Ghazali and His Theory of Government

by Khoiruddin Nasution

Khoiruddin Nasution. adalah Alumnus Fak. Syari'ah IAIN Sunan Kalijaga Yogyakarta (89/90) dan diangkat sebagaltenagapengajarpadaalmamaternya. Dansejak tahun 1993iamengikuttProgramMasfertentangIslamic Studies di MC GillUniversityMontreal, Canada.

Introduction government, and the last-part comprises In his article, Islamic Concept the conclusion., of State, Nasim .Hasan Shah stkes that there are many foims ofan Islamic state,, Al-Ghazali's Life and Works. and every period Muslim comunity Abu Hamid Muhammad al-GazaT discreate most suitable form to their w^s bom in Tiis,^ a town near modem demands, and the most consonant with the Meshhed in northeast Iran, in 1058/450 spirit of the Shari'a.^ That is probably A.H. Almost since his lifetime, there has why muslim*thinkers both the earlier and been a debate on whether his nisba the present period have expressed ideas (relative name), should be considered to about Authority in Islam as a dogmatic be al-GhazaT or GazzaT. The former approach. This is greatly different from al- would relateto village or womancalled al- Mawardi's administrative approach, Ibn GazaT, while the latter relate to. the Khaldun's sociological approach and al- profession ofthespirmer or seller of spun Farabi's philospohical approaches.^ yam (ghazzal). But there is no certainty This paper will discuss al-GhazaT's about the ancestor who was a spinner, theory of Islamic government. Before since he had a grand-uncle (or less discussing this subject, it is necessary to probably an uncle), who was also called understand al-GhazaT and his works so al-GhazaT, mid the village or woman is we are able to understand his theory otherwi^ unknowa'^ better. This paper divide into three parts. His early education was in Tus The first part concerns with al-GhazHT's itself. Herehe studiedjurisprudence under life and his works, the second part Ahmad ibn Muhammad al-RadhkahT.^ At discusses his concept of. Islamic some time not later than 1074, ^-GhazaT

59 UNISIA, NO. 24 TAHUN XIV TRIWULAN 4 • 1994 went for purposes of study to of his carrying out his real intention of Gurgan/Jurjan in the south-east of the becoming a sufi. He'only went as far as Caspian Sea.^ He studied further under Damascus, and lived there for several the Lnam Abu Nasr al-Isma^, and made months. According to Macdonald, he copious notes: On his way back from appointed his brother Ahmad to teach in Gurjan to Tus robbers fell upon him, his place atthe Nizamiyya college.!^ stripped him and eiven carried off thebag From Damascus, he went to Mecca containing his manuscripts, eventually in November/December 1096 to perform they-, gave them back to him.^ After the pilgrimage. He went there passing coming back from Jurjan, al-GhazaT through Jerussalem and Hebron, where stayed at Tus for three years, during he visited the grave of Ibralfm al- which he memorized his notes as a Khain.l^-He returned back to Baghdad precaution againstfuture robbers.' • not later then June 1097. But he did not In 1077, he went to Nishapur to remain there for a long time. He then went study under I mam al-Haramajm al- to his home town Tus, establishing a JuwaynT at the recently founded Nizamiyya hostel or Islamic boarding house college. He remained there until the death (khanqah), where young men c^e to of al-Juwaynr in August 1085/25th R. join him in leading a sufi life as a Akhir 478 A.H^. Jurisprudence was community. According to ^Abd; al- presumably the main area ofhis study. He Ghafar, when al-GhazaT finished his was also encouraged by al-Juwanyf to ' pilgrimage, he went to Syria and remained read the works of the philosophers al- there wandering from place to.place and Farabi and Ibn Sina." According to shrine to shririe for nearly ten years. At Macdonald,. the range of his studies this time he composed several works : the embraced, besides Jurisprudence, Ihya, and books abbreviated from it such theology, dialectics, philosophy and as the Arba^in and Rasail, beside logic.^^ laboring at his own spiritual advacement He was associated with the court of and growth through the religiousexercises Nizam al-Muluk and taught in Nishapur ofthe sufis. Then he returned to his home after the death of al-Juwanyf until July town ofTus. 1091/484 A.H., when he was appointed as,professor at the Niz^iyya college in In'1105 or early in 1106, he was Baghdad. Thus, at the age of 33; he went appointed again as a professor at the to one of the most prestigious positions in Nizamiyya college in'Nishapurby Fakhr- the SunniteIslamicworld. ^^ ^ al-Mulk, son of Nizam al-Mulk. Here, he While he was a professor in the could combine teaching with the ^ Nizamiyya of Baghdad, he studied practices which he had been engaged in philosophy and did some writing. He Tiis. . He continued his teaching at left Baghdad in November 1095, Nishapur until at least August 1109. He ostensibly to perform the pilgrimage to passed away on Monday, 14 Junradi al- Mecca; in fact, this was an excuse to Akhir 505 A.H./18 December 1111 in prevent obstacles being placed in the way TIs.l^

60 Khoiruddin N,Al Ghazali And HIS Theoryof Government

His brother Alitnad tells us about teacher. Imam al-Haramayn; 2. Shifa^ the day of his death : al-Ghalll — unfortunately this book is lost; 3. The following three books related After making his ablutions and performing to each other : al-BasU, al-Wasit and the dawn prayer, he asked for his shroud, al-Waji/ fT Fiqh al-Imam al-ShafiCf; kissed it, laid it on his eyes and said. 4. K h u l^at al-Mukhta^ar wa "Obediently I enter into the presence ofthe Naqawat al-Mu^tasar — this book is king, then.facing Mecca he stretched out mentioned in I^iya; 5. Tahdhlb al-U^ul his feet and was dead before sunrise.^O ~ al-Ghaz^ refers to this book in al- Mustasfa as his own and as a work on Hourani has classified al-Ghaz^'s Fiqh;^^ 6. Maq^id al-Falasifa — this life into four periods. The first is an early book was written in Baghdad; it could not period of teaching and writing until the have been started earlier than 1091/1092. death of Imam Haramayn al-Juwaynf. Tahafut al-Fal^ifa was completed on Only one work is definitely assignable to Mi^airam 11,488/ January 21 1095; 7. this time : aUMankhul min Ta^l fqat Mi^y^ al-^Ilm fi Fann al-Mantiq al-U^I. But he also worked on some this book was anticipated as an appendix parts ofal-Mustasta and al-Munqfd min al- to the Ihja; 8. Mihak al-Naz^ fT al-Mantiq Dolal. The second period is a period of — this book mentions Mi^^y^;^. al- retirement, extending for eleven lunar Mustaj^hiri — this was probably years, from his departure from Baghdad completed after Tahafut; 10. Hujjat al- in Dhu al-Qa'^dah488/November 1095 to Haqq — this is lost, but is mentioned in his return to teach at Nishapur in Dhul al- Jawahir al-Qur^an, he wrote it perhaps Qa'^dah, 499/July 1106. It was probably during his second residence in Baghdad; during this period thathe wrote all or most 11. al-Iqti^ad ff al-I^tiqad — it ofhis greater work, Ihya^Ulum al-Din. mentions Ta^iafut, and therfeore cannot The third period began when he came out be earlier than 1095. it is mentioned in from retirement in Dhul al-Qha^dah 499, Ihya, therefore earlier than the earliest part to resume teaching in Nishapur. The end ofI^iya. Iqti^ad itself is not easy nor ofthis period is not knowa He completed short, it is possible then that it was his work al-Mu$tasfa during this time. completed during the second half 1095; The last period was spent at Tus, where he 12. M fzan al-^Amal — this was lived until his death; the only work which anticipated at the end ofMFyar; 13. AI- was finished.by him during this period is Risalah al-Qudsiyya — this is the iljam.^1 mentioned in the Iliya; 14. al-Radd al- Jamil ^ala Il^iyyat cisa bi-^arih The following is a chronological al-lnjn but Lazarus Yafeh has proved \ ordering of his works. that this book is inauthentic; 15. I^iya cUlum ad-DFn — this mentions ar- 1. aNMankhul min Taclfqat al-Usul Risalah al-Qudsiyya, and al-Iqti^ad. —this book is mentioned in al-Musta^fa, He probably did not begin with this book and was written during the lifetime of his before 490 A.H./1097. This book is

61 UNISIA, NO. 24 TAHUN XIV TRIWULAN 4 -1994 mentioned in his later works. which are mentioned by majority of Unfortunately its date of completion scholars interested in studying al- cannot be determined accurately; 16. al- Ghaz^,24 but there are many more Risalah al-Wa^ziyya — this refers to woiks which are not usually cited, such as Qawa^id aI-*^Aqa^id, i.e. Ihya*^; 17. Maraqi al-Zulfa, al-Madnun bihF Ayyuha al-Walad — mentions Ihyaf^, ^Ala Ghayr ahlihi, al-][likmah fl I8.al-Imla fi Ishkalat al-lhya^ — this is Makhluq Allah and so forth. According printed at the end of HiyaC;,19. al- to Muhammad ibn Hasan's at-Tab&qat Maqsad al-Asna ff Sharh Ma^wi al-^Aliyat fi Manaqib al-ShafiCf, Asma Allah al-Husna — mentioned in there are a total of 98 titles of his Arba^in, also gives refers to Jaw^ir, works.^^ al-Qur'an; 20. Qaw^im al-Batiniyya — mentioned in Jawahir al-Qur'an; 21. The Concept of Government Jawab Mufa^^l al-Khil^— lost; 22. Jawahir al*Qur'an mentions 40 books In examining al-GhazaT unutterable ^ of Ihya'; 23. al-Arba^mff Usul air on politics means we must take into Dm — mentions Bidaya, Maqsad, and consideration the time and circumstance describes it self as sequel to Jaw Miir al- no less than the purpose he had in mind Qur'an ; 24 Mishka U al-Anwar — when making them. In Al-Iqtisal he mentions Ihya', Micya^, ]Vlihakk, speaks as a jurist, and the contend is not al-Maqsad al-Ansa; 25 Kitab ad-Darj different from al-Mawardi. Kitab al- ai-Marqum bi al Jadawil — lost; 26 Mustazhiri^^ purpose is to establish the al-Qxstas al-Mustaqim — mentions legitimacy of the Abbaside caliph al- Jawahir al-Qur'an .its sequel Arbai'n Mustazhiri against the opposition of the Munqidh, polemic work against Badia'ya sect who recognized his Fatimah Isma^ilism; 27 Faysal at-tafriqa rival. Since effective power was exercised bayna al-Islam wa al-Zandaga. —in, by the Saljuq sult^, Al-GhazaT had to al-Jawahir al-Ghaw^f, mentioned in base his claim for the Abbasid caliph's Munqidh; 28. K imfya al-Sa^adah — legitimacy on Fiqh.^^ this is likely have to have been composed Na$I^t al-Muluk written by al- after al-GhazaT's. return from the Arab Ghazaf for the great Seljuq Sultan countries; 29. Na^ihat al-MulQk — this Muhammad ibn Maliksh^, who ruled work follows closely the organization and from 498 to 511/1105 to 1118.^8 xhis the contend of K fmlya al-Sha^adah; book combines with the literary theory, 30. al-Munqidh min al-Dal^ — which is something of the theory of the mentions the month of his return to jurists and the philosophers together with Nfshapur; 31. al-Mustagfa min' ^Ilm traces of the ethic of the Sufis.^^ In al-UsuI al-Fiqh; 32. lljam al-^Awam Naslhat al-Muluk, al-Ghazaf writes the- — completed on the 1st of Jumadi al- only justice and.equity of the sultan true Akhir, a few days before al-GhazaT qualification.^ death.23 With regard to the necessity of All the above works are those Im^ is quite similar in both his book al-

62 • Khoiruddin N, Al Ghazali An(^ HIS Theory ofGovernment

IqtisM kitab al-Muslazhiri. In al- indeed have utility, but he rests the proof Mustazhiri, the necessity ofImam is for ofthe Shari^a obligation of appointing an the advantage and keeps away damage in Imam upon two main bases. First, the the world. The good order should be caliphateis b^ed on ijma^.Whathad been Ipased on the religious teaching, in done by the Companions is used by cohtrast, it is not sufficient if merely on GhazaT as an example to prove this ijma'^ the community. The religious order can be basis. He cites the appointment of the achieved just through an Im^ who has ' Khulafa al Rashidiin; Abu Bakr al-Siddfq, indeed to beobeyed.^! The word Imam is ^Umaribn al-KhattS), Uthm^ ibn ^Affan replaced by sultan. Since the meaning of ^d ^Aliibn AblTalib.^^ The second and sultan,is authority, power and not the man more important basis is deduced will of in power, the ruler. This explanation is the Prophet. As noted above, that the taken from the Sunna of the Prophet purpose of the Prophethood is human which states that : "Religion and beings' happiness. Thus public interest (temporal) power are twins and a (maslaha al-umma), such as justice, is the continuation therefore it can be source and reason of the obligation of concluded that dfn is the foundation and authority.36 The requirements of the sultan isthe guardian.32 ShariPa imply tjie requirement of.an The first statement by al-Gh^3" in institution of sorhe^sort to secute them. his book al-IqtisMff al-I^tiq al is that the The form of such an institution has been , imamate or caliphate is an institution authorized by the consensus of the prescribed by the Shari'a (rather than a commuriity, that is the caliphate.3^ logically necessary institution as the ial-Ghaz^ says that there are three Batinites and philosophers held).33 al- ways in which one of those who is GhazaT attempts to prove that the Imamate quahfied for the caliphs may be chosen: is necessary for tlie realization of the by designation of the Prophet, by Prophet's goal. He argues that the designation of the ruling caliph as had Prophet's purpose was the fonnal been done by the Khulafa al-Rashidun, or establishment of the religion of Islam. To by designation of the holder of actual secure this end both life and livelihood power. He tells us that only the last must be protected. The appointment ofan alternative isapplicable inhis own day.38 Imam is. therefore, necessary. His Designation alone is not sufficient for conclusion is that the caliphate (execution appointment, for there must be the ba/'a of the Shari^a) because of its relationship' as well. The bay^a must be performed by with the Sultanate (coercive power) is the great men and the people of loosing required as a result of the objective of the and binding (ahl al-haUi wa al-^aqd).The Prophet (the establishment'' and great men seem to be the men in power, institulionalization oftheShari^a).^^ and those loosing and binding are 'al-GhazaT follows the Sunni idea apparently the^Ulam a There is probablya that the Shari^a is the basis of the fourth stege in which the appointment is to caliphate. But he adds new elements. be realized,jthat isby announcement inthe First, he states that the caliphate does mosques, and the people are to accept the

63 UNISIA, NO. 24 TAHUN XIV TRIWULAN 4 -1994 decision handed down from above.^^ considerably reduced.'^^ The qualifications ofthe caliphate in Further, al-Ghazaf tells us frankly al-GhazaT view are the same as laid down that the necessity ofhaving an ImHn is so by al-Mawardi. However, in' his book al- great thatit compels the alteration of the Iqtis^, al-Ghazar.justgives four criterias : qualifications when there.is no other way (1) he must be able to make judgments in out. al-GhazaT is willing to concede many accordance with the Shari^a (^Um); (2) he of the qualifications in order to maintain must be able to administer the affairs of • the caliphate. As a result, the personal state (ki^yah); (3) piety (wara'); and (4) qualification of the caliph are hardly he must from Qurayshite descent.^^ In applicable to the nature ofthe caliphate.^ Nasihat al-Muluk, he also mentions the al-GhazaT even contends that the necessity of Justice (al-^Ad Hah), the" sultHi is God's shadow on earth. It must, ability to act against enemies (al- therefore, be recognized that kingship and Shujacah), to maintain internal order the divine effiilgence have been granted to (maslahah), and sound sight and him by God, and he must accordingly be hearing.'^ ^ But in doing so he can be obeyed, loved and followed.'^^ To helped by his Wazif and the ^Ulam a al- support this idea, al-GhazaT cites Q.IV : GhazaT adds that the (^aliph must be an 62 "Obey God and obey the Prophet and ^Abbasid. These requirements are very those among you who hold authority."^^ great, and it is not surprising that they alGhaz^", then, gives much were in reality never completely fulfilled. advises which should be followed by the The requirement of a Quraishite liiteage caliphate in conducting the government was the only one tobefulfilled.^^ For example in the Nasihat al-Muluk he When his opponents contend that states: there is no qualified person to serve in that 1. The riiler should first of all capacity; al-GhazH" replies by asking : understand the importance and also what would become of all these religious, the diangers ofthe authority entrusted sicial; economic and political phenomena . tohim.^^ which are regulatedby the Shari^a if there 2. The ruler should always be thirsting were no Caliph.He contends that without to meet devout.^Ulama and to ask the existence of the caliphate no judgment them for advice. • of a q^', and no testameiit would be 3. The king should understand the he valid, since the power of the q^ and must not be content with personally government officials is derived from the ^ refraining from injustice, but-must Caliph. Thus the absence of the caliphate discipline his slave-troops, servants would • turn every normal human and officers and never tolerate unjust relationship into sin; and lead to disorder conduct by them; for he will be and strife. But he does not say what effect interrogated not only about his own such sosial disintegration might have on unjust deeds but also about those of the chances of the individual Muslim for hisstaff.^^ . salvation. From other indications, we 4. The holder ofauthority should not be might conclude that they would be dominated by pride; for pride gives

64 KhoirvMinN, Al Ghazali And HIS Theory of Government

rise to the dominance of anger, and the matter." Q. 20 : 30 - ,33.), while will impel him to revenge.^^ discussing the need for the prime minister 5. The ruler should figure that he is the (wazfr) inrunning the govemmeht^^ ' subject and that the otherperson is the ^-Ghaz^ advises further that the king holderof authority; and that he should ought to observe three principles in his not sanction for others anything that treatment of the wazfr (i) not to , he would not sanctiion for himself punishhim in ha^ when vexed with him; 6., The ruler'should not disregard the (2) not to covet his wealth when he grows attendance of petitioners at his court rich; and (3) not to refuse him a and should,beware of the dangers of (necessary) request when he makes one. doing so., Similarly, the king ought to grant three 7. The ruler should not form a habit of facilities to the wazfr : (1) to let him see indulging passions.^ ^ the king whenever he wishes; (2) not to 8. The ruler should make the utmost listen to talk by slanderers against him; effort to behave gently and avoid and (3) not tokeep secret from him.?^ governing harshly. The nature of al-GhazaT's theory 9. The ruler should endeavor to keep all now becomes much clearer : ,a) The the subjects pleased with him.^^ caliphate comprehends the necessary 10. The ruler should not give satisfaction power to accomplish the maintenance of to any,person if a contravention of order of the community, b) It represents God's law would be required to ' of symbolizes the collective unity of the please him; for no harm will came Muslim community and its historical from such persons displeasure.^^ continuity, c) Deriving its functional and He mentions still otherthings which institution^ authority from the Sharica, it should be considered by the government is the only legitimate form ofgovenment in exercising its authority. He cites the- in Islam. Therefore, there are three aspects saying that four are incumbent on kings : of the caliphate which correspond to al- (1)i to purge the realm of ignorable men; GhaziTs theory : (1) utility: (2) ijma'; (3) (2) to keep the realm prosperous through the objective ofthe Prophet. close co-orperation with wise men; (3) to t respect (the opinion of) pious men and Conclusion pay heed to experienced persons and al-GhazaT felt justified in validating elders; (4) to increase (the prestige of) the the government of the Sultan. He was realm by decreasing the number of bad willing to make concessions regarding a men.^^ limited number of the Shari'a regulations al-Ghazaf also emphasizes the in order to preserve the religious life of the importance of consultation (sura) in community. In contrast, he indeed did not government But he mentions this advice consider much the possibility of every only to perform a good government. He Muslim to.be a kh^if, since al-Qur'OT also does not relate it to any possibility that the emphasizes this possibility. There are sultan or caliph be democratically chosen. several verses, which indicate this He cites Q.3 :153 (:"And consult them in phenomenon: For example, Q. 49 :13, in

65 UNISIA, NO. 24 TAHUN XIVTRIWULAN 4 -1994 which Stated that the noblest is the best in M^bu'at, 1977. conduct. There'are still many different Binder, Leonid, "^-GhazaT's Theory of verses which indicate similar meaning. Islamic Government," The Muslim. The Caliphate is the religious World, 45 (1955). institution as well as the political al-Ghazaf, al-IqtisM ff al-I'tiqad. institution of Islam. al-Ghaz^ has a Cairo : al-Tijariyah, n.d. multilater^ conception of the caliphate. 'Ulum'al-Dln. Misr: al- There are three main elements of his Maktabat al-Tyariyah al-Kubra, n.d. conception : the caliph, the sultan and the — al-Miinqidh min al-palal. 'lilama; each corresponding to some Cairo : Maktabat al-Anjalu, aspects of the authority behind Islamic 1952/1372 H. government, ancl each performing a Naglhat al-MuIuk, trans. function required by that authority, al- Counsel for Kings, by F.C; Ghaz^ argues for the independenceofthe • Bagley. London Oxford 'Ulama, and'he urges them to resist the University Press, 1964. blandishments of the Sult^. In fact, al- Goiten, S.D., "The Origin of the Vizierate Ghaz^ seeks to explain the political and Its True Character," Islamic conditions of his. own time iin terms Cw/ft/re, 16 (1942). acceptable to traditional Sunni thoughtHe Hourani, George F., "The Chronology of does not discuss this theory how it should al-GhazaTs Writing", Jornal ofthe be, based merelyon Qur'anic value. American Oriental Society, 79 al-GhazaT envisages a multilateral (1959). rather than a unitary government He also A Revised Chronology of al- associates the caliph with sult^. This is GhazaT's Writing, Journal of the reallydifferent from al-Mawardi's theory, . American Oriental Society, 104, 1 which lays down one man-government. ^ (1984) al-GhazaT does not specify any caliph Lambton, Ann K.S., "The Theory of functions or suggest that the caliph is Kingship in the Nasih^al-Muluk of under acontractual obligation toward the al-Ghazif," Islamic Quarterly, 1 Muslim community to fulfill such (1954). i functions. al-Ghazaf's argument shows Lazarus-Yafeh, Hava, Studies in al- clearly that he did not expectthat any of Ghazzali. Jerussalem : The Magnes the military^ administrative or religious Press, The Hebrew University, functions of government would actually 1975. be exercised by the caliph; theywould be Macdonald, Duncan B., "The Life of al- exercised by Turks, the wazlr, the Ghazaf., withespecial reference to secretaries, and by the'ulama. ' his religious experiences and opinions, "Journal ofthe American Bibliographies/ . OrientalSociety,20 {\Z99). al-Mawanli, al-Ahkdmal-Sulpniyah. Misr Badawi, 'Abd. al-Rahman, Mualiafat : al-Sa'adah, 1909/1328 H. al-Ghazall. Kuwait : KitS^at al- Mozaffari, Mehdi, Authority in Islam.

66 Khoiruddin N,AJ GhazaliAndHIS Theoryof Govemmerit

London : M.E. Sharpe, Inc., 1987. 76. Op.cit. Rosebthal, Erwin I.J., Political Thought 8. Ibid; 77. in Medieval Islam: An introduction 9. Watt, Islamic Philosophy, Loc. cit., Outline. Cambridge- :• The 86. University Press, 1962. 10. Macdonald, "The Life of al-Ghazali," Shah. Nasim Hasan, "Islamic Concept of 77. Op.cit., fState", Hamdard Islamicus^ 10, 3 • 11. Watt, Islamic Philosophy, 86. (1987). Loc.cit., Siddiqi, Amir Hasan, Caliphate and Sultanate. Karachi : Jamiyat-ul 12. Ibid., 86. Loc.cit. Falah Publication, 1969. 13. Ibid., '88. Op.cit., Lewis, B.V.L. Menage, CA. Pellat and J. 14.'Macdonald, "The Life of al-Ghazall," Schacht Encyclopedia of Islam, 79-80. "al-Ghazff" by W. Montgomery 15. Watt, Islamic Philosophy, 88. Op.cit.,. Watt. Watt, W. Montgomery, Islamic 16. Macdonald, "The Life of al-Ghazali," Philosophy and Theology- : An 93. Op.cit., 17. Watt, Islamic Philosophy, 88. Extended Survey Edinburgh : The t University Press, 1985.. Loc.cit., 18. Macdonald, "The Life of al-Ghazali," 97. Op.cit., CATATAN KAKI : 19. Ibid., 107. See also Watt, Islamic Philosophy, Op.ci\., 89. 1. Nasim Hasan Shah, "Islamic Concept 20. Watt, Islamic Philosophy, 89. see of State," Hamdard Jslamicus, 10, 3 (Autum, also Encyclopedia of Islam vol. 2, "al-Ghazali" 1987). 39. by W. Montgomery Watt, Loc.cit., 1039. 2. Mehdi Mozaffari, 'Authority in Islam 21. Macdonald, "The Life of al-Ghazall," (London : ME. Sharpe, Inc., 1987), 8-14. 290-291. see also al-Ghazali, al-Munqidh min 3. Duncan G. Macdonald, "the Life of al- al-paldl(Cairo : Maktabat al-anjilu al-Misriyat, GhazilT, with special reference to his religious n.d.). experiences and opinions," Journal of the 22. This book is more detail than al- American Oriental Society, 20 (1899), 74. See Mustafa. But Bouyges rejected this ideabecause also Encyclopedia of Islam, new edn. "al- he could not believe that al-Ghazali wrote a Ghazall," by W. Montgomery Watt, vol. 2, book on Fiqh longer than al-Musta^a. 1038-41. 23. George F. Hourani, "The Chronology 4. W. Montgomery Watt, Islamic of Ghaz^i's Writing," Journal of the American Philosophy and Theology : An Extended Survey Oriental Society, 79 (1959), 255-233. (Edinburgh : The University Press, 1985), 86. "ARevised Chronology of Ghaz^i's Writing", Journal of the American Oriental Society, 104, 1 5. Macdonald, 'The Life of al-Ghazali," (Januari-M^ch 1984), 289-302. 76. Op.cit. ' 24. See W. Montgomery Watt, "The 6. Watt, Islamic Philosophy, 86. Op.cit. Authenticity of the works attributed to al- 7. Macdonald, "The Life of al-GhazilT," Ghazali," RoyalAsiatic Society (1952), 25-45.

67 UNISIA. NO. 24 TAHUN XIV TRIWULAN 4-1994

25. Unfortunately this book is still 37. Ibid., 108. manuscript and there is not available in the 38. a\-Gha^i, Ihyd"Ulum al-DJn, vol. 2 Islamic Studies library of McGill University. (MiCT : al-Maktabat al-Tijariyah al-Kubr^ n.d.), Also see 'Abd. al-Rahman BadawT, Muallaf^ al- 124-126. Ghazali(Kuwait: Kitabat al-Matbu'at, 1977). in which the author examines the authenticity of 39. al-GhazalT, op.cit., 107. each book : Hava Lazarus Yafeh, Studies in al- 40. sx\-Qhaz^1, al-lqtisad, op.cit., 106. Ghazalt (Jerussalem ; The Magnes Press, 1975), where the author explains the covabulary and 41. &\-GhazaluNasIhat al-Muluk, trans. Counsel for Kings, by F.R.C. Bagley (London : method used by al-GhazalT. Oxford University Press, 1964), 14-31. See also 26. Unfortunately this book is not al-Mawardi, al-Ahkdm al-Sultdniyah (Misr : al- available in Islamic library of McGill Sa'adah, 1909/1328 H), 4. University. 42. a\-Gh&^l, al-Iqtisad, 106. 27. Erwin I. J. Rosenthal, Political 43. al-Ghaz^T, al-Iqtisdd, 106. Loc.cit. Thought in Medieval Islam : An Introductory Outline (Cambridge : The University Press, 44. al-Ghazal1,Ihyd', 125 1962), 39. ' 45. al-GhazalT, al-Jqtisdd, 107. Op.cit.

28. Ann K. S. Lambton, The Theory of 46. al-GhazalT, 45. Kingship in the NasThat al-Muluk of Ghazali, Islamic Quarterly, 1, i (1954), 47. 47. Ibid., 14 48. Ibid., 23 29. Ibid. 49. Ibid., 25 30. Ibid., 54. 50. Ibid., 28-29 31; Ibid. 51. Ibid., 29 32. al-GhazalT, Iqtisadfi al-I'tiqdt (Cairo : At-Tij^iya, n.d.), 95. firom medieval, 39. See 52. Ibid., 30 also Amir Hasan Siddiqi, Caliphate and Sultanate • 53. Ibid., 31 in Medieval Persia (Karachi : Jamiyat-ul Falah Publication, 1969), third ed., 147. 54. Ibid., 85 33. al-Ghazali, 105. 55. Mozaffari, Authority In Islam, 13.

34. Ibid., 106. 56. To understand the word and the usage history of wazir see S.D. Goitein, "The Origin of 35. Ibid., 109. See also Leonard Binder, the' Vizierate and its True Character," Islamic "al-Ghazali's Theory of Islamic Government," Culture, 16 (1942). The Muslim World, 45 (1955). 230. 57. al-GhazalT, A/arfAo/ al-Muluk, 106- 36. Ibid., 107. 107.

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