Published by Maney Publishing (c) Family and Community Historical Research Society labour marketsandgeographical location.Thisissupportedbyotherempiricalwork on Moch (1989)claimedthat migrantselectionworkedindifferentwaysaccording to intuition andthehitherto-acceptedassumptionsofmigration historians.Jacksonand Turnbull 1998:326).However,thisconclusionwould appeartoruncounterboth any differenceinthepropensitytomigratebyregion orsettlementsize’(Pooleyand migration. TheirfindingsledPooleyandTurnbullto claimthat‘thereisnoevidenceof hierarchy, apatternreplicatedacrossallregions,reinforcing theuniformityofBritish the 19thcenturydisguisedlargegrosscirculatorymovements bothupanddownthe (Pooley andTurnbull1998:145).Asmallnetmovement upthesettlementhierarchyin barely exceededmovesfromlargertosmallerplaces;after the1880stheywereinbalance towns. Inallregionsbeforethe1880smovementfrom smallertolargerplacesonly rural depopulationthedirectionofmovementwasnot strikinglybiasedtowardsbigger ‘the processesoperatingineachregionwereremarkablysimilar’.Furthermore,despite most obviously,theScottishHighlandswereoriginofmorelong-distancemigrants, Britain. WhileperipheralregionssuchasSouth-WestEngland,South-EastScotlandand, 86–91) concludethattheexperienceofmigrationvariedlittleacrossregions Tapping intotheresearchofthousandsfamilyhistorians,PooleyandTurnbull(1998: The problem facilitating ordeterringmovement. mediated attheindividuallevelbyinfluenceoffamilywhichplayedakeyrolein the mostimportantexplanatoryvariablesstructuringmigration,butthatthesewere patterns toprocessesitarguesthatlabourmarketsandoccupationalstructuresremain differences inmigrationpatternsandpropensityatthecommunitylevel.Movingfrom and onlinecensuscivilregistrationindexdatabases,thestudyidentifiessomeclear of acohortchildrenfromthe1851censusenumerators’booksandmakinguselocal Cornwall inthesecondhalfof19thcentury.Reconstructingmigrationhistories findings fromamicro-levelstudyofthreeoccupationallycontrastingcommunitiesin tigates theappropriatescaleformigrationresearch.Itpresentssomepreliminary any differenceinthepropensitytomigratebyregionorsettlementsize,thisarticleinves- Taking itscuefromPooleyandTurnbull’s(1998)claimthatthereisnoevidenceof 07Fml n omnt itrclRsac oit t DOI: © 2007FamilyandCommunity HistoricalResearchSocietyLtd Family &CommunityHistory MIGRATION:SOMEEVIDENCEFROM COMMUNITIES, FAMILIESAND , Vol.10/1,May2007 By BernardDeacon CORNWALL 10.1179/175138107x185247 Published by Maney Publishing (c) Family and Community Historical Research Society 50 reconstruct themigrationhistory ofthreeeconomicallycontrastingdistricts.To do this Making useofthesepossibilities, theresearchonwhichthispaperisbasedset outto The method only. the difficultiesintermsoftimeandresourcestracking out-migrants,toin-migration confines formerlyimposedbyanecessaryfocusonone orafewplacesand,becauseof 19th century.Thispotentiallyfreesthestudyofmigration basedontheCEBsfrom the life(andmigration)historiesofindividuals,families andcommunitiesinthelater tunity totraceindividualsovertime,usingnominal record linkage,andtoreconstruct indexes tothecivilregistrationrecordsofmarriagesand deaths,nowprovideanoppor- of the19th-centurycensusenumerators’books(CEBs) andtheappearanceofdigitized before 1820(King1997a,1997b).However,theavailability ofcomputerizeddatabases has beenbasedonfamilyreconstitutionmethodsandlargelyconfinedtotheperiod with migrationprocessesratherthanpatterns.Hitherto,suchdetailedwork that arehiddenatamacro-levelwhile,moreover,encouraginggreaterengagement Pryce (2000)supportsthis,urgingthatmicro-levelanalysesmayhelpusisolatevariables more ‘insightaboutmotivationthanlarge-scalequantitativeanalyses’(Baines1994)and and economiccharacterofcommunities.Bainesconcludesthatlocalstudiesmightyield that mightlinkpopulationmovementtothelife-cycle,familybackgroundandsocial In consequence,therehasbeenavarietyofcallsformorelocal-scalestudiesmigration particular circumstancespertainingtoavillageortown’(PooleyandTurnbull1998:90). and Turnbullthemselves,whodo‘notdenythesignificanceoflocalvariationsrelatedto unit maynotbetheregionbutvillage,orevenfamily.ThisisechoedbyPooley identifying thesespatialdifferences.Baines(1991)hassuggestedthattherealemigration of migrationdidexist’.Thequestionthuscentresonthemostappropriatescalefor nizes that‘communitieswhichgainedorlostpopulationonasignificantscaleasresult within thenation-state(NormanandRundblom1988:79). between largeandsmalltownsintermsofthedecisionwhethertoemigrateormove (Wintle 1992).Meanwhile,scholarsofScandinavianemigrationhavefoundadifference 19th centuryvariedconsiderablyintheNetherlands,wheretherewas‘greatdiversity’ are supportedbyworkonotherpartsofEurope.Forexample,emigrationratesinthe of meninCornwalltojust1.3%Bedfordshire(Baines1985:150–51).Thesefindings level, withnetoverseasmigrationinthelater19thcenturyvaryingfromahighof10.5% regional levels.WithinEnglandandWalessignificantdifferencesoccurredatacounty contrasts acrossEurope,withmarkedlydifferentemigrationratesatbothnationaland overseas ratherthanmigrationwithintheUK,DudleyBaines(1991)haspointedto ans (Grigg1977)—othershavebeenlessreticent.Focusingontheprocessofemigration towns werelessmigratorythanthoseofruralareasbeinglargelydiscountedbyhistori- differential tendencytomigratebyplaceoforigin—hisrelevant‘law’thatthenatives result fromdifferentialfoci—ontheonehandnetandothergrossmigrationflows. urban areas(BoyerandHatton1997).Suchstrikinglydifferentconclusionsappearto the existenceofstrongmigrationflowsfromlowwageagriculturaldistrictstohigh British late 19th-centurymigrationwhich,incontrasttoPooleyandTurnbull,reasserts While agreeingthatmostmigrationcancelleditselfout,Whyte(2000:174)stillrecog- Although theguruofBritishmigrationhistory,E.G.Ravenstein,saidlittleabout Bernard Deacon Published by Maney Publishing (c) Family and Community Historical Research Society of aproportionchildhood mortality. the parishburialregistersof thedistrictsselectedandthisdidallowforidentification dying inthe1850s.However, thislatterproblemwasovercometoanextentbysearching the deathindex.Absenceof agedatamadeitespeciallydifficulttotracethose children for thosebearingacommonnameitisdifficulttoestablish acertainlinktoanentryin addition ofagedeathdataafter1865increasesthe likelihood ofmatchingadeathbut a largetownorcity.Asimilarcaveatappliesevenmore tothemortalityindexes.The with commonnamessuchasElizabethWilliams,orthose whomarriedaftermovingto the marriageindexesandnearimpossibilityofidentifying themarriageofwomen identified, thiscouldneverbe100%.Thisisbecauseof thescarcityofinformationin on marriage.While,asweshallsee,manyfemalemembers ofthecohortwerethus cal parishregisters.Thiswasespeciallyimportantfor picking upwomen’snamechanges marriage anddeathregisterindexeswasalsoconsulted, supplementinglocalecclesiasti- interpret. a result,inpracticeonlyaround2to3%ofplacenamesremainedimpossible For example,someonelistedasborninStTostelwasobviouslyfromAustell.As word weredecipherableoncloserinspectionwiththeadvantageoflocalknowledge. of thosewhichcontainedapotentiallyfatalspellingerroratthebeginning therefore donotseriouslycompromiseacomputersearch.Furthermore,proportion spelling differenceswereminorandmanyalsoappearattheendofword Cornish parishnamesaremisspeltintheAncestrydatabase.However,manyofthose process employedbyAncestry.Forexample,asamplerevealedthataround22%of Census, especiallyinthecaseofthosemigratingalongdistance,orbytranscription suffer particularlyfromtranscriptionerror,eitherbytheenumeratorattimeof Ancestry databaseisfarhigherthanintheCFHSdatabase.Crucially,namesofparishes moved outwithCornwall.Unfortunately,theproportionoftranscriptionerrorsin involved searchingtheUKcensusdatabaseavailableatancestry.co.ukforthosewhohad Tilley 2002). proceeded throughacomputermediatedmanuallinkage(forsimilarapproach,see household ratherthantherecordofactualindividual.Nominallinkagethus to maximizethetraces,whicharenotinfrequentlybasedoncontextofrest birth thatcropupintheCEBssomesortofhumancheckingappearsinevitableorder tion errors,spellingchanges,nameagedriftandvariationsintheparishesof name andsecondbyfirstparishofbirth.Giventhecombinationtranscrip- search facilityhasbeenbuiltintothis,allowingrapidsearchesfirstbysurnameand transcribed allofthe1841–91CEBsandenteredrecordsintoanAccessdatabase.A across EnglandandWales.TheCornwallFamilyHistorySociety(CFHS)has puterized databases,thefirstrestrictedtoCornwallandsecondallowingsearches the indexestocivilregistrationrecords.Theformerwereaccessedthroughtwocom- moved whereasothersstayed.ThecentralsourcesfortheprojectwereCEBsand and occupationalbackgrounds.Theaimwastotryunderstandwhysomeindividuals their death,identifyingthepatternsofmovementandrelatingthistofamily I attemptedtotraceallthosechildrenaged09inthe1851Censusup1901or During bothofthesestagesthepartialFreeBMDdatabase ofthecivilregistration The firststageoftheprojecttracedagecohortwithinCornwall.second Communities, FamiliesandMigration 51 Published by Maney Publishing (c) Family and Community Historical Research Society 52 occupational structures,as TableIindicates.TheStAgnesandRoselanddistricts were parishes, predominantlymade upoffarmersandtheirlabourers. Cornelly —werelessdirectly controlledbythefamilybutwere,likefirst three major landownersinathird,Merther.Theothertwo parishes—Ruanlanihorneand of thefiveparishesinthisdistrict—StMichaelPenkivel andLamorran.Theywerealso eastern banksoftheFal.By19thcenturyBoscawens ownedvirtuallyalloftwo from tintradinginTruroandthenthe16thcentury movedtoitslandedestateonthe visible ofwhichweretheBoscawensTregothnan, a familythathadmadeitsmoney farms largerthantheCornishnorm.Itwasalsodominated byagentryclass,themost This wasadistrictofrelativelygoodsoils,oneCornwall’s granaries,dividedinto cluded fivesmallparishesacrossarollinglandscape dissected bydeepwoodedvalleys. Cornwall’s ubiquitousmid-19th-centuryminingindustry. Fourenumerationdistrictsin- east ofTruroandthenorthRoselanddistrict. Moreover,itwasuntouchedby but itwasverydifferent,comprisingfarlessdenselypopulatedcountrysidetothesouth- waste tips. chaotic jumbleofsmokingenginehousesandotherindustrialbuildings,shafts scattered cottagesandhamletslinkedbypathslanessnakingtheirwaythrougha rural industriallandscape.Thiswassmall-scaleyetrelativelydenselypopulated,with and theenumerationdistrictsmadeupanexampleofaclassicmid-19th-centuryCornish cliffs frontingthesea,mineswerebeingworked,mainlyfortinbutwithsomecopper, escape therelentlesswindssweepinginoffAtlantic.Butuptoandbeyondhigh down, hintsattheopen,largelytreelessplateauwithitscottageshuddleddowntryingto Goonbell, Goonown,Goonlaze—withtheircommonelementof south-east fromthevillage.Thenamesofsomedispersedhamletsthisarea— part ofthevillageStAgnesandaswathecountrysidestretchingnorth-east opposite, northerncoastofCornwall,20milesacrosscountry.Thesedistrictsincludeda districts weresituatedinruralCornwall. for thepoor.Contrastingwiththisdenselypopulatedurbanenvironment,othertwo tucked awaybehindtheHighStreetandinWebberStreet,thenapackedhiveofhousing the districtincludedshopsfrontingHighStreetaswellcourtsandalleys natural harbours.Thepeoplelivinginthesestreetsfollowedarangeofoccupationsas that hadgrownupsincethe16thcenturyonbanksofoneworld’sdeepest Street, MarketStrandandWebberthecoreoftownaround8,000people cohort members,orjustoverafifthofthetotalcohort. these threecommunities.Eachcomprisesaround270oftheresearchcohort,intotal808 Therefore, thepreliminaryresultspresentedherearebasedonthreesmallerareaswithin have beensearchedusingtheCFHSdatabase,tracingviaAncestryisstillinprogress. Truro. Eachprovidedbetween1,300and1,800childrenin1851.Whileallthreedistricts mid-Cornwall; Falmouth,StAgnes,andagroupofnineruralparishestotheeast These sourcesandmethodswereappliedtothreecontrastingcommunitiesin The communities These geographicaland economiccontraststhereforeproducedcontrasting A thirddistrictcompletesthetrioinvestigatedhere.LikeStAgnes,thiswasalsorural, The seconddistrictincludedtwoenumerationdistrictsinStAgnes,aparishonthe The firstwasadenselypopulatedenumerationdistrictinFalmouth,centredonHigh Bernard Deacon goon , Cornishfor Published by Maney Publishing (c) Family and Community Historical Research Society in StAgnestooverthree-quarters formeninFalmouth.InbothStAgnesand north expected tosurvive,thehit ratesvarybetweenjustunderahalfinthecaseof women to eachmaleandfemalecohort (forthemethodadopted,seeHinde2004).Of those 3 calculated byapplyingthe age-specificsurvivalprobabilityoftheRegistration District to 1881.Theirlocationisexpressedasapercentageof theestimatedsurvivorsin1881, 0 50 50 2 1.5 when theywereaged31–39,asthebasisforanalysis below. Schurer 1996:225).WiththisinmindIhaveadopted the locationofmycohortin1881, individuals becamelesspronetomoveintheir30s,at leastoutsidetheparish(Millsand 9 0 25 the 19thcenturyfellsteadilyfromage0–4to30–34but thenstabilized,suggestingthat 36 1 eastern EnglandcollatedbyDennisMillsindicatethat thenative-bornproportionin 12 done sobeforetheyreachedtheirmid-30s.Indeedstudies ofawiderangevillagesin 4.5 2 in theearlypartoflifecycle,ifpeopleweretomove theyweremorelikelytohave 18 7 (Pooley andTurnbull1998:207–08).Therefore,given thisuniversalpatternofmigration 5 40 192 0 42 point outthatthispatternwasquitestableovertimeandvariedlittlebetweenthesexes 69 7 12 5 the meanageofmarriageandformationnewhouseholds.PooleyTurnbull 4 People weremostlikelytomoveintheirearlymid-20s,anagethatcorrespondswith 26 9 An areawhereaconsensusexistsamongmigrationhistoriansisthatofageselectivity. 17 7 3 0 132 23 3 6 The patterns 11 13 1 0 3 1 the highestproportionsoffemalepaidemploymentinCornwall. 85 2 7 195 69 5 Falmouth possessedamorediversifiedoccupationalstructureand,furthermore,oneof 8 22 dominated bysingleoccupations—miningandfarmingrespectivelywhereas 24 26 0 1 1 134.5 45 13.5 4 19 Source: 1851Censusenumerators’books,CFHSdatabase. Roseland 16 22 Total 13 38 21 Other 0 203 1 Agriculture 22 34 Mining Domestic service 43 26 Retail 1 2 69.5 StAgnes Crafts 45 Women Total 21 Other andnone Maritime Agriculture 42.5 Mining Falmouth Retail Crafts andindustry Men Occupations Table IIshowstheproportionofcohortthathas beentracedoverageneration T able I OccupationsofThoseAgedOver14inStudyAreas,1851 I: ubr%Nme ubr% Number % Number % Number Communities, FamiliesandMigration 53 Published by Maney Publishing (c) Family and Community Historical Research Society 54 Source: Censusenumerators’books,CFHSandAncestryUKdatabases. oead159 21 06035 51 39 0 1 31 0 47 6 6 22 1 18 1 40 6 15 11 11 10 21 19 34 27 14 33 untraced 10 atsea 62 OtherUK 42 OtherCwll 22 Studyarea 26 55 41 95 62 86 48 90 63 135 90 133 91 Roseland 136 81 St Agnes Falmouth 129 Women 144 Roseland 131 St Agnes Falmouth Men rural parishes,withnineor 69%ofthe13migrantswithinCornwallmaking sucha border inDevon.Menfrom StAgnesalsosharedinapredilectiontomigrate to other the sevenwomen,whowere scatteredsinglyfromLiverpooltoLifton,justacross the nine Roselandmenhadgone toLondonandthesouth-eastofEngland,butonly oneof of rural-urbanmigrantsfromtheseparishes.Ofthose wholeftCornwall,eightofthe were livinginotherruralparishes,whilenearbyTruro washometothelargestnumber Sixty-three percentofthemalesand70%females fromtheagriculturalparishes countryside. reflecting theagriculturalpopulation’sgreaterrateof circulatorymovementaroundthe study parishesbutmuchmorelikelytobefoundin other partsofCornwall,apattern women. Moreover,Roselandcohortmemberswere less likelystilltobelivinginthe although herewefindagenderdifference,withmentwice aslikelytoleaveCornwall much lesslikelythantheirFalmouthcounterpartsto havemigratedoutofCornwall, culated fromBurt,WaiteandBurnley1987).BothStAgnesRoselandcohortswere from thedominantminingindustryhadfallenby22%mid-1850sto1881(cal- of CornwallandlesslikelytohavepersistedinStAgnes,whereincomerealterms River Tamar.TheStAgnescohortwassomewhatmorelikelytobefoundinotherparts moved, aboutafifthwentoutofCornwallandonly10%weretobefoundwestthe later, anindicationofthemoredynamicdemandforlabourthere.Ofthosewhohad especially boysborninFalmouthweremostlikelystilltobelivingthetown30years cant differences,moreobviousacrosscommunitiesthanbygender.Bothgirlsand Agnes cohortwasleastlikelytobetraced. higher numberofthecohortwhostayedintown.Forbothmenandwomen,St exceptional intheproportionofmentraced,althoughthisisprobablylinkedto males tracedthanfemalesuntraced.AtpresentitisunclearwhyFalmouthshouldbeso a starkgenderdifference.However,thisresultsmorefromtheveryhighproportionof surviving womenwhohadmarriedandchangedtheirsurname.ButinFalmouththereis suggesting themethodemployedhassucceededinpickingupahighnumberofthose Roseland theproportionofwomentracedisnotgreatlylowerthanthatformen, When wefocusonthedirectionofflowsmigrants cleardifferencesemerge. If weturnourattentiontothelocationofcohortin1881,tracesrevealsignifi- ootEpce rcdLocation1881(%ofexpectedsurvivors) Traced Expected Cohort 81srios18 to1881 survivors1881 1851 T able I:StudyAreaCohortsTracedto1881 II: Bernard Deacon Published by Maney Publishing (c) Family and Community Historical Research Society exists ataRegistrationSub-DistrictlevelbetweenemigrationtoNorthAmericaandthe must includeanunknownproportionmigratingoverseas.Thestrongcorrelationthat up thesettlementhierarchy.VeryfewmovedtoruralparishesasTableIIIindicates. migrants fromurbanFalmouthweremuchmorelikelytomoveotherplacesor female migrantsfromtheruraldistrictsmovedtootherplaces.Incontrast, direction ofmigrationoutourcommunities.Aroundhalformorethemaleand to Wales. Anglia. NotonewomanfromFalmouthhadmadethemovetonorthofEnglandor incarcerated inExeterPenitentiary,andfivewereLondon,thesouth-eastEast in otherpartsofDevonandSomerset,althoughonethesewasaninvoluntarymigrant living inDevonport,Plymouth,PortsmouthandSouthampton.Twootherswerefound South Wales.Justoverhalf(8of15)theFalmouthlong-distancefemalemigrantswere living inLondonandthesouth-east1881withfourmorefoundLancashire Portsmouth, withanotherthreetracedonboardRoyalNavyships.Anotherfivewere left Cornwall.AlmostathirdofthemenmovedtonavalportsDevonportand towns isalsonoticeablewhenwelookatthedestinationsofFalmouthcohortwho Cornwall wenttoothertownsinCornwall.Thisstrikingpropensitymove three ofthesixlong-distancefemalemigrantswerefoundinsouth-eastEngland. This waslessthecaseforwomen.Onlyonewomantracedtothoseregions;instead moved toNorthumberland,DurhamandCumbria,anotherthreeSouthWales. were muchmorelikelytomovenorthwardsotherminingregions;fiveoftheeleven in ruralparishes.Also,whenmenleftStAgnesfordestinationsoutsideCornwallthey tural Roselandonlyfive,or38%,ofwomenfromruralminingStAgneswerestillliving move. Forwomen,however,thetownsweremorepopular.Incontrasttoagricul- Roseland St Agnes Falmouth Source: Censusenumerators’books, CFHSandAncestryUKCensusdatabases. oa 95 114 8 (7) 43 36(32) 70(61) 55 4 (9) 51 17(40) 22(51) 2 19 20(40) 17 36 27(54) (6) 3 0 24 59 8 11 7 6 24 16 19 1 34 4 total 27 to largetowns 9 11 to smalltowns to ruralareas 13 total 11 to largetowns 2 to smalltowns to ruralareas total to largetowns to smalltowns to ruralareas Finally, thesignificantlyhigherproportionofStAgnescohortthatisuntraced Although numbersaresmall,thesefindingsimplyasignificantdifferenceinthe Falmouth wasdifferentagain.Hereallbutoneofthemigrantswhostayedin T able II MovesfromtheStudyAreasbyDestinationSettlementType III: Communities, FamiliesandMigration aeFml Total(%) Female Male 55 Published by Maney Publishing (c) Family and Community Historical Research Society 56 oa N 0 3 4 1 4105 44 11 15 74 17 27 11 42 21 5 34 15 18 113 28 19 41 21 32 54 16 20 11 144 12 20 11 37 18 26 38 60 27 331 39 23 48 57 48 44 30 808 63 57 76 47 53 168 Total (N) 196 Other Farmers 41 161 Ag Labs 82 83 Mining Labourers Maritime Crafts Retail Source: Censusenumerators’books, CFHSandAncestryUKCensusdatabases. put intheparishesunderreview.Finally,Wojciechowska(1996)foundthatthosewho is asuggestionthatthosefromnon-nuclearbackgroundswerelesslikelytohavestayed total cohort.Althoughthetwopatternsarenotstatisticallysignificantlydifferentthere neither mothernorfatherwerepresent,andcomparesthisgroupwiththerestof members whoin1851livednon-nuclearfamilies,definedhereasthosefamilieswhere traditional familybackgroundmoreorlesslikelytomove?TableVextractsthosecohort was amajorexplanatoryvariableatbothcommunityandfamilylevel. distance migration.Theseresultssupporttheconclusionthatoccupationalbackground with maritimebackgroundswere,onthecontrary,muchmorelikelytoundertakelong- predominantly shortdistancemovesasdidfarmers,thoughtoalesserextent.Those least associatedwithpersistence.Agriculturallabouringbackgroundsresultedin tence withinthedistrict,withagriculturallabouringandmaritimebackgrounds occupations weremoretraceable.Aretailbackgroundincreasedthelikelihoodofpersis- daughters offarmers,shopkeepersandcraftsmenespeciallythosewithmaritime occupational groups. 1851. TableIVshowsthenumberstracedandtheirlocationin1881forprincipal and alivein1881calculatedbyoccupationalgroupoftheheadhousehold In ordertotestthisfurtherthecohortswerecombinedandlocationofthosetraced tion betweenthestudyareasthatwereclearlyrelatedtotheiroccupationalstructures. There weremarkeddifferencesinthepropensitytomigrateanddirectionofmigra- The processes resulting inmore‘lost’cohortmembers. is thusmorelikelytobeafunctionofthequalitydatainhistoricalrecord, residual amongstFalmouthwomen,whoweremuchlessinclinedtomoveoverseas.It and 1880s(Deacon2007forthcoming).Moredifficulttoexplainisthehigheruntraced emigration rateatleastdoubletheCornishnorminfourdecadesbetween1850s mining industryreinforcesthisconclusionandStAgnesconsistentlyexperiencedan T But howfarwereothervariablesinvolved?Were,forexample,thosefromanon- Those fromminingbackgroundsweremorepronetodisappearwhereasthesonsand able I:LocationofCohortsin1881byOccupationalGroup HeadsofHouseholdin1851 IV: ubr15 rcdt 81Locationin1881(%ofthosetraced) %tracedto1881 Number 1851 Bernard Deacon ititCrwl Kdead UK Cornwall District Published by Maney Publishing (c) Family and Community Historical Research Society opeiu aiymv 8 34 82 22 27 29 53 48 20 42 38 13 10 689 119 No previousfamilymove Previous familymove were livinginneighbouringStMichaelPenkivel.Leaving thefamilyhome,Charles an agriculturallabourerandhiswifelivinginMerther parishin1851.In1861thefamily agricultural population.Butnotall.CharlesLangdon was oneofatleastfourchildren parishes. Mostofthisreflectsthatshort-distancecirculatorymovementtypicalthe agricultural parisheswhere21%of‘non-migrants’in1881hadfactlivedother or thebirthofachildinanotherplace.Returnmigrationwasmorefrequentto minimum, basedoneithertheirappearanceelsewhereinthe1861and1871censuses migrants. Butonly5%ofwomenfellintothiscategory.Thesefiguresareobviouslya their originalparishesin1881andhavebeenclassedasnon-migrantswerefactreturn migrants returnedhome(PooleyandTurnbull1998:294–98,285). British Islesfromthe1850sto1880s.Theyalsofoundthat20–25%oftransnational moves, onebeingJohnJamesfromCornwall,whomovedbothoverseasandwithinthe emphasize frequentunfocusedshort-distancemovesandtheygiveexamplesofmultiple picture. TosomeextentPooleyandTurnbull’sworkhasmodifiedthissituation.They that thefluidityofmigrationprocesstendstobelost,replacedbyanoverlystatic multiple movesismostlackinginhistoricalstudiesofmigrationstreams.Thismeans to havemadealong-distancemove. a previousmovemorelikelytohavemovedagainthanthenorm,thoughnot (Table VI)showsasignificantdifference,withthosefromfamiliesthathadexperienced of anykind,indicatedbythebirthplaceeldersiblings,wereaggregated.Theresult here betweenlongandshort-distancemoves.Therefore,allthosewithapreviousmove cient numbersofthosewithafamilyhistorylong-distancemovestodifferentiate already madelong-distancemovesweremorelikelytomoveagain.Thereinsuffi- Chi Source: Censusenumerators’books, CFHSandAncestryUKCensusdatabases. Chi Source: Censusenumerators’books,CFHSandAncestryUKdatabases. ula aiy771 14 312 24 33 59 45 18 41 33 12 22 757 51 Nuclear family Non-nuclear family Overall, intheseenumerationdistrictsatleast13%ofthemenwhowerestillliving Jackson andMoch(1989)pointedouthowtheanalysisofreturnmigration 2 2 =13.72(significantat99%confidence level) =4.06(notsignificantat95%confidencelevel) T T able able V TracesofCohortMembersin1881LivingNon-NuclearFamilies,1851 V: V:TracesofCohortMembersin1881LivingFamilies withHistoryof VI: ubrTae rcdLvn nLvn nLivinginother Livingin Livingin Traced Traced Number ubrTae rcdLvn nLvn nLivinginother Livingin Livingin Traced Traced Number Communities, FamiliesandMigration ed()aie()suyae te onalEngland/Wales other Cornwall study area alive(%) dead (%) ed()aie()suyae te onalEngland/Wales other Cornwall study area alive(%) dead (%) Previous Move,1851 57 Published by Maney Publishing (c) Family and Community Historical Research Society 58 lower traceratesachieved for theminingdistrictstronglyimplyagreaterlikelihood of have madeashort-distance move.And,althoughitcannotbeconclusivelyproven, the move. Incontrast,thecohort fromtheagriculturalnorthRoselandwasmorelikely to Falmouth intheir30s.Ifthey werenotthentheyhadprobablymadealong-distance draw hardandfastconclusions.TheFalmouthcohort wasmorelikelystilltobein the degreeofreturnmigration,althoughnumbers ofthelatterarestilltoosmallto ences acrossthesethreecommunitiesintermsofpropensity tomigrate,destinationsand destination ofchoiceforwomenintheruralparishes, whetherminingoragricultural. from miningparishesweremorepreparedtomove Truro,whichwastheclearurban parishes thantheyweretotowns,althoughthereismore thanasuggestionthatwomen those intheruralparisheswereuptotwiceaslikely tohavemovedotherrural ment downthehierarchyhassofarbeendiscovered from thiscommunity.Conversely, in Falmouthmovedsidewaystoothertownsorupthe urbanhierarchy.Verylittlemove- to thesettlementhierarchy.Thereisevidencefromthese initialresultsthatthoseliving agricultural districts.However,movementdoesnotseementirelyrandomorunrelated ment thattheyfindisindeedpresent,althoughmuchmoretransparentintherural, Turnbull, basedonaggregatelifehistories.Thegeneralcirculatoryshort-distancemove- communities introducessomepotentialqualificationstothefindingsofPooleyand This preliminaryanalysisoflifehistoriesinthreemicro-districtswithinthese Conclusions husband. marital statusinthiscensusandwearelefttospeculateonwhathappenedherelusive sister, herselfborninLondon,atBrightonSussex.ThereisnomentionofEmma’s but in1891sheturnedupattheoppositeendofcountry,livingwithheryounger husband wasnotrecordedaspresentonthecensusnight.WelosesightofEmmain1881 and wasdescribedasa‘waterman’swife’,havingmovedtoRuncorninCheshire.Her street butworkingasaservanttoJoannaPascoe,grocer.By1871Emmahadmarried 8-year-old in1851livingatWebberStreet,Falmouth.In1861shewasthesame at eachofthe1891and1901censusestheywerelivingindifferentplaces. Francis wasdescribedin1881asatinminer.Theythenstayedthatparish,although made alongermovewesttotheheartofminingdistrictatIlloganparish,where before 1878theyhadmovedbacktoStAgnesparish,butthenbetweenand1880 from neighbouringPerranzabuloeandmovedtoSilverwellinthatparish.Atsometime Butson, aboutamileaway.Inthelate1860sSusanmarriedFrancisAver,leadminer 1861 thefamilyhadmoved,butonlywithinsameparish,andwerelivingatWheal Cock wasbornintoaminingfamilyinthehamletofGoonbellStAgnes1850.By and 1876,buthadreturnedbeforethebirthoftheirsecondchildin1878. marrying, CharlesandhiswifeMarianahadmovedtotheUSsometimebetween1871 States. Forhiseldestdaughter’sbirthplacein1881wasgivenas‘Erie,USA’.After unspectacular migrationhistorydisguisedatriptotheshoresofLakeErieinUnited 1881 hehadmarriedandwassettledinacourttherewithchildrenofhisown.Yetthis became acarpenterandmovedtoTruro,wherehewaslivinginlodgings1871.By While thissuggestsarural-urbandriftinthemigration patterntherearecleardiffer- Women couldalsoexperiencelong-distancemultiplemoves.EmmaPainewasan Other miningfamiliesprovideevidenceofmultiplemoveswithinCornwall.Susan Bernard Deacon Published by Maney Publishing (c) Family and Community Historical Research Society primary sources References possibilities presentedbythesocio-economiccontext requiresfurtherinvestigation. ship bothtoindividuals’decisionsmigrateand to thestructuralconstraintsand deterred moves.Clearly,theroleofkinandfamilyin the 19thcenturyandtheirrelation- decision. Theirpresencecouldtriggeramoveandconversely theirabsencemayhave presence ofkinwasanimportantenablingfactorin thebackgroundofmigration suggest thatthedecisiontomovewasoftenmadeat the leveloffamilyandthat whether nearorfar,andwerecentraltothedecision tomoveorstay.Thismight move northandwaslivingwithhereldestsonJames. the samefoundry.Inthatcensusyeartheirwidowedmotherhadalsomadelong 1891 hehadfollowedhisbrothertoGateshead,workingasanenginefitter,possiblyin 1881. HisbrotherJohnhadmarriedandsetupahouseholdinRedruthbyBut obtained workasaforemaninanironfoundry,workinghiswayuptomanagerby family home.Jamesmadealong-distancemovetoGatesheadinDurhamwherehe then againtonearbyIlloganinthe1860s.During1870sJamesandJohnleft moulder, andhiswifeMary.ThefamilyhadmovedtoindustrialCamborneby1861 1851, JamesandJohnRogerswerebrotherssonsofWilliam,abrasstin Joseph’s movethusfacilitatedthemovesofhissistersandmother.InStAgnesin a cabinetmakerandhadmovedtoPlymouthviaCambornesometimeafter1867. able todothisbyfollowingoraccompanyingtheirbrotherJoseph,whowasworkingas late 1860sfromWebberStreetinFalmouthtoNelsonPlymouth.Theywere example ElizabethandMaryHodgetheirmothermadethemovein again, thedatauncoverfamilylinksexplainingindividualinstancesofmigration.For themselves mediatedattheindividuallevelbyinfluenceoffamily.Overandover family withaprevioushistoryofmigrationweremorelikelythemselvestomove. factors. Thepreliminaryresultshereintroduceoneofthese—thosewhogrewupina level occupationappearstobethemostimportantvariable,thisismediatedbyother structure discreteandcontrastingmigrationflows.However,whileatthecommunity a largedegreebyoccupationalbackgrounds,withintersectinglabourmarketshelpingto streams couldflowfromneighbouringcommunities.Thesedifferencesareexplainedto county oreventheRegistrationDistrictin19thcentury.Verydifferentmigration studying themigrationdecisionislocalityorcommunityratherthanregion miles fromeachotherreinforcethesuspicionthatreallyimportantspatialunitfor South WalesandthenorthofEngland. move fromadecliningCornishindustrialregiontostillgrowingregionsin For example,menfromStAgnesweremuchmorelikelythanwomentohavemadethe sity tomigrateandthedestinationsthereareimportantdifferencesatanindividuallevel. overseas migration.Whilethegenderdifferenceslooksmall,whenwetabulatepropen- Census enumeratorsbooksforEngland andWales,1861–1901(AncestryUKCensusdatabase, accessed Census enumeratorsbooksfor Cornwall, 1851–1901(CornwallFamilyHistorySocietydatabase). Family connectionsthusinvariablyeasedthetransition fromoneplacetoanother, The latterimpliesthatlabourmarkets,skillresources,genderoroccupationwereall These oftenmarkedcontrastsbetweencommunitiesseparatedbynomorethan20 at www.ancestry.co.uk Communities, FamiliesandMigration 59 Published by Maney Publishing (c) Family and Community Historical Research Society 60 Deacon, B. (forthcoming 2007) ‘“We don’t travel much ... onlytoSouthAfrica”:Reconstructing the Deacon, B.(forthcoming2007)‘“Wedon’ttravelmuch... Burt, R.,Waite,P.andBurnley,R.(1987) Boyer, G.R.andHatton,T.J.(1997)‘Migrationlabourmarketintegrationinlatenineteenth- Baines, D.(1994)‘Europeanemigration,1815–1930:lookingattheemigrationdecisionagain’, King, S.(1997a)‘Migrantsonthemargin?Mobility,integrationandoccupationsinWestRiding, Jackson, J.H.andMoch,L.P.(1989)‘MigrationthesocialhistoryofmodernEurope’, Hinde, A.(2004)‘Theuseofnineteenth-centurycensusdatatoinvestigatelocalmigration’, Grigg, D.B.(1977)‘E.G.Ravensteinandthe“lawsofmigration”’, Baines, D.(1991) Cornwall. E-mail:[email protected] currently researchingthemigrationsystemof19th-centuryCornwall andthehistoryofsurnamesin Recently publishedarticlesincludeworkontheCornishlanguage, demographyandethnicity,heis Bernard DeaconisseniorlecturerinCornishStudiesattheUniversity ofExeter’sCornwallcampus. Biographical note Whyte, I.D.(2000) Tilley, P.(2002)‘Creatinglifehistoriesandfamilytreesfromnineteenth-centurycensusrecords,parish Pryce, W.T.R.(2000)‘Amigrationtypologyandsometopicsfortheresearchagenda’, Pooley, C.G.andTurnbull,J.(1998) Norman, H.andRundblom,(1988) Mills, D.andSchurer,K.(eds)(1996) King, S.(1997b)‘Reconstructinglives:thepoor,PoorLawandwelfareinCalverley,1650–1820’, Baines, D.(1985) secondary sources Parish burialregisters,Cornelly,Lamorran,Merther,RuanlanihorneandStMichaelPenkivel: Cornish GlobalMigrationProjectdatabase(Redruth). Wojciechowska, B.(1996)‘Brenchley:astudyofmigratorymovements inamid-nineteenth-century Wintle, M.(1992)‘Push-factorsinemigration:thecaseof provinceofZeelandinthenineteenth nineteenth centuryCornishmigrationsystem’,inPayton,P.(ed.), 1845–1913 century EnglandandWales’, Economic HistoryReview 1650–1820’, Methods Population Studies 41–51. University ofExeterPress. Wales, 1861–1900 registers andothersources’, Community History UCL Press. after 1800 Oxford: Leopard’sHeadPress. Social History Record Office:P2/1/18andP2/1/47. Cornwall RecordOffice:P38/1/5;P104/1/7;P146/1/3;P199/1/10;P150/1/5;StAgnes: rural parish’,inMillsandSchurer,253–66. century’, , 22,1:27–36. Population Studies , Oslo:NorwegianUniversityPress. , Exeter:UniversityofExeter. Journal ofHistoricalGeography Emigration fromEurope,1815–1930 Migration inamatureeconomy:EmigrationandinternalmigrationEngland , 22:318–38. Migration andsocietyinBritain1550–1830 , Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress. , 73:8–28. , 3,1:65–80. , 47,3:525–44. , 46:523–37. Local PopulationStudies Economic HistoryReview Migration andmobilityinBritainsincethe18thcentury Local communitiesintheVictoriancensusenumerators’books Transatlantic connections:NordicmigrationtotheNewWorld Bernard Deacon Cornish mines:metalliferousandassociatedminerals , 23,3:284–303. , London:Macmillan. , 68:63–81. , 50,4:697–734. , London:Macmillan. Journal ofHistoricalGeography Cornish studiesfifteen Family and Historical , London: , Exeter, Local , 3: ,