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Untitled, Undated Document, Rtskhldni, 533-6-317 McKnight provides a superbly documented analysis of how the Communist International organized its clandestine activities and the guidelines for underground and covert political work that it laid out for Communist parties around the world. He provides as well case studies of Comintern conspiratorial activities and demonstrates how this covert work later overlapped with and contributed to Soviet foreign espionage undertakings. Students of both the Comintern and the various national Communist parties will have need of this book. John Earl Haynes, author of The Secret World of American Communism and Venona: Decoding Soviet Espionage in America From the 1930s to the 1950s a significant number of left-wing men and women in the United States, Britain, Europe, Australia and Canada were recruited to the Soviet intelligence services. These people were amateurs rather than professional intelligence workers, and the reasons for their success is intriguing and has never been satisfactorily explained. Using recently released Soviet archives, this book seeks to explore the foundations for these successes in the deliberately concealed tradition of underground political activity which was part of the communist movement. This tradition, which became extremely useful to Soviet intelligence, also explains the origins of the 'tradecraft' of espionage. The book seeks to contribute to the study of the causes of the early Cold War, by explaining how this underground tradition led to espionage. This book shows that while allegations of disloyalty during the Cold War were often part of a witchhunt, the Left and their liberal allies sometimes unwittingly had a number of skeletons in their own closet. David McKnight has studied and written about espionage and politics for over 15 years. Research for this book has taken him to archives in Moscow, Washington, Canberra and Amsterdam, where he studied the underground organisation of the Communist International. His previous book, Australia's Spies and their Secrets, won the Douglas Stewart Prize for Non-Fiction. He is a member of the Advisory Board of the Oxford Companion to Espionage. He teaches at the Humanities Faculty at the University of Technology in Sydney, Australia. Jacket photograph: Asian and Australian delegates at the Fourth Congress of Comintern, 1922 CASS SERIES: STUDIED IN INTELLIGENCE British Military Intelligence in the Palestine Campaign 1914-1918 by Yigal Sheffy British Military Intelligence in the Crimean War, 1854-1856 by Stephen M. Harris Signals Intelligence in World War II edited by David Alvarez Knowing Your Friends: Intelligence Inside Alliances and Coalitions from 1914 to the Cold War edited by Martin S. Alexander Eternal Vigilance: 50 Years of the CIA edited by Rhodri Jeffreys-Jones and Christopher Andrew Nothing Sacred: Nazi Espionage against the Vatican, 1939-1945 by David Alvarez and Revd. Robert A. Graham Intelligence Investigations: How Ultra Changed History by Ralph Bennett Intelligence Analysis and Assessment edited by David Charters, A. Stuart Farson and Glenn P. Hastedt TET 1968: Understanding the Surprise by Ronnie E. Ford Intelligence and Imperial Defence: British Intelligence and the Defence of the Indian Empire 1904-1924 by Richard J. Popplewell Espionage: Past, Present, Future? edited by Wesley K. Wark The Australian Security Intelligence Organization: An Unofficial History by Frank Cain Policing Politics: Security Intelligence and the Liberal Democratic State by Peter Gill From Information to Intrigue: Studies in Secret Service Based on the Swedish Experience 1939-45 by C. G. McKay Dieppe Revisited: A Documentary Investigation by John Campbell More Instructions from the Centre by Andrew Gordievsky Controlling Intelligence edited by Glenn P. Hastedt Spy Fiction, Spy Films and Real Intelligence edited by Wesley K. Wark Security and Intelligence in a Changing World: New Perspectives for the 1990s edited by A. Stuart Farson, David Stafford and Wesley K. Wark A Don at War by Sir David Hunt K.C.M.G., O.B.E. (reprint) Intelligence and Military Operations edited by Michael I. Handel Leaders and Intelligence edited by Michael I. Handel War, Strategy and Intelligence by Michael I. Handel Strategic and Operational Deception in the Second World War edited by Michael I. Handel Codebreaker in the Far East by Alan Stripp Intelligence Services in the Information Age by Michael Herman Swedish Signal Intelligence 1900-1945 by C. G. McKay and Bengt Beckman Contents A Note on the Text vi List of Illustrations viii Acknowledgements X Abbreviations xi Foreword xiii Introduction 1 1 The Roots of Conspiracy 15 2 The Communist International and Clandestine Methods: 47 the Conspiratorial Impulse 3 Comintern's Underground in Western Military Forces 73 4 Underground in Asia 100 5 The 1930s: from the Underground to Espionage 127 6 A Trojan Horse within Social Democracy 153 7 Fighting Fascism through Espionage 172 Conclusion 198 Bibliography 201 Index 218 A Note on the Text Please note that the name of the Australian Labor Party is rendered throughout with the correct spelling 'Labor' though in original documents it is occasionally rendered as 'Labour'. The term 'labour movement' refers to the network of trade unions and similar organisations outside the party sphere. vi List of Illustrations Between pages 82-83 1. Staff of the Anglo-American Secretariat of the Comintern at work during the Fourth Congress, 1922. 2. Front page of rare manual for underground political work, 'The Rules for Party Conspiratorial Work', published in 1925. Similar rules were used by the Russian intelligence services. 3. The opening of the Second Congress of the Communist International, 1920. 4. Earl Browder in China, c. 1927, led underground trade union work while posing as a businessman. 5. Jakov Rudnik, posed as M. Hilaire Noulens' language teacher, but was the OMS worker for Comintern's Far Eastern Bureau in Shanghai, in 1931. 6. Coded cables. The first warns that the authorities know that PO Box 1299 is used by the underground apparatus, the second uses the language of commerce to describe political work. 7. Welsh miners' leader Arthur Horner (left) advised Comintern of work in the armed forces in 1929. George Hardy (right) worked illegally in Shanghai with the Chinese Communist Party. viii 8. Asian and Australian delegates at the Fourth Congress of Comintern in 1922. Later the Pan Pacific Trade Union Secretariat united US, British, Chinese and Australian trade unionists to build underground trade unions. 9. Communist work with Western navies began after 1929. A 1931 revolt by Australian sailors prompted this cartoon in Smith's Weekly. 10. Harry Pollitt defended British underground work in the army against Comintern criticism that it was inadequate. Seen here addressing the British Battalion during the Spanish civil war. 11. Underground communists led the biggest section of the Australian Labor Party in 1939—40. After a split the left-dominated State Labor Party merged with the Australian Communist Party. 12. Jack Hughes (right) who was an undercover member of the communist party while rising to lead the New South Wales branch of the Labor Party. With him is Lance Sharkey, secretary of the Communist Party of Australia. 13. Osip Piatnitsky, a key figure in the pre-revolutionary Bolshevik illegal apparatus, he headed Comintern underground work until the mid 1930s. 14. One of several false passports carried by OMS worker Jakov Rudnik, who was arrested after a lapse in conspirational rules which also saw Vietnamese communist Ho Chi Minh arrested. 15. American codebreakers unravel a message from Moscow warning KGB resident Semyen Makarov that he is breaching conspirational rules. Such rules were designed to hide the identity of Soviet intelligence workers from their fellow embassy staffers. 16. A surveillance photo of Wal Clayton, who headed the underground work of the Australian Communist Party and was later recruited to work for Soviet Intelligence in 1945. ix Acknowledgements A number of people assisted me greatly in preparing this book. Dr Peter Cochrane provided intelligent and knowledgeable comment while valuable research assistance came from Lena Goreva in Moscow and Nathalie Apouchtine in Australia. Other support came from June Goss. The staff of a number of public institutions were helpful. The institutions include the Russian Centre for the Preservation and Study of Documents of Recent History (especially Svetlana Rozenthal), the International Institute for Social History in Amsterdam (especially Mieke Yzermans) and the National Archives in Washington, DC. Also of note were the National Archives in Canberra (especially John Pepper and Moira Smythe) and its state branch in Sydney; the Fisher Library at the University of Sydney and the Mitchell Library in Sydney. Further assistance for which I am grateful came from Barbara Curthoys, Jane Mills, Geoff Curthoys, Hans-Dieter Senff, Ken Mansell, John Haynes and Judy Tonkin and the Coledale gang. I am grateful to those who agreed to be interviewed or consulted or who helped in other ways. These include Dimitri Moiseenko (Moscow), Laurie Aarons, the late Claude Jones, Eric Aarons, Audrey Blake, Roger Coates, the late Diana Gould, the late Walter Clayton, Jim Henderson, Jack Hughes, Andrew Campbell, Betty Reilly, Len Fox, the late Bill Callen, Rose Creswell, Phillip Deery, Robert Manne, Stuart Macintyre, Edgar Ross, George Bolotenko and Elizabeth Weiss. Financial assistance for travel to Russia came from the Search Foundation and the History Department at the
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