinavian inthe Subtitles Corpus, and not Iscanned only immediatein the vicinity of deleted ST wordplay inhis thesis, and found it to be place. Schröter (2005: elsewhere. It is common practice toin DTS investigate if compensation has taken whereat it is aplace not inaTT required by ST, the to compensate for its deletion term, compensation refers where to cases atranslator atranslation inserts feature bytriggered but aST ECR, arguably by compensation. As atranslation studies slang expressions for notes bank are fairly rare). inSweden,been at not where anymore does this occur all (and where creative Substitution onECRsare currency not as great inDenmark would as they have It thus possible seems that credibility gapsple (6.9)). caused by using Cultural expression for a100kroner note we (which have already encountered inexam shewhen renders ECR‘tenner’ the (i.e. aten-pound note) as Danish the slang Danish slang expression for ‘breasts’. The subtitlersamethe then uses technique to recapturehas (successfully) tried slang the of utterance, original the by using a The subtitle in (6.17) shouldperhaps be explained a littlefurther. The subtitler about his girlfriend: from (or Omission, astrategy that cuts across generalizations). all This example comes example corpus inthe rendered ofbeing currency by other means than Retention dered through Retention Denmark inboth and Sweden. There was only one other tural Substitution days; is ren is onthese almost currency never used currency (6.9) on an ECRfrom adomain that occasionally allows Cultural Substitution. Example practice of formatting programmes; TV thus Cultural Substitution here was used the
(6.17) Telly Addicts and Noel’s House Part In corpus the there is another of occurrence acredibility gap that was not Franklin, Grant and Jackson, He is referring physically both and to linguistically ‘knockers’, i.e. ‘breasts’, but The Office The She shows teats for adog. Back translation: Hun for yver viser enhund. Danish subtitle: She’ll get old the nookers , where Lee, a very sexistmacho man,, where avery jokingly Lee, says following the 119 –120), for example, looked for instances wordplay of TT 64 definitelycauses acredibility gap,because Cul out for atenner. Chapter 6. may great, not very due be to common the Empirical subtitling norms for television (The Office9:7.52) - - - -
Beninu Andersen (208233) IP: 85.184.159.51 On: Mon, 27 Jan 2020 04:21:30
Subtitling Norms for Television man’s sandwich. This promptsthe following rebukefrom Ipkiss: however, mishears command the and instead from grabs cheese the police the dogto fetchtrusty keys from the officer apolice who isnearby. asleep dog, The The Mask tant its because inclusion caused acredibility gap. Example (6.18)comes from where inserted ECRbeing there was no ST. ECRinthe TT Second, it is impor reasons. First, it is interesting inits own right, asonly the being example of a unprompted by an ST, ECRinthe mentioned to and be it here deserves for two was only one clear-cut that of was completely an case inserting TT ECRinthe just colour, to addlocal that would which all peripheral be ECRswould do. There peripheral, andvery it goes against constraints media-specific the them to insert of matter the is that ECRsof kindthat the freely can be introduced inTTs must be rendering was by triggered arecurrence of previously the omitted truth The ECR. and and . of credibility gaps corpus, inthe 10were comedy inthe genre. The reason forthis tion of corpus. ECRsinthe contains acredibility gap. Second, that there were examples no true of compensa (such as Høng) are not normally rendered by Cultural Substitution, example (6.18) to save paronymic the pun ST. inthe ECRs to compensate for were which those deleted elsewhere, but instead as away is safe to say that solution the in(6.18)was not prompted by adesire to addmore feature that is unprompted by aST of as asign occurrence compensation. it Ithink pun, original the but hearing an also unrounded vowel as arounded one. Danish brand of it cheese; would involve not only mishearing consonant, the as in it possible could to be mishear Danish the pronunciation of to shortened keys the aresemiotics: as being located seen on indeed a ring. dog to fetch key the told his dogto fetch Danish keys, the the subtitler rendered as this an order for the DanishThe subtitle contextsome further needs be understandable. to When Ipkiss (6.18) Buko Of the Of 11 the (10 prompted by an ST ECR + example (6.18) above) occurrences To conclude discussion, this two points made. can be First, as brand names Toury (1995: A differentthis pun TT resultedDanishof the insertion in of , brand and alock names a cheese, of respectively (Gottlieb, p.c., May 2007). Back translation: Danish subtitl Not The cheese! the keys! Not Høng! the ring! The , where hero, the Stanley Ipkiss, is locked inacell, and to get he tries his ring , when Ipkiss, when continued to prompt dog the to fetch it. At a stretch, 83) warns against any taking of insertion studied the translation ring e: IkkeHøngen! Ringen! . This worksthe context in as it is supported the by Poly 65 ring ring two (The Mask: 1.13.29) Danish ECRs, Key ring Key as that of Høng, a was then Ruko - - - -
Beninu Andersen (208233) IP: 85.184.159.51 On: Mon, 27 Jan 2020 04:21:30 and privileges: O’Reilly to Major is talking Houlihan about rank his new and its responsibilities Lieutenant through some devious manoeuvres by Captains Pierce and Hunnicut. ple (6.19),where care or competence of subtitler. the us consider Let Danish the subtitles inexam corpus,the there of is evidence responsibility this occasionally beyond being the subtitler the ST the ECR, on takes ahuge responsibilitytions of) using when it. In extremely target-oriented and extinguishes reference all to (ifnot connota all itous cultural substitute to convey proper the connotations. As strategy is this way. However, it may involve quite an effort the on subtitler’s part tofind a felic tural Substitution is ahandy tool for conveying connotations inaspace-efficient (1995: 307ff). English of domestication that Venuti opposes intranslations from minor languages into inEnglish subtitlesused of DanishGottlieb’s films. findingsillustrate the trend ically, however. Gottlieb (2009)provides many examples of strategy being the is not verified the by present study. norms One to look needs empirat expectancy often acceptablefilm in and television than inprint” (1994: However, she claimed has also that “target cultural replacements may more be ofsort cultural interchangeability may cause in translation in general (1996: never really accepted it. In Finland, Leppihalme mentions consternationsthe this problem” as early as 1993: to accept it (eventhough Nedergaard-Larsen mentioned kindof this “credibility Substitution apparently countries. varies between As we have Danes the used seen, rence, is which counted as aborderline credibility gap. comedythe genres is to entertain, that so may explain aforementioned the occur connection it should pointed be out that skoposthe of realitythe both show and show,ity where information the is primary. aspect The only exception was foundthe in real and leaves this more room for cultural interchangeability incomedy than ingenres comedy genre” (2001: that,could be as Gottlieb points out “the informative inthe [is] secondary aspect
(6.19) When domains inthe norms used allow where it, expectancy the TC Cul The acceptability thekindof culturalof interchangeabilitycaused by Cultural Then I can read Bo Bedre. Bo Thencan I read Back translation: Bedre. Bo Så kan læse jeg Danish subtitle: Oboy!O’Reilly: National Geographic! Houlihan: Ofcourse. IsO’Reilly: officers’ the it OK ifItry latrine? The Simple Life Simple The Corporal WalterCorporal “Radar” O’Reilly promoted has been to Second 51). This is because the primary aspect is that is aspect becausethe51). This is of primary humour, (5:7.47),where 231), but norm the has now changed. The Swedes have Chapter 6. the co-op Empirical subtitling norms for television is rendered as 158), something which (M*A*S*H 5:4:14.37) Brugsen . In this 214). ------
Beninu Andersen (208233) IP: 85.184.159.51 On: Mon, 27 Jan 2020 04:21:30
Subtitling Norms for Television norm (cf. Section 2.4.2). it arguedcould be thatOtherwise, s/he has broken Chesterman’s accountability responsibilitythe (at least) of making sure that right the connotations are conveyed. SC ECRand replace it with aTC ECRinorder to convey its connotations, s/he has was lost.point The herethat is ifa subtitlertakes it upon her/himself to removea even though some of connotations the have across, carried germane the been one magazine’s ethnographic articles, funny context, original inthe is notion the that, early inthe of 1950s,because the officers’ latrine. However, crucial connotation, the the thatone makes this joke ofthose high-quality aglossy magazine, and apparently one can enjoy inthe those interior-decorating magazine Transcultural subtitle the when in(6.19)was produced, was rendered as the In example (6.19), STthe ECR countries, as situations their are more like Scandinavian the one, than it is to ity of norms the formulated here is probably greater intraditional subtitling studies, applicability their should not absolute. to taken be be The applicabil sources, mainlysecondary research sometimes articles,which are on case based regionthis here, is discussed but as data the from outside region the come from into subtitling the norms evermaderegion. inthis Their applicability outside spheres, are as on they most the based comprehensive empirical investigation formulated here are definitely applicable the to Swedish Danishand subtitling in a general setting, to provide insights new into subtitling norms. The norms findingsIn the section, this the of present be studysummarized, will and placed 6.6 Section 6.6.4. Substitution and other source-oriented strategies we when orientation discuss in to allow for more Cultural Substitution ingeneral. We return will to Cultural difference probably thathasnorm withthe to do fact used Danish the expectancy of use the Cultural Substitution overall countries. the between The reason forthis ence is purely qualitative, as there were no significant quantitative differences in normally found Danish –inthe TTs and none Swedish inthe ones. This differ the defined as usage of Cultural gaps – Substitution indomainswhere it is not from that fact the there were six clear and fiveborderline cases of credibility tolerant of credibility gaps than Swedish the ones.evidence The forthis comes the chancesthe of women semi-naked seeing in young man could legitimately women. semi-naked it see Ithink safe to claim that In conclusion, norms are Danish the expectancy probably alittle still more Formulating subtitling norms Bo Bedre National Geographic (Magazine National Geographic . The connotationsthat were conveyed are Bo Bedre are slim indeed.Thus, very was only the place where a ), which was not Danish - -
Beninu Andersen (208233) IP: 85.184.159.51 On: Mon, 27 Jan 2020 04:21:30 hypernym, reader the is referred to Section 2.3. . myand Idonot hand try at formulating auniversal law. The norms aregiven or aconvention Mere (cf.regularities Section 2.3). figureare Ain not discussed, on howbased strong support norm the has data, inthe it anorm is arule, termed isnorm summarized briefly. is based Thestrength the of isnorm appraised, and master templateSection 6.1.2. in files by process the norms, may which result in protests, it when comes as discussed to straints, or economic norms motives. are expectancy the In cases, affected those are not norms, driven by but expectancy by other motives, such as technical con It should pointed be out, however, that practicesadvocated certain inguidelines may on not extensive based be like present the descriptive surveys investigation. ple tend are to dothings), evenifthey perceived as prescriptive, and evenifthey norms found inguidelines are ultimately descriptive also on (i.e. how based peo with resulting them, incontinuous updating of guidelines. This showsthat many audience, norms, TT aschange, reflected in expectancy the process norms change In other words, norms tastes the when of(or (cf. Section 2.4.2). the expectancy) with Chesterman’s claim that process norms are subject to changes product inthe affect (and/or are affectedactual by) subtitling. very This finding muchin is line iour of subtitlers degree, to ahigh shows which that norms the guidelines inthe investigation is that prescriptive the norms of guidelines coincide with behav the naturecal of present the investigation. In one fact, of findings the the of present notdoes invalidate formulation their here, but is this instead a result of empirithe in various forms degrees and of invarying applicability inguidelines, again which are not are they truisms; quite simply true. tion of decision-making their process. In other words, norms the presented here many done cases here for first the time, couldasacademic seen insteadbe recogni unwarranted. Instead, formulation the of norms the of profession, the is which in behaviourtheir would thus not render formulation academic the of norms these That subtitlers maysome recognize the of normsself-evident as attestations of naturecal of norms, these are which strengthened actually by such areaction. Such areaction might an be inevitable consequence of descriptive the and empiri flingtruisms to subtitlers, maythey as ground-breaking. appear notbe very to below. discussed further subtitling in traditional dubbingtaken countries.be into Thiswill account and
The process of formulating norms looks as follows. The data which the on Prescriptive norms, similar to descriptive the norms formulated here, abound Some, or many, of norms the formulated here perhaps will appear tri to be For adiscussion about perhaps the confusing term the usage of ‘norm’ as both hypo- and Chapter 6. Empirical subtitling norms for television 66 ------
Beninu Andersen (208233) IP: 85.184.159.51 On: Mon, 27 Jan 2020 04:21:30
Subtitling Norms for Television solutions. not This does thatmean the norms are unique twofor these countries; data, two restricted being to countries, these not does warrant any more general explicitly formulated only as of true being Swedish and Danish subtitling, as the not have any general validity for STs from non-Anglophone SCs. The norms are from lated here are waning or waxing, as it were. of there this, is some discussion about of potency the whether normsthe formu to change,ject as there is continuous development of translation norms. Because mulated here, acaveat is norms inorder: the that are formulated here are sub all for conventions, and on. so As for probabilistic the predictability of norms the for adverbial expressions, like ‘normally’ for describing norms, and ‘conventionally’ nature, and donot they contain any numbers; instead are they qualified using situation. in italics and present inthe to current the tense, pertain asScandinavian they 2004, but intents to all and purposes, norms the are as current as possible. . icantly from results the for corpus the ingeneral. It that seemed Swedish subtitlers avoidedbe more inmaterial with densedialogue. instance, space-consuming strategies such as Specification and Paraphrase might that would this expected which affect ECR rendering strategies were used. For programmesdenser inTV than inan average feature film. It couldtherefore be ence insubtitle density two the formats, between as aresult of being dialogue the programmes.TV It(Table that was shown there is a differ inSection 6.2.1.2 6f) by length the and structure of ST, the difference inthe asfilms seen between and subtitling strategies. I am here referring to any differencesbeing brought about ference long the between and short the format would bring with it adifference in An issue that present the study to was designed investigate dif the was whether 6.6.1 than basis for the evidence-based norms the themselves. sources and extrapolation from data the material inthe here, and are they thus less cability and generality of norm. the discussions These aresecondary based on validitythe of norm the outside studied the material, i.e. international the appli mark. Therefore, inconnectionwitheach be adiscussion norm,there aboutwill are they ertheless, empirically only for true conditions the inSweden and Den far from it, subtitlers from many countries probably will recognize but them, nev I want to reiterate that norms the formulated here are on translation based The results this investigationof were negative. The results did not differsignif The norms the situationto pertain actually thewhen corpus sampled, was i.e. mainly in English Long versus short vs.feature format: series TV films 67 The norms formulated are deliberatelybecause vague their of general . Other SLs. Other treated maywell be differently, very the so norms do ------
Beninu Andersen (208233) IP: 85.184.159.51 On: Mon, 27 Jan 2020 04:21:30 tries. Intries. other words, aSwedish (or Danish) subtitler same the uses strategies genres. Ihere refer to results the within countries, the and not coun the between howbetween subtitlers from same the render country two ECRsinthe super foundcan be inhow Swedish and Danish subtitlers render ECRs. tion of present the study are confirmed,even at genre level: no significant differences genres.these It would therefore that seem general the results of main the investiga found how between Danish and Swedish subtitlers render it ECRswhen comes to comprising 37matched texts and comprising action/crime 41matched texts. two are similar. very In way, this two ‘super genres’ were constructed: comedy, genres, genre the of to was crime genre added the of action,as skopos the of these comedy and action.In order to have asimilar number of matched texts inboth I thus only decided to compare most the extensive genres corpus, inthe are which individualthe subtitler, have which decisive influence on how ECRs are rendered. has decisive influence the on number the of ECRsin text theand preferences of data. Thetwo most important factors arethe nature theof individual whichtext, contain few texts, however, very and that would to lead other factors skewing the tion incomedy than Swedes do. other country. For instance, Danish subtitlers might more use Cultural Substitu tlers of one may country treat genre ECRsinacertain differentlythan those the of to investigatedecided The this. hypothesis forthis investigation that was the subti As mentioned previous inthe genre section, may affect how ECRs are rendered. I 6.6.2 differentTV fromsubtitling (cf. e.g. IvarssonCarroll & 1998: behaviouraffect morethan format. DVD subtitling has been often shown be to affect how ECRs aretreated. Medium and directness arewhich might cases other is an influencing sub-parameterthat maywell coincide with very format thusand factorsOther may of course influencetheir decision-making.Genre, for instance, no reasonbe why should this of not subtitlers true be outside Scandinavia as well. work in much samethe way regardless of formatthe of ST, the and there to seems general. It therefore safe seems to say that Scandinavian out subtitlers their carry moredid not vary than a percentage point or two as compared to corpusthe in results were not statistically significant, however, theand breakdown of strategies evenkeener onbe Substitution short inthe format are than they ingeneral. These throughout investigation. the Danish The subtitlers, the on other hand, seemed to had apreference for Specificationthe in short format, havethey as seemed to have
Interestingly enough there were no statistically significant differences The results this investigationof were negative. No significant differences were ScandinavianThe SubtitlesCorpus contains 11 genres. Most these genresof Differences of genre Chapter 6. Empirical subtitling norms for television 30ff). - - - -
Beninu Andersen (208233) IP: 85.184.159.51 On: Mon, 27 Jan 2020 04:21:30
Subtitling Norms for Television comedy and action/crime, of both share which skopos the of entertaining, being corpus is again limited too to warrant any conclusions drawn beyond those for crime, it may indicative be of differencesbetween other genres. The the in data ment of ECRsis not indicative of genre differencesbetween comedy and action/ age of Retention is just brought up here to illustrate that eventhough treat the to give reliable data. The differencedocumentaries between theand overall aver thathalf of corpus the in its entirety. Four matched texts are, however, not enough onused Monocultural four texts ECRsinthe corpus inthe documentary is about never indicative of genre differences. For instance,percentagethe Retentionof of two genres. these However, not does this mean that treatment the of ECRsis treatmentthe of ECRsis two genresthese donot affect how ECRs aretreated. This the has indication that is asurprising result. It means that on macro-level, the difference the in skopos of two genresthese are differentboth they are (evenif meantbe entertaining), to this forequally titles in the Danishtitles inthe films. thereAs were more TTssubtitlesDanishthe in the in result the was asignificant difference of10.4%gated more inSection 6.2, sub is that of subtitling density. Of independentthe contemporary subtit norms Sweden between and Denmark that was found present inthe investigation subtitling norms is field. technical inthe Theonly national difference in subtitling made clear, however, is that only the significant differenceScandinavian between must therefore a topic be for future research. What presentthe investigation has normscal were more alike, but Ihave no data to support such ahypothesis; this It is possible that 1970s,before inthe DR introduced practice, this techni the its Danish counterpart. This led to quantitative differences intechnical norms. practiceofthe using electronic the for later time-code cueing purposes than DR, and Danish norms, not Swedish the least because public broadcaster introduced regionthis today than 15years ago. moreseems likely that Swedish and Danish norms are same the as norms outside as somethingseen positive for universality the of norms the formulated here, as it 1990s,andbegan inthe is which an on-going process. This could arguablybe ferences, before particularly rapid the change European inthe which mediascape of norms on fronts. all before, As discussed has such been there to be dif used Danish subtitling are notoriously hard to find. Thereseems bea to convergence As should have become clear by now, national differencesbetween Swedish and 6.6.3 lower-leveleven iftheir skopoi are different. In 1980s,there the were some rather differences striking the between Swedish Technical subtitling norms: Differences in subtitle density rendering comedy ECRsinboth and action/crime. As skopoi the of not indicative of differences the the between subtitling les investi ------
Beninu Andersen (208233) IP: 85.184.159.51 On: Mon, 27 Jan 2020 04:21:30 economic incentive for using Anglophone subtitling norms, as present inGenesis own countries, but internationally. also in aunique position to influencewhich normstheir in particularly shouldbe used, Anglophonethe entertainment owns industry productthe subtitled, to be are they buffs), and would presumably also require exposure higher times. Nevertheless, as countries as well: viewers their are not to subtitles used eitherare (unlessthey film siasm for subtitling countries. in these This is of coursetrue for the Anglophone viewers are instead getting shorter exposure might which times, enthu the curb longer of exposure influence the Because times. of Anglophone norms, those as one would presume that audiences that are not to subtitles used would require comparingwhen Greek and Spanish counter-intuitive, subtitles. This is otherwise omitwhich less and have reading higher as found speeds, e.g. by Sokoli (2009) 2009). This explainswhy been it foundhas that dubbing countries have subtitles companies do, of because incentive the of economies ( of scale present inHollywood’swhichwhat is files, Genesis the multinational subtitling This meansthat much the simplest very solution there is to adhere theto norms titling tradition back on, to fall apoint made e.g. by Georgakopoulou (2009: traditional dubbing countries, countries these donot have along-standing sub ingly to easy find subtitled Berlinfilms incinemas and in Paris, for example. Being DVDs and online movie access, but for also cinema: the it is becoming increas here.tries Traditional dubbing countries subtitling use also days, these mainly for lished pattern subtitling the between of traditional dubbing and subtitling coun established itself, rather than it whether happened at There all. is afairly estab probably more likely development this when to be and started at it pace which similar for subtitlingbeen all countries, and differences the that canbe found are countries were harmonized. It likely that very seems development the pattern have introducing economies of above scale, master all template norms files, between anbecame important factor 1990s,with inthe multinational subtitling companies introduced 1980s,exposure inthe were times lowered, and globalization when casters more or less own developed their norms. was when Then, technology new in most subtitling countries, earlier. as discussed Before 1980s,national the broad itscale, is to easy imagine a similar development of technical norms place taking remnant of old the norms of Scandinavia that inoperation is still today. Onalarger The norm above may ratherseem bland, but it is importantthat in theit is only warranted: vast majority of matched texts (but not following the all),
The developmentthat canbe from predicted trendthis that is there great is a slightly more subtitles than aSwedish independently subtitled TT. If all other factors are equal, aDanish independently subtitled normally TT has Chapter 6. Empirical subtitling norms for television subtitle density Georgakopoulou
norm 32). is is ------
Beninu Andersen (208233) IP: 85.184.159.51 On: Mon, 27 Jan 2020 04:21:30
Subtitling Norms for Television produced subtitles, of course. of three norms the technical here. discussed This is fortrue only independently festation of national cueing practices,may last the to be become standardized As pointed out earlier, that it case the to subtitle seems be density, is which amani forspeeds subtitling the countries, have until they reached Anglophone the level. norms to slow down them or not. This should result incontinuallyrising reading regardlesstries, have of they whether a“luggage” of individual national subtitling monize, or flattenwhich (choose verb you like) subtitling norms for most coun that pull of the Anglophone powerful the norms continue will to standardize, har of place inother evidence taking this countriessecondary to. It thus likely seems moving in that direction, as has proved in Scandinavia, case the to and be there is extent for subtitling. their The norms of individual subtitling countries are also files and master templatefiles. The dubbing countries thisaalready do to great mon, but source-oriented inall, all strategies (Retention, Direct Translation and Granted, third the and last source-oriented strategy, Specification, com is not very of Direct Translation solutions, may which result inforeign-sounding Calques. dered by Retention were which not To extracted. that shouldanumber added be corpus. In corpus, the there remains alarge number of uncomplicated ECRsren renderings, and TT thatall is only on that those based were from extracted the Ingies. most of categories these of ECRs, Retention alone in about is used 2/3 of fromECRs extracted corpus the are rendered mainly by source-oriented strate results in6.3,one section the findsthat uncomplicated All thecase. this isindeed tive of use target-oriented strategies insubtit a constant reminder of foreign the origin of text. the This might lead to restric foreign text. Also, as subtitling is additive innature, source the remains dialogue informationthan ones verbal the carry that bring will across otherness the of the programmeTV is produced. In post-production AVT, other channels semiotic meanswhich that scripts the would translated be before and localized film the or domesticated,very however, unlesspre-production AVT, e.g. versioning, is used, investigated present inthe project are can polysemiotic texts, never they become In otheroriented. words, it is my version of Toury’s norm”. “initial As texts the thus to whole TTs. will pertain section symptomatic of overall translation strategies, and that norms inthis the discussed therefore argued be that treatment the of translation problems caused by ECRsis forECRs, is atrigger strategic behaviour on of part the translator. the It could Thetreatment translationof problems, causedsuch those as by Monocultural 6.6.4 The orientationsource-TT shouldbe norm dictates whether a target- or Orientation norms: Foreign or domesticated subtitles led polysemiotic at texts.led Looking the ------
Beninu Andersen (208233) IP: 85.184.159.51 On: Mon, 27 Jan 2020 04:21:30 accessible to the TT audience.accessible to TT the The guidance norms are presentedSection 6.6.5. in . ers, Gottlieb’s (2001: macro-level.the Following tradition DTS the of building on of evidence the oth renderings ingeneral have on aTT, orientation the so norm is thus stronger on where Monocultural ECRsare clearly minority, inthe and influence the that ECR on micro-level. the However, orientation the of normon sorts isECRs, all based Monocultural orientation the ECRs,so norm is weaker than guidance the norms tioned, there is something like afifty-fifty split orientationin when it comes to guidance norms is due to findingsthe for Monocultural ECRs. alreadyAs men The restriction the on applicability the of orientation norm not to clashwiththe to grow stronger future. inthe tion, following the egy, Retention. Unlike subtitle the density norm formulated previous inthe sec meansthis less for time research favours which source-oriented primary the strat subtitles remuneration isreduced, drastically as is pecuniary the of subtitlers, the tors to subtitling the pertain situation: asthat time the into goes preparation the of hadago, a few decades which we saw fac Other in discussionthe in Section 6.2.2. countries have agreater knowledge of English language and culture(s) than they ingeneral.and may For to these society pertain audiences instance, inmost TT the other factorsalso that indicate development afurther towards source-orientation formin the of Retention, as testified by SVT’sÅkerberg (p.c., June, 2006). There are Swedishthe solution inexample (6.5), meant that viewers the could not access ECRinquestion, the as exemplified by are where evencases source-orientation prioritized has has been eventhough this prescriptive guidelines, which generally favour source-orientated solutions. There holtz looked at (2007), who ECRsinasitcom. More of evidence comes this from by studies the looked ofat (2004),who shows, Orrevall ECRsintalk and Stein said that source-orientation generally prevails. This conclusionbacked also is up results from Scandinavian the Subtitles Corpus are into taken account, it must be or not viewers the can access an the ECRdefinitely influencesorientation. all If that source-oriented strategies make up renderings, about whether so TT the half at Monocultural ECRs,one findsthat solutionsthe are moreevenly spread, and Specification) are in an used majorityoverwhelming of ECR Lookingrenderings.
The trendbe general seemstowards even moresource-orientation, specifically Guidance norms regulate interventional whether strategies are to render used an ECR provided that this does not clash with the guidance norms. Swedish and Danish subtitled texts normally make of use source-oriented solutions, Scandinavian subtitling orientation subtitling Scandinavian 115–159) findings of subtitles as mediators of Anglicisms Chapter 6. Manifest Destiny Empirical subtitling norms for television
norm . can thus be expected can thus expected be 68 ------
Beninu Andersen (208233) IP: 85.184.159.51 On: Mon, 27 Jan 2020 04:21:30
Subtitling Norms for Television (2001: tures frequently get reproduced in subtitles, which is clear of evidence interference targetthe text”. As Gottlieb found, Anglophone items lexical and struc syntactic nomena to make-up the pertaining of source the text tend transferred to be to established, namely Toury’s law of interference (1995: Thisas seen norman effectcanbe translation ofa which alreadylaw is fairly material:sual titling investigation, might therefore reformulated be as astronger and more general ScandinavianThe subtitling orientation thenorm,based on results the of present structures and itemstactic lexical were copied integrated or otherwise TTs. inthe into taken be could also account. Gottlieb has shown that many English SL syn section. . save weights and measures. It as asafe for seen bet can be you subtitler; the never remains aviable option and acommon alternative for ECRsfrom domains, all all language systems (cf. discussion the on proper Retention names inSection 3.2.3), ECR strategy. to nature Due the of ECRsand often their integration minimal in such strong input to orientation the norm is that as adefault it seen could be One important reason why Retention prevails among strategiesthe and provides supports orientation the norm formulated above: formulationthe of perhaps the rather bland nal, source-oriented solution like Retention are bound to prevail. This brings us to foreign.become truly Furthermore, offrom because feedback the effect the origi subtitling. of ever-presentBecause the ST, it is not possible for a subtitled text to phrase”the (2010: unobtrusive and thus legible, easily keeping alowpossible profilesense of every in know awidespread to be norm insubtitling whereby captions the have short, to be ingly puts it discussing when standardising norms “consistent being with what we supportedis also by other the channels. semiotic Oras Delabastita rather strik a resistant TT, is strong as fluencyideal the in subtitling, theand messageverbal The subtitling orientation as seen an effectbe mediumthenorm of can also of These normsThese govern exeptionsfrom the Retention norm domains. in certain Cf. the next
orientation 115–159). One should not, however, assume that interference this to leads oriented. Subtitles of English language films TV andprogrammes are generallysource- Official Equivalent norm. subtitlers, except where it clashes with the Weights and measures norm and the Retention normally is for used rendering all kinds of ECRsby Swedish and Danish
norm 214). about orientation the of subtitles of Anglophone audiovi 69 Retention norm Retention 275): “In translation, phe , which is, which anorm that sub ------
Beninu Andersen (208233) IP: 85.184.159.51 On: Mon, 27 Jan 2020 04:21:30 regards and genre, media etc. sion as shorthandbook for decribing traditional the . dubbing the because medium allows it: there is no feedback from original. the This more target-oriented solutions indubbing used being than insubtitling, not least itself is by definition moretarget-oriented than subtitling, thisand might lead to subtitles produced intraditional dubbing and subtitling countries. audiences’ greater knowledge of Anglophone culture. ing solutions are not as acceptable today were as they twenty years ago, of because Danishthe as an norm indication seen could be of development. this Domesticat domesticatingsuch as very the strategy Cultural Substitution. The development of towards more source-orientation, and a move away from target-oriented strategies today’s subtitling. There is a strong trend general towards moreRetention thusand importance, important to highlight someused can asbe very they trends in stitution is only the strategy that is restricteddomains. to certain Cultural Substitution norm limits strategy and the not domains. the Cultural Sub ECRs from other domains. In other words (as its name implies), of scope the the from domains the listed init, only that Cultural Substitution is not employed on Substitution norm not does imply that other strategies are not employed for ECRs always strong been inSweden. It should perhaps emphasized be that Cultural the Denmark, The in seemsbe norm rise the to on and it normhas (cf. Section 2.3). upon as “old-fashioned” being inDenmark.frowning This makes it a prototypical However, Cultural the when Substitution norm is broken, result the is frowned shown,has are been these tolerated slightly more inDenmark than inSweden. If Cultural the Substitution norm is broken, result the is acredibility gap, and as norm Substitution ited range of strategy makes this it warranted to formulate following the Section 6.5 that strategy has this inSweden restricted use and Denmark. The lim stitution, is which most the domesticating strategy possible. It was shown in tion is infelicitous, but it never to leads an error. do anything wrong using when Retention. There whichare in usingcases Reten
, other forms even if of AVT are present situation the and even if may quite be complex as Just withnorms, technical the as was case the there adifference to seems be in The general applicability the of norms formulated is section thisgreat of in If we at look other the end of orientation the we find scale, Cultural Sub The reader is thatreminded ‘dubbing country’ and ‘subtitling country’this in is used Swedish and Danish subtitlers. institutional names, education, government, titles, and food and beverages by Cultural Substitution normally is only to used render ECRspertaining to . Chapter 6. main mode of of mode AVT for Empirical subtitling norms for television most genres 70 Dubbing in on televi on Cultural Cultural ------
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Subtitling Norms for Television tries. Since Anglophone the tries. entertainment is dominant industry internationally, it intraditional dubbingseen) countries than innon-Anglophone subtitling coun is simply a matter of quantity: many more local-language films are produced (and are differentfrom subtitling countries in one important They aspect. are it bigger: here, effect the which of maybe hard to gauge. for DVDs and on video demand, means which that there ashift in ismedium also such conclusions as subtitles intraditional dubbing countries are mainly made than subtitles from e.g. Scandinavia. However, it might dangerous be to draw norms indubbing countries makingmore them respect, inthis target-oriented ian subtitles. It is possible that some of norms the of dubbing may affect subtitling Similarly, Bucaria (2010)found Italian dubbing more to be manipulative than Ital found(2009) who Spanish dubbing more target-oriented than Spanish subtitles. is more domesticating than French subtitling and Hurtado deMendoza Azaola found by been has true e.g. also to Pettit be found (2009),who that French dubbing seem also to be moving to be also towardsseem source-orientation insubtitling, but dubbing their ofbecause greater their exposure to Anglophone cultures. The dubbing countries norms, it subtitling the to seems be countries that are development, leading this of Anglophone audiovisual material. Unlike development the for technical the it is Anglophonespeaking, the cultures that are doing influencing. the influenced generally very by cultures. other This is hardly surprising, as generally (2001: interlingual subtitles target-oriented, tend very to be as pointed out by Gottlieb subtitles on depends its members’ exposure to source the culture. Anglophone Consulting Group 2007: that traditional dubbing countries more see subtitles cinema in the (cf. Media anymore” (2009: nowadays, many cultural allusions present inUSfilms are not adapted to Spanish becoming more familiar with some of America’s cultural referents.why, This is de Mendoza Azaola givesthat to effect evidence the “Spanish is rapidlysociety subtitles are more domesticating than Swedish ones, for instance. some indications that Ericsson might case. (2009)found this the be that French ture would presumably infavour be of target-oriented strategies, and there are in traditional dubbing countries. centage of Anglophone movies with English–than –particularly viewers dialogue means that viewers in traditional subtitling countries are to per a higher exposed Thus,the nature of dubbing and lower degree of exposure to Anglophonecul Another important here aspect is that major the countries that dubbing use Summing up, we a general can trend see of source-orientation in subtitles How far a culture has come on roadthe towards source-orientation in its Thereevidence is of norm change in dubbing countries as well. Hurtado 115–159), and this can be seen as atoken115–159), and seen can this be of Anglophone societies’ not being 82). It is interesting to compare development this with trend the 66). - - - -
Beninu Andersen (208233) IP: 85.184.159.51 On: Mon, 27 Jan 2020 04:21:30 to make such adecision as Ihave had to analyse it; point the is that they status of an havethey ECR–after all not nearly as muchtime their disposal at complain about subtitlers not always doing enough research to establish exact the and versa vice (cf. e.g. example (6.5), a Monocultural ECRmore objectively considered could be aTranscultural ECR titler’s choice of strategy indicates that what to her or himhas appeared to be Transculturality of aText There ECR. occasions External are whereseveral a sub it necessarily mean that subtitlers make informed decisions about degree the of with regard to status the of an ECR as Text Internal or Text nor External, does parameters not does necessarily mean that have they made an objective decision haps how also should this done. be that The fact subtitlers seem aware these of subtitlers how important it is to access secure to ECR the for viewer,the and per below. discussed be ECRs were interventional strategies with any used great frequency, and will this from Monocultural ECRsby subtitlers. the it Only when comes to Monocultural ECRs,Infraculturalnal ECRsand Transcultural ECRsare treated differently very have formulated awareness this terms. The inthose results showthat Text Inter show that subtitlers are aware very of two parameters, these may evenifthey not by accessed way ECRcan viewers. the be The aparticular Section 6.3 results in ality and Extratextuality are paramount, indicate as these to subtitler the inwhich involved” parties the all between (1997: insuchact away as to optimize communication, as required by situation, the of as Chesterman’s aspects seen be “communication norm: atranslator should audience toand TT egies guidethe aid it inaccessing ECRs.As such, can they The guidance whennormswith and deal how a subtitler interventional uses strat 6.6.5 points right inthe direction. ever, and it unlikely not too sources does that seem of evidence the secondary the studies). evencase times The development Scandinaviafor is well-attested, how non-Scandinavian subtitling development are on fairly based studies small (some here though, that many to describe sources section inthis of used secondary the source-oriented) solutions to next-generation subtitlers. Iwould like to point out practiceofthe using master templatewhich files, provides ready-made (mainly orientation, of because increasingthe dominance of Anglophone culture, and that subtitling both and dubbing countries continue will to move towards source- make subtitling the behind trail them countries It respect. inthis likely seems tradition and lower the influencefrom Anglophoneculture (at least historically)
The parameterThe importantCentrality of also very is here, as it indicates the to Guidance norms: Whether or not to aid viewer the Chapter 6. Manifest Destiny 69). In parameters the this, of Transcultur Empirical subtitling norms for television ). The point). The here is not to actually actually ------
Beninu Andersen (208233) IP: 85.184.159.51 On: Mon, 27 Jan 2020 04:21:30
Subtitling Norms for Television used to explainused individual solutions, from as seen examples the can be inthe nated did not parameters discuss at The all. parameters other have insteadbeen For instance, origi most of studies the taxonomies the inwhich inSection 4.1 investigationin the considered could be an improvement over previous studies. alackadaisical to state be seem to leave matter the in,but just including them entangling for them would daunting too a general be overview a task. This may parameters all because interact and are intertwinedmany inso ways that dis 6.3). This is properly quantified the during present investigationSection (in subtitlers’ is understandable. thus perfectly to it; that fact the my categorization of not ECRsdoes always coincide with the decision on aborderline is bound case to have an arbitrary or subjective element parameters. And, as was explained in5.1,Transculturality works on acline, any so categories of present the investigation, which proves awarenesstheir of these adecision, and that vast the majoritymake such of decisions coincide with the rather than anorm: Retention, it so is probably fairfollowing the to call an of have ECRswhich compositional and sense were which rendered still through and consist of proper names of people and places. There were, however, a number ECRs that are rendered through Retention, on other the hand, are often opaque, ing’ i.e. altering ECR, the or scope the reference the of linguistic the The sign. guistic knowledge, and subtitler the not has of still intervened sense inthe ‘chang subtitler TL,the in the makes viewers the able to access it through intralin their without resorting to interventional strategies. By rendering a Text Internal ECR compositional In sense. way, this subtitler the aids viewers the access ECR the one finds, not surprisingly,that these are constructed of common nouns and have made accessible. as Text textthe where and External between a link world external the has to be ECRs nal in awayfree and thus as potential of objects translation, rather than of frequency the Direct Translation shows that can feel treat they they Text Inter ECRs shows that parameter this much is very alive for Scandinavian subtitlers; but absent. The difference in treatment between External Text and Text Internal was mainly as aspace-saving used interventional the device, strategies were all tural ECRs.Apart from Generalization, of case inthe which Text Internal ECRs should compared be 3 and to cent between 7 per for Monocultural and Transcul Translation fairly regularly (on about one quarter of occasions). all This share that Textshown inSection 6.3.1 Internal ECRswere rendered through Direct present study. As for split the Text between and External Text Internal ECRs,it was Extratextuality and Transculturality are only the parameters that have been If one at looks Text the Internal ECRswhere Direct Translation used, has been Extratextuality
convention ------,
Beninu Andersen (208233) IP: 85.184.159.51 On: Mon, 27 Jan 2020 04:21:30 a combination of parameter the of Transculturality and parameters the of co-text clear. As was explained inSection 6.3.2.1, most of renderings these are result the of to render Monocultural ECRs,making up 37.8%and between 40.4%, make this from other influencingparameters, however. The many cases Retention of used with Monocultural used gies ECRs. Transculturality cannot in isolation viewed be forevidence awareness this comes from prevalence the of interventional strate not have any objective standard for what is Monocultural and what is not. The Transculturality, may evenifthey not have formulated awareness this and may moresee Retention evenof Text Internal future. ECRsinthe of interventional solutions inSpain days. these It thus likely does seem that we will Mendoza Azaola (2009: more common in seen countriesother Thiscanbe then. as well, as e.g. de Hurtado from 1980sandrial the early 1990s,one findsthat Direct Translation was indeed is due to scarcity the of older material corpus. inthe If one at looks other mate general trend. There are only a handful examplesthese of the corpus, in butthat One example not does prove anything, of course, but it is afine example of a Coughlin’s prosody uttering when it, and donot affectthe name barthe of millennium. Thenew differences in punctuation inexample (6.20) are causedby by superseded has Retention been solutions (employed by subtitlers) both inthe Example (6.20)illustrates how asolution using Direct Translation 1980s inthe owntheir bar, name the of eventually which is: corpus.in the In more norm-like, stable. should Therevery be thatevidence is points trend this to with compositional Particularly sense. latter the of half convention, the is which English language, Retention probably will come more used to be evenon ECRs earlier,cussed as people are becoming more and more knowledgeable about the It not unlikely does that seem Extratextuality the convention is waning. As dis
(6.20) As was explained introduction inthe subtitlers to section, this are aware of Swedish and Danish subtitlers. subtitlers. If such an opaque ECRis it normally is rendered through Retention by conventionally rendered through Direct Translation by Swedish and Danish If an Text ECRis Internal and it has transparent compositional it sense is Cocktail och drömmar… och Cocktail Swedish subtitle (A.D. circa1989) andCocktails… dreams. Danish subtit andCocktails… dreams. Swedish subtitle: andCocktails dreams. Cocktail le: 82) claims that Retention is gaining ground at expense the , Brian Flanagan about and talk opening Doug Coughlin Chapter 6. Empirical subtitling norms for television (Cocktail 23.37) (Cocktail per se - - - .
Beninu Andersen (208233) IP: 85.184.159.51 On: Mon, 27 Jan 2020 04:21:30
Subtitling Norms for Television ECRs from Infra- and Transculturalsecond ECRs.The accounts cases for those The first conditionalclause the in norm formulatedabove separates Monocultural account, following the is considered Monocultural or not. Taking results these all and parameters into considerations audience, aboutmuch TT very the which whether affect an ECR titling Situation should into taken be account for eachindividual not case, least the space required to render Finally, them. amultitude of factors arising from Sub the ity enters into equation the as well: some ECRsare peripheralworth too to the be Monocultural ECRwas omitted, and indicates this that parameter the of Central cally, and there then is for no need interventional strategies. Roughly, tenth every and Polysemiotics. In other words, aMonocultural ECRmay accessible be deicti considered Monocultural, to be rather than treatment the ECRsreceive. these It is and culture(s). However, is this more likely to affectthe number thatof ECRs are using more and more Retention, due to a greater know ment of Infracultural ECRs. omitted, first the two so clauses the of Monocultural norm account fortreatthe make up renderings, three quarters and of TT of half all remaining the share is renderedbe through changeminimal solutions: Retention and Direct Translation ECRs are accessible deictically, causing no translation problems, will and they so from surmised Monoculturalcan the be norm. The vast majority of Infracultural is to no need formulate aseparate norm for Infracultural ECRs,as treatment their relatively often,whichperhaps is aconsequence their of Infracultural status. There ECRs that are omitted most frequently, shows also which peripheral to them be ducers known to cannotthem be by expect audience. their Also, are these the Polysemiotics. Infracultural ECRswould accessible be deictically, as ST the pro cultural ECRs,and is this due to influence the parametersthe of of co-text and Section 2.3. are relatively rare deviations, tolerated can be they by norm, the as explained in Retention or where cases Omission irresponsibly, used has been but as these Granted, there are where cases an inaccessible rendered ECRhas been through behaviour of subtitlers inrendering Monocultural ECRs.It is thus astrong norm. responsibly. This meansthat the above norm accounts for morethan 90% the of accessible.third The clause accounts wherefor thecases Omission used been has where co-text the and Polysemiotics the make Monocultural ECRsdeictically The Monocultural normsaidbe couldbe under from siegeto thetrend of We have that seen interventional strategies are rarely very for used Infra Danish subtitlers normally interventional use strategies to make it accessible. and if it not is accessible deictically, and it central is on some level, Swedish and If an considered ECRis to be Monocultural, i.e.not accessible encyclopaedically, Monocultural
norm can be formulated: can be ledge of English language ------
Beninu Andersen (208233) IP: 85.184.159.51 On: Mon, 27 Jan 2020 04:21:30 more than 90%of data, the it so is strongly warranted: sary, versionThe this used. be following will constraintsspecific Centrality theandparameters make permissibleit and neces preformed TL version” (1994: are probably Equivalents Official as well. There is thus what callsLeppihalme “a that should that added be most of more the than 60% of renderings by Retention EquivalentsOfficial that in1/5all cases used are of were included the in study. To 90% of and cases, the what makes point unique them from of is that aTT view omitted. Instead, are they rendered through change minimal solutions inalmost interventional strategies, and are they rarely renderings) (incirca 6.5%of TT all cause translation problems. Transcultural ECRsare rarely very rendered through sible by encyclopaedically ST the audience audience donot and they alike; TT the and (ii)of minor importance, as Transcultural ECRsby definition be acces would textthe is (this something that Trans- and Monocultural ECRshave incommon) isthis (i)by chance, and to not speak, so as aprerequisite for inclusion their in solutions. Even though Transcultural accessible ECRsmaywell be deictically, very a risk of insubtitling adecrease quality. subtitlers not helping viewers the as much as seen need. This mightbe asthen they other words, there is arisk of Monocultural the norm losing strength, and thus of more used being irresponsibly, and Retention more used ininfelicitous In cases. donotthey have to time the find a felicitoussolution. This mightlead toOmission turality level of ECRsas much could, as they or that do, they but that decide then work-load, there is arisk of subtitlers not to time the assess Transcul taking the subtitling world, with its decreasing and salaries available time and increasing time and effort,sometimes more sometimesand less. Unfortunately, in today’s viewers know about The ECR. problem acertain withthis appraisalthat is takes it a “Transculturality appraisal”, means basically which that work they out what the 2010a), I expand on subjectthe of how subtitlersout what carry termed could be audience can work out what an ECRrefers to. In arecent chapter book (Pedersen to do so. The problem, of course, is how a subtitler wouldknow when her or his comes across an important ECRthat audience the cannot work out, s/he helps them trend that is not. ing of TTs, the is this by so and large unproblematic. Yet, there is another potential perhaps applied be less frequently. This would not viewers’the affect understand therefore possible that Monocultural the remain norm will stable future, inthe yet
Transcultural ECRsare overwhelmingly rendered through change minimal The Monocultural normbe could reworded less formallythis: like ifa subtitler Swedish and Danish subtitlers normally space use, permitting. If an identified ECRis as Transcultural, it has a pre-formedsolution TL that the 94) that and used, can be provided that media- the Chapter 6. Transcultural norm Empirical subtitling norms for television has support from from support has - - - -
Beninu Andersen (208233) IP: 85.184.159.51 On: Mon, 27 Jan 2020 04:21:30
Subtitling Norms for Television frequent behaviour. norm-based micro-level,the as that would impossible. be Instead, account they for most the level solutions, and as such, donot they account for subtitling all behaviour on strategictrigger behaviour from subtitlers. The lower-level norms apply to micro- areas these onesthe that cause translation problems, and thus onesthe that would The norms formulated based on mainlybe will section this Monocultural in ECRs, 6.6.6 strategy. was found in corpus,the except for Generalization as a space-saving used when probablywill marginalize of few cases the interventional further strategies that as more ECRsbecome Transcultural, increasing the trend towards Retention ger, is this probably so anorm on Not rise. the only it applied be will more often, The Transcultural norm is gainingscope,the in as anglicisingtrend grows stron the entertainmentthe domain. The entertainment international is industry very and mon, albeit not as sovereign as weights inthe and measures One of is rule. these There are domainsother whichthe inuse of Equivalentan Official very com is and measures rule words it In was arule. interest the of consistency, it is repeated here as son for premature this formulation was that it wasstrong too to ignore; in other basis of the be norms the formulated here. cation leading to general patterns of interplay domains between and strategies will interplay domain between and translation strategy. Instead, approximate quantifi makes quantification exact futile, as notit does facilitate our understanding the of domains,between is which result the of multifunctional ECRsand nested ECRs, caused) without nested the taking ECRinto account. The complex overlapping For instance, credibilitythe gap in (4.15) serious drawback is that such aprocedure would simplified too be be useful. to backs, however, as it not does solve problem the of multifunctional ECRs.Another ignore nested ECRsand only regard top-levelserious the draw ECRs.This has very commonand is this avery pattern. One way of simplifying process the would to be ECR from one domain may nested be in another ECRfrom a different domain, feasible. practically tothis be It was shown already in example (4.15) ECRsbyextracted domain, as there isgreat too an overlap domains between for There will be no There will attempt at properly quantifyingthe distribution the of One domain-specific normalready was Theformulatedrea Section 6.3.1. in Lower-level norms Equivalent by Swedish and Danish subtitlers. Weights and measures are rendered through the of use a(usually metric) Official : NYU could not have explained been (nor NYU, the weights that an - - - - -
Beninu Andersen (208233) IP: 85.184.159.51 On: Mon, 27 Jan 2020 04:21:30 other ways of rendering names, without necessarily causing negative reactions. It should noted be that is this a convention, not a norm, there being quite a few warranted to formulate following the overwhelmingthe number of proper names rendered through Retention makes it Retention is by far mostthe common strategy for rendering proper names, and not strategy, only inevery substrategy taxonomy. inthe but inevery also However, any of strategies the available, and there are examples of proper names represented through Retention. There arealternatives, however. be can They rendered through fromextracted corpus, the it is not surprising that are they mainly rendered dubbedto into be mother their tongue. yet at series, low sameso the time be thatTV content the need particular they of it of English enough is supposed high for to be to them understand title of the this norm may fairly be strong internationally, and viewers’ (ii)German knowledge Germany indicative to andbe seen can this be of two things:entertainment (i)the series instance, TV the there is ageneral trend of not translatingdays. titlesthese TV titles of film andFor is thus to say that entertainment the norm is inScandinavia. only However, true etc. rendered can be through Direct Translation inmany countries.safest The bet There seemsbe acertain amount to of international variation here,titles book as Equivalentas Official the takes norm precedence the over entertainment norm. below), as illustrated inexample (4.17), Retention, entertainment the norm clashes Equivalent with Official the (see norm there is anEquivalent Official Retention, on based not theand uses subtitler still is anEquivalent Official or the not; in latter Retention case, used. tends be to If The choice Equivalentbetween Official and Retentionbased there whether on is mulate following the through of use the anEquivalent Official Retention or makes it warranted to for wherecases ECRsfrom domains the of literature and entertainment are rendered wherecases, there is noEquivalent, Official Retention used instead. is The many tice. Often, however,the Equivalent Official based on is Retention, andin other a sub-domain of entertainment, might which explain similarity prac the inthis erature, albeit not quite as commonly. Literature inmany can as also seen be cases normally creates Equivalents Official by decision. official Theis true same for lit
When it comes to proper names, make which up majority the of ECRs the Danish subtitlers. Proper names are conventionally rendered through Retention by Swedish and ofuse an Official Equivalent or Retention by Swedish and Danish subtitlers. ECRs pertaining to entertainment and literature are normally rendered through the entertainment norm Desperate Housewives Desperate Chapter 6. proper name convention E.R : . The result is often infelicitousdeemed is called exactly that exactly aired when is called in Empirical subtitling norms for television : - - -
Beninu Andersen (208233) IP: 85.184.159.51 On: Mon, 27 Jan 2020 04:21:30
Subtitling Norms for Television The currency normcurrency currentThe is a even if so norm,to Cultural speak, Substitution lowing would(which make ICRs, them rather than ECRs)referring to currency. The fol Grant and Jackson of currency. There were twoonly exceptions this to norm (example (6.9) becomes anorm. we may more seeing be of convention this future, inthe up to point the it when through Direct Translation as often they areas retained. above,As discussed treatment of institutional names of Text Internal tend ECRs,which rendered to be not under proper the fall name convention.perhaps The most striking onethe is There are sub-domains certain that, due the influenceto of other parameters, do longer film. the than title the of hugeso (at least for Swedish circumstances) that translation the solution has stayed with me at time, the it so was technically correct. However, credibility the gap that it openedup was SEK’). This was the to close going exchange ratebetween Swedishthecurrency and U.S. dollar utterance “I’ll you bet adollar” was rendered as “Jag slår vad om åtta kronor”, (i.e. ‘I’ll 8 bet . even though there was anEquivalent Official onbased anotherstrategy. infelicitous.be This was shown inexample (4.17) The Equivalent Official norma is typical norm in that if it is broken, thewill result precedence. takes then It formulated can be simply as follows: it was mentioned that might they clash with the it likely seems that norm this is on increase. the euro have more similar exchange rates than dollarthe and say, Italianthe lira had, ECRs. Given power the of dollar the and that fact the dollar, the pound the and the prohibit of sort this solution, and demand that Retention for used be currency approximate equivalent of currency. the Nowadays, most Scandinavian guidelines like solution the inexample (6.17) common as Cultural Substitution +Generalization solutions, resulting insubtitles past,in the pure Cultural Substitution solutions ECRswere to currency not as solutions found could be eveninSwedish TTs as late as early the 1990s. There is a strong norm infavour Retentionof when it comes the domainto In discussionthe of entertainmentthe norm and Retentionthe norm above, Anecdotally, I could mention amediocre comedy seeing back1980s, in the where the currency norm and Danish subtitlers ECRs pertaining to currency are normally rendered through Retention by Swedish and Danish subtitlers. If an ECR has an Official Equivalent, this equivalent is normallyused by Swedish and (6.17), is thus very strong, is thus very bordering on arule: being tenner tenner ) and are these arguably slang expressions
→ ‘en hund’, is which after all only an Official Equivalent norm E.R, where Retention was used, Franklin, Franklin, 71 , which , which Even -
Beninu Andersen (208233) IP: 85.184.159.51 On: Mon, 27 Jan 2020 04:21:30 that warrant formulation the of anorm or convention. As Centrality is more the of threethe other ways two parameters these can combine, patterns were found strategy according is used, to patterns data: the no particular were found. For each centralbe or peripheral. If an ECRis peripheral and constraints the are any weak, four ways: constraints media-specific the may be weak or strong and canan ECR clinesthe are simplified pointstwoto two parameterseach,these can combine in on complex clines,following the so norms are on general based assessments. If Again, norms these cannot quantified, really be parameters boththese as function tler. The occurs makesregularitywhichthis with it warranted to formulate norms. combine incomplex ways to influencethe decision-making process the of subti of any norms (or conventions) on Subtitling the based Situation. ‘convention threshold’, and are thus vague too or rare to warrant formulationthe tendencies that are caused by Subtitling the Situation, but donot they reach the caused by translation, the by Gottlieb as described (2001: intended of to be restricted access), resulting inacentripetaleffect the on genre accessible that of is part register the or in-group of ST the terminology (and hence titler intervenes to ‘chew food’ the audience, for TT the by rendering something inaccessible due to Transculturality or due to register.when a subseen Thiscanbe such is tendency that some subtitlers havedeciding in difficulties if an ECR is regularities on Subtitling the based Situation data: inthe one have observed been hard for needed formulation the to determine with accuracy the of norms. Some pointed out (2005: multifacetedtoo to formulate used to be acceptable norms. Also, as Schröter constraints,specific plusthe Subtitling Situation. The last parameter is, however, Transculturality and co-text, were which included guidance inthe norms. some of parameters, the namely parameters the of Polysemiotics, Extratextuality, norms on influencingbased parameters. Thisactually alreadybeen has done for Retention, rather than findingthe correct Equivalent. Official tion and Equivalent. Official This, inturn,used as be anexcuse may for using more on Retention,titles, based being blur might this border further the Reten between example (4.17), is less time for researching there whether is anEquivalent, Official seen in as was norm is waning somewhat. As for deadlines subtitlers are becoming shorter, there authorized translation, not to make his own”. There is, however, a chancethat the (1988: foundbe cited inguidelines and prescriptive authoritative texts, such as Newmark
What remains are constraints media-specific Centrality, and which often parametersThe that remain to account for areCentrality those of and media- Moving on from norms on domains based and strategies, now we will at look The Equivalent Official norm is a strong time-honoured and norm. It can often 75), who claims75), who that “an individual translator’s main task is tothe find E.R 362–363), the facts regarding facts 362–363), the Subtitling the Situation are too . Also, as there is atrend for someEquivalents, Official like film Chapter 6. Empirical subtitling norms for television 111). There are other - - -
Beninu Andersen (208233) IP: 85.184.159.51 On: Mon, 27 Jan 2020 04:21:30
Subtitling Norms for Television takes placetakes inanoisy bar, and Lieutenant not Dan,does that who believe Forrest and tells himthat he is going captain the to be of ashrimp boat. The conversation illustrate norm. this In rare, to be expected an being be interventionalotherwise strategy. of Generalization for used uncomplicated ECRs(cf. where Section 6.3.1), it would thatfact Omission is present for kinds of all ECRs.It explains frequency high the Omission among Infracultural are ECRs(which oftenperipheral), as the well as strongThis is a very whichnorm, accounts forthe relativelyfrequency high of for tor ofbasic two parameters these on micro-level, the it fac is here as trigger the seen Capitán, yo sere tu Piloto.” (i.e. “Look, Robinson you when become Crusoe, captain tution using aTranscultural ECRhere: “Mira, Robinson cuando tú seas Crusoe, (2009: produced Spanish-language DVD subtitles that Hurtado de Mendoza Azaola back translation,the it was Omitted by subtitlers. both However, American- the only included as away for Lieutenant Forrest. Dan to ridicule Asfrom seen can be cultural, as we have was peripheral already even on seen) micro the level. It was in(6.21)wasThe rapidthe dialogue as theand ECR able be to putwill his plan into action,vows: (6.21) We are rather inthe lucky position to make abroader comparison here, to 78) used for78) used her investigation same used film Cultural of very the Substi the Centrality norm Danish subtitlers normally Omission, use or Generalization use to shorten it. If an peripheral, ECRis and the media-specific constraints are strong, Swedish and Swedish subtitl – I will come– Iwill and your be first mate you become captain of ashrimp boat – I promise you, that day the Back translati og bliver dinstyrmand. – kommer jeg New subtit du bliver kaptajn enrejebåd på – Jeg lover at dig, dendag, Danish subtitl comeI will and your be first mate! Theday youbecome skipper Back translatio ska jag komma bli och dinstyrman! danDen du blir skeppare a shrimp boat captain, come Iwill and your be first mate. I tell you what, Gilligan: day the that you are le: on: e: n: e: Forrest Gump Forrest , which can be formulated can, which be as follows: , Forrest visits crippled the Lieutenant Dan Gilligan (which is (which Mono (1:16:41) - - -
Beninu Andersen (208233) IP: 85.184.159.51 On: Mon, 27 Jan 2020 04:21:30 remains is what seen to happens be constraints media-specific the when are weak. constraintsmedia-specific are strong theand ECR is central peripheral.or What by Centrality constraints: and media-specific the they show what happensthe if cific strategies. twoThose norms account for a great dealbehaviour the of caused where two parameters combine to prompt subtitler the to one use or two spe strategy. more on parameter the of Centrality, results which interventional inaspecific of Monocultural the aspect as aspecial it norm, described can focussing be slightly where Monocultural ECRswere made accessible through Generalization. As such, parenthesizedThe portions Generalizationthe of the many norm describe cases of norm the are activated. character and it when is Monocultural, parenthesized the case inwhich portions egy.behaviourthe the whenboth ECR Thisis marginal norm describes in used called and Centralitythe norm norm the describes, describing it is perhaps most aptly make it audience. accessible to TT the This situation is different from the thatone Monocultural, Generalization not is used only to shortenbut to ECR, the also however.purposes, If constraints the are strong and ECR is the central and also normally only the option. Generalization inmany used can be ways and for many in some of sort non-functional translation. In situations, these Generalization is constraintsmedia-specific are, Omissionwithout can notbe used still resulting central, it ifECR the is not very does on focus matter Centrality: how strong the and cause irritation among viewers. The oppositeeven is more thetrue, hence slowOmission is would very dialogue the when go norms against expectancy straints. Theresome hasbe to pressurefrom the constraints, however, as using to avoid solving atranslation problem, and ‘blaming’ con media-specific the constraints media-specific the are strong. not very Omission be used couldthen condition, wherewould cases ECRis the peripheral, be anecessary but where norm,in the precedence. with Centrality taking Irresponsible of use Omission sibility than it should. This is the in reflected ordering the of conditionalclauses on micro-level. the have made adifferentCentrality assessment, and feltthat the insult was necessary shorter than Danish,the that so is clearly not wholethe story. The subtitler must onused DVDs; Spanish the still, wording is not much longer than Swedish the and your be pilot”).I’ll This choice mightbe thatdue the higher to reading speeds are
The CentralityThe Generalizationand norms are examples of complex norms, ThereCentralityevidence theperhapsis with of being norm used less respon the Generalization norm make itaccessible). make Swedish and Danish subtitlers normally Generalization use to shorten it (and to If a(Monocultural) central, ECRis and the media-specific constraints are strong, , even if is based on, evenifisparameters based and not strat the Chapter 6. Empirical subtitling norms for television - - - -
Beninu Andersen (208233) IP: 85.184.159.51 On: Mon, 27 Jan 2020 04:21:30
Subtitling Norms for Television a special aspect of aspect Monoculturalthe a special norm. The situationwhichthe in above con Generalization the Like norm, constraints weak the convention as seen could be it Icall used. constraintsspecific arestrategies This pedagogicallywhere is weak. verbose the are constraints: andtrality media-specific the thewhen ECR is central theand media- as you let us please, move so on to lastthe situation causedwhich can bybe Cen ponce rarethe strategy Situational Substitution, as was shown inexample (6.11) ECR is peripheral constraints and media-specific the are This even includesweak. cannot Instead, used. be any the when case inthe other used to strategy seems be constraintsAs media-specific ifthe already discussed, Omission areweak, very a bigger picture of general subtitlingbe done norms. the final in Thiswill chapter. titling behaviour, and it is thus about that time we to at raise look our heads and try weakly, from asseen example can be (6.21 not restricted to Scandinavian subtitlers at but all, fairly generally (ifsometimes deciding how with it. to deal In other words, last the four norms are probably ECR is to text the it appears in,subtitlers are bound to into this take account when above.ways described Furthermore, with as how Centrality deals important an tlers have constraints, with media-specific the to deal they andtend to do the it in and translation the problem, likely it that is very are general. subti these All very that concern sense inthe basic they intrinsically important of medium the aspects somewhatbeen lopsided. trality and constraints media-specific the parameters, havewhich would otherwise on strategies is to complete discussion the about interplay the Cen the between The reason for including it here, ratherthan more forcibly amongthe normsbased follows: parameters.the Under circumstances, those it would anorm, be formulated as predictive power. It is arguably stronger on strategiesthe based when rather than other circumstances, under strategies these used being it so also has fairly weak mentionedgies init. It as aconvention, is described there because of is evidence vention applies is fairly rare, explains which low the of frequency two the strate We have now reached apoint where we are with dealing minute details of sub As norms the on Centrality based andconstraints media-specific are very . It however, seems, frivolous to formulate anorm that says that you can do make itaccessible.make Swedish and Danish subtitlers conventionally aParaphrase use or Specification to If a Monocultural central ECR is and the media-specific constraints are weak, are weak. subtitlers when aMonocultural central ECRis and the media-specific constraints Specification and Paraphrases are normally onlyused by Swedish andDanish the weak constraints
convention Gilligan . ) above) applicable. Piltdown Piltdown ------
Beninu Andersen (208233) IP: 85.184.159.51 On: Mon, 27 Jan 2020 04:21:30 these differencesthese do not contribute anything)much (if the contentto TTs.the of . subtitling norms are converging or have converged. norms. Thisthe is conclusiongeneral this investigation:of that Scandinavianthe on Scandinavian the AVT has scene ironically to led than various national, norms. In way, this it said couldthat be national, and scale, for whom it is profitable to applypan-Scandinavian, rather ofto rise many the AVT companies that work on an international, rather than due likelihood to similarityin all of technology, and globalization, has which led claimed that alevelling of norms place. is taking This convergence of norms is that Mortensen and Ivarsson (inLomheim 2000: claimed by Nordang (1989: rather than national norms for Scandinavia. This meansthat the differences a point where it about to makes talk sense apan-Scandinavian subtitling norm, it concluded could be that Scandinavian the subtitling norms have converged to as only one rather difference small (in subtitle density) was foundthis in study, According to literature the on subject, the such differences have existed. However, nificant differences were betweenfound Swedish and Danish subtitling norms. The findingmost striking the of present study is doubtlessly few sig that very 7.1 discussions of present the study. of prototypical subtitling, however, briefly letussum very the findingsup and titling might Before be. task of wethe undertake formulating default the values nowwill say something more general about what prototypical the norms of sub late from findings the and discussionsthe in previous chapter. In other words, we timeThe has now come to summarize perhapsand evensome to degree extrapo There are differencesalso between the countries in punctuation (cf.Section 6.2.2), but Brief summary Prototypical subtitling chapter 7 113) and others 1980sno inthe longer apply, and 114–115) were right they when less variation insubtitling more operators operators 72 - - -
Beninu Andersen (208233) IP: 85.184.159.51 On: Mon, 27 Jan 2020 04:21:30
Subtitling Norms for Television son for is this that countries, these donot which have strong subtitling traditions, and subtitle higher density as compared to former. the It likely seems that rea the latter countries is marked reading less by condensation speeds, expected higher titling and traditional dubbing countries. The subtitlingthat carried is outthe in wethat find the main difference intechnical traditional between norms lie sub practices such of as use the master template files. beyondScandinavia,If we look was found circa to be 10%,but norm the might waning be as it is under siege from subtitles than aSwedish independently subtitled TT. factors are equal, aDanish independently subtitled normally TT has slightly more as subtitlethe density norm, which reads as follows:in Section 6.6.3 was yet asmall, significant difference in subtitle density, which was formulated There were no significant differences found the for two first key figures,but there reading condensation speed, 6.2:expected rate and subtitle density.in Section convergence of norms has place. taken Three measurementskey were investigated Europe at traditional least, is between subtitling and dubbing countries, where the is findingsthe of sources, other suggestthat a homogenization of subtitling norms to that of found norms. technical survey inthe some of indirect evidence norm convergence field inthe of ECRs as well, similar indications that differencenorms this is disappearing. inexpectancy There is thus in domainsa SC ECR, where Cultural Substitution is not normally There used. are tence acharacter when to positioned treat SCis inthe seen aTC ECRas ifit were tolerancethe of credibility gaps. Credibility gaps were defined as coming into exis is adifferencebetween Swedish norms whenDanish and it comes expectancy to corroborated by qualitative the argued which that discussion there inSection 6.5, corpusthe that were not contemporaneous with bulk of the material. the This was nants of earlier differencestreatmentthe in of ECRs were found parts the in of genres, and lengths of STs (featureTV programmes).Some filmspossible vs. rem ences found looking at when subcategories of strategies, the nor different between strategies the quency were Furthermore, used. there were no significant differ it comes to strategies which were to render used ECRsinTTs, nor with what fre subtitlers’ decision-making process. arguably symptomatic of underlying translation norms, and thus indicative of the problems, strategic where translating so-called for. is called Strategic behaviour is Culturaltic References (ECRs).The reason forthisthat is cause they translation subtitled.to be have imported Anglophone subtitling norms along with audiovisual the material taking place on fronts.taking all The only substantial difference that becan found, in The the of focus present investigationtreatmentthe been has Extralinguis of It saidcould that be it is in fieldthe dataof thattechnical the most dramatic On the whole,On the findings the the of present study,taken incombination with No significant differences were betweenfound Sweden Denmark and when In survey, the difference this If all other ------
Beninu Andersen (208233) IP: 85.184.159.51 On: Mon, 27 Jan 2020 04:21:30 in Section 1.2, about subtitlingin Section 1.2, whether is translation or not. some of findings the book. this of Furthermore, it maylay to therest discussion This would adda the piece to puzzle of Translation Studies, also sum and up in asimilar way to what Desmidt didfor translation the of children’s literature. way,this we can establish how subtitling fits intothelarger “translation family”, Chesterman’s default values, and thus of construct aset defaults for subtitling. In prototypical translation. By doing so, we can compare eachof variables the to andtling, thus to show how contemporary subtitling is differentfrom the default to spirit DTS the true to Chesterman’s use very here, model to characterize subti (2006)forby translation the Desmidt e.g. of children’s literature. It would thus be works well for very characterizing genres of translation, done, has which been typicalitythe of individual translations in his (which he article) and does it also ‘folk of view’ what atypical translation is” original). (208;italics inthe mindsin the of most clients and readers of translation. It to purports represent the default values, which were on “ based of variables, grouped 16inall, into four He template sets. this furnished also with atemplate what called couldstructed be for characterizing translations along aset figuration of alimited number of variables” (1998: at of constructing abasis for translations, atypology was which “set up as acon to update and complement here. them tling that exists. are, Excellent exposés though these it not is certainly unwarranted Similarly, (2004)has Bartoll various the systematically kinds of described subti “transfer parameters” for translation in general and for subtitling in particular. e.g. by Gottlieb (2001: There have been attempts to summarizethe characteristics of subtitlingbefore, 7.2 ones, future.based inthe more seeing be harmonization of subtitling norms, and technical both content- indications that difference this disappear,will too and seems likelyit that will we sure to Anglophone culture longer than traditional dubbing countries. There are This mightbe due traditionalto subtitling countries having had heavier expo favour TC-oriented solutions more of than those traditional subtitling countries. areain this as well. The subtitlingtraditional in dubbing countries may tend to there is adifference of subtitling normsbetween subtitling and dubbing countries far as translating content investigation the goes, of subtitling strategies indicate that normstechnical of former the from differ those thelatter of above. as described As
Chesterman’s “template” is fairly exhaustive andto characterize used can be In an oft-citedfrom article Chesterman 1998, successful attemptmade a very Defaults of subtitling 3–40) who constructed3–40) who an impressive list of what he calls the default prototype 204). In other words, he con Chapter 7. concept of a translation, Prototypical subtitling - - - - -
Beninu Andersen (208233) IP: 85.184.159.51 On: Mon, 27 Jan 2020 04:21:30
Subtitling Norms for Television sider the verbal content. verbal sider the Regardless of how you it, general the see translation expressly second the view, (205)takes and that ifyou makes sense only con on other the hand, translation this is condensed, as we have Chesterman seen. in away,because since subtitling is additive, it adds a translation to ST, the but default value is “all content”.somewhat This is a more complicated variable, tion as ST. the etc. There dialogue the canbe little doubtthat TTs subtitled havesamethe func lated polysemiotic package, including subtitles, the but including also visuals, the point that insubtitling is research, not subtitles; the TT the it is whole the trans The default value here is “samefunction”. I would like to theremind reader this at revision and status. ST–TTthe relationship. There are six such variables: Function, content, style, ST there a togeneral seems be oftendency short falling them of target stylistic the found that subtitlers to reproduce generally try features stylistic the of ST, the but listic features, such as alliteration, rhetorical tropes and register. This far, I have Iamtling. looking into issue this inastudy inprogress, where Iinvestigate sty “same style”. It hassaid oftenthat been stylistic features are in neutralized subti would “same be textdifferent type, structure”. it not does share second the default value, as default the value of subtitling here from utterances to sentences, which brings with it a number of changes, structural said,actually for humorousthe On effect). other hand,the as messageverbal goes possible exception of “joke” subtitles, where subtitle the has noon bearing what is itwhen comes to textas subtitled type, TTs never switches (with the text type Nevertheless, subtitling said couldto be generally have same the default value structure down to what are sub-phonemic basically features (e.g. lip-rounding). ably as abroad seen be description, as no translation could same keep exact the value here is “same the and text-type structure”. The default value here should prob and genre, as far down as to lip-movements of case (inthe dubbing). The default “reduced content”. to Chesterman’s take sense point and say that default the value for subtitling is sation is such an overpoweringly common feature of subtitling that it makes it so feature is not anecessary Section 6.2.1.3, of subtitling. However, conden titles). Not subtitling all to leads condensation, however, as we have in seen subtitles(the to ST) the or it removes something (condensation sub inthe default value of “all content” is notfor true subtitling, it either adds something Content: Function: Chesterman of with aset begins equivalence variables, are which centred on Style: Form: Evidently intended “same” to be or different? The defaultvalue here is this variable this covers anumber of formal (sub-)variables, from text-type Does the TT render source all content TT the Does and nothing The else? Is intended main the of function same the to as TT ST? the be ------
Beninu Andersen (208233) IP: 85.184.159.51 On: Mon, 27 Jan 2020 04:21:30 discrepancy between the folkand the discrepancy between view individual translations. this Bearing studiesbased of what translations actual are like; there might thus quite be some you, default the values represent “folk views” of translation, and not empirically style” to “unintelligible” (206)and default the value is former the of Mind these. The TLvariables are acceptability, localization and matching. translation it when comes to variable. this tus, oftentranslation”, direct which meansthat subtitling is not adefault form of The default value here wouldthus probablyas be described best “subordinate sta increasingthe of use master template is files changingthe directness of subtitling. Asperspective. for directness of translation, we have present inthe seen study that of default the value would equal, parallel, or be subordinate, depending on your of rest the of polysemiotic the text, are of little to use anyone. Thusthe first part subtitling, as ST the is co-present, and subtitlethemselves, in files without the aid but target the text is not parallel” functionally (206).This is arguably thecase for “cases where sourcethe text is co-present, as in orgloss interlinear translation, tion share samethe polysemiotic text. Chesterman defines subordinate status as tive, translation the as parallel, since and original the seen could transla the be that it improves it, as it value has added the of subtitles). the In latter the perspec is of status equal TT the as ST the as it incorporates it (it argued could evenbe onewhether or at looks just whole the TT subtitles. the In former the perspective, status, direct translation”. Again becomes slightly this complicated, depending on includes directness of translation variable, inthis and default the value is “derived alternatives: autonomous, equal, parallel, derived or subordinate. Chesterman also Chesterman’s default value. is “little or no ST revision”, makes which it similar to, but slightly differentfrom safe to make ageneral statementthat to effect the for subtitling,the default value would appear out is still that on jury the that one. Anyway, it would probably be lowthe visualsor the Thisbeen questionhas dialogue? the someof debate, and it melons cost 20USD, but price the clearly tag says 2USD, should subtitler the fol present and therefrom is afeedback effect the original. someoneIf says that the subtitling guidelines generally tell subtitlers careful, to be since ST the is ever- TT,the but no note is made of This them. was not part the of present study, but implicit source-text revision”, meanswhich that ST errors are not over carried to (2001: 111). subtitling style”. as seen an effect Thiscanbe what of the centripetal calls Gottlieb effect of in many The default cases. value here wouldthussomething be like “reduced
Acceptability Theset next of variableswiththe TL, TT–TLand deal it thecharts relationship. Status: Source-text revision: What is status the as compared of TT the to ST? the We are given five : Chesterman of up sets acceptability ascale from “good native for error correction. The default value here is “minimal Chapter 7. Prototypical subtitling - - - -
Beninu Andersen (208233) IP: 85.184.159.51 On: Mon, 27 Jan 2020 04:21:30
Subtitling Norms for Television very meaningful when looking at when meaningful of mode very translation, we which are doing here; a “definedset of previous texts” (207), suchtranslations. as EU This variable is not subtitling as well. that is nowadays default the value at fordiscussed some length inSection 6.6.4 no empirical to support evidence that view. viewers may who disagree withdefault this value for subtitling, but there is little or 2007: monograph. to vulnerable Due the nature of subtitling (cf. Cintas Díaz &Remael of translation quality, and that has expressly of object not the current the been as less native, than good translation of without having out carried amassive study means that should they not Also, be. it would unfair be to judge awhole mode well. not This does prevent subtitlesfrom sometimesbeing of low quality, it just in mind, Iwould put default the value for subtitling as “good native style” as Also, it happens that one person subtitles, another is while cueing (this the does show, a colleague took care while of otherthe it half, happen so does in subtitling. The default value here“individual”. is In emergencies, I haveTV subtitled a half always credited. value for subtitling would thus “visible be translator”, subtitler evenifthe is not in footnotes and comments, but that is extremely rare in subtitling. The default ent matter. Chesterman mentions also that translator’s the presence seen can be much about to talk sense invisible translation, evenifthat is aslightly differ that fact the subtitles are superimposed on picture, the it not really does make is ofteneventhoughthecase, it is fairly rare in DVD subtitling.Also, because of that subtitlers should credited be on-screen, and for subtitling for television, this foressarily case the subtitling. SubtitlingGood Code of The prescribes Practise demonstrated, is “invisible translator”. Iwould like to claim that is this not nec work TT, inthe or ideology or The both. default value here, as Venuti (1995) has translator’s getting credited, or through translator’s the leaving of traces his or her visibility, individual, native speaker, and professional. relationship, i.e. one the authors the between of texts. Thetranslator variables are: to some degree to centre on whatand A1–A2 the van Lambert (1985)call Gorp subtitling “not would be also matched”. conformthem to some degree, it would have said tothat be default the value for normsthe that constraints the of medium the impose on subtitling, make which it applies to individual texts. The default value here is “not matched”. from Apart Matched or not? Localized or not? Individual or team or Individual Visibility: thirdTheset of valuables is centred translator.the on be setsaid This could 55), caused by ST the constantly being present to compare with, there are the translator’s the visibility manifests itself intwo ways: either by the This variablewith situations deals where translation a fits into The default value here is “not localized”, and been as has ? Has translated text the been by more than one translator? - -
Beninu Andersen (208233) IP: 85.184.159.51 On: Mon, 27 Jan 2020 04:21:30 uses crowdsourcing to produce subtitles without paying anyone ( anyone paying without subtitles produce to crowdsourcing uses . of an afterthought for producers,perhaps even morethanso in other forms of value for subtitling. In AVT, it is not rare that translation comes as something that of may subtitling true be as well, but hesitate Istill to posit that as adefault is, perhaps rather optimistically, “adequate time”. From folkperspective the view translation haddone to be inan unusual (208).The default hurry” value here instead “different,written, medium”. himself points out, that not is certainly for case the subtitling. The default here is TT.the The default value here is “same,written, medium”, butChesterman as (Titford 1982).The default value for subtitlingthus is “restricted space”. default value for subtitles, have which named “constrained evenbeen translation” value here is “no spaceconstraints”. special That virtually is by definition the not space, medium and time. points out that are these infinite”, “virtually and he lists threetheonly main ones: “professional”.be Keepingto speak. inmind, this default the value for subtitling would mainly still lowered common it salaries, is very today for subtitlers have to also “a day job”, so subtitling may changing be default this value future. inthe Also, wake inthe of for goes this subtitling too, but with acaveat: fansubbing and crowdsourcing translation of aST. The default value here is “professional” and I wouldsay that we have fansubbers, never who get paid nor have authority the out tothe carry professionals have who out carried task for their many years, and at other the end and that for case the is certainly subtitling. one Onthe we end of have scale the subtitling as well. Language native” translation, dothe and Iwould say that for is this generally true would thus “individual”, be evenifthere are exceptions. workthe out is carried by an individual subtitler. The default value for subtitling subtitled by asingle subtitler, it so is safe to say that default the valuethat is still However, are these more exceptions and than individual rules, texts are normally are often subtitled by a team of subtitlers,who often collaborateusage on term etc. always master when case the template files are used). TV-seriesFurthermore,daily
Time: Medium: Space: Finally, Chesterman gives us three “special situational He variables” (207f). amateur: or Professional Native speaker of the SL or TL One example this is startup the of company Viki, in Singapore based and US, the which this variable this is about there whether “suggesting is evidence that the This refers to constraints of physicalTT, space forthe theand default This referswhether to or notthe mediumsamethe theis in ST and Chesterman admits that is this acomplex continuum, ? The default value here is to have“Target a Chapter 7. www.npr.org Prototypical subtitling 2011) 73 of of
Beninu Andersen (208233) IP: 85.184.159.51 On: Mon, 27 Jan 2020 04:21:30
Subtitling Norms for Television at It all. is not completely differentfrom prototypicaltranslation, however, as about it whether should considered be discussionthe in Section 1.2 translation typical kindof translation. This is of course hardlygiven particularly surprising, oftypes translation (209).It becomes then clear that subtitling is not aproto totype of translation, is which something that himself for he does afew example defaulttheir values with default the values that Chesterman up set for pro the give default the value for subtitling as “limited time”. subtitling, is immediate, as deadline the It to speak. so could thus justified be to obvious to anyone that there out is no actually at time intowhich the carry all is becoming more common inmany countries, and is this an area where it is (cf. Lambourne 2006,quoted above). inSection 1.2.1 Furthermore, live subtitling lowered mean that salaries subtitlers today have of to pace keep ahigh production narrow, it when particularly comes to topical shows talk and like. the Also, the translation. When it comes to subtitling for television, are deadlines the often very from Scandinavian the Subtitles Corpus: more than 200pages. It is thus to time discussion the close with example afinal manydiscussed of and topic, the aspects varied and bored you, dear reader, for able, most the common and most constrained of of modes translation. all Ihave typic, form of translation, which is arguably most the visible and most the vulner warranted to revisit transient this and transcultural, polysemiotic, if not proto of subtitling, at discussed some as has length above. been It thus be will certainly verdictthe of atypical translation. to make subtitling translation, but there are enough different defaults to warrant and structure, and ST revision. There are enoughsame and similar default values differentfunction, for content and status, and, say shall we similar for type text variables are somewhat more complicated: default the values are same the for ent from that of prototypical translations. The default values equivalencethe of situational special in the variables that defaults the of subtitling are really differ same, the exactly except for translator’s the (in)visibility. Fairly predictably, it is ables. When it comes to TL the and translator variables defaultthe values are its defaults are samethe or only slightly different for nine theof sixteen vari (7.1) Let us nowLet sum up configuration this of variables for subtitling and compare The defaults of subtitling no doubtwill change theover time, norms will as And that’s Ihave all to say about that. (Forrest Gump 1.36.55) ------
Beninu Andersen (208233) IP: 85.184.159.51 On: Mon, 27 Jan 2020 04:21:30 Paro, Catrine. FST Översättning versionering, och Finland. Oassfi, Amina. Audio Visual Enterprises, Greece. Norberg, Johan. SDI Media, Scandinavia. Neves, Joselia. Instituto Politécnico deLeiria. Kampmann, Maud. Formerly of Sveriges Television. Højgaard, Cathrine. SDI Media, Denmark. Heide Gitte. Olsen, Danmarks Radio. Gottlieb, Henrik. Formerly of Danmarks Radio. Snerck,De Head Erik. of VRT, Belgium. Danielsson, Formerly Klas. of West Video. Jörgen.Bengtsson, SpråkCentrum/LanguageLand. Informants TitelBild. Carroll Mary etal. 2004. SVT. 2003. Søndergaard, Niels. N.y. Annotation of Lindberg 1989 on http://www.titlevision.com/tekstnin. SDI Media Scandinavia. N.y. NRK. 1999. Ib.Lindberg, 1989. LanguageLand/Språkcentrum. N.y. Ivarsson, Jan Kumlien.& Louise 1982. Ivarsson, Jan Carroll. & Mary 1998. Broadcast Text. 2004. 1993. BBC. Guidelines Supplementary material The ESISTCorpus: InternationalComparative Subtitling Project. http://www.esist.org/ ScandinavianThe SubtitlesCorpus:See appendix A. Main material Sources Primary for translation SVT and programme subtitling]. htm. (Date of Access: 24,2011). Febryuary tors] Stockholm: SVT. (Dateen.pdf. of access: February 24,2011). ESIST%20Subtitling%20code_files/Code%20of%20Good%20Subtitling%20Practice_ ESIST%20Projects.htm. (Date of access: February 24,2011). Sources Internt arbetsmaterial för Översättning SVT och Programtextning BBC Subtitling Style Guide Style Subtitling BBC Programteksting iNRKFjernsynet. Nogle regler om TV-teksting Broadcast Text –Undertextning. Handledning Översättarmaterial Introduction to Subtitling for Film, Video and DVD using DOS Subtitling for Subtitlers, LanguageLand: Swedish instruction. . Code of Good Subtitling Practice. Handledning för TV-översättare
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Beninu Andersen (208233) IP: 85.184.159.51 On: Mon, 27 Jan 2020 04:21:30 Who Wants to aMillionaire? Be West Wing, The Upstairs, Downstairs Ugen der gak Toy Story Three Stooges, The Three Kings Telly Addicts Simpsons, The Shrek Pocahontas. Not the 9O’Clock News Noel’s House Party Next of Kin. Muppet Show, The Sources . 2001.Adamson, Andrew and Vicky Jenson. . 1995.Lasseter, John. . 1999.Russell, David O. 1995.Gabriel, Mike and Goldberg. Eric 1989. Irvin, John. 1989.Irvin, . 1985–1998. BBC. Edmonds,. 1985–1998.BBC. Noel etal. . 1995–1998. DR. Dorset, Sebastian and Dorset, Sebastian . 1995–1998.DR. Thomas Hartmann. . 1989–?.Fox. Groening, Matt. 1999. NBC. Series 1;Epsiode 10“In Series 1999. NBC. Excelsis Deo”; Aaron Sorkin, . 1930–1969.Healy, Ted etal. . 1976–1981.ITV. Henson, Jim. . 1991–1999. BBC. Edmonds,. 1991–1999.BBC. Noel etal. . 1971–1975.ITV. Shaughnessy, etal. Alfred . 1979–1982. BBC. Lloyd,. 1979–1982.BBC. John. . 1998–?.ITV. David. Briggs,
Beninu Andersen (208233) IP: 85.184.159.51 On: Mon, 27 Jan 2020 04:21:30
Beninu Andersen (208233) IP: 85.184.159.51 On: Mon, 27 Jan 2020 04:21:30 for of sake the convenience) and lists the of corpus the material. coincidewhich with ones given at but of beginning the book, are this they included here as well, within ayear) with matched their TTs. ing corpus inthe as subtitle files only. These are, however, roughly contemporary (i.e. aired and date the then period, has not recorded. been It may due be to afew also of TTs the appear but only year. the fromTT being This TT may an be outsideolder thedue the to recording and noted is this also list. inthe Onsome occasions, date exact the of recording is not given, being recorded. On other occasions, subtitlerthe is simply not credited, for various reasons, some texts were not recorded, and subtitler the may have credited, been without credit the and/or subtitling company are given as “not found”. This is that due the fact to the endings of used. been has legend no.) (running appears, numbering episode case inwhich from of start the series the is episode listedepisode. Each by number episode appropriate inthe except series, where the given mainly by weekday and hour, rather than giving recording the date for eachindividual rately. If there are weekly included of episodes several aseries corpus, inthe recording data is same subtitlers have for are episodes the of used episodes all aseries, been not listed sepa appropriate, it indicated is also fromor come episodes the season series which from. If the credit, as there may almost as many be as there directors series are of When episodes. aTV One differencethat is instead of director,the creator TV programme giventhe of been has TTsthe film, are listed chronologically. andthe finally subtitler theand subtitling company are listed. thereIf is morethanTT of a one with ST the title. Aftertitle,the data regardingTV channel theanddate of recording is listed, columns title, may which by TT is inthe headed TT or the data. entry may Each TT not coincide director. In column middle the isdata, Swedish the and rightmost inthe TT column Danish the leftmostthe column,the followingdata canbe found:title film;theyear of of production and more accessible. is this just so abrief introductory note to inSection 6.1.3, makecorpus lists the was described titles Corpus. Thefilms are listed TV first, programmes. the then and The compilationof the This appendix contains lists the of Swedish Danishand matchedScandinavian the texts in Sub The rest this of appendix consists of alist of abbreviationsthe corpus in used (many of Some shortcomings of corpus the may noticed list. inthe be Occasionally, subtitler the Programmes”“TV The thetexts in section are listed in muchsamethe waythefilms. as The the texts in “Films” section are listedalphabetically according to title.ST original In The Scandinavian The CorpusSubtitles appendix a - - -
Beninu Andersen (208233) IP: 85.184.159.51 On: Mon, 27 Jan 2020 04:21:30
Subtitling Norms for Television tv wv svt spc sdi mtg dvt dr bt Abbreviations
Titlevision
SpråkCentrum
Medietextgruppen Sveriges Television West Video Dansk Video Tekst Subtitling and Dubbing International; SDI Media Danmarks Radio Broadcast Text
Beninu Andersen (208233) IP: 85.184.159.51 On: Mon, 27 Jan 2020 04:21:30 Guy Hamilton Guy Are Forever (1971) Diamonds John McTiernan With aVengeance (1995) HardDie (III): Tony Scott Days of Thunder (1990) Rob Cohen Daylight (1996) David McNally Coyote Ugly (2000) Roger Donaldson (1988) Cocktail John Woo Broken Arrow (1996) Clint Eastwood Madison County, The(1995) Bridges of Phillip Noyce Collector,Bone The(1999) James L.Brooks As ItAs Good (1997) Gets Luis Llosa Anaconda (1997) Director (yearFilm of production)
Kanal 5;2004-09-23 Daylight Paula Ekeström; SDI ZTV; 2004-08-22 Ugly Coyote Paula Ekeström; SDI 2004-06-12 TV3; Cocktail Johan Malm; SVT 1989? SVT2; Cocktail Samuel Gradin; SDI 2000? TV4; Arrow Broken Olof Andersson; SDI 2003-12-27 TV3; Broarna iMadison County Pelle Nauclér; SDI ZTV; 2004-03-25 spår samlarens I Not credited; SDI 2003-12-02 TV3; ljusa den från sidanLivet Katarina Kjellnert; SDI 2004-06-24 TV3; Anaconda Subtitler; company Channel; date of recording Swedish title Leif Dahlgren; SDI Dahlgren; Leif 2001? TV3; Diamantfeber Johnny Lundgren; SDI 2004-10-12 TV3; Hämningslöst HardDie (III)– Anders Frisell; SDI 1995? TV4; Days of Thunder Miguel Herranz; BT
Films
Appendix A.
The ScandinavianThe SubtitlesCorpus Mette Holm; SDI 2004-03-07 TV3; bli’rDet bedre ikke Reenbjerg;Rosa SDI 2004-01-17 TV3; Anaconda Subtitler; company Channel; date of recording Danish Title Peter Nørgaard; DR DR1; 2004-04-17 Diamanter varer evigt Kai-Asle Sønstabø; SDI 2004-02-07 TV3; hard HardDie (III)–Mega DVT MygindEllen Kristensen; 2004-02-07 TV2; Days of Thunder Niels SDI Eriksen; DR1; 2004-01-31 Daylight Jytte Heine; DR DR1; 2000 Daylight SDI Jan Mariager; 2004-01-18 TV3; Ugly Coyote Not credited; not credited 2004-02-11 TV3; Cocktail Not found; not found 2003-12-19 TV2; Arrow Broken Schmidt; SDILasse 2004-01-06 TV3; Broerne iMadison County Kalle Weinburger; SDI 2004-02-08 TV3; Collector,Bone The
Beninu Andersen (208233) IP: 85.184.159.51 On: Mon, 27 Jan 2020 04:21:30
Subtitling Norms for Television Fugitive, The(1993) Polanski Roman Frantic (1988) Zemeckis Robert Forrest Gump (1994) Sam Riami For of Love theGame(1999) John Amiel Entrapment (1999) Director (yearFilm of production) Steven Spielberg Jurassic Park (1993) Steven Spielberg (1989) Crusade the Last Indiana Jones and Jim Gillespie Summer (1997) Last I Know What You Did Stephen Frears Country,Hi-Lo The(1998) Hamilton Guy Goldfinger (1964) Campbell Martin GoldenEye (1995) Roland Emmerich (1998) Godzilla Davis Andrew
Jag vet vaddu gjorde Lillemor Bark; SVT SVT; 2004-04-04 Country Hi-Lo Lars-Olov Skeppholm; SDI 2000? TV3; Goldfinger Agneta Malmberg; not found 2000? TV3; GoldenEye Not credited; SDI? 2004-01-11 TV3; Godzilla Berg-Pouron;Louise SDI 2004-02-14 TV3; Jagad Malin Bylund; SVT SVT; 1995 Frantic Not found; BT 2000? TV4?; Forrest Gump BT Bergman; Carina Kanal 5;2004-06-25 For of Love theGame Nystrand;Harry SVT SVT; 2004-11-12 Entrapment Subtitler; company Channel; date of recording Swedish title Not credited; SDI 2004-09-17 TV3; Jurassic Park Mikael Fröling; SDI 2000? TV3; sista det korstågetoch Indiana Jones A-K Blombergsson; SDI 2004-07-01 TV3; förra sommaren
TV2; 2004-02-08 TV2; Forrest Gump Schmidt; DVT Lasse DR1; 2003-12-12 For of Love theGame Peter Nørgaard; DR DR1; 2004-01-23 Lokkeduen Subtitler; company Channel; date of recording Danish Title Not credited; SDI 2004-04-08 TV3; Jurassic Park Not credited; Esselte Video; 1991? korstog sidsteog det Indiana Jones A Michelsen; SDI 2004-03-19 TV3; Summer Last I Know What You Did Peter Nørgaard; DR DR1; 2003-12-08 Country Hi-Lo Merete Nordbo; DR DR1; 2004-01-17 Goldfinger Peter Bjarkov; DR DR1; 2003-12-27 GoldenEye Not found; SDI? 2003-12-27 TV3; Godzilla Schmidt; DVT Lasse 2004-03-28 TV3; Flygtningen Jan Grodin; DR DR1; 2004-04-10 Frantic Niels Søndergaard; TV
Beninu Andersen (208233) IP: 85.184.159.51 On: Mon, 27 Jan 2020 04:21:30 Paul J. Hogan Wedding (1997) My Friend’s Best Paul J. Hogan Muriel’s Wedding (1994) Jewison Norman Moonstruck (1987) Martin Brest Midnight Run (1988) Harold Becker Rising (1998) Mercury Jay Roach Meet theParents (2000) Martin Brest Meet Joe Black (1998) Chuck Russell Mask, The(1994) Tony Scott The(1991) Scout, Boy Last Curtis Hanson (1997) L.A. Confidential John G.Avildsen Karate Kid(1984) Director (yearFilm of production)
Patrik Hammarsten; BT Kanal 5;2004-03-20 Kod Mercury Nilsson;Christina BT Kanal 5;2004-10-15 Släkten är värst Agneta Malmberg; SVT 2004-06-30 SVT1; Möt Joe Black Madeleine Midenstrand; SVT SVT; 1998 Mask, The Hans Olsson; BT Kanal 5;2004-03-19 sisteDen scouten Nyberg;Lennart not credited FilmNet; 1992? sisteDen scouten Helen Sonehag; SVT 2004-01-30 SVT1; L.A. konfidentiellt Anette SDI Källander; ZTV; 2004-09-21 Kid Karate Ulf Andersson; SVT SVT; 1990? ögonblick –Karate Kid Sanningens Subtitler; company Channel; date of recording Swedish title Per Ewald; SDI 2004-01-05 TV3; Min bäste väns bröllop Paula Ekström; SDI 2004-09-17 TV4; Muriels bröllop Stina Hedin; BT Kanal 5;2004-08-08 Mångalen Anna Haste; SVT? 1990? SVT?; Midnight Run
Appendix A.
The ScandinavianThe SubtitlesCorpus L.A. Confidential Not found; SDI 2004-02-06 TV3; Kid Karate Subtitler; company Channel; date of recording Danish Title Kristian Hansen; SDI 2004-01-11 TV3; vensMin bedste bryllup Hans-Jørgen Thomsen; SDI 2004-02-25 TV3; Muriels bryllup Not credited; not credited 2003-12-29 TV2; Lunefulde måne Jørgen DR Christiansen; DR1; 2004-02-07 Midnight Run Schmidt; DVT Lasse DR1; 2004-01-17 Kodenavn Mercury Schmidt; DVT Lasse DR1; 2004-04-09 Meet theParents Schmidt; DVT Lasse DR1; 2004 Meet Joe Black Niels Søndergaard; TV 2003-11-15 TV2; Mask, The Not found; not found 2004-01-01 TV2; scout Boy Last Asbjørn Skytte; DVT DR1; 2004-01-30
Beninu Andersen (208233) IP: 85.184.159.51 On: Mon, 27 Jan 2020 04:21:30
Subtitling Norms for Television Sleepless inSeattleSleepless (1993) Hugh Wilson Police Academy (1984) Jane Campion Piano, The(1993) Roger Michell Notting (1999) Hill Director (yearFilm of production) Campbell Martin Vertical (2000) Limit Don Siegel for Sister (1970) Sara Two Mules Peter Weir Truman Show, The(1998) Roger Spottiswoode Never (1997) Dies Tomorrow Andrei Konchalovsky Tango (1989) &Cash Rowdy Herrington Striking Distance (1993) Rupert Wainwright Stigmata (1999) Rick Friedberg Spy Hard (1996) Phillip Noyce Sliver (1993) Nora Ephron
Tango &Cash Anne-Li Lindqvist; SDI 2004-03-11 TV3; Striking Distance Fredrik Nord; SDI ZTV; 2004-10-16 Stigmata Katinka Evers; SDI? Video?; 1999? Hard Spy Not found; not found 2004-03-13 TV4; Sliver Per Nauclér; SDI 2004-05-23 TV3; iSeattle Sömnlös Not credited; BT Kanal 5;2004-04-16 Polisskolan Anders Simonsson; SVT 1992? SVT2; Polisskolan Katinka Evers; SDI 2004-01-18 TV4; Pianot Thorsell; SVT Lasse 2004-01-16 SVT1; Notting Hill Subtitler; company Channel; date of recording Swedish title Per Sellius;SDI 2004-05-18 TV3; Vertical Limit Ulf Andersson; SVT SVT; 1990? Sierra Torrida Not credited; not credited 2004-01-03 TV4; Truman Show Not found; not found 2003? TV3; Tomorrow Never Dies Kajsa von Hofsten; SDI ZTV; 2004-05-24
TV3; 2004-02-27 TV3; Politiskolen Peter Nørgaard; DR DR1; 2003-12-17 Piano, The SDI Beierholm; Lisbeth 2004-02-27 TV2; Notting Hill Subtitler; company Channel; date of recording Danish Title Claus D. Jarløv; SDI 2004-02-15 TV3; Vertical Limit Jan Grodin; DR DR1; 2003-12-23 han skød Han kom, han så, Schmidt; DVT Lasse 2004-03-07 TV2; Truman Show Merete Nordbo; DR DR1; 2004-04-08 Tomorrow Never Dies Not found; SDI? 2004-01-26 TV3; Tango &Cash Asger Jorsal; DVT 2004-03-05 TV3; På skudhold Søren Andersen; SDI 2004-02-06 TV3; Stigmata Schmidt; DVT Lasse 2004-01-24 TV3; Hard Spy Jesper not Dannow; found 2004-03-27 TV2; Sliver Not credited; SDI? 2004-03-19 TV3; iSeattle Søvnløs Karl Wagner; DVT
Beninu Andersen (208233) IP: 85.184.159.51 On: Mon, 27 Jan 2020 04:21:30 Gilbert Lewis You Twice Live Only (1967) Nancy Meyers What Women Want (2000) Joe Charbanic Watcher, The(2000) Director (yearFilm of production)
Katarina Evers; SDI 2003? TV3; Man tvågånger bara lever Björn Hessle; SDI 2004-02-10 TV3; Vad ha kvinnor vill Not credited; not credited 2004-02-28 TV4; Watcher Subtitler; company Channel; date of recording Swedish title
Appendix A.
The ScandinavianThe SubtitlesCorpus DR1; 2004-02-21 kun lever toDu gange Not found; SDI? 2004-02-01 TV3 What Women Want Christoffersen;Ulrik Subline 2003-11-07 TV2; Watcher Subtitler; company Channel; date of recording Danish Title Merete Nordbo; DR
Beninu Andersen (208233) IP: 85.184.159.51 On: Mon, 27 Jan 2020 04:21:30
Subtitling Norms for Television Episode 47 Episode 42 Episode 37 36(2003) Series Hewitt Don 60 Minutes subtitled episodes All by: Episodes 9;11;12;15 3(2003) Series Cochran & Robert Joel Surnow 24 Year; episodes Creator(s); (series); Programme TV Episode 24 Episode 6 Episode 5 Episode 4 5(1976–1977) Series Gelbart Larry M*A*S*H Episode 18 Episode 17 Episode 16 Episode 15 Episode 14 Episode 10 Episode 9 9(2002–2003) Series & Martha Kauffman David Crane Friends subtitled episodes All by: Episodes 1–12(running) 1(1975)&2(1979) Series Booth & Connie John Cleese Fawlty Towers subtitled episodes All by: Episodes 1;2;3;5;6;8;9 & Tom Hanks Steven Spielberg Band of Brothers (2001) Weekly from 2004-04-07 Wednesdays 21.00–21.30 Kanal 5; Vänner Danielsson;Klas WV Weekly from 2004-03-13 18.30–19.05 (approx.) Kanal 5;Saturdays Pang ibygget Kristina Valinger; MTG Weekly fr. 2004-04-16(Reruns) Fridays 22.25–23.35 TV4; Band of Brothers Not credited; SpC Jacobson;Zakarias SpC Petter Lampinen; SpC 2003? TV4; 60 Minutes John BT Åhlén; Weekly from 2004-12-05 ThursdaysTV4; 21.00–21.55 24 Subtitler; company Channel; air time Swedish title Not found; Svensk Text? Not found; Svensk Text? Ulf Andersson; Svensk Text Ulf Andersson; Svensk Text 1992? TV4; M*A*S*H Christer Lyck; BT Christer Lyck; BT John BT Åhlén; John BT Åhlén; Christer Lyck; BT Christer Lyck; BT Christer Lyck; BT
TV Programmes TV
60 Minutes Christoffersen;Ulrik Subline Weekly from 2004-03-17 TuesdaysTV2; 20.35–21.25 24 timer Subtitler; company Channel; air time Danish Title Not found; DR Jørgen DR Christiansen; Jørgen DR Christiansen; Not found; DR DR; 1990? M*A*S*H Charlotte Armstrong; DVT Charlotte Armstrong; DVT Charlotte Armstrong; DVT Ole Vejp-Olsen; DVT Helle Høgsbro; DVT Charlotte Armstrong; DVT Charlotte Armstrong; DVT Weekly from 2004-02-03 Tuesdays 21.30–22.00 TV2 Venner Niels Søndergaard; TV Weekly from 2004-02-08 (approx.) SundaysTV2; 14.00–14.35 Halløj badehotellet på Peter Bjarkov; DR DR2; 2003? Kammerater ikrig Inger Drachmann; DVT Inger Drachmann; DVT Not found; DVT? 2003-12-04 WeeklyTV2; from
Beninu Andersen (208233) IP: 85.184.159.51 On: Mon, 27 Jan 2020 04:21:30 Episode 8 Episode 6 Episode 5 Episode 4 1(2003–2004) Series Brian Caldirola etal. Simple Life, The Episode 4 Michael Palin Michael Palin (2002) with Sahara Episode 12 Episode 11 Episode 10 Episode 9 Episode 8 2(2002) Series & Stephen Merchant Ricky Gervais Office, The Episode 24 Episode 18 Episode 17 4(2000)&6(2003) Series Anthony Horowitz (TV) Caroline Graham (novels) Midsomer Murders Year; episodes Creator(s); (series); Programme TV
(running no.) (running no.) (running (running no.) (running no.) (running no.) (running (running no.)(running no.)(running no.)(running Olle Öfverberg; SDI Öfverberg; Olle Gudrun SDI Lindvall; Pontus Janhunen; SDI Pontus Janhunen; SDI Weekly from 2004-02-04 WednesdaysTV3; 21.30–22.00 Simple Life Suzanne Täng; SVT SVT; 2003 Michael Palin iSahara Marie-Louise Skeppholm; SVT Marie-Louise Skeppholm; SVT Marie-Louise Skeppholm; SVT Marie-Louise Skeppholm; SVT Marie-Louise Skeppholm; SVT Weekly from 2004-02-23 MondaysSVT2; 19.30–20.00 Office, The HedlundSigrid Körlinge; SVT Ann Högman; SVT Anna Mårtensson SVT Bjerned; SVT; 2001–2003? Morden iMidsomer Subtitler; company Channel; air time Swedish title Appendix A. The ScandinavianThe SubtitlesCorpus Office, The Jytte Heine; DR Peter Bjarkov; DR Peter Bjarkov; DR Weekly from 2003-12-02 DR1; Saturdays 22.00–23.40 Barnaby Kriminalkommissær Subtitler; company Channel; air time Danish Title Jørgen Schiøtt; DVT Inger Drachmann; DVT Inger Drachmann; DVT Inger Drachmann; DVT Weekly from 2004-02-23 MondaysTV3; 22.25–22.55 Simple Life Hans Palle Mortensen; DR DR1; 2003-11-24 Michael Palinmed rundt Sahara Inger Drachmann; DVT Kirstine DVT C.Baloti; Inger Drachmann; DVT Kirstine DVT C.Baloti; Inger Drachmann; DVT Weekly from 2004-01-04 SundaysTV2; 23.45–00.20
Beninu Andersen (208233) IP: 85.184.159.51 On: Mon, 27 Jan 2020 04:21:30
Beninu Andersen (208233) IP: 85.184.159.51 On: Mon, 27 Jan 2020 04:21:30 Master template file Infracultural ECR file Genesis translation First-generation (ECR) Cultural Reference Extralinguistic Extratextuality Exposure time speed reading Expected Condensation rate Cueing Credibility gap Contract of illusion Centrality Glossary appendix b
Cf. Section 1.2.1. includingA file afirst-generation translationcode. time cued and a Cf. Section 5.1. An ECRthat is well known neither SCnor inthe TC. inthe (mainly inDVD subtitling). Cf. Section 1.2.1. includingA file intralingual subtitlestime code cued and a A translation of an text. original Cf. Section 1.2.1. of audience. this Cf. Section 3.2. relevant audience asreferent this is within encyclopaedic the knowledge said expression may prototypically assumed be identifiable to be to a referswhich to an extralinguistic entity or process. The referent the of Reference that is attempted by means of any cultural linguistic expression, text(s) at hand. Cf. Section 5.2. of) (series A parameter for an deciding whether ECRexists independently of the Cf. Section 1.2.2 seconds)timeThe (inthat a subtitlescreen.on is exposed time. Cf. Section 6.2. measured by average the number of characters second of per exposure whichtheto with a subtitle,read Theis expected reader speed as percentage from ST to TT. Cf. Section 6.2. The quantitative difference between ST and TT, presented asareduction knownAlso as spotting and Cf. coding. time Section 1.2.1. by marking in-and the out-times of subtitles on electronic the code. time a subtitle when Deciding is to appear and disappear on days screen,these Cf. Section 6.5. STin the treat aTC ECRas ifit was aSCECR. A breach of contract the of illusion, caused by subtitles making characters Section 1.2.3 A tacit understanding that subtitles the are same the Cf. as dialogue. the individual utterances). Cf. Section 5.3. text, either on macro-level the whole (the text) or on micro-level the (e.g. A parameter for deciding how central, or important, an ECRis to the
Beninu Andersen (208233) IP: 85.184.159.51 On: Mon, 27 Jan 2020 04:21:30
Subtitling Norms for Television Subtitle density translation Second-generation Polysemiotic text Polysemiotics Pivot translation Subtitling Situation EquivalentOfficial Monocultural ECR Transcultural ECR Transculturality Translation problem Text Internal ECR Text ECR External quantity Subtitle Cf. Section 5.1. An ECRthat is well known SCand the inboth TC. the TC. Cf. Section 5.1. A parameter for deciding how well known an ECRis SCand inthe the Cf. Section 3.1. to make an active decision on what strategy to to use solve problem. the A ST element that strategic triggers behaviour, i.e. that causes atranslator Cf. Section 5.2. text(s) atAn hand. ECRthat created has been for of) (series the Cf. Section 5.2. text(s) atAn hand. ECRthat exists independently of) of (series the The total number TT.of subtitles ina Section 6.2. Cf. numberthe of subtitles minute per of airtime. Cf. Section 6.2. The average number TT into,is divided of subtitlesthe as measured by Cf. Section 1.2.1. A translation made from another translation. channel,Section 1.2. Cf. e.g. afilm. A text where information comes through more than one semiotic Cf. Section 5.4. The interplaysemioticthe between channels polysemiotic ina text. Cf. Section 6.4. A translation as basis of the used asecond-generation translation. broadcaster, audience. and deadlines TT Cf. Section 5.7. A parameter for handling considerations about whole the text, such as throughdecision official or entrenchment.Section 4.2.7. Cf. statusA special given to atranslation solution by authenticated being Cf. Section 5.1. An ECRthat is well known SC,but inthe not TC. inthe
Beninu Andersen (208233) IP: 85.184.159.51 On: Mon, 27 Jan 2020 04:21:30 Cueing Credibility gap Coyote Ugly Coupled pairs Co-text Convention Contract of illusion Condensation Completion Compensation Subtitling of Good Code Cocktail Children’s programming Centrality studiesCase Calque Breech of reference Band of Brothers Authentication Audiovisual Assets As Good As It Gets Anaconda Allusions Adequate Adequacy Additive Action Accountability norm Acceptable Acceptability 60 Minutes C B A rate text choice 182 Practice 200 10 150, 176 20 – 30
83 14 – Index 114, 199 109, 199 185, 239 9, 113,212 – 201, 205
3 – – – 45, 50,108 34
21, 138 116 176 105, 111 31
85, 162 16, 239 117 35 – 98 29 79, 162 124 35 124 – 26, 36,213 26 20 – 177 183 – 91 97
31 – 200 – , 84, 117 – – –
139, 239 208, 239 27 – 21 113, 94, 167, 113 184 88 21 36 – – 114 23, 239 7, 20 Extralinguistic CulturalExtralinguistic Extralinguistic Extra-diegetic Extension Exposure time Explicitation reading speed Expected Exotic Excalibur ESIST Entrenchment Encyclopaedically Dynamic Dubbing Domesticating Domains Directness Direct Translation Descriptive Denotation Demarcation Deictically Default prototype Decree Daylight Culture Cultural literacy E D Monocultural ECR Infracultural ECR ECR Embedded translation studies paradigm norms 157, 197 239 239 Reference (ECR) 130 133 162 200 123 84 – – – 97
– 45
135 164 131, 239
142 201 4 29 – 58 – 12, 92 154 – 52 – 124 98 35, 172,213 101, 159 48 – 6 51 25, 28 61, 93 33, 79 44 – 8, 10,101, 156 98 19 52 22, 92 45 – 47 – 45 211 – 20, – 101, 200 76, 83 60 161, 94 107 25
107 43 – – 131, – – 26 – 109, 85, 45, 109, Intralinguistic Intralingual Intertextuality Intersemiotic Interlingual Intension Idiosyncrasies Guidelines Goldfinger Godzilla Globalization Genre file Genesis Generalization Friends Frames Gump Forrest Formal Foreignizing For Love of the Game Fluency Fawlty Towers Extratextuality Extratextual sources I G F Text ECR External Peripheral ECR Multifunctional ECRs translation subtitles translation redundancy translation subtitles Transcultural ECR Text Internal ECR 60 164 240 240
– 63 –
12, 92 14 66 61 22 166 80 –
– 52 65, 127 – – 159 15 122 9 11 67 23 16, 239 – –
34
53
11 – 9 12 12 22, 206 146, 149,181 66, 165,168 30 45, 153 110 20 – 160 110 76, 85 11 – – – – 128, 189 – 31 112 21, 113 111 111, 239
121 – 110 173 110 107, 240 89,
– – –
– 122 – 111, 174 111, 190
Beninu Andersen (208233) IP: 85.184.159.51 On: Mon, 27 Jan 2020 04:21:30 Index Omission EquivalentOfficial Hill Notting Norm Non-strategic translating My Best Friend’s Wedding Minimum effort Midsomer Murders Run Midnight Meronymy Meet the Parents Meet Joe Black Media-specific constraints Maximum effect Master template file Manifest destiny Mainstream TV M*A*S*H Language policy L.A. Confidential The Karate Kid Jurassic Park ISO certification Intrasemiotic redundancy Oral featuresOral N M L K J O Textual-linguistic norm Relation norm Product norm Process norm Prescriptive norm Preliminary norm Orientation norm Operational norm Matricial norm Initial norm Guidance norm norm Expectancy Descriptive norm Conflict Complex norm Communication norm 240 197 115, 201
76, 96
91, 185
32 80
110, 160
87, 155 11, 115
109 84, 87
34 164
–
160 2 36 78, 92 86 5 79 16 35 97, 169 – 160 – 36
35 207 – 35 110 197 76, 97 89 – – 165 16 29 – 35 192 161 37 29, 187 34 34 161 – – – – 17, 239 36 –
35 35 – 41 194 79 36, 100, 21 35 –
42 Subtitle Substitution Translation strategy Strategic translating Hard Spy Spotting Specification Source-text revision Solution-type Sleepless in Seattle Skopos Shiftedtranslation direct Shift Sense channelsSemiotic Segmenting Scandinavian Subtitles Same-strategy solutions Rules Rich point Retention Regularities Reference Realia relationsQuasi-sense broadcasterPublic service Proper names Prescriptive paradigm Post-synchronization Popper’s worlds Polysemy Polysemiotics Police Academy Piltdown Paraphrase S R Q P quantity file density Substitution Situational Cultural Substitution Minimax strategy Minimal change strategies Interventional relations 95 76, 90 101 strategies 41 Corpus 69 30, 32 15 43 – – 44 – 43 93, 116 96, 168 –
–
102 14 16 168 46, 52 95 80
– 135 76, 77 56 42
135 95, 179 85, 88 53 14 30 – 2, 124 – – 76, 79 – 169 57 – 70 113 138, 240 – 51 –
– 101 54 138, 240 169 15 143 – 31 56 – – –
– 78, 159 – 55, 203 – 71 – 114, 240 149 89, 164 – 10, 240 129, 229 – 102 – 186 57 145 37 82 41 213 78, 92 54 4 – – 25 – 39, 42
175 160 –
84 – 165 76, 118 237
Text Suspension of disbelief Superordinate term Subtitling Voice-over Visibility Verbosity Typology of translation Typical viewer Types Translation Translation CrisisPoint Transient Transculturality Tokens Tinker Bell Time code Think-aloud protocols The Show Truman Office The The Mask TheLast Boy Scout Fugitive The Collector Bone The T V Audiovisual text Prototypical subtitling situation process Constraints of for deaf the and hard of Vulnerable translation Transparent translation tactics strategy Pivot translation solution proper problem law Second-generation First-generation Direct Translation Polysemiotic text Matched texts Independent texts subtitling hearing 240 translation translation 83 168
151 – 30, 33 85, 162 151
69 214 11
9, 110 167, 184 61 39, 168,183 13 37 14, 16 154 37, 240
4, 6 – 41 115 – – 88, 119,163 12 – 11 63 – 18 – – 39, 41 – 43, 240 58 18 164 155 120, 240 – 17, 240 16 106 – 172
18, 239
20, 115 – 153 173 54, 112 10 – 17 18, 239 – 85 9 43 173, 175 173, 110, 240 76, – – – – 11, 240 154 18, 70, 21 86, 88 211 42 – 9 209
22 22