Read Ebook {PDF EPUB} 100 mooiste schatten van by Wang Zhen The Song (960–1279), Liao (907–1125), and Jin (1115–1234) dynasties. The Song capital, Bianliang or Bianjing (present-day Kaifeng), grew to be a great city, only to be burned by Juchen Tatars in 1127, just after the work was completed. Nothing survives today, but some idea of the architecture of the city is suggested by a remarkably realistic hand scroll, Going up the River at Qingming Festival Time , painted by the 12th-century court artist Zhang Zeduan (whether painted before or after the sacking is uncertain). From contemporary accounts, Bianjing was a city of towers, the tallest being a 110 metres (360 feet) high, built in 989 by the architect Yu Hao to house a relic of the Indian emperor Ashoka. Palaces and temples were at first designed in the Tang tradition, sturdy and relatively simple in detail though smaller in scale. The plan and grouping of the elements, however, became progressively more complex; temple halls were often built in two or three stories, and structural detail became more elaborate. The style of the 10th century is exemplified in the Guanyin Hall of the at Jixian, Hebei province, built in 984 in Liao territory. A two- story structure with a mezzanine that projects to an outer balcony, the hall is effectively constructed of three tiers of supporting brackets. It houses a 16-metre- (52-foot-) high, 11-headed clay sculpture of the bodhisattva Guanyin, the largest of its kind in China, placed majestically beneath a central canopy. From the , the finest surviving buildings are the main hall and library of the Huayan Temple in the Liao capital at (), which was accorded the right to house images of the Liao emperors, installed in 1062. The library, perhaps the most intricate and perfectly preserved example of the architecture of the period, was completed in 1038. The new Song style is characterized by a number of distinct features. The line of the eaves, which in Tang architecture of northern China was still straight, now curves up at the corners, and the roof has a pronounced sagging silhouette. The bracket cluster ( ) has become more complex: not only is it continuous between the columns, often including doubled, or even false, cantilever arms (or “tail-rafters,” xia’ang ), which slant down from the inner superstructure to the bracket, but also a great variety of bracket types may be used in the same building (56 different types are found in the five-story wooden pagoda built in 1056 at the Fogong Temple in Yingxian, Shanxi province). The tail-rafter, hitherto anchored at the inner end to a crossbeam, now is freely balanced on the bracket cluster, supporting purlins (horizontal timbers) at each end, thus giving the whole system something of the dynamic functionalism of High Gothic architecture. The interior is also much more elaborate. Richly detailed rounded vaults, or cupolas, are set in the ceiling over the principal images; baldachins (ornamental structures resembling canopies) and pavilions to house images or relics reproduce in miniature the intricate carpentry of full-scale buildings; and extremely complex bookcases, some of which, as at the Huayan Temple, were made to revolve, also assume the form of miniature buildings. Upwards of 60 Song, Liao, and Jin survive, the latter built by Chinese master craftsmen for their barbarian overlords. These pagodas are generally six- or eight-sided and made of brick or wood. A tall and very slender “iron-coloured” brick pagoda of the 11th century survives at Kaifeng, and, like the seven-story White Pagoda at Qingzhou, near Chengde, it reproduces in brick an elaborate bracketing system copied from timber construction. The 13-story Tianning Temple pagoda in Beijing (11th or early 12th century) shows a subordination of rich detail to a simple outline that is Song architecture at its most refined. Practically nothing survives today of the Southern Song capital of Hangzhou, described as the greatest city in the world by the Venetian traveler Marco Polo, who spent much of the time from 1276 to 1292 in the city. The dense population and confined space of Hangzhou forced buildings upward, and many dwellings were in three to five stories. While palace buildings in the southern part of the city were probably crowded together, temples and high-platformed viewing pavilions overlooking West Lake were buildings of fairylike beauty. They survive today only in the work of such Southern Song landscape and architecture painters as Li Song. The variety of form, structural technique, detail, and decoration in Song architecture reflects the sophistication of Song culture and a new intellectual interest in the art. Master builders such as Yu Hao and the state architect Li Jie were educated men. The latter is known today chiefly as the compiler of Yingzao fashi (“Building Standards”), which he presented to the throne in 1100. This illustrated work deals in encyclopaedic fashion with all branches of architecture: layout, construction, stonework, carpentry, bracketing, decoration, materials, and labour. The Yingzao fashi became a standard text, and, while it was influential in spreading the most advanced techniques of the time with its first publication in 1103, by codifying practice, it may also have inhibited further development and contributed to the conservatism of later techniques. In contrast to the greater uniformity of later periods, Song architecture was experimental and increasingly diverse in nature. Two styles from the Southern Song period can be inferred from early Japanese buildings. One style is called by the Japanese name Tenjiku-yo, or “Indian style,” but it actually originated on the southeastern coast of China, centred in Ningbo, where tall stands of evergreens stood. It sometimes employed timber columns rising to about 20 metres (65 feet), directly into which were inserted vertical tiers of up to 10 transverse bracket-arms. This stern and simple style is exemplified by the Great South Gate at Tōdai Temple, built in Nara, Japan, about 1199. Another style, dubbed by the Japanese Kara-yo (Chinese: “Tang”—i.e., Chinese—“style”), was brought by Chan (Zen) Buddhist priests from the Hangzhou area and south to the new shogunal capital at Kamakura, where it can be seen in the 13th-century Reliquary Hall of the Engaku Temple. It features unpainted wood siding with multilevel paneled walls (no plaster wall or lacquered columns) and much attention to elaborative detail. The effect is rich and dynamic and displays none of the simplicity one might expect of Chan architecture, so it is thought by some to represent more a Chinese regional style than anything specifically Chan. Stylistic and historical development, 1206–1912. The Yuan dynasty. Little remains of Yuan architecture today. The great palace of Kublai Khan in the Yuan capital Dadu (“Great Capital”; now Beijing) was entirely rebuilt in the Ming dynasty (1368–1644). Excavations demonstrate that the Yuan city plan was largely retained in the plan of the Ming; originally conceived under the combined influence of Liu Bingzhong and non-Chinese Muslims such as Yeheidie’er, it appears to be thoroughly Chinese in concept. More detailed information survives only in first-generation Ming dynasty court records and in the somewhat exaggerated description of Marco Polo. This architecture was probably little advanced in point of building technique over those of the Liao and Jin palaces on which they were modeled. The ornate features of their roofs, their bracketing systems, the elevated terraces, and the tight juxtaposition of the buildings are reflected in architectural paintings of the period by such artists as Wang Zhenpeng, Xia Yong, and Li Rongjin. Perhaps the only original Yuan buildings in Beijing today are the Drum Tower to the north of the city and the White Pagoda built by Kublai in the form most commonly seen today in the Tibetan chorten. The Mongols were ardent converts to Tibetan and tolerant of the Daoists, but they seem to have found existing temples enough for their purposes, for they made few new foundations. Shujing. Our editors will review what you’ve submitted and determine whether to revise the article. Shujing , (Chinese: “Classic of History”) Wade-Giles romanization Shu-ching , also called Shangshu (“Official History”) , one of the Five Classics ( Wujing ) of Chinese antiquity. The Shujing is a compilation of documentary records related to events in China’s ancient history. Though it has been demonstrated that certain chapters are forgeries, the authentic parts constitute the oldest Chinese writing of its kind. The Shujing consists of 58 chapters. Of these, 33 (originally 29, but some chapters have been divided), called the “modern script” text, are considered by most scholars to be authentic works of the 4th century bc or earlier. The first five chapters of the Shujing purport to preserve the sayings and recall the deeds of such illustrious emperors as Yao and Shun, who reigned during China’s legendary golden age. Chapters 6 to 9 are devoted to the Xia dynasty ( c. 2205– c. 1766 bc ), the historicity of which has not been definitively established. The next 17 chapters deal with the Shang dynasty and its collapse in 1122 bc . The blame for this is placed on the last Shang ruler, who is described as oppressive, murderous, extravagant, and lustful. The final 32 chapters cover the Xizhou (Western Zhou) dynasty that ruled China until 771 bc . See also Confucianism: Formation of the classical Confucian tradition. History of China. The practice of archaeology in China has been rooted in modern Chinese history. The intellectual and political reformers of the 1920s challenged the historicity of the legendary inventors of Chinese culture, such as Shennong, the Divine Farmer, and Huangdi, the Yellow Emperor. At the same time, scientific study of the prehistoric period was being sponsored by Western archaeologists and paleoanthropologists. The establishment of the Academia Sinica (Chinese Academy of Sciences) in 1928 enabled Chinese scholars to study Chinese archaeology for themselves, and preparations were made for large-scale excavations. Notable work was done under the direction of archaeologist Li Chi (Li Ji) at Anyang, in Henan province, but this was suspended with the outbreak of the Sino-Japanese War in 1937. The civil war of the late 1940s and the subsequent social disruptions further delayed any resumption of systematic archaeological excavation and publication. However, as the Cultural Revolution waned in the mid-1970s, work began again in earnest, and the China Association of Archaeology was established in 1979. A modernizing nation began to produce scholarship, increasingly informed by scientific analysis, in a quantity and quality commensurate with its size and its traditions of learning. Early humans. The fossil record in China promises fundamental contributions to the understanding of human origins. There is considerable evidence of Homo erectus by the time of the Lower Paleolithic (the Paleolithic Period [Old Stone Age] began about 2,500,000 years ago and ended 10,000 years ago) at sites such as Lantian, Shaanxi; Hexian, Anhui; Yuanmou, Yunnan; and, the most famous, that of Peking man at Zhoukoudian, Beijing municipality. The Lower Cave at Zhoukoudian has yielded evidence of intermittent human use from about 460,000 to 230,000 years ago, and fossils of Peking man found in the complex have been dated to about 770,000 years ago. Many caves and other sites in Anhui, Hebei, Henan, Liaoning, Shandong, Shanxi and Shaanxi in northern China and in Guizhou and Hubei in the south suggest that H. erectus achieved wide distribution in China. Whether H. erectus pekinensis intentionally used fire and practiced ritual cannibalism are matters under debate. Significant Homo sapiens cranial and dental fragments have been found together with Middle Paleolithic artifacts. Such assemblages have been unearthed at Dingcun, Shanxi; Changyang, Hubei; Dali, Shaanxi; Xujiayao, Shanxi; and Maba, Guangdong. Morphological characteristics such as the shovel-shaped incisor, broad nose, and mandibular torus link these remains to modern Asians. Few archaeological sites have been identified in the south. A number of widely distributed H. erectus sites dating from about 1.8 million years ago during the early Pleistocene Epoch manifest considerable regional and temporal diversity. Upper Paleolithic sites are numerous in northern China. Thousands of stone artifacts, most of them small (called microliths), have been found, for example, at Xiaonanhai, near Anyang, at Shuoxian and Qinshui (Shanxi), and at Yangyuan (Hebei); these findings suggest an extensive microlith culture in northern China. Hematite, a common iron oxide ore used for colouring, was found scattered around skeletal remains in the Upper Cave at Zhoukoudian (c. 10th millennium bce ) and may represent the first sign of human ritual. Neolithic Period. The complex of developments in stone tool technology, food production and storage, and social organization that is often characterized as the “ Neolithic Revolution” was in progress in China by at least the 6th millennium bce . Developments during the Chinese Neolithic Period (New Stone Age) were to establish some of the major cultural dimensions of the subsequent Bronze Age. Climate and environment. Although the precise nature of the paleoenvironment is still in dispute, temperatures in Neolithic China were probably some 4 to 7 °F (2 to 4 °C) warmer than they are today. Precipitation, although more abundant, may have been declining in quantity. The Qin (Tsinling) Mountains in north- central China separated the two phytogeographical zones of northern and southern China, while the absence of such a mountain barrier farther east encouraged a more uniform environment and the freer movement of Neolithic peoples about the North China Plain. East China, particularly toward the south, may have been covered with thick vegetation, some deciduous forest, and scattered marsh. The Loess Plateau north and west of the Qin Mountains is thought to have been drier and even semiarid, with some coniferous forest growing on the hills and with brush and open woodland in the valleys. Food production. The primary Neolithic crops, domesticated by the 5th millennium bce , were drought-resistant millet (usually Setaria italica ), grown on the eolian and alluvial loess soils of the northwest and the north, and glutenous rice ( Oryza sativa ), grown in the wetlands of the southeast. These staples were supplemented by a variety of fruits, nuts, legumes, vegetables, and aquatic plants. The main sources of animal protein were pigs, dogs, fish, and shellfish. By the Bronze Age, millet, rice, soybeans, tea, mulberries, hemp, and lacquer had become characteristic Chinese crops. That most if not all of these plants were native to China indicates the degree to which Neolithic culture developed indigenously. The distinctive cereal, fruit, and vegetable complexes of the northern and southern zones in Neolithic and early historic times suggest, however, that at least two independent traditions of plant domestication may have been present. The stone tools used to clear and prepare the land reveal generally improving technology. There was increasing use of ground and polished edges and of perforation. Regional variations of shape included oval-shaped axes in central and northwest China, square- and trapezoid-shaped axes in the east, and axes with stepped shoulders in the southeast. By the Late Neolithic a decrease in the proportion of stone axes to adzes suggests the increasing dominance of permanent agriculture and a reduction in the opening up of new land. The burial in high-status graves of finely polished, perforated stone and jade tools such as axes and adzes with no sign of edge wear indicates the symbolic role such emblems of work had come to play by the 4th and 3rd millennia. Wang Zhen. Our editors will review what you’ve submitted and determine whether to revise the article. Wang Zhen , Wade-Giles romanization Wang Chen , (died August 1449, Hebei province, China), Chinese eunuch who monopolized power during the first reign of the Ming emperor Yingzong (reigned as Zhengtong; 1435–49). Wang was denounced by later historians as the first of a series of eunuchs whose mismanagement helped destroy the Ming dynasty (1368–1644). Wang was the constant companion and personal servant of the emperor Yingzong (1427–64), who ascended the throne while still a boy. Isolated from his peers, the young emperor was dominated by Wang even after he came of age. Ignoring the counsel of the regular military leaders, Wang persuaded the emperor to embark on a war against the Oirat branch of the Mongol tribes, who had rapidly increased their power along China’s northwestern borders under the leadership of Esen Taiji. The imperial army was ambushed about 50 miles (80 km) northwest of Beijing, the emperor was captured, and Wang and all the leading Chinese generals were slain. This article was most recently revised and updated by Kathleen Kuiper, Senior Editor. 100 mooiste schatten van China by Wang Zhen. Steeds meer mensen bezoeken China nu het land zich steeds meer openstelt voor de buitenwereld. Naast het grootste inwonersaantal heeft China waarschijnlijk ook het grootste culturele erfgoed ter wereld. In dit boek vindt je zowel de bekende plaatsen in China zoals Peking en Shanghai als minder bekende gebieden die ook adembenemend mooi zijn en vele culturele schatten bezitten. Lees bijvoorbeeld over de matriarchale samenleving van de Mosuo en over het vakmanschap dat nog steeds bestaat in de hoofdstad op het gebied van het maken van keizerlijk porselein. Gedetailleerde beschrijvingen van 100 unieke plekken in China Tekst en uitleg over Chinese tradities, geschiedenis en cultuur Tientallen schitterende kleurenfoto's China (hardcover). 100 mooiste schatten van China. W. Zhen. 100 mooiste schatten van China. 16,95. Reisdagboek - China. 14,95. Hedendaags China. 100 Mooiste schatten van Rusland (hardcover). Rusland is ongelofelijk 100 mooiste schatten van China. W. Zhen. 100 mooiste schatten van China. 16,00. 100 Mooiste schatten van Rusland (hardcover). Rusland is ongelofelijk 100 mooiste schatten van China. W. Zhen. 100 mooiste schatten van China. 16,95. Op zoek naar 100.