Sludge Treatment and Disposal Biological Wastewater Treatment Series The Biological Wastewater Treatment series is based on the book Biological Wastewater Treatment in Warm Climate Regions and on a highly acclaimed set of best selling textbooks. This international version is comprised by six textbooks giving a state-of-the-art presentation of the science and technology of biological wastewater treatment. Titles in the Biological Wastewater Treatment series are: Volume 1: Wastewater Characteristics, Treatment and Disposal Volume 2: Basic Principles of Wastewater Treatment Volume 3: Waste Stabilisation Ponds Volume 4: Anaerobic Reactors Volume 5: Activated Sludge and Aerobic Biofilm Reactors Volume 6: Sludge Treatment and Disposal Biological Wastewater Treatment Series VOLUME SIX Sludge Treatment and Disposal Cleverson Vitorio Andreoli, Marcos von Sperling and Fernando Fernandes (Editors) Published by IWA Publishing, Alliance House, 12 Caxton Street, London SW1H 0QS, UK Telephone: +44 (0) 20 7654 5500; Fax: +44 (0) 20 7654 5555; Email: [email protected] Website: www.iwapublishing.com First published 2007 C 2007 IWA Publishing Copy-edited and typeset by Aptara Inc., New Delhi, India Printed by Lightning Source Apart from any fair dealing for the purposes of research or private study, or criticism or review, as permitted under the UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act (1998), no part of this publication may be reproduced, stored or transmitted in any form or by any means, without the prior permission in writing of the publisher, or, in the case of photographic reproduction, in accordance with the terms of licences issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency in the UK, or in accordance with the terms of licenses issued by the appropriate reproduction rights organization outside the UK. Enquiries concerning reproduction outside the terms stated here should be sent to IWA Publishing at the address printed above. The publisher makes no representation, expressed or implied, with regard to the accuracy of the information contained in this book and cannot accept any legal responsibility or liability for errors or omissions that may be made. Disclaimer The information provided and the opinions given in this publication are not necessarily those of IWA or of the editors, and should not be acted upon without independent consideration and professional advice. IWA and the editors will not accept responsibility for any loss or damage suffered by any person acting or refraining from acting upon any material contained in this publication. British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A CIP catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the Library of Congress ISBN: 1 84339 166 X ISBN 13: 9781843391661 Contents Preface vii The authors xiii 1 Introduction to sludge management 1 M. von Sperling, C.V.Andreoli 2 Sludge characteristics and production 4 M. von Sperling, R.F.Gon¸calves 2.1 Sludge production in wastewater treatment systems 4 2.2 Sludge characteristics at each treatment stage 6 2.3 Fundamental relationships in sludge 12 2.4 Calculation of the sludge production 16 2.5 Mass balance in sludge treatment 28 3 Main contaminants in sludge 31 S.M.C.P.da Silva, F.Fernandes, V.T. Soccol, D.M. Morita 3.1 Introduction 31 3.2 Metals 32 3.3 Trace organics 39 3.4 Pathogenic organisms 40 4 Sludge stabilisation 48 M. Luduvice 4.1 Introduction 48 4.2 Anaerobic digestion 49 4.3 Aerobic digestion 67 v vi Contents 5 Sludge thickening and dewatering 76 R.F.Gon¸calves,M. Luduvice, M. von Sperling 5.1 Thickening and dewatering of primary and biological sludges 76 5.2 Sludge thickening 78 5.3 Sludge conditioning 81 5.4 Overview on the performance of the dewatering processes 90 5.5 Sludge drying beds 92 5.6 Centrifuges 99 5.7 Filter press 107 5.8 Belt presses 114 5.9 Thermal drying 118 6 Pathogen removal from sludge 120 M.T. Pinto 6.1 Introduction 120 6.2 General principles 121 6.3 Mechanisms to reduce pathogens 123 6.4 Processes to reduce pathogens 127 6.5 Operation and control 144 7 Assessment of sludge treatment and disposal alternatives 149 F.Fernandes, D.D. Lopes, C.V.Andreoli, S.M.C.P.da Silva 7.1 Introduction 149 7.2 Sustainable point of view 150 7.3 Trends in sludge management in some countries 150 7.4 Aspects to be considered prior to the assessment of alternatives 152 7.5 Criterion for selecting sludge treatment and final disposal alternatives 155 7.6 Sludge management at the treatment plant 160 8 Land application of sewage sludge 162 C.V.Andreoli, E.S. Pegorini, F.Fernandes, H.F.dos Santos 8.1 Introduction 162 8.2 Beneficial use 163 8.3 Requirements and associated risks 169 8.4 Handling and management 177 8.5 Storage, transportation and application of biosolids 186 8.6 Operational aspects of biosolid land application 191 8.7 Landfarming 201 9 Sludge transformation and disposal methods 207 M. Luduvice, F.Fernandes 9.1 Introduction 207 9.2 Thermal drying 208 9.3 Wet air oxidation 209 Contents vii 9.4 Incineration 212 9.5 Landfill disposal 215 10 Environmental impact assessment and monitoring of final sludge disposal 226 A.I. de Lara, C.V.Andreoli, E.S. Pegorini 10.1 Introduction 226 10.2 Potentially negative environmental impacts 227 10.3 Monitoring indicators and parameters 230 10.4 Monitoring plan 232 References 237 Preface The present series of books has been produced based on the book “Biological wastewater treatment in warm climate regions”, written by the same authors and also published by IWA Publishing. The main idea behind this series is the sub- division of the original book into smaller books, which could be more easily purchased and used. The implementation of wastewater treatment plants has been so far a challenge for most countries. Economical resources, political will, institutional strength and cultural background are important elements defining the trajectory of pollution control in many countries. Technological aspects are sometimes mentioned as being one of the reasons hindering further developments. However, as shown in this series of books, the vast array of available processes for the treatment of wastewater should be seen as an incentive, allowing the selection of the most appropriate solution in technical and economical terms for each community or catchment area. For almost all combinations of requirements in terms of effluent quality, land availability, construction and running costs, mechanisation level and operational simplicity there will be one or more suitable treatment processes. Biological wastewater treatment is very much influenced by climate. Tempera- ture plays a decisive role in some treatment processes, especially the natural-based and non-mechanised ones. Warm temperatures decrease land requirements, en- hance conversion processes, increase removal efficiencies and make the utilisation of some treatment processes feasible. Some treatment processes, such as anaer- obic reactors, may be utilised for diluted wastewater, such as domestic sewage, only in warm climate areas. Other processes, such as stabilisation ponds, may be applied in lower temperature regions, but occupying much larger areas and being subjected to a decrease in performance during winter. Other processes, such as activated sludge and aerobic biofilm reactors, are less dependent on temperature, ix x Preface as a result of the higher technological input and mechanisation level. The main purpose of this series of books is to present the technologies for urban wastewater treatment as applied to the specific condition of warm temperature, with the related implications in terms of design and operation. There is no strict definition for the range of temperatures that fall into this category, since the books always present how to correct parameters, rates and coefficients for different temperatures. In this sense, subtropical and even temperate climate are also indirectly covered, although most of the focus lies on the tropical climate. Another important point is that most warm climate regions are situated in developing countries. Therefore, the books cast a special view on the reality of these countries, in which simple, economical and sustainable solutions are strongly demanded. All technologies presented in the books may be applied in developing countries, but of course they imply different requirements in terms of energy, equip- ment and operational skills. Whenever possible, simple solutions, approaches and technologies are presented and recommended. Considering the difficulty in covering all different alternatives for wastewater collection, the books concentrate on off-site solutions, implying collection and transportation of the wastewater to treatment plants. No off-site solutions, such as latrines and septic tanks are analysed. Also, stronger focus is given to separate sewerage systems, although the basic concepts are still applicable to combined and mixed systems, especially under dry weather conditions. Furthermore, em- phasis is given to urban wastewater, that is, mainly domestic sewage plus some additional small contribution from non-domestic sources, such as industries. Hence, the books are not directed specifically to industrial wastewater treatment, given the specificities of this type of effluent. Another specific view of the books is that they detail biological treatment processes. No physical-chemical wastew- ater treatment processes are covered, although some physical operations, such as sedimentation and aeration, are dealt with since they are an integral part of some biological treatment processes. The books’ proposal is to present in a balanced way theory and practice of wastewater treatment, so that a conscious selection, design and operation of the wastewater treatment process may be practised. Theory is considered essential for the understanding of the working principles of wastewater treatment. Practice is associated to the direct application of the concepts for conception, design and operation. In order to ensure the practical and didactic view of the series, 371 illus- trations, 322 summary tables and 117 examples are included.