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The White Pill: Perceptions and Experiences of Efficacy of a Popular Tibetan Medicine in Multiethnic Rebgong

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The White Pill: Perceptions and Experiences of Efficacy of a Popular Tibetan Medicine in Multiethnic Rebgong asian medicine �0 (�0�5) ���–�48 brill.com/asme The White Pill: Perceptions and Experiences of Efficacy of a Popular Tibetan Medicine in Multiethnic Rebgong Nianggajia Qinghai Nationalities University, University of Oslo, Norway [email protected] Abstract In this paper, I address the local perceptions and experiences of efficacy among pro- ducers and patients of a popular Tibetan medicine in multiethnic Rebgong, a regional hub of Tibetan medicine in Qinghai Province, PRC. Known as the ‘White Pill’—Rikar in Tibetan, Jiebaiwan in Chinese—it is often taken directly without prescription for stomach and digestive disorders that are common among Tibetan, Han, and Hui patients. I will examine the White Pill’s classical formula and how different local pro- ducers in Rebgong explain what makes their own White Pill so effective and popu- lar. Based on interviews with patients of different cultural backgrounds, my research shows that the popularity of this Tibetan medicine is increasing among both Tibetans and non-Tibetans in Rebgong during the past decade. This is probably due to the new ways of producing the White Pill by specifically targeting common digestive disorders, which often and previously have been experienced as not being satisfactorily treated by Chinese biomedical pharmaceuticals. In particular, Rikar or Jiebaiwan is locally known and experienced to be simply the most effective treatment for stomach and digestive disorders without having side effects. Keywords Tibetan medicine – White Pill – Rikar – Jiebaiwan – multiethnic use – Rebgong (Tongren) © koninklijke brill nv, leiden, ���6 | doi �0.��63/�5734��8-��34�Downloaded35� from Brill.com09/25/2021 08:54:18PM via free access 222 Nianggajia Rebgong—A Hub of Tibetan Medicine in Amdo In the past decade ‘Tibetan medicine’ (Tib. bod sman) has become a wide- spread and popular healing option in China. Also known as Sowa Rigpa (Tib. gso ba rig pa),1 ‘the science of healing’, it has reached an unprecedented stage of development, commercialisation, and distribution. Many people from different cultural backgrounds have begun to use Tibetan medicines as a new measurement to complement their therapeutic treatment options.2 This phe- nomenon is also evident in the multiethnic Sino-Tibetan borderland of what Tibetans call Amdo (Tib. a mdo or mdo smad). Amdo is located in the north- eastern part of the Tibetan Plateau and belongs to Qinghai Province, with a major rural farming and nomadic Tibetan population sharing the space with other ethnic groups, in particular Han Chinese and Hui, who mostly live in urbanised centres.3 Rebgong (Tib. Reb gong; Ch. Tongren 同仁) is an important hub of Tibetan culture and medicine, yet academic research on the latter has hardly been undertaken.4 Rebgong is both the Tibetan name of the county and the county town of what in Chinese is called Tongren (同仁). Rebgong alias Tongren Town is also the prefectural capital of Malho Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture (Tib. Rma lho bod rigs rang skyong khul; Ch. Huangnan zangzu zizhizhou 黄南藏族自治州). In the past, many famous Tibetan physicians—generally known as menpa (Tib. sman pa) in Amdo and always ethnically Tibetan— came from Rebgong and they still do so today. Presently, Tongren Town has a specialised prefecture hospital of Tibetan medicine, of which we will hear more in detail, and many private clinics. The large Qinghai Province Tibetan Medical Hospital (Tib. Mtsho sngon zhing chen bod sman khang; Ch. Qinghai sheng zangyiyuan 青海省藏医院) in Xining City (西宁市) is in close proximity, about two hours drive by car. Before the 1950s, Rebgong County covered a much larger area than the present-day county boundaries delineate, and also included parts of today’s 1 I would like to extend my sincere gratitude to The Network for University Cooperation Tibet- Norway for funding my research, and Mona Schrempf and Heidi Fjeld for their constructive and invaluable comments on this paper. I also would like to thank all my informants who shall here remain anonymous. 2 See, for example, Craig and Adams 2008. 3 On historical aspects of Amdo, see Horlemann 2012, Tuttle 2013, Yangdon Dhondup 2011. On modern Amdo, social transformations, and economic development, see Huber 2002, Yangdon Dhondup 2011, and Fischer 2014. 4 On historical aspects of Rebgong, see Yangdon Dhondrub 2011. On health-seeking practices in the area of Rebgong, see Schrempf 2010. asian medicineDownloaded from 10 Brill.com09/25/2021(2015) 221–248 08:54:18PM via free access The White Pill 223 Chentsa County (Tib. Gcan tsa rdzong; Ch. Jianzha xian 尖扎县), Tsekhog County (Tib. Rtse khog rdzong; Ch. Zeku xian 泽库县), Malho County (Tib. Rma lho rdzong; Ch. Henan xian 河南县) and places to the north-west such as Trika County (Tib. Khri ka rdzong; Ch. Guide xian 贵德县) in Tsolho Prefecture (Tib. Mtsho lho khul; Ch. Hainan zhou 海南州), and Dobi Tibetan Township (Tib. Rdo sbis bod rigs zhang; Ch. Daowei zangzu xiang 道帏藏族乡) in Yadzi County (Tib. Ya rdzi rdzong; Ch. Xunhua xian 循化县).5 In this article, I am generally referring to present-day Rebgong County. This county has a total population of 89,654, with Tibetans as the predominant ethnic group making up 72.94%, Mongour 11.8%,6 Hui 3.86%, Salar 1.68%, Baoan 0.5%, Han 8.83%, Mongolian 0.18%, and other 0.21%.7 Rebgong is also known as ‘the city from which knowledge springs’ (Tib. rig pa ’byung ba’i grong khyer)8—a reference to famous Tibetan intellectual scholars born in this area. The most prominent are Chöjé Döndrup Rinchen (Chos rje Don grub rin chen, 1309–85) who was the teacher of Tsongkapa (Tsong kha pa, 1357–1419),9 Shar Kenden Gyamtso (Shar Skal ldan rgya mtso, 1606–77),10 and Zhapkar Tsokdruk Rangdröl (Zhabs dkar Tshogs drug rang grol, 1781–1851), a great tantric master.11 More recently, Rebgong was the home of Amdo Gendün Chömpel (Dge ’dun chos ’phel, 1903–51), probably the most famous modern Tibetan intellectual, philosopher, historian, and artist of the twentieth century, who until today has a lasting impact on Tibetan identity formation in this area. Less well-known is the fact that Rebgong is also a hub of Tibetan medical knowledge and practice in Amdo, historically connected with generations of ‘lineage physicians’ (Tib. sman rgyud) and the local Gelukpa (Tib. Dge lugs pa) monastery of Rongwo (Tib. Rong bo bde chen chos ’khor gling). Rongwo used to be one of the larger monasteries in Amdo, housing up to 2300 monks at its 5 Fischer 2014; Yangdon Dhondup 2011, p. 36. 6 Apart from language, Mongour communities and Tibetan communities in Rebgong share many common values and cultural attributes. Therefore, my research does not include Mongours as a separate group from Tibetans. 7 From the seventh census of Tongren County conducted in 2015 (prepublication data per- sonally conveyed to me). The Bureau of Statistics of Tongren County has not yet formally published the full results of the 2015 census. 8 Rig pa ’byung ba’i grong khyer is a popular eulogistic expression used among Tibetans in Rebgong. Local scholars often cite this expression in their writings to show that Rebgong is the birthplace of many prominent scholars. In addition, Rebgong is also famous for its Tibetan traditional arts, Thangkha painting in particular. 9 Tsongkhapa was the founder of the Gelukpa tradition of Tibetan Buddhism. 10 He was the first Shartsang, the head of Rongwo Monastery. 11 Yangdon Dhondup 2011, pp. 33–4. asian medicine 10 (2015) 221–248 Downloaded from Brill.com09/25/2021 08:54:18PM via free access 224 Nianggajia peak and with 36 affiliated monasteries (Tib. dgon lag).12 Rongwo was also the historical centre of power of Rebgong ruled by the Nangso (Tib. Nang so) as political leader and the Shartsang (Tib. Shar tshang) as religious head.13 Today, Rongwo remains to be the old part of Rebgong town with Rongwo Monastery at its centre. Here, many famous Tibetan monk doctors were trained, such as Khenchen Gendün Gyamtso (Mkhan chen Dge ’dun rgya mtsho; 1679–1765), Jampel Tendzin (’Jam dpal bstan ’dzin; 1715–?), Gendün Tendzin (Dge ’dun bstan ’dzin; 1738–?), the fourth Kyamgön Rinpoché (Skyabs mgon rin po che; 1795–1843), and Drungyik Tsojé Gendün Trinlé Gyamtso (Drung yig ’tsho byed dge ’dun ’phrin las rgya mtsho; 1804–?).14 These scholar-physicians played an instrumental role in building up Rebgong as a centre for traditional Tibetan medicine in the late eighteenth and nineteenth centuries.15 In 1958, following political upheavals in the area, a public school comprised of four sections of history, art, language, and Tibetan medicine, was estab- lished for ‘re-educating’ (Tib. bsgyur bkod)16 local religious figures in align- ment with the new Chinese state policy in Rebgong. The school was primarily run by so-called ‘corrected religious figures’—basically the former intellectual monastic elite. The main medical teachers at the school were distinguished Tibetan physicians from Rongwo Monastery and affiliated monasteries, known as Ake Gyamtso alias Drungyik Gyamtso (Drung yig rgya mtsho),17 Ake Jikmé (’Jigs med), Ake Özer (’Od zer) and Ake Jamyang Yiknyen (’Jam dbyangs dbyig gnyen).18 In 1962, these prominent physicians set up a small clinic named Malho Tibetan Medical Treatment Clinic (Rma lho bod sman gso dpyad khang) staffed with several young physicians recruited from the public school with support from a local government leader. The young physicians acquired extensive experience in practising Tibetan medicine through rigorous training 12 See Sonam Tsering 2011; Yangdon Dhondup, Pagel, and Samuel (eds) 2013. 13 On the history of Rebgong, see Yangdon Dhondup 2011; Tuttle 2013. 14 Short biographies of famous doctors from Rongwo Monastery and affiliated monasteries can be found in the Rebgong Pilgrimage Annals (Reb gong gnas skor deb ther) compiled by Dorjégyal 2011, pp.
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