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The History of Hydrogeology in – Part II

Av Kim Rudolph-Lund, Editor with contributions from: Bioforsk, Holymoor Consultancy, NGU, NGI, NIVA, NVE, SWECO, UMB

Kim Rudolph-Lund er fagleder Grunnvann og hydrogeologi ved NGI og IAH- Board Member.

Introduksjon og sammendrag Dette er andre del av en artikkel opprin- kontrast til 13 % som faktisk benyttet nelig ment for en bok, ”History of hydro- grunnvann på den tiden. geology”, som skulle inneholde tilsva- Sentre for forskning og konsulent- rende artikler fra flere land. Bokprosjektet virksomhet innenfor hydrogeology ble er foreløpig lagt på is. Del I av artikkelen, etablert i denne perioden samtidig som som omhandler utviklingen frem til ca flere utdanningsinstitusjoner utviklet ut- 1950, ble presentert i forrige nummer av danningstilbud innenfor faget på alle VANN. ­nivåer, også doktorgradsnivå. De omfat- Tidlige aktiviteter rundt boring av tende aktivitetene i fagmiljøer som brønner for vannforsyning til gårdsbruk ­Noteby og NGI var et klart uttrykk for en og lokalsamfunn ga med tiden en forstå- økende anerkjennelse av hydrogeologi else av hydrogeologi som vitenskap. som et viktig fagområde. Denne aktiviteten ble etter hvert utvidet og institusjonalisert av myndighetene. Abstract Siden 50-tallet var NGU den domine- The early development of hydrogeology rende drivende kraft bak utviklingen av was one of necessity. The art of drilling hydrogeologi som fagfelt i Norge, ofte i wells to supply groundwater to farms samarbeid med NVE og NLH. På 70- og and communities gradually included an 80-tallet ble det gjennomført omfattende understanding of the science of hydro- grunnvannskartlegging med tanke på geology. This activity was expanded and vannforsyning til kommuner flere steder institutionalized by national authorities. I landet. Kartleggingen indikerte at 25 til Since the 1950’s, NGU was the dominant 30 % av Norges befolkning kunne få sin driving force behind the expansion of vannforsyning fra grunnvann. Dette i hydrogeology, often working with NVE

Vann I 04 2010 507 Innsendte artikler and NLH. Major groundwater mapping It was hoped that young Skjeseth was the programs were conducted during the right man to reign in the increasing costs 1970’s and 1980’s, supplying ground­ of the burgeoning drilling program. water to large municipalities around the How­ever, Skjeseth soon proved to be country. Results from studies indicated more interested in developing the new that 25 to 30 percent of Norway’s popu- science of hydrogeology rather than lation could be supplied with ground­ ­limiting the associated costs of drilling. water, in contrast to the 13 percent which The end result, nevertheless, was that the was using groundwater at the time. hydrogeology section at NGU, with its Centers of hydrogeology study, new leader, increased the focus on and ­research and consulting were established raised the standards for the new science around the country during the 1970’s of hydrogeology in Norway. and 1980’s when the higher institutions By 1958 over 600 new wells were dril- of learning began offering advanced de- led annually in Norway. The knowledge grees in hydrogeology. Activities at the garnered during the well drilling opera- large public consulting companies, notably tions was deemed so important that a Noteby and NGI, represented the expan- new initiative was taken to start the pu- ding recognition of hydrogeology as an blication series “Notes from the water important earth science. drilling archives”. In all 14 separate mono­logues were published in this series, The Geological Survey the last one being published as late as of Norway 1966 (Meddelelser fra vannborings­ The new science of hydrogeology arkivet, Nr. 1-14). In 1951 the Geological Survey of Nor- way (NGU), established in in 1858, began a new program led by Per Holm- sen examining the results from well dril- ling by NDDC in Norway. In 1952 a well drilling register was established after the Danish pattern. By 1958 the number of registered drillings in bedrock had reached 3000. The average depth of the drillings was 40 m, but some reached as deep as 226 m; 90% of the drillings were in . Steinar Skjeseth, a paleontologist by trade, took over the new Hydrogeology Figure 3. S. Skjeseth (right) performing a Section in 1953, after NGU Director pumping test in the field. Notice his Føyn expressed his dissatisfaction with attire which was considered appropriate the mounting drilling costs, see figure 3. at the time.

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NGU moves – hydrogeologists stay wells using casing. None of these 100 behind mm diameter wells used filters. In this The decision to move NGU from Oslo to same year two new wells were drilled in Trondheim was taken by the Norwegian unconsolidated sediments: one for Rena Government on February 28, 1957. There Packaging Factory, and one at Sagtjernet was some indecision as to whether NGU for Elverum Municipality. Norsk Dyp- should move to the Norwegian Institute brønnsboring successfully installed the of Technology (NTH) or to a new build- wells using available material and equip- ing that would be constructed at Øst- ment. The wells were drilled using an marka in Trondheim. The Ministry of arm attached to a tractor which drove Industry finally decided on May 14, 1957 back and fourth. The work was extremely that NGU should be moved to the new difficult in the rocky soil. But with the building. In fall 1961 the move was com- successful completion of these two wells, pleted, however not all of the employees a new unique era began for Norwegian moved to Trondheim. The Hydrogeology water supply that, especially for the Section, with its five professionals, re- ­ region, lasted until 1985. mained in Oslo. It was reasoned that Drilling after water in bedrock became since most of the well boreholes were a common strategy for water supply by drilled in southern Norway, it would be the end of the 1950’s. At the farming more practical to keep the section in ­exhibition at Ekeberg in 1959, the Hydro­ Oslo, close to the action. geology Section participated by drilling The Hydrogeology Section was headed a well to 70 m in order to supply water to by Skjeseth and had five employees. Skje- the farmers at the exhibition. seth was known as a driven professional, In addition to constantly updating a gifted lecturer, intensive and outgoing. and analyzing the data in their drilled He continuously tried to transfer his well register, from 1960 to 1970 NGU fo- own knowledge over to not only his fel- cused increased attention on finding the low hydrogeologists, but other professio- best locations for water wells. This resul- nal groups he came in contact with ted in groundwater being quickly accep- ­during his work. Skjeseth’s enthusiasm ted as a viable alternative to surface water. often took over hand it is reported, being This new acceptance, for using ground- often a test in knowledge as well as endu- water produced from sand and gravel rance. Two things Skjeseth emphasized aquifers, applied not only to small coun- were: make observations and solutions try villages, but also to towns and cities. together, and immerse yourself in the In the Hydrogeology Section, the facts in order to understand the pro- number of employees increased with the blem. By the end of the 1950’s, Skjeseth work load. A new move saw the section and two other employees were working sharing offices with the hydrogeological full time with bedrock wells. section of the Norwegian Water Resources In 1958 there were only 15 bedrock and Energy Directorate in the summer

Vann I 04 2010 509 Innsendte artikler of 1977. The number of employees at this maps with bedrock geology where detai- new “Oslo office” grew to 18 by 1984, 12 led fault analysis and registered data of these worked for Hydrogeology Section. from drilled water wells gave the basis By this time water supply studies had for the interpretation of expected water topped one hundred, with over half of yield from bedrock locations. NGU per- these being conducted for the local formed test drilling in selected areas muni­cipalities. with unconsolidated sediments, and ­yields greater than that from bedrock Groundwater mapping were indicated on the maps. Because of International Hydrological Decade the high cost of producing the maps due During the International Hydrological to extensive field and interpretation Decade (IHD), a program running from work, their production was ultimately 1965 to 1974 conducted under the auspices discontinued by the survey. of the United Nations, the Norwegian national IHD committee started ground- Groundwater resource mapping water level measurements in three “re- At about the same time, the survey be- presentative basins”: Filefjell (high gan producing another series of ground- mountain terrain with a thin soil cover water resource maps called ”Ground wa- of till), Sagelva (a thick soil cover of till) ter in unconsolidated sediments” at M and Romerike (lowland terrain with gla- 1:50 000, the so called “blue series”. Despite cifluvial deposits). Particular emphasis its title, this was a series of black and was given to the Romerike area where white maps, with descriptions, that groundwater was plentiful and of econo- synthe­sized the results from earlier mic importance. NGU coordinated acti- groundwater surveys in unconsolidated vities and was active in data collection sediments within map quadrangles. The and analysis. At the end of the IHD pe- earlier results were supplemented with riod, the Romerike drainage basin had new field assessments and exploratory all together three recording gauges, about drillings to characterize the potential 180 tubes and about 20 wells used for re- groundwater quantity and quality in cording groundwater levels. sand and gravel deposits. The map text in the blue series com- Hydrogeological mapping prised a general description of ground- In addition to NGU’s consulting for the water and a special section about the public, the production of groundwater possibilities for extracted groundwater maps gradually became an important from unconsolidated sediments, along ­activity at the survey. Hydrogeological with short descriptions of the ground­ maps, with descriptions, of water potential in the bedrock occurring (1115I) and Drøbak (1814II) at a scale of within the map quadrangle. The area 1:50,000 were published in 1978 and profiles also contained groundwater 1979, respectively. These were color quality analysis, drilling profiles with

510 Vann I 04 2010 Innsendte artikler grain size distribution curves for sam- the prioritized areas, the location and pled sediments, and groundwater description of unconsolidated sediments quantities extractable using 5/4” sand and bedrock with the potential for filter well points. A total of 41 ground­ groundwater extraction. Data tables water resource maps were produced were also provided over bedrock wells. from 1976 to 1987. This mapping series The disadvantage with the maps was the is considered the best groundwater series exclusion of proved and possible ground- that has ever been produced in Norway. water occurrences outside of the prioriti- zed areas. Trial mapping in Oppland and Finnmark By the 1980’s, NGU had received requests Groundwater in Norway (GiN) Project from numerous municipalities and pro- Another project which had considerable perty owners around Norway expressing impact on the hydrogeology in Norway an interest in focusing their mapping was the “Groundwater in Norway” or ­efforts more on the needs of the end GiN project (Ellingsen & Banks 1993). users, for example using administrative This project was initialized in 1989 by boundaries rather than the limits of the the Ministry of the Environment and map quadrangles in the M 711 series. then coordinated by NGU. The program The end users wanted to be able to give included the development of new metho­ more input concerning the content of dologies, index mapping, registration the maps. and evaluation of groundwater occur- In an answer to these requests, NGU rences and pollution threats, in addition decided to perform a sample mapping of to new initiatives to inform municipali- the municipalities of Oppland and Finn- ties and county administrations. 15 of mark. Each of these municipalities was Norway’s counties participated in the contacted prior to the mapping in order project. The non-participating counties to prioritize areas with a need for impro- were: Oppland and Finnmark (which ved water supply. Afterwards, field work had already been mapped during their was carried out in each of the prioritized own project, as mentioned earlier), Møre areas and test drillings were made on un- and (which had already been consolidated sediments with the poten- surveyed by the Sogn and Fjordane Uni- tial for groundwater extraction. The be- versity College), and Oslo (which alrea- drock in the prioritized areas was also dy had a good water supply). surveyed and the potential water quantity Mapping in the individual counties was indicated based on bedrocks maps was performed by a formal working and existing results in NGU’s well dril- group composed of: ling archive. • one hydrogeologist Reports were made for all of the mu- • one specialist in Quaternary geology nicipalities (26 in Oppland and 19 in • one specialist in structural geology Finnmark) with maps that indicated, for

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In addition to NGU personnel, hydro- • 15 county reports (summaries of the geologists and geologists from Sogn and municipality reports) Fjordane University College, Telemark • 13 GiN instruction manuals with University College, the University of practical information about finding Bergen and several consulting companies and using ground water were involved in the mapping. The different local municipalities in A brief summary of the GIN project and the counties were also divided into A a full list of reports and publications pro- and B municipalities dependent upon duced during the project period is given the urgency of the need for local surveys. in NGU (1992). Field work was performed in A-munici- palities, while in B-municipalities the NVE – from rain to mapping was performed based upon groundwater ­existing geological information at NGU. In 1961, the Norwegian Water Resources Mapping was performed in areas priori- and Energy Directorate (NVE) began to tized by the municipalities with the re-organize their work with ground­ exception of the counties Østfold and water. Earlier groundwater observations Vestfold where a general evaluation was had already been recorded by NVE in performed for possible aquifers. 1949 at Groset in Telemark. The assign- Based upon the mapping performed ments in the first years were mainly con- in the individual municipalities, the centrated on regulation investigations. possi­bility for groundwater supply from These studies mapped the influence of bedrock or available unconsolidated se- rivers on the surrounding groundwater diments in the areas was characterized as regimes in order to evaluate the effect of «Good», «Possible» or «Poor» according the imposed regulation in the river ba- to the actual water need. Some of the sins on the local groundwater condi- ­locations classified as «Possible» were, tions. The methods developed by NVE after further investigations, found to to perform these studies included corre- have a lower potential for groundwater lation analyses of the observed river supply than first expected. At any rate, ­levels with measured groundwater levels the results from the study concluded that at selected observation points, as well as 25 to 30 percent of Norway›s population mapping of the groundwater in the affec- can be supplied with ground- water, in ted areas. contrast to the 13 percent which was The first surveys were performed in using groundwater during the project Østerdalen (Stor-Elvdal and Rendalen) period. in 1961 and required assistance from The GIN project was completed after both NLH and NGU. In 1963 a new sur- four years and produced: vey was performed in Lærdal, and others • 261 municipality reports covering followed as the results of new plans to 301 municipalities utilize more of the Norwegian waterfalls

512 Vann I 04 2010 Innsendte artikler for hydroelectric power production. The When the IHD period came to an end growing number of groundwater surveys in 1974, the Norwegian Hydrologic soon required additional administration Committee suggested the establishment in the Hydrologic Department. The of a National groundwater Network Ground­water Office (GWO) was formed (LGN), combining the infrastructure in 1961, but it was only in 1963 that the established with IHD support with other necessary resources were in place for the existing activities. The national observa- office to begin functioning properly. tion network was put together and com- During 1971 the possibility of large pleted by 1977 as they could use a number flooding after a period of large snow falls of the already established UFT stations. gave rise to the “Committee for run-off The observation program was increased predictions” (UFT) with their secretariat to include measurements of ground­ placed at the GWO. The feared large water temperature together with analysis flooding never did occur because a large of chemical parameters. Administration part of the flood waters went to rege­ and budgeting for the LGN was given to neration of the groundwater reservoirs NGU. NVE provided an engineer for the along the rivers. The hydroelectric pro- field work, a position which in 1984 was ducers were so fascinated by what hap- permanently itemized in the NVE bud- pened that they funded new research get for the LGN. NVE was responsible around run-off predictions. UFT re- for all of the LGN data processing since mained active until 1977 after which their they already had a fully operational data activities were transferred to the GWO. processing center for the storage and During their period of activity, UFT presentation of hydrologic data. Since developed and published a method to then, important development and mo- calculate the size of available ground­ dernization of the LGN stations has taken water resources from a groundwater place. By the end of the 1980’s the magazine based on depletion curves network measured groundwater levels at constructed from water level observa- approximately 80 measuring points in 43 tions at an observation point in the river different localities. basin (a water mark downstream from the groundwater magazine). UFT Agricultural University of equipped and ran a large number of Norway (NLH) ­observation fields over the entire country, The pressing need to improve the water where records were kept for ground­ supply situation in Norwegian farming water levels, ground frost depths, snow communities in the middle of the 1960’s depths, air temperature, and runoff in was one of the reasons for the establish- the lower river basin. In coordination ment of a new Professorate in geology at with record keeping at the GWO, these the Agricultural University of Norway records were entered into the shared (NLH) in 1965. It was an easy transition ­Hydrologic Department’s data archives. for Skjeseth from NGU to fill this posi-

Vann I 04 2010 513 Innsendte artikler tion and take responsibility for hydro- not easy for the new hydrogeology stu- geology at NLH since he had already dents working in the field. Drillers were been teaching part-time classes on the not used to new techniques that involved subject for several semesters. Skjeseth’s pumping tests, wells were expensive and background from NGU contributed to the equipment had to be purchased or bor- good working atmosphere that already rowed. One hydrogeologist recalls pur- existed between hydrogeologists at NGU chasing an old cable tool machine from and NLH the widow of an operator who had perished Skjeseth was an inspiration for his under the mast a few years earlier. colleagues and worked tirelessly at In the late 70’s, well stimulation of championing the use of groundwater in crystalline aquifers became popular. In Norway. His hundreds of visits in the practice, this implied using considerable field gave him an intimate insight into amounts of water pressure tolerant the hydrogeology of southeast Norway. ­explo­sives. The spectacular geysers, Beside his professional duties, he con- shooting out from boreholes loaded with ducted courses and held lectures for the 20 to 40 kg of explosives, were impressive well drillers and helped them in the field. sights. The stimulation would often The drillers saw Skjeseth as someone ­stimulate the yield, sometimes reduce they could ask complicated questions the yield, and invariably render the water from the field and receive back good, from the well unfit for human consump- practical advice. For the general public tion for months! Skjeseth published popular science pub­ The field of hydrogeology at NLH ex- lications and had a series on Norwegian panded during the 1970’s and the 1980’s. TV about geology and groundwater in The Norwegian Farming Science Research Norway. Council (NLVF) gave research grants for Skjeseth’s experience with hydro­ studies on water supply within the small geology was first incorporated into the farming communities and later for stu- basic geology curriculum at the college. dies of water in the unsaturated zone. A Later the first formal education in hydro­ new position for a professor, working geology began with the creation of the within several areas of hydrogeology and first undergraduate course in hydro­ specializing within hydrochemistry, was geology in the spring semester of 1977. added at NLH in the 1980’s. In 1984 an Graduate courses were also added and assistant professor position was also ad- the first hydrogeologist in Norway was ded at NLH to perform research work in graduated in 1978 after performing a de- hydrogeology. The Norwegian Hydro­ tailed study of glacifluvial aquifers under logic Committee (NHK) was an important marine clays. The first Norwegian driving force behind the granting of re- doctor­ate in hydrogeology was granted search positions at NLH and received in 1982 based on work in the Fetsund their funding from the state controlled delta area (Ree, 1984). Life, however, was Concession Fund. Employees were per-

514 Vann I 04 2010 Innsendte artikler sistent in their efforts to obtain funding Public consulting sector for hydrogeological research at NLH. Locating water supply wells in the rural NHK was later incorporated into the areas always was an important activity ­Research Council of Norway (RCN) for the Hydrogeology Section at NGU. where interest for hydrogeologic research The number of these projects neared an diminished after the 1980’s. all time high towards the late 1970’s. By In spite of the lower funding by RCN, this time NGU had performed about 500 cooperation between NLH and the Uni- assessments. Most of these concerned versity of Bergen (UiB) began in the water supplies for single family dwellings, middle 1980’s. By 1987 a new national mountain cabins and farms; the evalua- field course in hydrogeology was organi- tions were mostly performed for well zed with practical support by NGU at drillers and private persons, as well as Kaldvelladalen south for Trondheim. some large municipal water supply pro- The two week field course soon became jects. popular with aspiring hydrogeologists Many of these groundwater projects and eventually included the University were located in unconsolidated sedi- of Oslo as well as the Norwegian Insti- ments, with the project leadership being tute of Technology. provided by NGU. They were responsi- ble for choosing the locations and per- Jordforsk – georesources forming the follow-up studies. This led and pollution research to the establishment of a number of large In 1977 NLVF was of the opinion that public groundwater supplies, as in the farming research was poorly organized case of Kongsvinger, Elverum, Lilleham- and they created, after initiative from mer, Voss and Hønefoss. Some smaller Skjeseth, a “Steering committee for agri- ones were also established in Odda, Kau- cultural research”. The committee began tokeino and in most of the population to perform so much original farming re- centers in Gudbrandsdalen. search that by 1981 it received from Over the years, the requests for help NLVF status as an independent institute from the state hydrogeologists employed with the name of GEFO (“Institute for by NGU began to decrease for a number georesources and pollution research”). of reasons: In the late 1980’s GEFO was merged with • water well drillers began using the Norwegian Soil and Peat Company ­hydraulic fracturing to increase and reorganized as a foundation. Jord- ­borehole yield forsk, as the new group was known, was • the appearance of a new generation run as an independent research institu- of water well drillers who often were tion in Ås with less grants from The better educated in their profession ­Research Council of Norway. • consulting firms with well qualified hydrogeologists began to offer their services in the market.

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Noteby tions still being completed in the 1970’s. In 1975 the Oslo based consulting engi- The Norwegian Geotechnical Insitute neering firm Noteby established a Hydro­ (NGI), a private foundation established geology Group to meet the growing de- by a government resolution in January 1, mand for hydrogeological consulting 1953, was engaged to determine the geo- skills in the market. This was a daring logic conditions and to monitor pore move, in direct competition with the pressures and follow up on the subsidence ­governmentally employed hydrogeologist problems. With assistance from Noteby, at NGU. The company employed some of they were responsible for the schemes the first students with dedicated training for artificial infiltration of water. in hydrogeology. Most of these employ- Since the creation of NGI, the insti- ees came from the new program for tute has also worked extensively with the hydro­geology at the Norwegian Agricul- construction of dams for hydropower. tural College and from the geology With over 250 dams in Norway, there ­department at the University of Oslo. has been considerable research around Projects mostly involved development of the development of these structures. groundwater sources and sanitary/­ This research has led to new ideas about industrial landfills in Norway. dam siting, construction material and By the late 1970’s, Noteby had increa- requirements needed to control ground- sed their activities so much in Africa that water flow and seepage. they transferred six hydrogeologist to By the 1980’s, hydrogeology was an Kenya. Groundwater studies in East integral part of NGI’s consulting activi- Africa and especially Sudan were perfor- ties in working for national and interna- med for the Norwegian Agency for tional clients within the areas of water ­Development Cooperation (NORAD), supply, natural hazards, environmental the Swedish International Development protection, oil and gas, building and Cooperation Agency (SIDA) and the construction, and transportation. United Nations Development Program (UNDP) well into the 1980’s. References Banks, D., Morland, G. & Frengstad, B. NGI 2005. Use of non-parametric statistics as Groundwater has historically created geo­ a tool for the hydraulic and hydrogeo- technical challenges in Norway. During chemical characterization of hard rock the last century new techniques have aquifers. Scottish Journal of Geology, been developed to prevent leakage and 41(1), 69-79. subsidence problems near tunnels and open excavations. The Holmenkollen Ellingsen, K. & Banks, D. 1993. An intro­ tunnel is a classical example of this type duction to groundwater in Norway - of subsidence (Holmsen, 1953). The con- promotion and reconnaissance map- struction was started in 1912 with sec- ping. In Banks, S.B. & Banks, D. (eds.)

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”Hydrogeology of Hard Rocks”, Mem. contruction and maintenance. Delaware 24th Congress of International Associa- Geological Survey Bulletin No.1, 24 pp. tion of Hydrogeologists, 28th June- 2nd July 1993, Ås (Oslo), Norway, 1031-1041. Ree, B. 1984. Recent delta deposits as groundwater resources: the Fetsund delta Helland, A. 1898. Fiskeværenes forsyning aquifer in Lake Øyern, SE Norway. Dr. med vand. Norsk Fiskeritidende, h. 4. Scient. dissertation 651, Department of Geography, University of Oslo. Rap- Holmsen, G. 1940. Grunnvannsbrønner. portserie hydrologi 4, University of Oslo. Norges geologiske undersøkelse. Små- skrfter Nr. 4. Rekstad, J. 1922. Grunnvatnet. Norges Geologiske Undersøkelse Nr. 92. Pub- Holmsen, G., 1953. Regional settlements lisher H. Aschehoug & Co. caused by a subsidence tunnel in Oslo. International Conference on Soil Me- References in the series ”Meddelelser fra chanics and Foundation Engineering, 3. vannboringsarkivet”: Zurich 1953. Proceedings, Vol. 1, pp. 381-383. Nr. 1: Holmsen, Per 1953. En orientering om arkivets arbeidsgrunnlag. Om Jansen, O.1995. Private conversation be- Samarbeide med borefirmaene. tween T. Klemetsrud and O. Jansen as Den viktigste fennoskandiske related to the editor. faglitteratur. NGU 184, 5-11.

Klemetsrud, T. 2003. Brønnboring i Nr. 2: Skjeseth, Steinar 1953. Vannbo- Norge. Historisk oversikt. Unpublished ringer utført i traktene omkring diary. Mjøsa og Randsfjorden 1950-52. NGU 184, 12-22. NGU 1992 Grunnvann i Norge (GiN). Sluttrapport [Groundwater in Norway Nr. 3: Skjeseth, Steinar 1956. Kambro- (GiN). Final report – In Norwegian] the silurbergartenes hydrogeologi i publication series. NGU Skrifter 111, 23 Mjøstraktene. NGU 195, 15-36. p + appendices. Nr. 4: Holmsen, Per 1956. Oppsprek- Olesen, O. and Rønning, J.S. 2008. Dyp- ning, topografi og vannføring i forvitring: fortidens klima gir tunnel- massive dypbergarter. NGU 195, problemer. Gråsteinen 12, 100-110, Nor- 37-42. ges geologiske undersøkelse, Trondheim. Nr. 5: Skjeseth, Steinar 1957. Kvaliteten Rasmussen, W.C. and Haigler, L.B. 1953. av grunnvann. NGU 200, 55-67. Ground-water problems in highway

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Nr. 6: Skjeseth, Steinar 1958. Vann i Nr. 11: Hagemann, Fredrik 1961. grus og sand. NGU 203, 80-87. Grunnvann i Vestfold. NGU 213, 29-48. Nr. 7: Skjeseth, Steinar 1958. Norske kilder. NGU 203, 88-99. Nr. 12: Skjeseth, Steinar og Klemetsrud, Tidemann 1962. Rørbrønner. Nr. 8: Skjeseth, Steinar 1959. Rørbrøn- NGU 215, 87-100 ner ved Rena og Elverum. NGU 205, 160-170. Nr. 13: Hagemann, Fredrik og Klemets- rud, Tidemann 1965. Rørbrønn- Nr. 9: Hagemann, Fredrik 1959. Vann- filtere. NGU 234, 53-63. boring i Øst- og Midt-Finnmark. NGU 205, 84-98. Nr. 14: Englund, Jens-Olaf 1966. Grunnvann i Sparagmitt­ Nr. 10: Bryn, Knut Ørn 1961. Grunn- gruppens bergarter i Syd-Norge. vann øst for Oslofeltet. NGU NGU 242, 5-18. 213. 5-19.

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