Appendix: Tibetan Self-immolators, April 1998–May 2015

1. April 27, 1998: Thubten Ngodrup, an ex-monk, self-immolated in New Delhi to protest Hu Jintao’s first visit to India. 2. November 23, 2006: Lhakpa Tsering, a male Tibetan rights activ- ist, attempted self-immolation in Mumbai to protest Hu Jintao’s visit to India. He survived the attempt. 3. February 27, 2009: Tapey, a monk, self-immolated in the market area of Ngaba County, . He survived the attempt, but his whereabouts are currently unknown. 4. March 16, 2011: Phuntsog, a monk, self-immolated in Ngaba County, Sichuan. 5. August 15, 2011: Tsewang Norbu, a monk, self-immolated in the center of Dawu County, Sichuan. 6. September 26, 2011: Lobsang Kelsang, a monk, self-immolated in Ngaba County, Sichuan. 7. September 26, 2011: Lobsang Kunchok, a monk, self-immolated in Ngaba County, Sichuan. 8. October 3, 2011: Kelsang Wangchuk, a monk, attempted self- immolation in Ngaba County, Sichuan. His condition and where- abouts are currently unknown. 9. October 7, 2011: Choepel, an ex-monk, self-immolated in Ngaba County, Sichuan. 10. October 7, 2011: Kayang, an ex-monk, self-immolated in Ngaba County, Sichuan. 11. October 15, 2011: Norbu Damdrul, an ex-monk, self-immolated in Ngaba County, Sichuan. 12. October 17, 2011: Tenzin Wangmo, a nun, self-immolated at the Sumdo Bridge located below Mame Nunnery in Ngaba County, Sichuan. 13. October 25, 2011: Dawa Tsering, a monk, attempted self- immolation in Kardze Monastery in eastern . His well-being and whereabouts are currently unknown. 152 Appendix

14. November 3, 2011: Palden Choetso, a nun, self-immolated at the Chume Bridge near Ganden Jangchup Choeling Nunnery in the center of Dawu County, Sichuan. 15. November 4, 2011: Sherab Tsedor, a male Tibetan rights activist, attempted self-immolation outside the Chinese embassy in New Delhi, India. He survived the attempt, suffering burns on his legs and waist. 16. November 10, 2011: Bhutuk, a monk, attempted self- immolation at the Boudha in central . He sur- vived the attempt, sustaining 15–20 percent burns. 17. December 1, 2011: Tenzin Phuntsog, an ex-monk and father, self-immolated in Khamar Township in Chamdo. 18. January 6, 2012: Tsultrim, an ex-monk and Tibetan rights activ- ist, self-immolated in Ngaba County, Sichuan. 19. January 6, 2012: Tennyi, a monk, self-immolated in Ngaba County, Sichuan. 20. January 8, 2012: Sonam Wangyal, a monk, self-immolated in Darlag County, . 21. January 14, 2012: Losang Jamyang, an ex-monk, self-immolated in Ngaba County, Sichuan. 22. February 8, 2012: Sonam Rabyang, a monk, attempted self- immolation in Triwang town. His well-being and whereabouts are currently unknown. 23. February 8, 2012: Rinzin Dorje, an ex-monk, self-immolated at a primary school in Ngaba County, Sichuan. 24. February 11, 2012: Tenzin Choedron, a nun, self-immolated at the Sumdo Bridge located below Mame Nunnery in Ngaba County, Sichuan. 25. February 13, 2012: Lobsang Gyatso, a monk, attempted self- immolation in Ngaba County, Sichuan. His well-being and whereabouts are currently unknown. 26. February 17, 2012: Damchoe Sangpo, a monk, teacher, and member of the Democratic Management Committee of Bongthak Monastery, self-immolated in Themchen County, Qinghai. 27. February 19, 2012: Nangdrol, a male Tibetan rights activist, self- immolated near Dzamthang Gonchen Monastery. 28. March 3, 2012: Tsering Kyi, a female student and Tibetan rights activist, self-immolated in the vegetable market of Machu town in Gansu. 29. March 4, 2012: Rinchen, a mother, self-immolated near a mili- tary camp in the vicinity of Kirti Monastery in Ngaba County, Sichuan. Appendix 153

30. March 5, 2012: Dorjee, a male Tibetan rights activist, self-immolated near a bridge outside Cha Township in Ngaba County, Sichuan. 31. March 10, 2012: Gepey, a monk, self-immolated near a Chinese military camp located a few kilometers from Kirti Monastery in Ngaba County, Sichuan. 32. March 14, 2012: Jamyang Palden, a monk, self-immolated in Dolma Square, near Rongpo Monastery. 33. March 16, 2012: Lobsang Tsultrim, a monk, self-immolated in front of Kirti Monastery in Ngaba County, Sichuan. 34. March 17, 2012: Sonam Dargye, a father, farmer, and Tibetan rights activist self-immolated near the center of Rongpo town in Qinghai. 35. March 26, 2012: Jampa Yeshe, a male Tibetan rights activist, self- immolated in New Delhi to protest Hu Jintao’s participation at the international summit. 36. March 28, 2012: Lobsang Sherab, a monk, self-immolated in Cha Township in Ngaba County, Sichuan. 37. March 30, 2012: Chimey Palden, a monk, self-immolated outside the prefectural government offices in Barkham in Ngaba County, Sichuan. 38. March 30, 2012: Tenpa Darjey, a monk, self-immolated outside the prefectural government offices in Barkham in Ngaba County, Sichuan. 39. April 6, 2012: Thubten Nyandak , a monk, self-immolated. 40. April 6, 2012: Atse, a nun and niece to Thubten Nyandak Rinpoche (above), died by fire. 41. April 19, 2012: Choepak Kyap, a male Tibetan rights activist, self-immolated close to a government office in Barma Township near Jonang Dzamthang Gonchen Monastery in Ngaba County, Sichuan. 42. April 19, 2012: Sonam, a male Tibetan rights activist, self-immo- lated close to a government office in Barma Township near Jonang Dzamthang Gonchen Monastery in Ngaba County, Sichuan. 43. May 27, 2012: Dargye, an ex-monk, self-immolated outside Temple in . 44. May 27, 2012: Dorje Tseten, a male Tibetan rights activist, self- immolated outside Jokhang Temple in Lhasa. 45. May 30, 2012: Rikyo, a female nomad, self-immolated near Jonang Dzamthang Gonchen Monastery. 46. June 15, 2012: Tamdin Thar, a male nomad, self-immolated in front of the People’s Armed Police base in Chentsa County, Qinghai. 154 Appendix

47. June 20, 2012: Ngawang Norphel, an ex-monk, self-immolated in Dzatoe Township in Qinghai. 48. June 20, 2012: Tenzin Khedup, an ex-monk, self-immolated in Dzatoe Township in Qinghai. 49. June 27, 2012: Dickyi Choezom, a mother, attempted self- immolation in Keygu town near Dhondupling Monastery. Her well-being and whereabouts are currently unknown. 50. July 7, 2012: Tsewang Dorjee, a male Tibetan rights activist, self- immolated in Damshung near Lhasa. 51. July 17, 2012: Losang Lozin, a monk, self-immolated in front of the Tsodun Kirti Monastery’s main assembly hall in Ngaba County, Sichuan. 52. August 6, 2012: Lobsang Tsultrim, a monk, self-immolated on the main street toward the office building of the Forestry Depart- ment in Ngaba County, Sichuan. 53. August 7, 2012: Dolkar Tso, a mother, self-immolated near a white stupa in front of Tsoe Gaden Choeling Monastery in Tsoe City. 54. August 10, 2012: Chopa, a male nomad, self-immolated in Me’uruma Township in Ngaba County, Sichuan. 55. August 13, 2012: Lungtok, a monk and student of Kirti’s Mon- astery’s medical college, self-immolated in a enclo- sure on the monastery’s perimeter. 56. August 13, 2012: Tashi, a male layperson, self-immolated in a enclosure on the Kirti Monastery’s perimeter. 57. August 27, 2012: Lobsang Damchoe, an ex-monk and Tibetan rights activist, self-immolated near the eastern gate of Kirti Monastery. 58. August 27, 2012: Lobsang Kelsang, a monk, self-immolated near the eastern gate of Kirti Monastery. 59. September 13, 2012: Passang Lhamo, a female layperson, attempted self-immolation in Beijing. She survived the attempt, but her whereabouts are currently unknown. 60. September 29, 2012: Yangdang, a male Tibetan rights activist, self-immolated along the main road in Dzato County, Qinghai. 61. October 4, 2012: Gudrub, a male writer and Tibetan rights activ- ist, self-immolated in Ngaba County, Sichuan. 62. October 6, 2012: Sangay Gyatso, a father and Tibetan rights activist, self-immolated near the Dokar Monastery. 63. October 13, 2012: Tamdin Dorje, a male Tibetan rights activist, self-immolated near a white stupa beside Tsoe Gaden Choeling Monastery in Gansu. 64. October 20, 2012: Lhamo Kyab, a father and Tibetan rights activist, self-immolated near Bora Monastery in Gansu. Appendix 155

65. October 22, 2012: Dhondup, a male Tibetan rights activist, self- immolated at the side Serkhang Temple in Labrang Tashikyil Monastery in Gansu. 66. October 23, 2012: Dorje Rinchen, a male Tibetan rights activist, self-immolated near a military camp in front of the Gyugya mar- ket on the main street of Labrang in Gansu. 67. October 25, 2012: Tsepo, an ex-monk and Tibetan rights activ- ist, self-immolated near a government building in Nagchu. 68. October 25, 2012: Tenzin, an ex-monk and Tibetan rights activ- ist, attempted self-immolation near a government building in Nagchu. His well-being and whereabouts are currently unknown. 69. October 26, 2012: Tsewang Kyab, a male Tibetan rights activ- ist, self-immolated near the bus stand in Setri village in Sangchu County, Gansu. 70. October 26, 2012: Lhamo Tseten, a father and Tibetan rights activist, self-immolated in front of the local military base and Township administration in Amchok in Sangchu County, Gansu. 71. November 4, 2012: Dorjee Lhundrup, a traditional Tibetan artist, father, and farmer self-immolated near Sakyil Hotel in Rongwo town on Taglung South Street, some kilometers west of . 72. November 7, 2012: Dorjee, a monk, self-immolated in Ngoshul Monastery in Ngaba County, Sichuan. 73. November 7, 2012: Samdrup, a monk, attempted self-immolation in Ngoshul Monastery in Ngaba County, Sichuan. He survived the attempt, but his whereabouts are currently unknown. 74. November 7, 2012: Dorjee Kyab, a monk, attempted self- immolation in Ngoshul Monastery in Ngaba County, Sichuan. He survived the attempt, but his whereabouts are currently unknown. 75. November 7, 2012: Tamding Tso, a mother and Tibetan rights activist, self-immolated in the center of Drorong Po village in Dowa Township in Rebkong County, Qinghai. 76. November 7, 2012: Tsegyal, a male Tibetan rights activist, self- immolated in Tingser village of Bekar Township in Driru County. 77. November 8, 2012: Jinpa Gyatso, a male Tibetan rights activist, self-immolated in Rebkong County, Qinghai. 78. November 10, 2012: Gonpo Tsering, a male student and Tibetan rights activist, self-immolated in front of Shakdup Thubtenling Monastery in Tsoe County, Gansu. 79. November 12, 2012: Nyangchag Bum, a male Tibetan rights activist, self-immolated in Dowa Township in Rebkong County, Qinghai. 156 Appendix

80. November 12, 2012: Nyangkar Tashi, a male Tibetan rights activist, self-immolated in Dowa in Rebkong County, Qinghai, at a prayer ceremony for Tamdrin Tso. 81. November 15, 2012: Khabum Gyal, a male Tibetan rights activ- ist, self-immolated near the town of Rebkong County, Qinghai. 82. November 15, 2012: Tenzin Dolma, a female Tibetan rights activist, self-immolated outside Goge Village temple in Rebkong County, Qinghai. 83. November 17, 2012: Sangdag Tsering, a father and Tibetan rights activist, self-immolated outside a government build in Dokarmo in the Tsekhog area of Rebkong County, Qinghai. 84. November 17, 2012: Chagmo Kyi, a mother and Tibetan rights activist, self-immolated in Dolma Square in Rebkong County, Qinghai. 85. November 19, 2012: Wangchen Norbu, a male Tibetan rights activist, self-immolated near Kangtsa Gaden Choephelling Mon- astery, Qinghai. 86. November 20, 2012: Tsering Dundrup, a father, farmer, and nomad attempted self-immolation in Amchok Township in Sang- chu County, Gansu. His well-being and whereabouts are cur- rently unknown. 87. November 22, 2012: Lubhum Gyal, a male Tibetan rights activ- ist, self-immolated in the main street of Dowa Township in Reb- kong County, Qinghai. 88. November 23, 2012: Tamdrin Dorjee, a male nomad, divorcee, and Tibetan rights activist, self-immolated in front of a govern- ment building in Dokarmo in the Tsekhog area of Rebkong County, Qinghai. 89. November 23, 2012: Tamdrin Kyab, an ex-monk and nomad, self-immolated near the Luchu River, Gansu. 90. November 25, 2012: Sangay Dolma, a nun, self-immolated in front of the Chinese government office in Dokarmo in the Tsekong area of Rebkong County, Qinghai. 91. November 26, 2012: Gonpo Tsering, a father and Tibetan rights activist, self-immolated outside the prayer hall of Alak Deu-go Monastery in Luchu County, Gansu. 92. November 26, 2012: Kunchok Tsering, a male Tibetan rights activist, self-immolated near a mining site in Amchok region of Labrang, Gansu. 93. November 26, 2012: Wangyal, a male student and Tibetan rights activist, self-immolated in front of the golden-horse statue at the local ground in Serthar, northeastern Tibet. Appendix 157

94. November 27, 2012: Sanggye Tashi, a male Tibetan rights activ- ist, self-immolated in Sang Khog in Labrang, Gansu. 95. November 27, 2012: Kelsang Kyab, a herdsman and Tibetan rights activist, self-immolated outside a government office building in Kyangtsa Township in Ngaba County, Sichuan. 96. November 28, 2012: Wande Khar, a male Tibetan rights activ- ist, self-immolated in the Tsoe region of Kanlho, eastern Tibet. 97. November 29, 2012: Tsering Namgyal, a father and Tibetan rights activist, self-immolated near the local government build- ings in the eastern Luchu region of eastern Tibet. 98. November 30, 2012: Kunchok Kyab, a father, self-immolated in Ngaba County, Sichuan. 99. December 2, 2012: Sungdue Kyab, a father, attempted self- immolation along the road to Bora Monastery in Sangchu County, Gansu. He survived the attempt, but his whereabouts are currently unknown. 100. December 3, 2012: Lobsang Geleg, a monk, self-immolated at the main intersection in Pema County, Qinghai. 101. December 8, 2012: Kunchok Pelgye, a monk, self-immolated outside the main assembly hall of the Taktsang Lhamo Monas- tery in Dzoege in Ngaba County, Sichuan. 102. December 8, 2012: Pema Dorjee, a male Tibetan rights activ- ist, self-immolated close to the main assembly hall of Shitsang Garser Monastery in Luchu County, Gansu. 103. December 9, 2012: Wangchen Kyi, a female student and Tibetan rights activist, self-immolated in the Dokarmo nomadic area of Tsekhog County in Malho, Qinghai. 104. January 12, 2013: Tsering Tashi, a male Tibetan rights activ- ist, self-immolated in Amchok Township in Sangchu County, Gansu. 105. January 18, 2013: Tsering Phuntsok, a father, self-immolated in Drachen village, Marthong County, Ngaba Tibetan and Qiang Autonomous Prefecture, Sichuan. 106. January 19, 2013: Jigji Kyab, a male Tibetan rights activist, doused himself with gasoline but died of self-poisoning before he could ignite himself on the streets of Shitsang Township. 107. January 22, 2013: Konchok Kyab, a male Tibetan rights activist, self-immolated between the local monastery and Bora Shang in Sangchu County, Gansu. 108. February 3, 2013: Lobsang Namgyal, a monk, self-immolated outside the Public Security Bureau of Dzoege County, Ngaba Tibetan and Qiang Autonomous Prefecture, Sichuan. 158 Appendix

109. February 13, 2013: Drugpa Khar, a father, self-immolated in Amchok town in Sangchu County, Gansu. 110. February 13, 2013: Drupchen Tsering (or Druptse), a monk, self-immolated at the Boudha stupa in Kathmandu, Nepal. 111. February 17, 2013: Namlha Tsering, a father, attempted self- immolation opposite the county cinema hall on the main street of Labrang, Gansu. 112. February 19, 2013: Rinchen, a male Tibetan rights activist, self-immolated in Dzoege Township in Ngaba County, eastern Tibet. 113. February 19, 2013: Sonam Dhargye, a male Tibetan rights activist, self-immolated in Dzoege Township in Ngaba County, eastern Tibet. 114. February 24, 2013: Phagmo Dundrup, a male Tibetan rights activist, self-immolated near Chachung Monastery in Tsoshar Prefecture, Qinghai. 115. February 25, 2013: Sangdag, a monk, attempted self-immolation on a road south of Ngaba County, Sichuan. His well-being and whereabouts are currently unknown. 116. February 25, 2013: Tsesung Kyab, a male Tibetan rights activ- ist, self-immolated in front of the main temple of Shitsang Gon- sar Monastery in Luchu County, Gansu. 117. March 13, 2013: Kunchok Wangmo, a female layperson, is reported to have died in Ngaba county town, Sichuan. Details of the circumstances of the self-immolation remain unclear. 118. March 16, 2013: Lobsang Thogme, a monk, self-immolated in Ngaba County, Sichuan. 119. March 24, 2013: Kalkyi, a mother, self-immolated near Jonang Gonchen Monastery in Dzamthang in Ngaba County, Sichuan. 120. March 25, 2013: Lhamo Kyab, a male Tibetan forest guard, self-immolated in Sangchu, Gannan. 121. March 26, 2013: Konchok Tenzin, a monk, self-immolated in the main street of Mokri village, near Mokri Monastery. 122. Late March 2013 (exact date unsure): Kunchok Tsomo attempted self-immolation in Kyegudo, Qinghai. Her well- being and whereabouts are currently unknown. 123. April 16, 2013: Chugtso, a mother, self-immolated in Dzamthang in Ngaba County, Sichuan. 124. April 24, 2013: Losang Dawa, a monk, self-immolated in the assembly hall of Taktsang Lhamo Kirti Monastery. 125. April 24, 2013: Konchok Woeser, a monk, self-immolated in the assembly hall of Taktsang Lhamo Kirti Monastery. Appendix 159

126. May 27, 2013: Tenzin Sherab, a male nomad, self-immolated in the Gyaring area of Yushu, Qinghai. 127. June 11, 2013: Wangchen Dolma, a nun, self-immolated near Nyatso Monastery in Dawu County, Sichuan. 128. July 20, 2013: Kunchok Sonam, a monk, self-immolated in Soktsang Gelugpa Monastery in Ngaba County, Sichuan. 129. August 6, 2013: Ngedon Gyatso, a monk, self-immolated at the Boudha stupa in Kathmandu, Nepal. 130. September 28, 2013: Shichung, a father and Tibetan rights activist, self-immolated outside his house in Gomang village in Ngaba County, Sichuan. 131. November 11, 2013: Tsering Gyal, a monk, attempted self- immolation in Pema County in Golok Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture, Qinghai. His well-being and whereabouts are cur- rently unknown. 132. December 3, 2013: Kunchok Tseten, a father, herdsman, and Tibetan rights activist attempted self-immolation in Meruma Township in Ngaba County, Sichuan. His well-being and where- abouts are currently unknown. 133. December 19, 2013: Tsultrim Gyatso, a monk, self-immolated in Amchok town in Sangchu County, Gansu. 134. February 5, 2014: Phagmo Samdup, a father and Tibetan rights activist, self-immolated near a school in Dokarmo Town- ship in Tsekhog in Malho Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture, Qinghai. 135. February 13, 2014: Lobsang Dorje, an ex-monk, attempted self- immolation on the main road near Kirti Monastery in Ngaba County, Sichuan. 136. March 16, 2014: Jigme Tenzin, a monk, self-immolated outside Shador Monastery in Tsekhog County, Qinghai. 137. March 16, 2014: Lobsang Palden, a monk, attempted self- immolation in Ngaba County, Sichuan. His well-being and whereabouts are currently unknown. 138. March 16, 2014: An unknown monk, attempted self-immolation outside Sonag Monastery in Tsekhog County, Qinghai. 139. March 29, 2014: Dolma, a nun, attempted self-immolation out- side Ba Choede monastery in Bathang County, Sichuan. Her well-being and whereabouts are currently unknown. 140. April 15, 2014: Thinley Namgyal, a male Tibetan rights activist, self-immolated in Khangsar Township in Dawu County, Sichuan. 141. September 16, 2014: Kunchok, a male Tibetan rights activ- ist, attempted self-immolation outside a police station in the 160 Appendix

Tsangkor town in Gade County, Qinghai. He survived the attempt, but his whereabouts are currently unknown. 142. September 17, 2014: Lhamo Tashi, a male student, self-immolated outside a government Public Security Bureau headquarters in Tsoe City, northeastern Tibet. 143. December 16, 2014: Sangye Khar, a father, self-immolated in front of a police station in Amchok town in Sangchu County, Gansu. 144. December 22, 2014: Tseypey, a female herder and Tibetan rights activist, self-immolated in the center of a town in Ngaba County, Sichuan. 145. December 23, 2014: Kalsang Yeshe, a monk, self-immolated outside a police station near Nyitso Monastery in Dawu County, Sichuan. 146. March 5, 2015: Norchuk, a mother and Tibetan rights activist, self-immolated in Ngaba County, Sichuan. 147. April 8, 2015: Yeshi Kandro, a nun in her forties, self-immolated in Kardze in the province of Sichuan near a monastery and a police station. 148. April 16, 2015: Neykyab (also known as Damkar), a father of seven in his forties self-immolated in the courtyard of his home in Ngaba, Sichuan. According to the Campaign for Tibet biog- raphy “Tibetan Man Sets Fire to Himself beside Shrine with Religious Offerings (Updated),” Neykyab, using the alias Kawa Dondrub, “had frequently spoken in online forums about the importance of unity.” 149. May 20, 2015: Tenzin Gyatso, a father of four from Dawu, in Sichuan, self-immolated to protest increased security measures related to the Dalai ’s upcoming eightieth birthday, which took place on July 6, 2015. The Dawu self-immolator was in his early thirties. 150. May 27, 2015: Sangye Tso, a mother, self-immolated outside a government office in Chone County, Gansu.

Non-Tibetan Actors in the Tibetan Self-Immolation Movement

1. November 16, 2012: David Alain (or Tonden), a monk, self- immolated in the garden of Monastery in Labastide- Saint-Georges, France. Works Cited

“2008 Uprising in Tibet: Chronology and Analysis.” Central Tibetan Admin- istration. India: Narthang Press, October 18, 2010. Web. May 19, 2015. “ABC 7.30’s Interview of the .” Online video clip. YouTube. You- Tube, June 17, 2013. Web. Mar. 12, 2015. “Acts of Self-Immolation Are In-Principle Non-Violent: Dalai Lama,” DNA, Nov. 18, 2012. Web. Mar. 12, 2015. Adorno, Theodor W. “Cultural Criticism and Society.” Prisms. 1967. Trans. Samuel Weber and Shierry Weber Nicholsen. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1981. 17–34. Print. Aitken, Robert. Original Dwelling Place: Buddhist Essays. Washington, DC: Counterpoint Press, 1996. Print. Al Jazeera English. “People & Power—The Dalai Lama: The Devil Within— Sept 30 Part 1.” Online video clip. YouTube. YouTube, Oct. 1, 2008. Web. Mar. 12, 2015. “Allegiance to the Dalai Lama and Those Who ‘Become Rich by Opposing Splittism.’” TibetInfoNet. TibetInfoNet, May 27, 2007. PDF file. Anand, Dibyesh. “ Fears the Living Tibetans—Not Those Who Set Fire to Themselves.” Guardian. Guardian News and Media Limited, Oct. 19, 2011. Web. Mar. 23, 2015. Andrews, Wilson, Alicia Parlapiano, and Karen Yourish. “Who Is Run- ning for President (and Who’s Not)?” New York Times. May 29, 2015. Web. May 30, 2015. Angry Monk: Reflections on Tibet. Dir. Luc Schaedler. Perf. Thomas Sar- bacher, Loten Namling, and Philip Maurice Hayes. Xenix Filmdistribu- tion, 2005. Film. Ardley, Jane. The Tibetan Independence Movement: Political, Religious, and Gandhian Perspectives. London: Routledge Curzon, 2002. Print. Arpi. Claude. Dharamsala and Beijing: The Negotiations That Never Were. Atlanta: Lancer Publishers, 2013. Print. 162 Works Cited

Aslan, Reza. “Bill Maher Isn’t the Only One Who Misunderstands Religion.” New York Times. The New York Times Company, Oct. 8, 2014. Web. Mar. 23, 2015. “Atheistic China Claims ‘Right to Reincarnate’ Dalai Lama.” New York Times. The New York Times Company, Mar. 13, 2015. Web. Apr. 6, 2015. Auden, W. H. “In Memory of W.B. Yeats” in The Collected Poetry of W. H. Auden. New York: Random House, 1945. P. 48-51. Austin, John L. How to Do Things with Words. Ed. J. O. Urmson and Marina Sbisa. 2nd ed. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1975. Print. “Australian PM Snubs Dalai Lama during Visit.” NDTV. NDTV Conver- gence Limited, June 14, 2011. Web. Mar. 14, 2015. Baker, Benjamin David. “Soul or Salmon? Norway’s Chinese Dilemma.” The Diplomat. The Diplomat, May 9, 2014. Web. Mar. 29, 2015. Baker, Greg. “China Sent Troops to Tibetan Areas.” thestar.com. Toronto Star Newspaper Limited, Mar. 20, 2008. Web. Aug. 6 2014. “Bangkok Declaration,” included in the “Final Declaration of the Regional Meeting for Asia of the World Conference on Human Rights.” Apr. 7, 1993. Asia-Pacific Human Rights Information Center webpage. May 27, 2015. Barboza, David. “China: CNN Apologizes over Tibet Comments.” New York Times. The New York Times Company, May 16, 2008. Web. Aug. 6, 2014. Barnett, Robert. Introduction. Voices from Tibet: Selected Essays and Report- age. Tsering Woeser and Wang Lixiong. Hong Kong: Hong Kong Univer- sity Press, 2014. ix–xxxviii. Print. Barnett, Robert. “The Tibet Protests of Spring 2008: Conflict between the Nation and the State.” China Perspectives 3 (2009): 6–23. Web. May 19, 2015. Barrodale, Amie. “Samsara Is a Movie.” Vice. VICE Media LLC, Jun. 9, 2014. Web. Dec. 17, 2014. Bartholet, Jeffrey. “Aflame: A Wave of Self-Immolations Sweeps Tibet.” New Yorker. Condé Nast, Jul. 8, 2013. Web. Feb. 26, 2015. Works Cited 163

Bartholet, Jeffrey. “Tibet’s Man on Fire.” National Geographic, online Novem- ber 30, 2012. Accessed March 23, 2015. Baudrillard, Jean. Simulacra and Simulation. Trans. Sheila Faria Glaser. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1994. Print. Bedard, Paul. “Report: Price of Iran, Afghan Wars Hits a Staggering $6 Trillion.” Washington Examiner. Washington Examiner, Mar. 2, 2015. Web. Apr. 2, 2015. “Beijing’s Soft Power Strategy on Tibet.” Radio Free Asia. Radio Free Asia, Jul. 25, 2012. Web. Mar. 29, 2015. Benjamin, Walter. “The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduc- tion.” Illuminations. Trans. Harry Zohn. Ed. Hannah Arendt. New York: Schocken Books, 1955. 217–252. Print. Benn, James A. Burning for the Buddha: Self-Immolation in Chinese Bud- dhism. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 2007. Print. Benn, James A. “The Lotus and Self-Immolation.” Readings of the . Ed. Stephen F. Teiser and Jacqueline I. Stone. New York: Columbia University Press, 2009. 107–131. Print. Besuchet, Christophe. “Beacons of Resistance, Not Desperate Acts.” Rangzen Alliance. The Rangzen Alliance, Jan. 28, 2012. Web. Mar. 19, 2015. Besuchet, Christophe. “Lobsang Sangay’s Wrong Churchill Quote.” Rang- zen Alliance. The Rangzen Alliance, June 1, 2011. Web. Mar. 20, 2015. Beyond the Numbers: A Human Perspective on Tibet’s Self-Immolations. Dir. Katie Lin. Tibetan Centre for Human Rights and Democracy, 2012. Film. Biema, David Van. “The World’s Next Top Lama.” Time. Time Inc., May 15, 2008. Web. Apr. 5, 2015. Biggs, Michael. “Dying for a Cause—Alone?” Contexts 7.1 (2008): 22–27. American Sociological Association. PDF file. Biggs, Michael. “How Repertoires Evolve: The Diffusion of Suicide Protest in the Twentieth Century.” Mobilization: An International Quarterly 18.4 (2013): 407–428. Web. Mar. 20, 2015. Bitzer, Lloyd F. “The Rhetorical Situation.” Philosophy and Rhetoric 1.1 (1968): 1–14. Print. Blakesley, David. The Elements of Dramatism. New York: Longman, 2002. Print. Blumberg, Antonia. “Dalai Lama Sees No Need for Successor: ‘Let Us Fin- ish with a Popular Dalai Lama.’” Huffington Post. TheHuffingtonPost .com, Sep. 9, 2014. Web. Mar. 27, 2015. 164 Works Cited

Booth, Wayne C. “The Many Voices of Kenneth Burke, Theologian and Prophet, as Revealed in His Letters to Me.” Unending Conversations: New Writings by and about Kenneth Burke. Eds. Greig Henderson and David Cratis Williams. Carbondale and Edwardsville: Southern Illinois UP, 2001. 179–201. Print. Bork, Ellen. “Obama’s Timidity on Tibet.” Wall Street Journal. Dow Jones & Company, Aug. 19, 2010. Web. Mar. 29, 2015. Branigan, Tania. “China Crisis: West Riven by Age-Old Question—To Appease or Oppose?” Guardian. Guardian News and Media Limited, Mar. 19, 2015. Web. Mar. 29, 2015. Branigan, Tania and Jason Burke. “ Urges Tibetan Monks to Stop Self-Immolation.” Guardian. Guardian News and Media Limited, last modified Nov. 18, 2011. Web. Mar. 22, 2015. Brannigan, Michael. “There Is No Spoon: a Buddhist Mirror.” The Matrix and Philosophy: Welcome to the Desert of the Real. Ed. William Irwin. Chi- cago: Open Court Publishing, 101–110. Print. Bristow, Michael. “Clandestine Olympic Protests.” BBC News, Beijing. BBC, August 6, 2008. Web. May 20, 2015. Brook, Timothy. “Tibet and the China-World Empire.” Empires and Auton- omy: Moments in the History of Globalization. Ed. Stephen M. Streeter, John C. Weaver, and William D. Coleman. Vancouver: University of Brit- ish Columbia Press, 2009. 24–40. Print. Browne, Malcolm. “Buddhist Monk Sets Himself on Fire.” Government, Poli- tics, and Protest: Essential Primary Sources. Detroit: Gale, 2006. 11–13. Global Issues In Context. Web. May 20, 2015. Brown, John. “Donald Rumsfeld’s Soft Side.” Guardian. Guardian News and Media Limited, Jan. 30, 2008. Web. Oct. 11, 2013. Buckley, Chris. “China Internal Security Spending Jumps Past Army Budget.” Reuters. Thomson Reuters, Mar. 5, 2011. Web. Mar. 10, 2015. Buckley, Chris. “China’s Tensions with Dalai Lama Spill into the Afterlife.” New York Times. The New York Times Company, Mar. 11, 2015. Web. Apr. 5, 2015. Works Cited 165

“Buddhist Monk Leads 3,000 in Silent L.A. Peace Walk.” The Buddhist Chan- nel. Associated Press, Oct. 9, 2005. Web. Mar. 17, 2009. Buffetrille, Katia. “Self-Immolation in Tibet: Some Reflections on an Unfold- ing History.” Revue d’Etudes Tibétaines 25 (2012): 1–17. PDF file. Buncombe, Andrew. “Dalai Lama Says He Might Not Be Born Again.” The Inde- pendent. Independent Print Unlimited, Sep. 11, 2014. Web. May 19, 2015. Burke, Kenneth. A Grammar of Motives. 1945. Berkeley: University of Cali- fornia Press, 1969. Print. Burke, Kenneth. A Rhetoric of Motives. New York: Prentice-Hall, 1950. Print. Burke, Kenneth. Language as Symbolic Action: Essays on Life, Literature, and Method. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1966. Print. Burke, Kenneth. “Methodological Repression and/or Strategies of Contain- ment.” Critical Inquiry 5.2 (1978): 401–416. JSTOR. Web. Mar. 22, 2015. Cabezón, José. “On the Ethics of the Tibetan Self-Immolations.” Religious Dis- patches. Religion Dispatches, June 18, 2013. Web. Mar. 23, 2015. Cao Yang. “Gangchen Rinpoche.” Photograph. 1st China Tibetan Cul- ture Forum. China Tibet Information Center, Oct. 11, 2006. Web. Mar. 16, 2015. Censky, Annalyn. “Google Blames China’s ‘Great Firewall’ for Outage.” CNN Money. Cable News Network. A Time Warner Company, Mar. 30, 2010. Web. Mar. 3, 2015. “Chiang Pushes Plan to Incorporate Tibet; Child, 6, Is Appointed as Dalai Lama.” New York Times. The New York Times Company, Jan. 31, 1940. Web. Apr. 5, 2015. “China: Alarming New Surveillance, Security in Tibet.” Human Rights Watch. Human Rights Watch, Mar. 20, 2013. Web. Mar. 12, 2015. “China Announces Unprecedented Harsh Measures to Deter Self-Immola- tions in Tibet’s Dzoege County.” Tibetan Centre for Human Rights and Democracy. TCHRD, Feb. 14, 2014. Web. Mar. 13, 2015. “China: End Involuntary Rehousing, Relocation of Tibetans.” Human Rights Watch. Human Rights Watch, June 27, 2013. Web. Sep. 26, 2013. 166 Works Cited

“China Intercontinental Press.” China Book International. www.cbi.gov .cn, n.d. Web. Oct. 31, 2013. “China’s Confucius Institutes to Reach 500 Global Cities by 2020.” Xinhua. Xinhua, english.news.cn, Mar. 11, 2013. Web. Mar. 29, 2015. “China’s Religious Official Lashes out at Dalai Lama’s U.S. Award, Bush Meeting.” The 17th National Congress of the Communist Party of China. www.people.com.cn, Oct. 18, 2007. Web. May 19, 2013. “China’s Tibetan Legislators Conclude Visit to Brussels.” The National People’s Congress of the People’s Republic of China. NPC, May 16, 2012. Web. Feb. 27, 2015. “China to Break-Up with the Dragon.” Economic Times. Bennet, Cole- man & Company Limited, Dec. 7, 2006. Web. Nov. 2, 2013. “China Vilifies Dalai Lama—Tutu.” Polity.org.za. Creamer Media (Pty) Lim- ited, Mar. 26, 2008. Web. Oct. 31, 2013. “China Warns Dalai Lama Not to Jeopardize Tibetan , Motherland Unification.” Xinhua. Xinhua, english.news.cn, Mar. 7, 2012. Web. Feb. 27, 2015. “Chinese Artist Presents Tibet Burning Sculpture.” Voice of America. The Voice of America, Feb. 20, 2014. Web. Mar. 12, 2015. Chodron, Pema. Practicing Peace in Times of War. Ed. Sandy Boucher. Bos- ton, MA: , 2007. Print. “Collective Punishment.” Human Rights Situation in Tibet: Annual Report 2014. Dharamsala: Tibetan Centre for Human Rights and Democracy, 2015. 7–13. Web. Mar. 13, 2015. Curry, Tom. “Clinton Sounds the China Alarm as ‘08 Issue.” NBCNews. com. NBCNews.com, Feb. 3, 2007. Web. Mar. 29, 2015. “Dalai Lama Doubts Effect of Tibetan Self-Immolations.” The Telegraph. Telegraph Media Group Limited, June 13, 2013. Web. Mar. 23, 2015. Dalai Lama. : Rite of Initiation. Trans. Jeffrey Hopkins. Somerville, MA: Wisdom Publications, 1999. Print. Works Cited 167

Dalai Lama. “Speech to an Audience Dominated by Tibetans from Tibet on 27 March 2006 during the Spring Teachings.” His Holiness the 14thDa- lai Lama of Tibet. The Office of His Holiness the Dalai Lama, Mar. 27, 2006. Web. May 16, 2015. Dalai Lama. “The Path without Violence.” The Spirit of Tibet, Vision for Human Liberation: Selected Speeches and Writings of HH The XIV Dalai Lama. Ed. A. A. Shiromany. New Delhi: Tibetan Parliamentary and Policy Research Centre, 1996. Print. Daniel, Frank Jack. “’s Karmapa Lama Shies from Mantle of Power.” Reuters. Thomson Reuters, Dec. 1, 2011. Web. Apr. 5, 2015. Davis, Michael C. “Establishing a Workable Autonomy in Tibet.” Human Rights Quarterly 30 (2008): 227–258. PDF file. Devenish, Rodney. Principal Yogacara Texts: Indo-Tibetan Sources of . San Francisco: Fellowship of His Holiness the Gyalwa Karmapa, 2012. Print. Dorjee, Tenzin. “Drupchen’s Body Is a Litmus Test for Nepal.” World Post. The Huffington Post, Mar. 15, 2013. Web. Apr. 2, 2015. Dorjee, Tenzin. “My Take: Why the Dalai Lama Cannot Condemn Tibetan Self-Immolations.” CNN. Cable News Network, Jul. 18, 2012. Web. Mar. 23, 2015. Dreyfus, Georges. “Are We Prisoners of Shangrila? Orientalism, Nationalism, and the Study of Tibet.” Journal of the International Association of Tibetan Studies 1 (2005): 1–21. Web. Dreyfus, Georges. “The Shuk-Den Affair: History and Nature of a Quarrel.” Journal of the International Association of 21.2 (1998): 227–270. Durkheim, Émile. The Elementary Forms of Religious Life. Trans. Carol Cos- man. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001. Print. Emmott, Bill. Japanophobia: The Myth of the Invincible Japanese. New York: Times Books, 1993. Print. Feldmann, Linda. “At White House, the Dalai Lama Sidesteps Trash.” The Christian Science Monitor. The Christian Science Monitor, Feb. 19, 2010. Web. Mar. 29, 2015. Fierke, Karin. M. Political Self-Sacrifice: Agency, Body and Emotion in Inter- national Relations. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2013. Print. 168 Works Cited

Fish, Isaac Stone. “Is China’s Xinhua the Future of Journalism?” News- week. Newsweek LLC, Sep. 3, 2010. Web. Mar. 3, 2015. Ford, Peter. “Chinese Fume over Obama-Dalai Lama Meeting. Will There Be Blowback? (+video).” The Christian Science Monitor. The Christian Science Monitor, Feb. 21, 2014. Web. Mar. 29, 2015. For the Benefit of All Beings. Dir. Christina Lundberg. Garuda Sky Produc- tions, 2011. Film. Fund, John. “The Dalai Lama as a ‘Necessary Sacrifice.’” National Review. National Review, May 11, 2014. Web. Mar. 29, 2015. Gangchen, Lama. “Spiritual Forum for World Peace: A Permanent Assembly in the United Nations.” n.p., 2008. Web. Mar. 11, 2015. Garfield, Jay L. Engaging Buddhism: Why It Matters to Philosophy. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2015. Print. Garfield, Jay L. “The Three Turnings of the Wheel of Dharma—Why They Are Each Essential to All of Us.” Tibetan . Jay Gar- field & Bodhicharya Deutschland e.V., Aug. 24, 2012. Web. Mar. 31, 2015. Geertz, Clifford. Works and Lives: The Anthropologist as Author. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1988. Print. Gerth, Jeff and Scott Shane. “U.S. Is Said to Pay to Plant Articles in Iraq Papers.” New York Times. The New York Times Company, Dec. 1, 2005. Web. Oct. 11, 2013. Gladstone, Rick. “Norway’s Leaders Snub Dalai Lama in Deference to China.” New York Times. The New York Times Company, May 7, 2014. Web. Mar. 29, 2015. Gladstone, Rick. “Second Tibetan Monk Burns Himself to Death in Pro- test.” New York Times. The New York Times Company, Aug. 15, 2011. Web. Mar. 12, 2015. Gladstone, Rick and Henrik Pryser Libell. “Dalai Lama Urges Outside Inquiry into Spate of Self-Immolations among Tibetans.” New York Times. The New York Times Company, May 9, 2014. Web. Mar. 11, 2015. Works Cited 169

Glaser, Bonnie S. and Melissa Murphy. “Soft Power with Chinese Charac- teristics: The Ongoing Debate.” Chinese Soft Power and Its Implications for the United States. Ed. Carole McGiffert. Washington, DC: Center for Strategic and International Studies, March 2009. PDF file. “Global Opinion of Obama Slips, International Policies Faulted.” Pew Research Center. Pew Research Center, June 13, 2012. Web. Oct. 26, 2013. Goffman, Erving. The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life. Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1959. Print. Gordimer, Nadine. “The Essential Gesture: Writers and Responsibility.” The Tanner Lectures on Human Values, VI–1985. Ed. Sterling M. McMurrin. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2011. 1–20. Print. Gottipati, Sruthi and Rick Gladstone. “Tibetan Exile Sets Self Afire in Protest Act.” New York Times. The New York Times Company, Mar. 26, 2012. Web. Mar. 25, 2015. Gries, Peter Hays. “Identity and Conflict in Sino-American Relations.” New Directions in the Study of China’s Foreign Policy. Ed. Alastair I. Johnston and Robert S. Ross. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2006. 309–339. Print. Groner, Cary. “Conflagration in Tibet: A Letter in Response to Jeffrey Bartholet’s Article.” New Yorker. Condé Nast, Jul. 15, 2013. Web. Feb. 26, 2015. Guo, Sujian. Post-Mao China: From Totalitarianism to Authoritarianism. London: Praeger, 2000. Print. Gyalwang Drukpa. Walking an Uncommon Path: A Guide to Your Spiritual Quest. India: Drukpa Publications, 2013. Print. Halberstam, David. The Making of a Quagmire. New York: Random House, 1965. Print. Hansen, Peter H. “Why Is There No Subaltern Studies for Tibet?” Tibet Jour- nal 28:4 (2003): 7–22. Web. Mar. 25, 2015. Harding, Luke. “Dalai Lama Eyes End to 45-Year Exile.” Guardian. Guard- ian News and Media Limited, Sep. 5, 2003. Web. Apr. 5, 2015. “Harper’s Index.” Harper’s Magazine. Harper’s Magazine, Jul. 2001. Web. Sep. 8, 2013. Higgins, Andrew. “How Buddhism Became a Force for Political Activism.” Wall Street Journal. Dow Jones & Company, Nov. 7, 2007. Web. Mar. 12, 2015. Hopgood, Stephen. The Endtimes of Human Rights. Ithaca: Cornell Univer- sity Press, 2013. Print. “Hu Jintao Calls for Enhancing ‘Soft Power’ of Chinese Culture.” 17th CPC National Congress. Xinhua News Agency, Oct. 15, 2007. Web. Nov. 2, 2013. 170 Works Cited

Hutzler, Charles. “Monks Disrupt Image-Building Effort in Lhasa.” Washing- ton Post. The Washington Post, Mar. 28, 2008. Web. May 1, 2013. Hutzler, Charles. “Reporters’ State-Led Visit to Tibet Interrupted by Pro- testing Monks.” New York Times. The New York Times Company, Mar. 27, 2008. Web. May 1, 2013. “immolate.” Oxford English Dictionary. Oxford University Press, n.d. Web. Mar. 17, 2015. Jacobs, Andrew. “China Bars Foreigners from Making Visits to Tibet.” New York Times. The New York Times Company, Sep. 22, 2009. Web. Mar. 12, 2015. Jacobs, Seth. Cold War Mandarin: Ngo Dinh Diem and the Origins of Ameri- ca’s War in Vietnam, 1950–1963. Lanham: Rowman and Littlefield, 2006. Print. Jerryson, Michael. K. Buddhist Fury: Religion and Violence in Southern Thai- land. New York: Oxford University Press, 2011. Print. Jerryson, Michael.K., and Mark Juergensmeyer, Eds. Buddhist Warfare. New York: Oxford University Press, 2010. Print. Jones, Terril Yue. “China Says Dalai Lama Rewarding Self-Immolators with Money.” Reuters. Thomson Reuters, Mar. 8, 2013. Web. Feb. 27, 2015. Jordt, Ingrid. “Turning over the Bowl in Burma.” Religion in the News 10.3 (2008): n.p. Web. Mar. 17, 2009. Kalachakra & Practices Kalachakra for World Peace 2011. Capital Area Tibetan Association, 2011. Print. Karmapa. “Meeting with Tibetan Commnunity in San Francisco.” Online video clip. YouTube. Youtube, Mar. 29, 2015. Web. Apr. 6, 2015. “Karmapa in San Francisco: Talk to Tibetan Association.” Karmapa Founda- tion. Karmapa Foundation, Mar. 19, 2015. Web June 18, 2015. Kazmin, Amy. “An Exclusive Interview with the Dalai Lama.” FT Magazine. The Financial Times Limited, Nov. 7, 2013. Web. Mar. 27, 2015. Keeping the Faith. Dir. Edward Norton. Perf. Ben Stiller, Edward Norton, Jenna Elfman. Touchstone, 2000. Film. Works Cited 171

Khyentse, Dzongsar Jamyang. What Makes You Not a Buddhist. Boston: Shambhala, 2007. Print. King, Sallie B. Being Benevolence: The Social Ethics of . Honolulu: University of Hawai’i Press, 2005. Print. Knowlton, Brian. “Dalai Lama Is Honored on Capitol Hill.” New York Times. The New York Times Company, Oct. 17, 2007. Web. June 11, 2013. Kovan, Martin. “Archive for the ‘Buddhist Philosophical’ Category.” Whis- pered . Wordpress.com, Jul. 22, 2014. Web. Mar. 25, 2015. Kovan, Martin. “Thresholds of Transcendence: Buddhist Self-Immolation and Absolute Altruism, Part One.” Journal of Buddhist Eth- ics 20 (2013), 775-812. http://blogs.dickinson.edu/buddhistethics/ files/2013/12/Kovan-Thresholds-PartOne3.pdf. Accessed January 30, 2015. PDF. Kovan, Martin. “Thresholds of Transcendence: Buddhist Self-Immolation and Mahayana Absolute Altruism, Part Two.” Journal of Buddhist Eth- ics 21 (2014), 385-430. http://blogs.dickinson.edu/buddhistethics/ files/2014/01/Kovan-Thresholds2-final.pdf Accessed January 30, 2015. PDF. Krishnan, Ananth. “Meaningful Autonomy Is the Only Realistic Solution.” The Hindu. The Hindu, Jul. 9, 2012. Web. Mar. 15, 2015. Kristof, Nicholas D. “Your Comments on Tibet, Part Two.” New York Times. The New York Times Company, May 17, 2008. Web. June 11, 2013. Kubota, Yoko. “Dalai Lama Blames Tibetan Burnings on ‘Cultural Genocide.’” Reuters. Thomson Reuters, Nov. 7, 2011. Web. Mar. 22, 2015. Kurlantzick, Joshua. Charm Offensive: How China’s Soft Power Is Transform- ing the World. New York: Vail-Ballou Press, 2007. Print. Kurlantzick, Joshua. “China’s Charm: Implications of Chinese Soft Power.” Carnegie Endowment for International Peace Policy Brief 47 (2006). PDF file. Lacan, Jacques. Freud’s Papers on Technique, 1953–54. Trans. John Forrester. New York: W. W. Norton, 1988. Print. LaFraniere, Sharon. “China Aims to Stifle Tibet’s Photocopiers.” New York Times. The New York Times Company, May 20, 2010. Web. Feb. 26, 2015. Lagon, Mark P. “The Value of Values: Soft Power under Obama.” World Affairs. American Peace Society, Sep./Oct. 2011. Web. Oct. 26, 2013. 172 Works Cited

Landsberg, Mitchell. “Dalai Lama Suggests Osama bin Laden’s Death Was Justified.” Los Angeles Times. Los Angeles Times, May 4, 2011. Web. Mar. 27 2015. Lasseter, Tom. “Postcard from Tiananmen Square during the 18th Party Congress.” Photograph. China Rises. McClatchy, Nov. 7, 2012. Web. Mar. 12, 2015. Lavaur, Henry Samuel. “Briton Becomes First Western Tibetan Buddhist Monk to Die from Self-Immolation.” Telegraph. Telegraph Media Group Limited, Nov. 16, 2012. Web. Mar. 13, 2015. Lemkin, Raphael. Axis Rule in Occupied Europe: Laws of Occupation, Analysis of Government, Proposals for Redress. Washington, DC: Carnegie Endow- ment for International Peace, 1944. Print. Li, Mingjiang. “China Debates Soft Power.” The Chinese Journal of Interna- tional Politics 2.2 (2013): 287–308. PDF file. Loeffel, Robert. Family Punishment in Nazi Germany: Sippenhaft, Terror and Myth. London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2012. Print. Lopez, Donald S. Jr. Prisoners of Shangri-La: Tibetan Buddhism and the West. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1998. Print. Makley, Charlene. “The Sociopolitical Lives of Dead Bodies: Tibetan Self- Immolation Protest as Mass Media.” Cultural Anthropology 30.3 (forth- coming in 2015). Print. Malik, Kenan. “Myanmar’s Buddhist Bigots.” New York Times. The New York Times Company, May 19, 2014. Web. Mar. 12, 2015. Mandhana, Niharika. “As China Squeezes Nepal, Tibetan Escape Route Nar- rows.” Time. Time Inc., Jul. 17, 2012. Web. Mar. 20, 2015. Ma, Rong. Population and Society in Contemporary Tibet. Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press, 2011. Print. McGranahan, Carole. “Angry White Buddhist and the Dalai Lama: Appro- priation and Politics in the Globalization of Tibetan Buddhism.” Savage Minds: Notes and Queries in Anthropology. Wordpress.com, Feb. 1, 2015. Web. Apr. 2, 2015. McGranahan, Carole. “141: For Tsepey Who Self-Immolated in Tibet Six Hours from Now.” Savage Minds: Notes and Queries in Anthropology. Wordpress.com, Dec. 22, 2014. Web. Mar. 13, 2015. Works Cited 173

McGranahan, Carole and Ralph Litzinger. “Self-Immolation as Protest in Tibet.” Cultural Anthropology Online. American Anthropological Asso- ciation, Apr. 9, 2012. Web. Sep. 12, 2013. Mehta, Uday S. “Gandhi and the Burden of Civility.” Raritan 33.1 (2013): 37–49. EBSCOhost. Web. Mar. 12, 2015. “ Approach.” Umaylam. Central Tibetan Administration, n.d. Web. Mar. 20, 2015. Minder, Raphael. “Spain to Proceed with Indictment of China’s Ex- President.” New York Times. The New York Times Company, Oct. 11, 2013. Web. Mar. 14, 2015. Mirsky, Jonathan. “Why the Dalai Lama Is Hopeful.” The New York Review of Books. NYREV, Jun. 21, 2012. Web. Mar. 15, 2015. Moeller, Susan D. Compassion Fatigue: How the Media Sell Disease, Famine, War and Death. New York; London: Routledge, 1999. Print. “Monks on the March: The Most Serious Unrest in Years Shakes the Tibetan Capital.” Economist. The Economist Newspaper Limited, May 13, 2008. Web. Mar. 11, 2015. Moon, Susan. Not Turning Away: The Practice of Engaged Buddhism. Boston, MA: Shambhala, 2004. Print. Moore, Malcolm. “Chinese Troops Suffering Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder in Tibet.” Telegraph. Telegraph Media Group Limited, May 21, 2013. Web. May 8, 2015. Morrison, Chas. “Tibetan Self-Immolation as Protest against Chinese State Repression.” Conflict, Violence, Terrorism, and Their Prevention. Ed. J. M. Ramirez, C. Morrison, and A. J. Kendall. Newcastle upon Tyne, UK: Cambridge Scholars Publishing, 2014. Print. Moyar, Mark. “Halberstam’s History.” National Review. National Review. Jul. 5, 2007. Web. Mar. 9, 2009. Moyar, Mark. “Political Monks: The Militant Buddhist Movement during the Vietnam War.” Modern Asian Studies 38.4 (2004): 749–784. Print. Moynihan, Maura. “Lobsang Sangay: Chinese National?” Rangzen Alliance. The Rangzen Alliance, Apr. 7, 2014. Web. Mar. 20, 2015. Moynihan, Maura. “Lobsang Sangay: The Facts.” Rangzen Alliance. The Rangzen Alliance, Apr. 11, 2014. Web. Mar. 20, 2015. 174 Works Cited

Mydans, Seth. “Monks’ Protest Is Challenging Burmese Junta.” New York Times. The New York Times Company, Sep. 24, 2007. Web. Mar. 8, 2015. “Nagchu—Woman Attempts Suicide, 9 Identified among Several Arrested.” Phayul.com. Phayul.com, Sep. 10, 2013. Web. Jul. 31, 2015. Nagpal, Sahil. “Dalai Lama Absent as Vietnam Hosts Buddhist Festival.” The Buddhist Channel. DPA, May 14, 2008. Web. June 11, 2013. “Namo Buddha.” Places of Peace and Power. Martin Gray, n.d. Web. Apr. 2, 2015. Nasr, ul Hadi. “Exile Leader Says Tibetan Immolations Ignored.” Times Herald. The Times Herald, Aug. 20, 2012. Web. Mar. 4, 2015. Nau, Michael. Killing for the Dharma: An Analysis of the Shugden Deity and Violence in Tibetan Buddhism. Diss. Miami University, 2007. Print. Ohi- oLINK Electronic Theses and Dissertations Center. “Negroponte Urges China to Stop Vilifying Dalai Lama.” Voice of America. VOA, Apr. 23, 2008. Web. Mar. 29, 2015. “Nepal Warns Tibetans against Anniversary Protests.” Mail Online. NineMSN Pty Limited, Mar. 8, 2015. Web. Mar. 14, 2015. Neville, Robert Cummings, ed. Ultimate Realities: A Volume in the Compara- tive Religious Ideas Project. Albany: State University of New York Press, 2001. Print. Newland, Guy. Introduction to Emptiness: As Taught in Tsong-Kha-Pa’s Great Treatise on the Stages of the Path. Ithaca, NY: Snow Lion Publications, 2008. Print. Nhat Hanh, Thich. Being Peace. Ed. Arnold Kotler. Berkeley, CA: Parallax Press, 1987. Print. Nhat Hanh, Thich. Dialogue: Thich Nhat Hanh, Ho Huu Tuong, Tam Ich, Bui Giang, Pham Cong Thien Addressing to Martin Luther King, Jean Paul Sartre, André Malraux, René Char, Henry Miller. Saigon: La boi, 1965. Print. Nizza, Mike. “Donald Rumsfeld, Back on the Podium.” International New York Times. The New York Times Company, Jan. 24, 2008. Web. Mar. 29, 2015. Nolen, Stephanie. “Tibetan Leader Holds Hope China Can Learn from Canada.” The Globe and Mail. The Globe and Mail Inc., last modified Dec. 3, 2012. Web. Apr. 5, 2015. Works Cited 175

Norbu, Jamyang. “Remembering Thupten Ngodup.” Shadow Tibet. n.p., May 12, 2008. Web. Mar. 12, 2015. Norbu, Jamyang. “Self-Immolation and Buddhism.” Shadow Tibet. n.p., Jan. 3, 2012. Web. Mar. 12, 2015. Norbu, Jamyang. “‘Tibetans Never Had a Country’: Dr. Lobsang San- gay.” Shadow Tibet. n.p. Mar. 5, 2012. Web. Mar. 20, 2015. Norbu, Tenzin. “Tibet: The Third Pole and the Himalayas.” Central Tibetan Administration. Central Tibetan Administration, Jan. 1, 2013. Web. Mar. 8, 2015. “North Korea’s Prison Camps: The Gulag behind the Goose-Steps.” Econo- mist. The Economist Newspaper Limited, Apr. 21, 2012. Web. Feb. 27, 2015. “No Time for the Dalai Lama.” Wall Street Journal. Dow Jones & Company, Oct. 6, 2009. Web. Mar. 29, 2015. Nye, Joseph S. Jr. “Donald Rumsfeld and Smart Power.” Project Syndicate. Project Syndicate, Apr. 24, 2006. Web. Oct. 11, 2013. Nye, Joseph S. Jr. “Get Smart: Combining Hard and Soft Power.” Foreign Affairs 88. 4 (2009): 160–163. JSTOR. Web. Oct. 26, 2013. Nye, Joseph S. Jr. “Soft Power.” Foreign Policy 80 (1990): 153–171. JSTOR. Web. Mar. 25, 2015. Nye, Joseph S. Jr. Soft Power: The Means to Success in World Politics, New York: Perseus Books, 2004. Print. Nye, Joseph S. Jr. “What China and Russia Don’t Get About Soft Power.” For- eign Policy. Foreignpolicy.com, Apr. 29, 2013. Web. Oct. 26, 2013. Ong, Thuy. “Dalai Lama: Tibetan Self-Immolations Have Little Effect, But Are Understandable.” World Post. The Huffington Post, last modi- fied Aug. 13, 2013. Web. Feb. 26, 2015. Orwell, George. Animal Farm. 1946. New York: Harcourt, 1954. Print. Orwell, George. “Pacificism and the War.” Partisan Review, 1942. Print. Orwell, George. Shooting an Elephant.” Shooting an Elephant and Other Essays. London: Penguin Classics, 2003. 31–40. Print. Osnos, Evan. “Born Red: How Xi Jinping, an Unremarkable Provincial Administrator, Became China’s Most Authoritarian Leader since Mao.” The New Yorker. Condé Nast, Apr. 6, 2015. Web. Apr. 3, 2015. Osnos, Evan. “The Next Incarnation: As the Dalai Lama Turns Seventy-Five, What Is Tibet’s Future?” The New Yorker. Condé Nast, Oct. 4, 2010. Web. 176 Works Cited

Apr. 6, 2015. Osnos, Evan. “Who Will Control Tibetan ?” The New Yorker. Condé Nast, Mar. 13, 2015. Web. Apr. 6. 2015. “Over 130 Burn for Freedom in Tibet.” Unite for Tibet. International Tibet Network, n.d. Web. Mar. 20, 2015. Paldron, Tenzin Mingyur. “Distinguising between and Leaders.” Tibetan Political Review. The Tibetan Political Review, last modified Nov. 16, 2011. Web. Mar. 23, 2015. Phillips, Adam. “Against Self-Criticism.” London Review of Books. LRB Lim- ited, Mar. 5, 2015. Web. Mar. 12, 2015. Phillips, David P. “The Influence of Suggestion on Suicide: Substantive and Theoretical Implications of the Werther Effect.” American Sociological Review 39.3 (1974): 340–354. JSTOR. Web. Mar. 20, 2015. “Photograph of Tibetan Monk Following Self-Immolation Emerges as Eighth Tibetan Sets Fire to Himself.” Free Tibet. International Campaign for Tibet, Oct. 15, 2011. Web. Sep. 7, 2013. Pickler, Nedra. “Obama Condemns Those Who Seek to ‘Hijack Religion.’” Yahoo News. The Associated Press, Feb. 5, 2015. Web. Mar. 27, 2015. Powers, John. History as Propaganda: Tibetan Exiles versus the People’s Repub- lic of China. New York: Oxford University Press, 2004. Print. Powers, John. Introduction to Tibetan Buddhism. Ithaca, NY: Snow Lion, 2007. Print. Prothero, Stephen. “My Take: Dalai Lama Should Condemn Tibetan Self-Immolations.” CNN. Cable News Network, Jul. 12, 2012. Web. Mar. 15, 2015. Qadir, Abdul. “Two at Baffle Visitors.” Times of India. Bennett, Coleman & Company Limited, Dec. 16, 2012. Web. Apr. 5, 2015. Radio Free Asia. Radio Free Asia, n.d. Web. Mar. 3, 2015. Rawlings, Nate. “The Self-Immolation of Tibetan Monks.” Time. Time Inc., Dec. 7, 2011. Web. Mar. 7, 2015. “Reincarnation and Enthronement of the 17th Living Buddha Karmapa.” China Tibet Online. www.people.com.cn, Apr. 14, 2009. Web. Apr. 5, 2015. Works Cited 177

“Religious Freedom in Tibet.” Central Tibetan Administration. Department of Information and International Relations, Central Tibetan Administra- tion, Nov. 2013. PDF file. “Repairing Unity after March 10, 2015.” Tibetan Political Review. The Tibetan Political Review, last modified Mar. 12, 2015. Web. Mar. 20, 2015. Robertson, Tim. “The Dalai Lama and the Politics of Reincarnation.” The Diplomat. The Diplomat, Sep. 22, 2014. Web. Mar. 5, 2015. “Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court: Rome, July 17, 1998.” United Nations. Treaty Collection. United Nations, Jul. 17, 1998. Web. Mar. 29, 2015. “Report on Tibet and the Chinese People’s Republic.” Geneva: International Commission of Jurists, 1960. Roy, Denny. China’s Foreign Relations. Lanham, MD: Rowman and Little- field Publishers, 1998. Print. Samdhong Rinpoche. Samdhong Rinpoche: Uncompromising Truth for a Compromised World: Tibetan Buddhism and Today’s World. Bloomington: World Wisdom, 2006. Print. Sangay, Lobsang. Personal Interview. Nov. 18, 2012. Sangay, Lobsang. “Tibetan Leader: Chinese Government Can’t Choose Next Dalai Lama.” Time. Time, Inc., Mar. 30, 2015. Web. Apr. 5, 2015. Schell, Orville. Virtual Tibet: Searching for Shangri-La from the Himalayas to Hollywood. New York: Metropolitan Books, 2000. Print. Schwartz, Ronald D. Circle of Protest: Political Ritual in the Tibetan Uprising. New York: Columbia University Press, 1994. Print. Scott, James C. Weapons of the Weak: Everyday Forms of Peasant Resistance. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1987. Print. “Search for Next Pits Tibet against China’s Communists.” Los Angeles Times. Los Angeles Times, Mar. 18, 1990. Web. Apr. 5, 2015. “Second Day of His Holiness’s Teachings in Leh.” His Holiness the of Tibet. The Office of His Holiness the Dalai Lama, Aug. 5, 2012. Web. Mar. 12, 2015. Sehgal, Saransh. “Karmapa Lama: Tibet’s Young Voice.” Asia Times Online. Asia Times Online, Jul. 24, 2009. Web. Apr. 6, 2015. Sehgal, Saransh. “The Panchen Lama Mystery.” The Diplomat. The Diplomat, Jul. 11, 2010. Web. Apr. 5, 2015. 178 Works Cited

“Self-Immolation Inciters Disgusted: Locals of Gansu Tibetan Area.” China Tibet Online. People’s Daily Online, May 3, 2013. Web. Feb. 28, 2015. “Self-Immolation in the History of Tibetan Freedom Struggle.” Tibetan Women’s Association. n.p. 2014. Web. March 16, 2015. “Self-Immolation Protests in Tibet.” Free Tibet. International Campaign for Tibet, n.d. Web. Mar. 12, 2015. “Self-Immolations by Tibetans.” Free Tibet. International Campaign for Tibet, May 29, 2013. Web. Aug. 19, 2013. “Self-Immolations in Tibet (March 2013).” Online video clip. Halftone. Halftone, n.d. Web. Mar. 13, 2015. “Self-Immolations in Tibet.” Students for a Free Tibet. n.p., n.d. Web. Mar. 20, 2015. “Self-Immolations of Tibetans, an Interview with Thierry Dodin.” Tibetan Bud- dhism in the West. Ed. Joanne Clark. Thierry Dodin & www.info-buddhism .com, Dec. 30, 2014. Web. Mar. 13, 2015. Sen, Amartya. “Democracy as a Universal Value.” Journal of Democracy. 10.3 (1999): 3–17. PDF file. Sengupta, Somini. “Curbs on Protest in Tibet Lashed by Dalai Lama.” New York Times. The New York Times Company, Mar. 17, 2008. Web. Mar. 12, 2015. Sengupta, Somini. “Dalai Lama Threatens to Resign.” New York Times. The New York Times Company, Mar. 19, 2008. Web. May 19, 2013. Shakya, Tsering. “Politicisation and the Tibetan Language.” Resistance and Reform in Tibet. Ed. Robert Barnett and Shirin Akiner. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1994. 157–165. Print. Shakya, Tsering. The Dragon in the Land of Snows: A History of Modern Tibet since 1947. London: Pimlico, 1999. Print. Shakya, Tsering. “Transforming the Language of Protest.” Cultural Anthro- pology Online. American Anthropological Association, Apr. 8, 2012. Web. Sep. 12, 2013. Shambaugh, David. China Goes Global: The Partial Power. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2013. Print. Sheng Ding. The Dragon’s Hidden Wings: How China Rises with Its Soft Power. Lanham, KY: Lexington Books, 2008. Print. “Shugden Worshippers—The Buddhist Taliban.” UnmadeinChina. n.p., Mar. 9, 2009. Web. Aug. 12, 2009. Works Cited 179

Simmons, Tracy. “In Washington State, a Tibetan Buddhist Nun Blazes a Trail for Other Women to Follow.” RNS. Wordpress.com, Jan. 27, 2015. Web. Mar. 21, 2015. 60 Years of Chinese Misrule Arguing Cultural Genocide in Tibet. International Campaign for Tibet, 2012. PDF file. Solzhenitsyn, Alexandr. “Alexandr Solzhenitsyn—Nobel Lecture.” Nobel- prize.org. Nobel Media AB, 2014. Web. Mar. 29, 2015. “Sowing Dissent and Undermining the Dalai Lama.” TibetInfoNet, May 21, 2008. PDF file. Sperling, Elliot. “On the Questions of Why and to What End.” Cul- tural Anthropology Online. American Anthropological Association, Apr. 8, 2012. Web. Mar. 19, 2015. Sperling, Elliot. “Reincarnation and the Golden Urn in the 19th Century: The Recognition of the 8th Panchen Lama.” Studies on the History and Literature of Tibet and the Himalaya. Ed. Roberto Vitali. Jyatha, Nepal: Vajra Publications, 2012. 97–108. PDF file. Sperling, Elliot. “Self Delusion.” Tibetan Buddhism in the West. Tibetan Buddhism in the West, May 2014. Web. Mar. 12, 2015. Spillius, Alex and Peter Foster. “Barack Obama Meets Dalai Lama at White House.” Telegraph. Telegraph Media Group Limited, Feb. 18, 2010. Web. Mar. 29, 2015. “Stability in Tibet Stressed over ‘Sensitive Time.’” People’s Daily Online. Peo- ple’s Daily Online, Feb. 7, 2012. Web. Mar. 12, 2015. Storm in the Grasslands: Self-Immolations in Tibet and Chinese Policy. Interna- tional Campaign for Tibet, Dec. 10, 2012. PDF file. Sulak, Sivaraksa. Conflict, Culture, Change: Engaged Buddhism in a Globaliz- ing World. Boston, MA: Wisdom Publications, 2005. Print. Suzuki, Shogo. “The Myth and Reality of China’s ‘Soft Power.’” Soft Power and US Foreign Policy: Theoretical, Historical and Contemporary Perspec- tives. Ed. Inderjeet Parmar and Michael Cox. New York: Routledge, 2010. 199–214. Print. Tambiah, Stanley Jeyaraja. Buddhism Betrayed? Religion, Politics, and Violence in Sri Lanka. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992. Print. Taylor, Philip M. “Public Diplomacy and the Information War on Terror.” Soft Power and US Foreign Policy: Theoretical, Historical and Contemporary Perspectives. Ed. inderjeet Parmarand Michael Cox. New York: Routledge, 2010. 152–164. Print. 180 Works Cited

Tenpel. “A Forgotten Perspective—Who Is Persecuted?” Tibetan Buddhism: Struggling with Difficult Issues. WordPress.com, Sep. 9, 2008. Web. Mar. 12, 2015. Terhune, Lea. Karmapa: The Politics of Reincarnation. Somerville, MA: Wis- dom Publications, 2004. Print. Thames, Richard H. “The Meaning of the Motivorum’s Motto: ‘Ad bellum purificandum’ to ‘Tendebantque manus ripae ulterioris amore.’” K. B. Journal: The Journal of the Kenneth Burke Society 8.1 (2012). n.p. Web. Mar. 18, 2015. Thau, Lea. “Self-Immolation Man.” KCRW. KCRW, Oct. 9, 2012. Web. Mar. 9, 2015. “The Confucius Institute.” University of Massachusetts Boston. University of Massachusetts Boston, n.d. Web. Mar. 29, 2015. “The Karmapa Cleared: Indian Police Drop Charges against Tibet Holy Man.” Huffington Post. TheHuffingtonPost.com, May 21, 2012. Web. Apr. 6, 2015. “The Question of Tibet and the Rule of Law.” Geneva: International Com- mission of Jurists, 1959. “Third Fatal Self-Immolation in Tibet in Eight Days.” Free Tibet. International Campaign for Tibet, Dec. 24, 2014. Web. Mar. 12, 2015. Thondup . Incarnation: The History and Mysticism of the Tulku Tradi- tion of Tibet. Boston: Shambhala, 2011. Print. Thurman, Robert. “A Cry for Freedom.” Lion’s Roar. Lion’s Roar, Feb. 8, 2012. Web. Mar. 28, 2015. Thurman, Robert. “The Dalai Lama and the Cult of Dolgyal Shugden.” His Holiness the 14th Dalai Lama of Tibet. The Office of His Holiness the Dalai Lama, Mar. 5, 2014. Web. Thurman, Robert. “Vajra Hermeneutics.” . Ed. Don- ald S. Lopez. United States of America: Kuroda Institute, 1988. 119–148. Print. “Tibetan Democracy Takes a Step Backwards.” Tibetan Political Review. The Tibetan Political Review, Oct. 24, 2013. Web. Mar. 20, 2015. “Tibetan Dies in Protest against China.” Free Tibet. Free Tibet, Jul. 23, 2014. Web. Mar. 9, 2015. “Tibetan Father of Two Self-Immolates in Protest Against Chinese Rule.” Radio Free Asia. Radio Free Asia, Sep. 28, 2013. Web. Sep. 28, 2013. Works Cited 181

“Tibetan Man Sets Fire to Himself beside Shrine with Religious Offer- ings (Updated).” Free Tibet. International Campaign for Tibet, Apr. 17, 2015. Web. May 31, 2015. “Tibetan Man Writes ‘Independent Tibet’ in Own Blood before Dying.” Tibet Post International. The Tibet Post International, Dec. 5, 2012. Web. Sep. 26, 2013. “Tibetan Monk Dies after Self-Immolation in Kathmandu, Nepal.” Free Tibet. International Campaign for Tibet, Aug. 7, 2013. Web. Mar. 12, 2015. “Tibetan Parliament’s Press Conference on ‘Flame of Truth’ Relay.” Cen- tral Tibetan Administration. Central Tibetan Administration, June 27, 2012. Web. Mar. 8, 2015. “Tibetans Clash with Police at Rebgong Prayer Festival.” Tibetan Review. Tibetan Review, May 9, 2014. Web. Mar. 11, 2015. “Tibetan Self-Immolator’s Husband Sentenced to Death.” Radio Free Asia. Radio Free Asia, Aug. 19, 2013. Web. Mar. 8, 2015. “Tibetan Writer under House Arrest Calls for Self-Immolations to Stop.” Guardian. Guardian News and Media Limited, Mar. 9, 2012. Web. Mar. 22, 2015. “Tibet in Struggle to Decide on Lama.” New York Times. The New York Times Company, Jan. 24, 1938. Web. Apr. 8, 2015. [for subscribers only]. Tibet Oral History Project. “Anzi (#10M)—Monks Volunteer to Defend Their Country.” Online video clip. Vimeo. Vimeo LLC, 2013. Web. Mar. 27, 2015. “Tibet’s Resistance: Q&A.” Free Tibet. International Campaign for Tibet, n.d. Web. Mar. 12, 2015. Tiezzi, Shannon. “In War on Terror, China Takes Aim at Tibet: China’s Broad Definition of Terrorism Includes Following the Teachings of the Dalai Lama.” The Diplomat. The Diplomat, Feb. 3, 2015. Web. Feb. 27, 2015. “Timeline of Tibetan Protests in China.” CNN. Cable News Network, Jan. 31, 2012. Web. Mar. 11, 2015. “TNC Statement on the Events in New York and Dharamsala on March 10.” Tibetan Political Review. The Tibetan Political Review, Mar. 16, 2015. Web. Mar. 20, 2015. 182 Works Cited

Togmey-zangpo. Thirty-seven Practices; (2006 Literal Transla- tion).Trans. Alexander Berzin. March, 2006. Web. June 18, 2015. http:// www.berzinarchives.com/web/en/archives/sutra/level3_lojong_material/ specific_texts/37_bodhisattva_practices/thirty_seven_bodhisattva_ practices/37_bodhisattva_practices_litt.html Tsering, Penpa. Personal Interview. Nov. 20, 2013. Twain, Mark. The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn. 1884. London, Penguin Books, 1966. Print. “Unidentified Self-Immolator in Nepal Was a Disable: Locals.”Xinhua , Aug. 6, 2013. Web. Sep. 30, 2013. United States. Cong. House. Committee on Foreign Affairs. Tibet: Status of the Sino-Tibetan Dialogue. 110th Cong. 1st sess. Serial No. 110–126. Washington DC, Mar. 13, 2007. PDF file. March 14, 2015. United States Department of State. Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights and Labor. China (Includes Tibet, Hong Kong, and Macau) 2013 Human Rights Report, Feb. 27, 2014. PDF file. Vatz, Richard E. “The Myth of the Rhetorical Situation,” Philosophy and Rhetoric 6.3 (1973): 154–161. Verhovek, Sam Howe. “Amherst Journal; Candles in the Snow Honor Suf- fering.” New York Times. The New York Times Company, Feb. 20, 1991. Web. Mar. 15, 2015. Victoria, Brian. . New York: Weather hill, 1997. Print. Victoria, Brian. Zen War Stories. London: Routledge Curzon, 2003. Print. Waldman, Steven. “Obama Had the Dalai Lama’s Scarf in His Pocket dur- ing the Swearing In.” BeliefNet. N.d. Web. June 18, 2015. http://www .beliefnet.com/columnists/stevenwaldman/2009/01/obama-had-the -dalai-lamas-scar.html Wangyal, Lobsang. “Tibetan Parliament-in-Exile Discusses Karma Chophel Controversy.” Tibet Sun. Losang Wangyal, Sep. 21, 2013. Web. Mar. 14, 2015. Wangyal, Lobsang. “Why Sikyong Sangay Matters?” Tibet Sun. Lobsang Wangyal, Mar. 8, 2014. Web. Mar. 27, 2015. Wang, Yiwei. “Public Diplomacy and the Rise of Chinese Soft Power.” Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science. 616 (Mar., 2008): 257–273. Web. May 24, 2015. Wang, Zheng. “National Humiliation, History Education, and the Politics of Historical Memory: Patriotic Education Campaign in China.” Interna- tional Studies Quarterly 52.4 (2008): 783–806. Web. Watt, Nicholas. “Blow for Cameron as China Welcomes Hollande: Beijing Punishes PM for His Meeting with Dalai Lama while French President Gets Full State Visit Treatment.” Guardian. April 26, 2013. Guardian Works Cited 183

News and Media Limited, April 26, 2013. Web. June 18, 2015. Watts, Jonathan. “Hundreds of Monks Protest.” Guardian. Guardian News and Media Limited, Mar. 11, 2008. Web. Aug. 5, 2014. Watts, Jonathan. “Protests in Tibet Erupt into Violence.” Guardian. Guard- ian News and Media Limited, Mar. 14, 2008. Web. Aug. 5, 2014. Watts, Johnson and Tania Branigan. “Tension Rises as Armed Police Mass in Capital.” Guardian. Guardian News and Media Limited, Mar. 18, 2008. Web. Mar. 11, 2015. Weaver, Richard M. The Ethics of Rhetoric. 1953. Davis CA: Hermagoras Press, 1985. Weinberger, Sharon. “Rummy Resurfaces, Calls for U.S. Propaganda Agency (Updated Again).” Wired. Condé Nast, Jan. 23, 2008. Web. Apr. 2, 2015. Weiner, Matthew. “Buddhists Who Stand Up: Saffron Revolutionaries.” International Herald Tribune. The New York Times Media Group, Apr. 2, 2008. Web. May 19, 2013. Weisser, Christian R. “Subaltern Counterpublics and the Discourse of Pro- test.” JAC 28.3 (2008): 608–620. JSTOR. Web. Mar. 12, 2015. “West ‘Uses Tibet to Attack China.’” BBC. BBC, Mar. 2, 2009. Web. Mar. 11, 2015. Whalen-Bridge, John. “Angry Monk Syndrome on the World Stage: Tibet, Engaged Buddhism, and the Weapons of the Weak.” Buddhism, Modernity, and the State in Asia: Forms of Engagement. Ed. John Whalen-Bridge and Pattana Kitiarsa. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2013. 163–208. Print. Whalen-Bridge, John. “Multiple Modernities and the Tibetan Diaspora.” South Asian Diaspora 3.1 (2011): 103–115. Print. Why Tibet Is Burning? Tibetan Policy Institute, 2013. PDF file. Web. May 20, 2015. Woeser, Tsering. Immolations au Tibet: La Honte du Monde. Preface by Rob- ert Badinter, cover art by Ai Weiwei. Montpellier, France: Indigène édi- tions, 2013. Print. Woeser, Tsering and Wang Lixiong. Voices from Tibet: Selected Essays and Reportage. Ed. and Trans. by Violet S. Law. Hong Kong University Press, 2014. Print. Wong, Edward. “China Denies Entry to an American Scholar Who Spoke Up for a Uighur Colleague.” New York Times. The New York Times Company, Jul. 7, 2014. Web. Mar. 7, 2015.

-to-china.html?_r=0&gwh=FA3041417D54942F281F8444597CB6DE& gwt=pay&assetType=nyt_now> Wong, Edward. “China: Tibetan Dies in Act of Protest.” New York Times. The New York Times Company, Feb. 7, 2014. Web. Feb. 27, 2015. Wong, Edward. “Chinese Court Issues Severe Sentences in Tibetan Self-Immo- lations.” New York Times. The New York Times Company, Jan. 31, 2013. Web. Mar. 12, 2015. Wong, Edward. “Security Forces Kill at Least Five in China.” New York Times. The New York Times Company, Mar. 11, 2012. Web. Mar. 12, 2015. Wong, Edward. “Tibetan Woman Kills Herself by Self-Immolation.” Inter- national New York Times. The New York Times Company, Apr. 17, 2013. Web. Feb. 27, 2015. Wong, Edward. “Tibet: Negotiators Resign.” New York Times. The New York Times Company, June 5, 2012. Web. Mar. 10, 2015. “Xinhua: The World’s Biggest Propaganda Agency.” Reporters Without Borders. Reporters sans Frontières, last modified Oct. 5, 2005. Web. Mar. 7, 2015. Xu, Zhiyong. “Tibet Is Burning.” New York Times. The New York Times Company, Dec. 12, 2012. Web. Feb. 26, 2015. Yangzoin, Zholma. “Lama Gangchen and His Self Healing Therapy.” Chi- na’s Tibet Magazine.n.p, n.d. Web. Mar. 12, 2015. Yardley, Jim. “Violence in Tibet as Monks Clash with the Police.” New York Times. The New York Times Company, Mar. 15, 2008. Web. Aug. 6, 2014. Yeh, Emily T. “On ‘Terrorism’ and the Politics of Naming.” Cultural Anthropology Online. American Anthropological Association, Apr. 8, 2012. Web. Aug. 1, 2015. Ye Jun. “Lhasa Riot Reports Show Media Bias in West.” China Daily. China Daily Information Co, March 22, 2008. Web. Aug. 6, 2014. Notes

Preface

1. He is the fifteenth self-immolator if we start the count with Thubten Ngodrup and make no exclusions. The importance of the numerical count will be discussed in Chapter 4, section II. 2. In this study I will use the word “theology,” laden as it is with Judeo- Christian associations, because it is the word that people like Prime Min- ister Lobsang Sangay use to discuss and beliefs in relation to self-immolation. More precise terms within the study of religion are orthodoxy and orthopraxis, distinguishing between right beliefs and right practices. Buddhism has a wide-ranging set of conceptions about right beliefs and right practices, especially when we get onto tantric ter- rain. There is no pope of Buddhism to (infallibly) say what is right, and the early councils that met to attempt to sort out these matters agreed to disagree. I will take up the uses of the Lotus Sutra and the Jataka Tales in Chapter 5. 3. In Tibetan Buddhism, refers to in-between periods, especially the period between the previous life and the next . 4. See Charlene Makley’s forthcoming essay in Cultural Anthropology 30.3 (2015). 5. I will explore this part of Woeser’s book more carefully in Chapter 5, which regards purpose. 6. Elliot Sperling claims that Besuchet’s article was most important in terms of altering the exile community’s rhetorical stance:

The first interpretations from the Tibetan exile community ascribed the self-immolations to hopelessness and suicidal despair, an interpretation that can be best understood within the structural dependency built into exile life, which often encourages pathos-based appeals to the conscienc- es of benefactors. But this tack was largely brought to a screeching halt by one essay, written by the long-time observer of Tibetan affairs, Chris- tophe Besuchet. Drawing on what was known about and said by those who committed self-immolation, he pointed out that there was no evi- dence of depression and despair; that on the contrary, available personal information on those committing self-immolation, though certainly not complete, indicated that the actions were undertaken as acts of strong- willed political defiance and resistance. (“On the Questions”) 186 N o t e s

7. On the range of rhetoric as Burke opens it up in his “new rhetoric”— now seventy years old—see Burke’s A Rhetoric of Motives, 1950; on iden- tification, see A Grammar of Motives, 1945.

Chapter 1

1. The Tibetan Parliament-in-Exile refers to itself as the Central Tibetan Administration and claims jurisdiction over the entire Tibetan Autono- mous Region (TAR) and Qinghai province. Democratically elected by Tibetans-in-exile, the CTA operates from Dharamsala (India). 2. In his 1973 response to Bitzer, Richard Vatz took issue with Bitzer’s claim that the exigency precedes and gives rise to what Bitzer calls “the rhetorical situation.” To Vatz, Bitzer’s construction of rhetoric is naively realist because it sees the social problem separate from and prior to the rhetorical struggle: “There is an intrinsic nature in events from which rhetoric inexorably follows, or should follow” (155). As my examples will show, I agree with Vatz that we should not naively suppose that the exigency exists in a way that is completely distinct from the discourse through which rhetor and audience share information about it. That pro- viso in place, the conceptual distinction between exigency, rhetor, and audience is a perfectly clear way to talk about the way rhetors talk about the world. Free Tibet movement speakers all agree that Chinese policies in Tibet are an important exigency. China often denies that human rights abuse in Tibet is the exigency, but Chinese rhetors will argue that trai- torous Tibetan nationalists taking direction from the Dalai Lama are an exigent situation about which something must be done. 3. Another possibility is that self-immolators are motivated less by a wish to alter Chinese behavior and more by a wish to get revenge upon the Chinese government by embarrassing it internationally. Neither the free Tibet movement nor China construes it as an act of revenge, however. 4. As Tim Robertson explains in “The Dalai Lama and the Politics of Rein- carnation,” an article explaining the Dalai Lama’s possible refusal to to reincarnate, “the chance of achieving independence, or even more autonomy, in the conceivable future is minuscule, not least because the Dalai Lama and Parliament-in-Exile have almost no bargaining power with the Chinese Communist Party (CCP). Beijing has easily rebuffed any international pressure to address the Tibet question and seems con- tent to simply wait until the Dalai Lama dies.” 5. The elements, as discussed in works such as A Rhetoric of Motives and A Grammar of Motives, are developed across several other Burke volumes and can be elaborated into a bewildering array of permutations; for a comprehensive introduction, see Blakesley, 2002. 6. Burke defines a ratio as “a formula indicating the transition from one term to another. Such a relation necessarily possesses the ambiguities of the potential, in that the second term is a medium different from Notes 187

the first” (Grammar 15). Such ambiguities can be rather imposing, and there is always the danger when working with Burkean terms that they will attempt to upstage one's primary focus of attention. At the risk of oversimplification, I will be using these ratios in a very general way, allowing the significant connections to arise from the primary subject matter, that is, Tibetan self-immolation. 7. There are six potential Democrats and sixteen potential Republican can- didates according to the May 29, 2015 New York Times article “Who Is Running for President (and Who’s Not)?” (Andrews, Parlapiano, and Yourish). Hillary Clinton and Bernie Sanders are the Democrats who have announced they are running. Ted Cruz, Rand Paul, Marco Rubio, Ben Carson, Carly Fiorina, Mike Huckabee, Rick Santorum, and George Pataki have declared their candidacy, as has Jeb Bush. Ted Cruz, Rand Paul, Marco Rubio, Mike Huckabee, Ben Carson, and Rick Santorum either deny the validity of climate science or claim skepticism that human activity is causing global warming. Carly Fiorina agrees that human beings cause global warming but denies that regulation is an appropriate response. Thus, thirteen Republican candidates promise to do nothing about global warming. 8. In forging this logical “hand-shake” between Burkean rhetoric and (mainly Mahayana) , I hope to draw attention to sub-stances of both the Buddhism that condition Tibetan cultural predis- positions and forms of analysis common in contemporary social theory. It is important to work out an exchange rate between these terminologies, because the common reader (whom I like to imagine to exist, whether or not she does) typically thinks Buddhism and contemporary western philosophy or social critique are on different planets. Actually, there are important continuities. While developing them is not the primary goal of this project, hinting at them here and there will make it possible for peo- ple familiar with Tibet to understand my literary/rhetorical approaches, as well as for people familiar with Kenneth Burke and rhetoric to under- stand the logic of “no self.”

Chapter 2

1. The CTA report “2008 Uprising in Tibet: Chronology and Analysis” states that

The Beijing government was shooting film footage every evening for the last few days at the old airport known as -thang near Karze Monastery. The performers were from the PLA’s PAP. Scenes were staged of Tibetan protestors engaging in violent acts such as striking Chinese PSB and PAP, and then, as a result, PSB and PAP resorting to violence in self-defense and to control the protestors. It is suspected that the footage was intended for propaganda purposes. 188 N o t e s

2. Burke reviews this term in his rejoinder to Fredric Jameson’s charge that he does not sufficiently review ideology. Burke describes “perspective by incongruity” as a response to Nietzsche’s use of perspective in Will to Power, in particular “in the light of his propensity to cultivate a style that puts together terms usually thought of as mutually exclusive. Often that twist can startle by giving new insights” (“Methodological” 409). 3. Monk attempts suicide in 2008: March 12, 2008 (13). Woeser reported that three monks committed suicide in Lhasa by jumping off a building in order to resist arrest (44). A monk in Lhoka Prefecture committed suicide to resist patriotic reeducation (44). On March 23, 2008, a monk is believed to have committed suicide in prison to protest the torture of other monks, although he may have died of starvation (53). On 27 March, two monks in Ngaba County committed suicide, one of them leaving a note to claim sole responsibility for a peace protest that resulted in deaths (64). On April 12, 2008 a 31-year-old nun named Lobsang Tsomo hung herself to protest patriotic reeducation (89). On April 16, a monk from Kirti killed himself (95), and on 28 April, a nun hung herself to protest the arbitrary arrest of a monk called A-Drel Rinpoche (109). On June 2, 2008, a monk hung himself in the family store-room; he was said to be “depressed” about Patriotic Re-education (131). On page 168 of this report, “Table 3” tabulates Tibetan deaths since the beginning of the uprising: 107 were shot dead, 20 died of torture/maltreatment, 13 committed suicide, 7 died of depression (depression-related suicide?), 3 were “beaten to death,” one was executed and 1 is said to have died from being thrown off a building. The exact dates covered by the table are not clear, but the “2008 Uprising” report makes it quite clear that monas- tics were committing suicide in protest well before the self-immolation movement, although the manner of the deaths did not give these pro- tests international visibility. 4. Denny Roy writes in China’s Foreign Relations that in order to neutralize Tibetan political power, “Beijing has gerrymandered provincial borders to keep Tibetans geographically divided; more than half of the 6 million Tibetans live in Chinese provinces other than Tibet” (51). Roy adds that the government policy of “attractive financial incentives to lure Han settlers to Tibet, including two to four times the usual salary,” free furniture, extra vacation time, and so forth is perhaps “the greatest threat to Tibetan civilization” (51). 5. See J. Watts’s “Hundreds of Monks,” 2008; Hutzler’s “Reporters’ State- Led Visit,” 2008; “Monks on the March,” 2008; and Yardley, 2008. 6. The phrase “saffron revolutionaries” became quite common in 2007 and 2008, especially after “Buddhists Who Stand Up: Saffron Revolutionar- ies” by Matthew Weiner appeared in the International Herald Tribune on April 2, 2008. In it, Weiner reviews the concept of engaged Buddhism in relation to the protests in Myanmar. 7. Knowlton mentions “farce” instead of “Peking Opera” in his New York Times article. Notes 189

8. Contrast the image of a shouting monk with the much more restrained image of the overturned alms bowl, a sanctioned form of monastic dis- satisfaction in which a monk can signal political or moral criticism. The monk who refuses donations in this way criticizes the would-be donor by refusing him the opportunity to gain or a positive image through publicly offering alms to monks. For Jordt, this action is synecdotal of the peaceful “Saffron Revolution,” a term describing the anti-government protests led by monks in 2008 Myanmar (Jordt). 9. There is a nice exchange between two friends, one a priest and the other a rabbi, in the film Keeping the Faith:

Rabbi Jake Schram: Jews want their rabbis to be the kind of Jews they don’t have the time to be. Father Brian Finn: Yeah, and Catholics want their priests to be the kind of Catholics they don’t have the discipline to be.

10. Ingrid Jordt considers the action of Burmese monks in relation to strictures that prohibit monks from engaging in worldly affairs, drawing attention to one major exception in the Vinaya:

This can occur when some person or persons are seen as acting in ways that threaten the Sasana—the teachings of the Buddha, or, for our purposes, the Buddhist religion. In such a case, the (or- der of monks) is permitted to issue what is regarded as the ultimate moral rebuke: refusing to accept donations. The act is known in the language as “patam nikkujjana kamma”—turning over the bowl.

Tibetan Buddhist monks are responding to threats to the Buddhist reli- gion, but the direct expression of anger would seem to exceed what the Pali monastic code allows. 11. Woeser and her husband Wang Lixiong have frequently undergone house arrest—but the question arises, how does she get away with writ- ing so freely? As Robert Barnett explains, she is the daughter of a half- Tibetan, half-Han high-ranking officer in the People’s Liberation Army, born in the year the began: “All monasteries had been closed some five or ten years before [she] was born” (xii). Woeser is “a unique historical aberration in the sixty years since China took over Tibet, a critical voice that has continued to speak out from within the country in a world and at a time when all others have been silenced” (xxvii). Woeser and Wang’s “family connections may have helped . . . [b]ut the principle factors seem to have been boldness and ingenuity,” for example by moving to Beijing and thus forcing authorities to handle her case “in the way they deal with ethnic Chinese intellectuals, rather than their Tibetan counterparts” (xxvii). 12. For the most complete discussion on the ideological struggle over the rep- resentation of Tibetan identity, see John Powers’ History as Propaganda. 190 N o t e s

13. For the argument that all people perform all the time, see Goffman’s The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life, 1959. Goffman’s approach has also been called “dramatistic,” and Burke is often regarded as a key influence. 14. China frequently attacks Tibetan calls for independence or partial auton- omy as “splittism,” claiming that they want to split the country apart. Within China, this rhetorical framing would remind mainland Chinese of the humiliations of colonial partition, thus aligning any Tibetans call- ing for such changes with the imagined foreign despots who await the moment when China can be, once again, carved into pieces. See “West ‘Uses Tibet to Attack China,’” 2009. 15. There is a growing bibliography on engaged Buddhism. See Nhat Hanh’s Being Peace, 1987; Sulak, 2005; King, 2005; Moon, 2004; and Chodron, 2007. Robert Aitken-roshi cofounded the Buddhist Peace Fel- lowship in 1977; Aitken, 1996. 16. Sahil Nagpal reported in “Dalai Lama Absent as Vietnam Hosts Buddhist Festival” that the Vietnamese leadership claimed they sent an invitation, while the Tibetans claimed they did not receive it. In an interview in April, the vice head of the Vietnam Buddhist Sangha, Thich Thanh Tu, said the Dalai Lama had been invited to attend the gathering. But the Dalai Lama’s secretary Tenzin Takla, said no invita- tion had been received. Vietnam has close relations with China, which has harshly criticized the Dalai Lama for decades, accusing him of separatism, terrorism, and fomenting violent demonstrations in Tibet in March. Nagpal reported that China’s State Administration for Religious Affairs, Ye Xiaowen, was among those who addressed the conference. 17. Gangchen Lama and I both gave papers in a panel entitled “War, Con- flict and Reconciliation,” and his paper title describes lojang training as a component for activist peace-work. See Gangchen’s “Spiritual Forum for World Peace,” 2008. 18. For a comprehensive review of the Shugden controversy, see Dreyfus, 1998. I have also benefited from reading Nau’s honors thesis entitled Killing for the Dharma: An Analysis of the Shugden Deity and Violence in Tibetan Buddhism, 2007. 19. Gangchen Lama (sometimes called Lama Gangchen) has numerous international dharma centers, including six within China. For pictures of Gangchen Lama meeting with the vice chairman of China Association for Preservation and Development of (CAPDTC), see Cao. This web page refers to him specifically as “Reputable Tibetan lama, Gangchen Rinpoche.” Yangzoin’s “Lama Gangchen and His Self Heal- ing Therapy” refers to him repeatedly as “Living Buddha Gangchen.” 20. See Al Jazeera English’s YouTube video “People & Power—The Dalai Lama: The Devil Within” embedded within the Western Shugden Soci- ety’s web page. 21. In teaching the practice of engaged Buddhism to protesters in the twenty- first century, Nhat Hanh stresses that one must perform the act of public witness without submitting to anger in an undisciplined way: “We don’t Notes 191

think shouting in anger can help. If you make people angry and fearful, then you cannot reduce violence and fear. When you speak to people, you should speak to them in a language they can understand. By doing that, we can turn our enemies into our friends” (“Buddhist Monk”). 22. Other interpretations have been put forward as well. Neoconservative historian Mark Moyar has argued in “Political Monks: The Militant Bud- dhist Movement during the Vietnam War” that the actions of many of the monks who helped topple Diem’s government were taking part in the more mundane struggles for worldly power, working the triangle of America, Hanoi, and Saigon to personal advantage. Moyar has also pub- lished an anti-eulogy of David Halberstam (see “Halberstam’s History”) in National Review. 23. See T. Norbu’s “Tibet: The Third Pole and the Himalayas,” 2013.

Chapter 3

1. For accounts of how torture was used to punish protesters after the 1987–89 uprising, see Ronald D. Schwartz’s Circle of Protest: Political Ritual in the Tibetan Uprising, especially the sections “Arrests, Tor- ture, Interrogation” (93–97), “Nuns Protest,” (97–103), and “Aims of Interrogation” (103–6). On “patriotic re-education,” see L. Wang’s “National Humiliation,” 2008:

The official Maoist “victor narrative” (China won national independ- ence) was also superseded by a new “victimization narrative,” which blames the “West” for China’s suffering. This research indicates that the campaign represents a major shift in Beijing’s identity politics. Through the nationwide education campaign, Beijing has creatively used history education as an instrument for the glorification of the party, for the consolidation of the PRC’s national identity, and for the justification of the political system of the CCP’s one party rule. (784)

To hope that China will embrace its multicultural richness is all well and good, but such an approach is directly counter to its current nation- making practices. Wang also argues that patriotic re-education can account for why overseas-educated Chinese have not, as proponents of liberalization-through-media-exposure might suppose, come to support Tibetans and other PRC minorities: “The recent Tibet crisis and the demonstrations against the Olympic torch relay have generated a new tide of nationalism encompassing not only the younger generation inside China, but highly educated overseas Chinese” (784). The CTA white paper “Religious Freedom in Tibet” describes the origins, methods, and scale of Patriotic Re-education:

Patriotic re-education . . . was initially launched in Tibet in 1996 as a part of Beijing’s “Strike Hard” campaign against crime and corrup- 192 N o t e s

tion. The campaign has been expanding ever since, and today it has reached to the entire region, even to the remotest part of Tibet. The core message of the campaign was that the “loyalty to the state is pre- requisite to be a good monk or nun” (4).

2. On “repertoires,” see also Biggs. 3. See Adorno on poetry after Auschwitz; Lacan on “the Real resist[ing] symbolization absolutely”; Benjamin on “aura”; and Baudrillard on “simulacra.” In venturing these superficial connections, I mean only to invite further consideration regarding the possibility of bringing together the resources of theory and the strategies of protest movements. 4. Burke’s notion indicates both conscious choices and unconscious predis- positions, collapsing conscious attempts at persuasion and subconscious or unconscious motivations or predispositions that might otherwise be discussed as “ideology.” Thus, a terministic screen conveys the sense that language is an interpretive lens that we can use—or which can use us. We can be shaped by vocabularies unknowingly, or we can consciously manipulate terministic screens to attempt to achieve our aims. 5. Speaking in a panel entitled “The Violence/Nonviolence of Suicide Pro- test” at a workshop entitled “Suicide Protest: Normative Intrusions” (October 4–5, 2013), Uday Mehta discussed the distinction between “suicide” and political self-sacrifice from a Gandhian perspective, argu- ing that Gandhi saw self-sacrifice as a moral act, unlike suicide. See also Mehta’s “Gandhi and the Burden of Civility”:

Gandhi’s most searching reflections on fear, courage, sacrifice, death, and civility belong to the context of the First World War. By the summer of 1918 Gandhi had come to the firm conviction that it was essential for India to send men to fight alongside the British and others in the war effort in Europe. This offer was to be unconditional and not tied to the British introducing or promising to introduce any political reforms in India. As he said in a letter to the viceroy, much of which he later reproduced in his Autobiogra- phy, “I recognize that, in the hour of danger, we must give—as we have decided to give—ungrudging and unequivocal support to the Empire.” (44)

6. Here is Geertz’s call for anthropology as “inscribed present”:

What it is (a task which no one ever does more than not utterly fail) is to inscribe a present—to convey in words “what it is like” to be some- where specific in the lifeline of the world: Here as Pascal famously said, rather than There, Now rather than Then. Whatever else eth- nography may be—Malinowskian experience seeking, Lévi-Straussian rage for order, Benedictine cultural irony, or Evans-Pritchardish cul- tural reassurance—it is above all a rendering of the actual, a vitality phrased. (143) Notes 193

7. See Makley, 2015, on how the self-immolator’s agency extends beyond death: “In the struggles over positioning, disposing of and speaking for bodies, we find the dead framed as inert, silent objects, but also as active and changeful subjects—they speak, gesture, haunt, yearn, suffer, and demand.” 8. Susan Moeller argues that modern mass media sells itself by enticing us with images that draw on our compassionate response but wind up exhausting that response. In response to one disaster too many, writes Moeller, “[m]ost media consumers eventually get to the point where they turn the page” (9). 9. If you look up “Tibet” on the “Harper’s Index” web page advertising this feature, here is what you discover: “Estimated percentage of Tibetan children whose growth has been stunted by malnutrition: 50.” 10. As of mid-March 2015, there have been 23 female self-immolators. Out of these 23, there are 8 nuns, 9 mothers, 5 laypersons, 2 students, and 1 nomad. 11. See also Shakya’s “Politicisation and the Tibetan Language,” 1994. 12. Scholars who work on issues deemed unacceptable by the government of China may cause problems for Chinese colleagues should the offend- ing scholar acquire a visa and attend a scholarly event in the PRC. I was recently invited to be a plenary speaker at a conference in China that concerns an American writer who has not taken a pro-Tibet stand, but I chose to inform the conference organizers that Tibet on Fire was sched- uled for publication prior to the conference, offering to withdraw if they had any concerns. This offer was quickly accepted. If a scholar who writes about minority issues in China is involved in a student exchange program involving China, that program might be endangered. Scholars and activ- ists have reported to me privately that visas are often granted when the scholars want to visit Tibet, but the names of all Tibetans contacted are collected, which could lead to interrogations or other inconveniences. 13. “Exile Leader Says Tibetan Immolations Ignored” by Nasr ul Hadi, a not-very-widely circulated Associated Press report, published in the Times Herald (Pennsylvania), reports that “[t]he political leader of Tibetan exiles says he is disappointed that dozens of self-immolations by Tibetans have not received the same world attention as the similar suicide of a Tunisian man that sparked the Arab Spring.” 14. See also Claude Arpi, 2012. 15. Yeh has expressed this idea in terms of the individual’s reclamation against the encroachments of the state, but self-immolation can also be understood as reclamation on behalf of a community. As Fierke points out, political self-sacrifice, “while leading to the injury or death of indi- viduals, is about the restoration of the nation in circumstances in which sovereignty has been curtailed” (38). 16. There are one or two exceptions. For example, according to the Free Tibet List, Tamdin Kyab “set fire to himself by the Luchu River in Phal- gar Village, Luchu County, late on Thursday 22 November” (“Self- Immolation Protests in Tibet”). Although there were no witnesses, the 194 N o t e s

report states that “it is believed by locals he committed the act in protest at the Chinese occupation of Tibet.” 17. See Whalen-Bridge’s “Angry Monk Syndrome,” Buddhism, Modernity, and the State in Asia, 2013. The connection of the qualities of “anger” and “Buddhism” is a nice example of Burke’s “perspective by incongru- ity” that excites the non-Buddhist reader. For other discussions that put this appealing paradox right in the title, see Luc Schaedler’s film Angry Monk: Reflections on Tibet and Carole McGranahan’s article about Euro- American New Kadampa (Shugden practicing) Buddhists who protest angrily against the Dalai Lama when he gives talks on peace, love, and tolerance in Europe and America (“Angry White Buddhist”).

Chapter 4

1. Newsweek reporter Isaac Stone Fish rhetorically asserts his own authen- ticity by writing disparagingly not only about Xinhua, but also Noam Chomsky:

The new Xinhua is an expensive megaphone. But it’s key “to break- ing the monopoly and verbal hegemony” of the West, according to remarks released last year by Xinhua’s president, Li Congjun, who often sounds like he’s channeling Noam Chomsky. . . . But clearly the effort has to do with the new rules of propaganda, too.

According to Fish, the PRC plan is to put billions of dollars into Xinhua and to fundamentally change strategy: “Where the game was once about suppressing news, it’s now about overwhelming it, flooding the market with your own information. Airbrushing photos is for amateurs.” 2. For a discussion on the necropolitics of the dead bodies of Tibetan self- immolators, see Makley, 2015. 3. Almost no one uses the complete count. McGranahan does it in an anthropologist’s blog, focusing on the time zone difference between where she is and where the event happened “now”: “It is 8:00 in the morning in Colorado. On the other side of the world a young Tibetan Woman self-immolated at 2:00 pm today” (“141: For Tsepey”). 4. Names of many self-immolators will be mentioned in this section. The numbers in brackets correspond to the list of names, dates, and other basic information collected in the Appendix. 5. Thubten Ngodrup is mentioned in the ICT list but not the Free Tibet list. 6. See Students for a Free Tibet’s “Self-Immolations in Tibet”; Free Tibet’s “Self-Immolation Protests in Tibet”; Unite for Tibet’s “Over 130 Burn for Freedom in Tibet”; and Umaylam’s “Middle Way Approach.” 7. See “Tibetan Dies in Protest against China” on the Free Tibet web page: Significantly this form of self-immolation was not covered by the New York Times. Notes 195

8. See “Tibetan Man Writes ‘Independent Tibet’ in Own Blood before Dying.” As with almost all of the reports that come from with China, the story originates from “an anonymous source from Tibet” who has been able to make contact with Tibetans-in-exile, usually through some sort of electronic media. I have heard that less common dialects are sometimes used to frustrate censors who are able to monitor calls. 9. Kovan disputes the claim that the death was unrelated to protests in Tibet: “Some weeks after his act, sources inside the monastery informed me that Ven. Tunden carried a Tibetan flag with him when he went to his death—his shroud of pride” (2014, 399). According to Kovan, the mon- astery shaped the narrative so as to dissociate itself from the Tibetan self- immolation movement: “This last crucial detail has been suppressed by the monastery in all releases to the public, and therefore has not appeared in any of the formal global coverage of the immolations” (2014, 399). 10. On February 18, 1991, Gregory Levey, stepson of nationally syndi- cated columnist Ellen Goodman, self-immolated in Amherst Common (Amherst, Massachusetts) to protest America’s initiation of the Gulf War. This event led to a huge fight in the community with support vigils and counterprotests. Levey was described as a loner, and his mental health was questioned. There is a tiny plaque honoring those who kept a silent vigil in the Common to protest the Vietnam War, but there is no sign honoring Levey’s act. The Jones Library in Amherst has a collection of over six hundred documents relating to the event and the public dis- course surrounding it. See Verhovek’s “Amherst Journal,” 1991. 11. See Buffetrille, 2012, and Jamyang Norbu, 2008. There are no notices of ex-nun self-immolators; perhaps Tibetan women disrobe less frequently than do Tibetan men. I cannot find any figures on this question. 12. My readers who are not Tibetologists or speakers of Tibetan are probably thinking, “Too many Tibetan names” just now. We can keep track of the number, but a series of disembodied names in a foreign language, trans- literated variously, lose their particularity quickly. This may be another reason numbers receive strong emphasis. 13. If the 2006 event were included, she would be the second. 14. The 2010 earthquake killed almost 2,700 people and is not to be con- fused with the 2008 earthquake in Sichuan that left almost 90,000 peo- ple dead or missing. 15. See Shannon Tiezzi’s “In War on Terror, China Takes Aim at Tibet: China’s Broad Definition of Terrorism Includes Following the Teachings of the Dalai Lama” on the size of the reward:

The government of China’s Tibet Autonomous Region will offer re- wards of up to 300,000 RMB ($48,000) for tips on potential violent terror attacks, Chinese media reported over the weekend. Offering rewards for tips is a strategy that has been incorporated across China as part of a broader “people’s war” against terrorism. 196 N o t e s

The reward can be earned for “tip-offs on overseas terrorist organiza- tions and their members’ activities inside China, the spreading of religious extremism, terror related propaganda,” owning weapons, and “activities that help terrorists cross national borders and terror activities via the inter- net.” In other words, notifying the police that someone in your Gansu village has been cooperating with the free Tibet movement can earn an amount equivalent to 27.6 years of salary. According to Ma, the annual income of an employee of a state-owned enterprise averages 10,859 yuan, the lowest rate of any Chinese province. Information about differences between Han and minority wages was not available to Ma. About one in five Tibetan self-immolators have been from Gansu (Ma 163). 16. For a brief overview of PRC practices of collective punishment in which villages, families, and monasteries are punished for the actions of indi- viduals, see the section on “Collective Punishment” in Human Rights Situation in Tibet: Annual Report 2014, 2015. 17. Sippenhaft, or “blood liability,” was a standard practice in Nazi Germany and is believed to be a practice in North Korea. See Robert Loeffel’s Family Punishment in Nazi Germany: Sippenhaft, Terror and Myth, 2012, and The Economist’s “North Korea’s Prison Camps: The Gulag behind the Goose-Steps,” 2012. 18. As is the case with reports in the New York Times, Los Angeles Times, Washington Post, and Guardian, the specific places are mentioned, but little or no discussion is given over to why the events happen in a particu- lar place at a particular time. 19. According to the US Department of State report “China (Includes Tibet, Hong Kong, and Macau) 2013 Human Rights Report,” the government of China “continued its campaign to resettle Tibetan nomads into urban areas and newly created communities in rural areas across the TAR and other Tibetan areas” (102). Either officials offered nomads “monetary incentives to kill or sell their livestock,” or they resorted to “compulsory resettlement” (102). The State Department report quotes a December 2012 Xinhua report that tells of the relocation of “more than 408,000 households in the TAR, including 2.1 million farmers and herders” (102). The Xinhua report quoted an official as saying that such resettle- ment programs were the “foundation for fighting the Dalai clique,” and that resettled persons “pray to Buddha less and study culture and tech- nology more” (102). 20. Although Lichtenberger is associated with many pro-Tibet events, I can find no record of her response to Qiangba online. Qiangba also “stressed that Tibet-related issues concern China’s core interests and urged the European Parliament to Tibet’s economic and social development from a constructive perspective” (“China’s Tibetan”). 21. See also L. Wang’s “Framing Monks as Terrorists” (Woeser, Voices from Tibet 34–36). Notes 197

Chapter 5

1. When Khyentse was a film student in London, he reportedly became irritated with Westerners who aped Tibetan customs and thought they were practicing Buddhism:

Norbu was often irritated by students of his who never meditated but dressed like Tibetans. He found a polite way to correct us. He said we were confusing the cup (Tibetan culture) with the drink (the dharma, the teachings of the Buddha). He said the cup you drink from doesn’t mat- ter—you could drink from your hands. A nice cup, he often said, might help you, but at the end it was the drink that mattered (Barrodale).

2. See Benn’s “The Lotus Sutra,” 2009. 3. A quick web search shows that His Holiness the Gyalwang Drukpa men- tions the pilgrimage site as one of the three most important Buddhist locations in Nepal, but not much else comes up. See the Gyalwang Druk- pa’s Walking an Uncommon Path: A Guide to Your Spiritual Quest, 2013. 4. This effect would not be universal. Someone who resists the Bodhisat- tva ideal—an Ayn Rand-reading libertarian, say—would find the hungry tigress story ludicrous—an argument against religious belief. But some- one who in some sense identifies with altruistic idealism may be moved by the imagery. 5. There is a growing body of literature about Buddhism in relation to vio- lent conflict. See Tambiah, Victoria, and Jerryson and Juergensmeyer. 6. For a detailed review of the problem of self-immolation in relation to Mahayana meta-ethics, see Kovan (2013). Working with foundational Mahayana philosophers such as and texts such as the Lotus Sutra, Kovan finds that self-immolation as defined in this study is ethi- cal within Tibetan Buddhism. Nagarjuna is central within Tibetan Bud- dhism, but the Lotus Sutra is quite marginal. 7. On copycat suicides with branching motivations, see D. Phillips, 1974. 8. Kovan provides the most thorough discussion of Buddhist ethics and self-immolation. See, especially, his discussion of “the extreme self-mas- tery” (787-89) that some commentators require before self-offering can be considered ethical from a Buddhist point of view. Kovan argues that the appearance (which may or may not be the actual case) that an altruis- tic suicide is spiritually advanced is not essential to the determination that the act is ethical: “Even if we knew the self-immolators were high bhuˉmi- level , it would not, for our immediate purposes, modify the ethical import of the act” (789). 9. Bartholet reports that the Dalai Lama visited Thubten Ngodrup, the first Tibetan self-immolator, while he was dying in the hospital and said, “Do not pass over with hatred for the Chinese in your heart. You are brave and you made your statement, but let not your motive be hatred.” Ngodup nodded to show he understood (Bartholet, “Tibet’s Man on Fire”). 198 N o t e s

10. See Branigan and Burke, 2011. See also “Tibetan Writer,” 2012. 11. This book has not yet been translated: “A travers le immolations, les Tibetains de l’interieur ne recherchent pas en priorite l’aide de la com- munaute international” (Woeser, Immolations 24)—with thanks to Google Translate. 12. Wang and Woeser have each theorized a Tibetan response to PRC colonization that avoids dependency on the international community (which helps fund the CTA, along with support from the Indian gov- ernment) or on the CTA; their plan is for Tibetans to develop demo- cratic self-management at the village level—though it is not at all clear why such a challenge to Chinese control would fare better than, say, the kinds of protests that the Chinese authorities have been crushing since 2008. For a description of Wang’s concept of “stage democracy,” see Barnett (xv). 13. See Lopez’s Prisoners of Shangri-La, 1998. Dreyfus’s detailed response argues that Lopez’s critique, however useful, exaggerates “the scope and power of orientalism” in a way that de-historicizes and reifies Tibetan culture, thus leaving “little room for alternatives to orientalism” (“Are We” 1). 14. (Memorial Pillar for the Tibetan Male and Female Martyrs of the Three Provinces) 15. As Morrison points out, “Tibet” before the Chinese invasion was com- posed of three disunited provinces, but the Chinese invasion and sub- sequent waves of repression have increased Tibetan national identity. Morrison writes:

These self-immolations should be analyzed in the context of the strengthening and resurgence of Tibetan nationalism, as distinct from Chinese identity. Before 1950, Tibet was not a single unified nation. It comprised diverse populations who were all broadly Tibetan and Buddhist, but speaking different dialects and with varying political allegiances. However, identities and nationalism have hardened in re- sponse to Chinese authority. (92)

16. See Ardley, 2002, on what Tibetan democracy-in-exile was missing. 17. “God-terms” are the supreme terms, the ones from which all others can be derived within a field of values. In his study The Ethics of Rhetoric Richard Weaver defines a god-term as “that expression about which all other expressions are ranked as subordinate and serving dominations and powers. Its force imparts to the others their lesser degree of force, and fixes the scale by which degrees of comparison are understood” (212). These terms are of course contextual. Within the context of any Xinhua article or PRC statement, “Dalai Lama” will always be what Burke called a devil-term. For a nice review of Burke’s concept of god-terms and devil terms, see Booth’s “The Many Voices of Kenneth Burke, Theologian and Prophet, as Revealed in His Letters to Me.” Notes 199

18. Maura Moynihan in “Lobsang Sangay: The Facts” draws attention to Sangay’s finances, travel plans, and speech to cast him as a Chinese agent who does not really have the interests of Tibet at heart. Here is what she says about Sangay’s speech:

Sangay’s disturbing use of Chinese Communist propaganda code- words to describe Tibet can be found in his published papers. In one paper, Sangay refers to pre-1959 Tibet as a “feudal realm” that was “shackled to feudalism,” with “monks and grandees” displaying “reactionary” anti-modern attitudes. This is language that originates from Chinese Communist propaganda tracts about Tibet. Sangay also—fifteen times—calls His Holiness the Dalai Lama simply “the Lama,” a level of disrespect that only Chinese Communists employ.

Moynihan does not consider the rhetorical strategy of the Middle Way Approach generally, which is to attempt to convince China that ethnic Tibetans do not represent a secessionist threat to Chinese unity. The Chinese anxiety about separatist movements is the largest—it is gigan- tic—obstacle to meaningful discussions between Tibetans who want more freedom and the government in China. See also Moynihan’s “Lobsang Sangay: ‘Chinese National?’ 2014; Elliot Sperling’s “Self Delusion,” 2014; Sperling, 2014; and Christophe Besuchet’s “Lobsang Sangay’s Wrong Churchill Quote,” 2011, which casts Sangay as a turncoat. Besuchet takes issue with Sangay’s association of himself with other historically significant liberation movement leaders in Sangay’s opening policy speech (announc- ing his Middle Way Approach) upon becoming Prime Minister:

Most of the leaders he refers to, be it Winston Churchill, Gandhi, Nelson Mandela or Martin Luther King, are people who fought ac- tively for freedom with conviction and who, unlike Lobsang Sangay, never gave up on their original goals and never gave in to the might of the enemy. Referring to their struggle’s outcome to promote the surrender policy of the Middle Way is nothing but intellectual dishonesty.

Moynihan, Sperling, and Besuchet, three non-Tibetans, are more outspoken than any Tibetan interpreter except perhaps Jamyang Norbu, who, in his March 5, 2012 entry, skewers two prime ministers in one short blog post:

Kalon Tripa Dr. Lobsang Sangay needs to explain the statement he made on video to stol.it, the South Tyrol Online journal on March 02. 2012. Replying to a question “What is it like being a prime minster without a country?” Dr. Lobsang Sangay answered clearly and delib- erately: “Well . . . I can’t say for sure because . . . we [Tibetans] never 200 N o t e s

had a country.” Is Dr. Lobsang Sangay attempting to surpass the re- cord for bizarre utterances established by our previous Kalon Tripa Professor Samdhong Rinpoche, who declared on March 13, 2009 that the “Tibet Issue is the Internal Affair of the People’s Republic of China.” What on earth is going on here?

When I asked Lobsang Sangay in an interview what he said to critics such as Moynihan, Besuchet, Sperling, and Norbu, he said, “Freedom of speech!” (Sangay). For a response to Moynihan, see Wangyal’s “Why Sikyong Sangay Matters,” 2014. 19. A recent headline tells us “Nepal Warns Tibetans against Anniversary Protests.” See also Mandhana’s “As China Squeezes Nepal, Tibetan Escape Route Narrows.” Tibetans who attempt to escape China through Nepal are facing greater obstacles than ever:

According to a confidential U.S. embassy cable revealed by WikiLeaks in 2010, “Beijing has asked Kathmandu to step up patrols . . . and make it more difficult for Tibetans to enter Nepal.” Another cable reads that China “rewards [Nepalese forces] by providing financial in- centives to officers who hand over Tibetans attempting to exit China” (Mandhana).

20. See also “Repairing Unity after 10 March 2015.” 21. The rhetoric of the Middle Way policy has not been very successful at placating Chinese fears that Tibetan cultural autonomy would only be the camel’s nose in the tent—a loss of PRC control that would only encourage a full-blown independence struggle. 22. Regarding the motives behind Tibetan plans for self-modernization, see Whalen-Bridge’s “Multiple Modernities and the Tibetan Diaspora,” 2011. 23. For an account of American nun ’s participation in this international effort, see Simmons, 2015. 24. There are numerous media reports in which the Dalai Lama discusses dreams and oracle predictions that he would live to 113. See, for exam- ple, Blumberg’s “Dalai Lama Sees No Need for Successor: ‘Let Us Finish with a Popular Dalai Lama,’” 2014. 25. Not a comprehensive list: various news organizations report unarmed Tibetan protestors being shot on August 13, 14, 18, 20, 21 and 25, 2014. 26. Attacking the families of protestors has been another part of the Chinese government’s response to protests such as self-immolation, as we saw in the previous chapter. 27. See 60 Years of Chinese Misrule: Arguing Cultural Genocide in Tibet, 2012, a report by the International Campaign for Tibet, for a thorough Notes 201

review of the genocide argument. The Dalai Lama has used the word genocide several times; for example, see Sengupta’s “Curbs on Protest in Tibet Lashed by Dalai Lama,” 2008. 28. On the attempt to charge Hu Jintao with genocide within the Spanish legal system, see Minder:

Alan Cantos, president of Comité de Apoyo al Tíbet and a plaintiff in the case, said of Hu Jintao, “The person who began the year as presi- dent of China, embraced by heads of state, kings and ministers of the economy throughout the world, is since yesterday the Number One accused of genocide in Tibet.” (Quoted in Minder)

29. Shakya de-emphasizes the role of religion in the protests but accounts for the fact that the first few self-immolators (10 of the first 12) were monastics by arguing that they fit into plans for Chinese productivity less well that other Tibetans and so have been persecuted more: “The lives of monks and nuns are seen as incongruous in modern China, economically unproductive and refusing to fit into the current state’s neo-liberal belief that market capitalism and consumption will liberate everyone.” They do not enjoy one of the few advantages of being Tibetan since “the benefi- cent exemption of minorities from the one child policy is irrelevant for them,” and so “their lives negate the biopower of the state.” Monks and nuns are therefore “subject to surveillance and particular kinds of disci- pline that must bend their subjectivity to the will of the state.” (Shakya, “Transforming”). 30. I argue previously that self-immolation should not be completely reduced to the status of symptom, but the act of course is interpreted widely as, primarily, a symptom of toxic governance. 31. In addition to , there is a rival claimant recognized by a small minority of Karma practitioners as the legitimate heir to the position, and both men have asked that no more self-immolation occur. Ogyen Trinley Dorje did so in February 2011, stating explicitly that self-immolation was contrary to Buddhist principles:

Most of those who have died have been very young. They had a long future ahead of them, an opportunity to contribute in ways that they have now foregone. In Buddhist teaching life is precious. To achieve anything worthwhile we need to preserve our lives. We Tibetans are few in number, so every Tibetan life is of value to the cause of Tibet. (Quoted in Branigan and Burke)

Elliot Sperling makes the point that the Karmapa’s wish went unheeded: “As for the Karmapa, one of the most important Tibetan hier- archs in exile, he called for a halt to them. This opposition on the part of charismatic leaders in exile clearly had a limited effect since, as we saw, 202 N o t e s

immolations took place, not only in Tibet but also in India and Nepal” (quoted in Buffetrille 7). 32. This edition is formatted and published in www.berzinarchives.com ver- sion 2.01 1/2007. 33. See Kazmin’s “An Exclusive Interview with the Dalai Lama,” 2013. 34. The Tibet Oral History Project (TOHP) was founded by Marcella Adam- ski. The homepage is http://www.tibetoralhistory.org/index.html. See Tibet Oral History Project’s video of Anzi, 2013. 35. When we ask “How Buddhist is it?” instead of “How is it Buddhist?” we fail to encounter differences within Buddhism. Tibetan Buddhists regard Tibetan Buddhism (or Tantrayana, or Esoteric Buddhism, or — but not “Lamaism,” the Orientalist designation that presupposes that Tibetan Buddhism is a decadent form of Buddhism) as the “third turning of the wheel.” The first turning refers to the Buddha’s teachings such as we find in the Pali and that are associated, from the Tibetan Bud- dhist standpoint, with so-called “,” a derogatory term meaning “lesser vehicle.” The earliest , those that are most closely associated with the historical Buddha, are sometimes polemically con- strued as “lower” because the ideal (in which personal enlighten- ment as the most important goal) is considered selfish in relation to the Bodhisattva ideal (in which one is motivated to achieve enlightenment not only by the wish to escape suffering but because of a felt need to liberate all beings from suffering). Philosopher Jay L. Garfield chides practitioners of Mahayana who fail to apprehend this polemical construc- tion critically. Speaking to a group of Mahayana students in Germany, he said:

Many of you consider yourselves practitioners of the Maha‐ya‐na. Few of you read suttas and commentaries in the S´ra‐vakaya‐na tradi- tion, from the Pali tradition. I’m not happy about that, so this is where I want to begin. I think that there is a great danger for many of us who practice in the Maha‐ya‐na tradition that we sometimes develop an attitude—and it’s an attitude which is not altogether beneficial either in terms of our scholarship or in terms of our practice—and that is the attitude of deprecating the teachings of the first turning, the teachings in the ´raS ‐vakaya‐na vehicle. That deprecation is sometimes explicit: we say: “I only read Maha‐ya‐na texts. These are just for people who are not wise enough to read the Maha‐ya‐na”; or implicit, where we might not necessarily speak or explicitly think negatively about S´ra‐vakaya‐na texts, but they just don’t turn up on our desk: we just don’t read them; we don’t study them. (“The Three Turnings”)

Garfield insists that the latter turnings are not departures from the earlier ones. Notes 203

36. Newland is a good guide in this area. See Newland’s Introduction to Emptiness, 2008:

Since emptiness exists and is the ultimate truth, you might suppose that emptiness itself exists in an ultimate sense. But this is incorrect. Everything that exists, exists only conventionally. Everything that ex- ists is included in the two truths, ultimate truth (emptiness) and con- ventional truth (everything else). But both of these truths exist only conventionally. . . . This is a profound truth of in Buddhism. It is not that everything else is unreal as compared to the one real thing, which is real in and of itself. There are other philosophies that teach this. But in Madhyamaka there is only one level of existence or type of exist- ence: conventional existence. (58)

Newland’s clarification suggests that The Matrix is not an especially Bud- dhist movie (contra Michael Brannigan’s “There Is No Spoon: A Bud- dhist Mirror,” 2002). The young monk who can bend spoons because, supposedly, nothing is real, has not read Newland. The spoon is real, but it does not have a permanent nature or a fate. Understanding emptiness allows one to see the radical contingency of causes and conditions in the historical-phenomenal world. 37. Information about the Dalai Lama’s international teaching schedule, Kalachakra initiations, meetings with world leaders, and so forth is avail- able from the web page of his office: http://www.dalailama.com/. He gave Kalachakra initiations in Tibet in 1954 and 1956, then he began to do them every year or two internationally starting in 1970. 38. The most well-known Tibetan Buddhist teacher who disrobed and spent a long time (20 years) in a Chinese prison camp is probably Garchen Triptul Rinpoche. A documentary about his life entitled For the Benefit of All Beings has been screened at several Buddhist film festivals, and it touches on his disrobing, fighting, and imprisonment. 39. It would be fascinating to read a study of many of the monks who dis- robed to become soldiers and then reordained. Perhaps someone with the requisite language skills could take on this project while some of them are still alive.

Chapter 6

1. Sinologists considered China totalitarian through the 1980s, and then the trend was to refer to China as authoritarian, but this approach was questioned by Sujian Guo in Post-Mao China: From Totalitarianism to Authoritarianism? (2000). As China’s economy grew, as the Internet happened, and as more and more Chinese began to go overseas to study, it seemed impossible that China would do anything but liberalize, but Xi Jinping’s rule has been an across-the-board rollback on discursive 204 N o t e s

freedom within the PRC. Evan Osnos refers to him as an “authoritar- ian” in his April 2015 assessment “Born Red: How Xi Jinping, an Unre- markable Provincial Administrator, Became China’s Most Authoritarian Leader since Mao”—but the article describes Xi’s consolidation of power and repression of dissent at all levels:

A decade ago, the Chinese Internet was alive with debate, confession, humor, and discovery. Month by month, it is becoming more steri- lized and self-contained. To the degree that China’s connection to the outside world matters, the digital links are deteriorating. Voice-over- Internet calls, viral videos, podcasts—the minor accessories of con- temporary digital life—are less reachable abroad than they were a year ago. It’s an astonishing thing to observe in a rising superpower. How many countries in 2015 have an Internet connection to the world that is worse than it was a year ago?

If we still want to call China “authoritarian,” then we have to contend with the unevenness of the Chinese situation. For example, there are foreign reporters throughout most of China to investigate the shrinkage in civic space, but there are none in Tibet. Osnos finds the government’s relationship to the governed moving in the same direction as the govern- ment’s control over the media:

For a generation, the Communist Party forged a political consensus built on economic growth and legal ambiguity. Liberal activists and corrupt bureaucrats learned to skirt (or flout) legal boundaries, be- cause the Party objected only intermittently. Today, Xi has indicated that consensus, beyond the Party élite, is superfluous—or, at least, less reliable than a hard boundary between enemies and friends.

2. According to Amartya Sen, Lee Kuan Yew was the most articulate exposi- tor of the “Asian values” argument. Sen objects that the “Lee hypothesis” does not sufficiently account for political diversity within the supposedly unified sphere of Asia. Criticizing the argument that single-party states will outstrip grid-locked democracies, Sen’s strongest argument in favor of the messiness of non-authoritarian states press freedoms is that they save millions of lives, whereas authoritarian governments that constrain free press are culpable of millions of deaths that occur because of famine. It saves tens of millions of lives to have such guaranteed freedoms. I quote at length from “Democracy as a Universal Value”:

Political and civil rights give people the opportunity to draw atten- tion forcefully to general needs and to demand appropriate public action. The response of a government to the acute suffering of its people often depends on the pressure that is put on it. The exercise Notes 205

of political rights (such as voting, criticizing, protesting, and the like) can make a real difference to the political incentives that op- erate on a government. I have discussed elsewhere the remarkable fact that, in the terrible history of famines in the world, no substan- tial famine has ever occurred in any independent and democratic country with a relatively free press. We cannot find exceptions to this rule, no matter where we look: the recent famines of Ethiopia, Somalia, or other dictatorial regimes; famines in the Soviet Union in the 1930s; China’s 1958–61 famine with the failure of the Great Leap Forward; or earlier still, the famines in Ireland or India under alien rule. China, although it was in many ways doing much bet- ter economically than India, still managed (unlike India) to have a famine, indeed the largest recorded famine in world history: Nearly 30 million people died in the famine of 1958–61, while faulty gov- ernmental policies remained uncorrected for three full years. The policies went uncriticized because there were no opposition parties in parliament, no free press, and no multiparty elections. Indeed, it is precisely this lack of challenge that allowed the deeply defective policies to continue even though they were killing millions each year. The same can be said about the world’s two contemporary famines (at the end of the twentieth century), occurring right now in North Korea and Sudan. (6–7)

3. Nye presciently discounts the Japanophobia that was prominent in the United States during the early 1990s. See also Emmott, 1993. 4. In his article on “Donald Rumsfeld,” Nye comments: “To be sure, no one expects that we can ever attract people like Mohammed Atta or Osama bin Laden. We need hard power to deal with such cases.” 5. See also Suzuki’s “The Myth and Reality of China’s ‘Soft Power,’” 2010. 6. About soft power, Rumsfeld reportedly said in 2003: “I don’t know what it means” (quoted in Nye, Soft Power ix). 7. On Obama’s decline in global popularity, see “Global Opinion of Obama Slips,” 2012. See also Kurlantzick’s Charm Offensive: “While once it seemed like everyone dreamed of being an American, from East- ern European anticommunists to students in Burma to liberals in China itself, today that dream may be dying” (10). On Obama’s continuation of unpopular Bush policies, see Lagon, 2011. 8. For one article with this title, see Glaser and Murphy’s “Soft Power with Chinese Characteristics: The Ongoing Debate,” 2009. 9. One of the key problems China hopes to solve with its huge soft power initiative is the predominant “China threat” discourse, in which other nations align against China because it is felt to be a threat. Referring to Chinese soft power as the “dragon’s hidden wings” might trigger such anxieties, and because of this concern, Chinese authorities even consid- ered switching the national symbol from the dragon to the panda: 206 N o t e s

Keeping in mind its rising global stature, China plans to junk its most famous image symbol, the dragon. With the west viewing the mytho- logical animal as ‘tyrannous’ and ‘aggressive,’ contributing to the so- called ‘China threat,’ the Communist republic may no longer regard the “dragon” as its image symbol.

This idea was unpopular with Chinese citizens and was rejected. See “China to Break-Up with the Dragon,” 2006. 10. Orville Schell explains:

Mao Zedong set about reunifying all the errant pieces of China’s old multiethnic empire, traditionally viewed as including han (Cen- tral Chinese), man (Manchus), meng (Mongolians), hui (Muslims), and zang (Tibetans). Indeed, as it had been for the founders of so many previous Chinese dynasties, the task of reunification was viewed by Mao’s revolutionary government as an almost sacred obligation. Since it was the official Party view that China had been ‘dismem- bered’—literally fen’gua, or ‘cut up like a melon’—by predatory im- perialist powers, reunification was a tangible way for Mao to show the world that China had, in fact, finally ‘stood up’ and would henceforth strive aggressively to restore and defend its sovereignty and territorial integrity. (25)

11. The Rome Statute, which has been signed by 123 nations, establishes the International Criminal Court that can prosecute genocide, crimes against humanity, war crimes, and the crime of aggression. The statute entered into force on July 1, 2002. See “Rome Statute of the Interna- tional Criminal Court: Rome, 17 July 1998” on the United Nations Treaty Collection web page for a list of signatories. This can be found in a pdf file of the same title on this link: http://www.icc-cpi.int/nr/ rdonlyres/ea9aeff7-5752-4f84-be94-0a655eb30e16/0/rome_statute _english.pdf. 12. See also Fund’s response in The National Review: “In 2013, Beijing can- celled a planned visit by British Prime Minister David Cameron because Cameron had ignored Chinese warnings about the Dalai Lama and vis- ited with the religious leader in 2012. After this slap, Cameron made clear that he will not meet again with the Dalai Lama.” 13. A report in the Wall Street Journal gloats about Obama’s moral failing: “In nearly nine months in office, President Obama has found time to meet with Hugo Chavez, Daniel Ortega and Vladimir Putin. But this week he won’t see the Dalai Lama, a peaceful religious leader who has long been a friend to the U.S. and an advocate of human rights for Chi- na’s six million Tibetans.” See “No Time for the Dalai Lama,” 2009. 14. China’s Foreign Ministry spokeswoman Hua Chunying said that the planned February 2014 meeting with Obama would “severely impair Notes 207

China-US relations,” but Chinese Foreign Ministry officials expressed great displeasure about the two previous meetings between Obama and the Dalai Lama, and “on neither occasion did the Chinese government follow up its rhetoric with hostile actions” (Ford). 15. On March 11, 2013, Xinhua reported that there were more than 400 Confucius Institutes “in over 100 countries and regions” and that “the number will reach 500 and the number of Confucius Classrooms will be 1,000 by 2015.” See “China’s Confucius Institutes,” 2013. Accord- ing to the University of Massachusetts (Boston) Confucius Institute web page, there are, as of April 2015, 440 Confucius Institutes in the world. See “The Confucius Institute.” 16. For the America-based Confucius Institute’s official website, see “China Intercontinental Press.” 17. See also “Negroponte Urges China to Stop Vilifying Dalai Lama,” 2008. 18. See Burke’s Rhetoric, 1950, on what “identification” is and how it can be “in the order of love” and not just agonistic (20).

Chapter 7

1. China claims to have a central role in the selection process because of a late eighteenth century agreement in which the Golden Urn was used to determine which candidate would be the legitimate Dalai Lama. The fourteenth Dalai Lama rejects this practice, which seems to have been part of the process for the ninth through thirteenth Dalai Lamas. Accord- ing to Sperling, “we must conclude that the prescription of the Golden Urn stems not simply from a cynical assessment of Tibetan affairs, which is largely the way it is presently understood [by the current regime in Beijing]. An overwhelmingly important element is the religious posi- tioning of the Qianlong Emperor, for the use of the urn is surely con- nected to the belief, described in [the historical sources Sperling studies in detail], that the emperor himself was capable of adducing which child was the true incarnation of a deceased lama.” In other words, the prac- tice was specific to the Qian dynasty. 2. See Davis, 2008, for the Qing/Tibet tango: the “Manchu-dominated Qing Dynasty (1636–1910) offered the height of Chinese intervention in Tibet [before the 20th century]. The Tibetan fourth and fifth Dalai Lama again pursued a chess game of conferring and receiving titles and trying to placate the Qing in a patron-priest relationship. The Qing con- sidered Tibet a special case and pursued the same chess game sometimes with ceremonies and titles and sometimes in the eighteenth century with actual conquest. This game often involved very carefully choreographed ceremony in the handling of Tibetan visits to Beijing, the fifth Dalai Lama even insisting on one occasion that the Qing Emperor meet him outside the city at Taika Lake. During this visit, commencing on 15 January 1653, the Emperor initially agreed, but ultimately did not travel outside 208 N o t e s

the city. Instead, he walked thirty feet from the throne to meet the Dalai Lama and the Dalai Lama declined to kowtow. At the same time the Dalai Lama was given an exalted Chinese title and relegated in protocol to a status slightly below the emperor—a form of nominal submission. This complex interplay then secured the emperor’s continued support of the Gelugpa rule in Tibet.” 3. Sperling writes that “in the case of the . . . (1876–1933), the Golden Urn was not used because the indications of his being the incar- nation of the previous Dalai Lama were felt to be clear. However, the deci- sion to do this involved securing the agreement of the emperor, who was accordingly petitioned and then gave his consent” (“Reincarnation” 106). 4. No one knows where the Dalai Lama’s chosen Panchen Lama or his fam- ily are, but there are many reports of monks avoiding Beijing’s replace- ment when he visits temples in Tibet. According to Sehgal, monks in Dharmasala see him as a fake:

Supporters of the Dalai Lama say China’s efforts at influencing the succession are doomed to failure: “China’s appointed Lama will never get any respect. He’s Tibetan, but we can’t recognize him as the Panchen Lama’s reincarnation,” says a Tenzin [sic] monk at the temple complex opposite the Dalai Lama’s residence in exile. “The Chinese have given him this status . . . but for us, the last words will be His Holiness the Dalai Lama’s.” (Sehgal)

5. See also Biema, 2008. 6. The Chinese government refers to the seventeenth Karmapa and his pre- decessor as “Living Buddhas” (“Reincarnation and Enthronement”). 7. For some information on the schism, which does not seem to originate or receive any particular support from Chinese sources, see Qadir, 2012. For a full account, see Terhune, 2004. 8. Indian officials eventually dropped all charges against the Karmapa. The amount of money was about $1.35 million, and it was in over a dozen currencies. See “The Karmapa Cleared,” 2012. 9. See Karmapa’s YouTube video on the March 19, 2015 talk in Tibetan with English translation. Index

“2008 Uprising,” 19, 20, 22, 51, audience, xvi–ii, xix, 1, 3–6, 8–9, 132, 148, 187n1 28–9, 38–9, 46, 54, 57–8, 2008: Beijing Olympics in, 14, 17, 78, 85–8, 112, 115, 130, 23, 25–7, 29, 33, 50, 69, 89, 133–4, 147, 149; of free Tibet 113, 115, 117, 128, 135, 138, movement, 4, 85–8; and 191n1; persuasion, 4, 6, 186n2; of act, action, xvi–iii, 3–11, 13–5, 21, PRC state-controlled media, 37–46, 48, 52–7, 59–60, 62–4, 29, 78, 134; of self-immolators, 68–73, 76, 78–9, 83, 85, 87, xvi, 3, 9, 39, 56–8; of Western 92, 94–5, 97, 99, 101, 103, media, xvii, 46 108–11, 114, 117, 119–22, Austin, John L., 54 143, the act itself, xvi, 9, 37–9, authoritarianism, 6, 24, 63, 94, 127, 46, 52, 55–6, 60, 64; distin- 129; of the PRC, 203–4n1, guished from motion, 53, 204n2 59–60; distributed act, 2, 38–9, 46–7, 52–6, 63, 86, 107; serial Baker, Benjamin David, 132 action, 1, 10, 21, 32–9, 43, 48, bardo, xvii, 142, 185n3 52–3, 56, 63, 65, 72, 111; see Barnett, Robert, 100, 189n11, also speech act 198n12 actor, agent, 10, 38–9, 43, 45–7, Bartholet, Jeffrey, 8, 57, 117, 197n9 56–7, 63–4, 70, 76, 112, 139; Beckett, Samuel, 54 anonymous or named, 46; Beijing Olympics 2008, 14, 17, defined, 10; distributed actor, 23, 25–7, 29, 33, 50, 69, 89, 38, 45, 63–4 113, 115, 117, 128, 135, 138, Adorno, Theodor W., xix, 42, 191n1 192n3 Benn, James A., 83, 197n2 agency, means, 6, 10, 41, 44–6, 54, Besuchet, Christophe, xviii, 108, 56–7, 78, 112, 114–5 199–200n18 agent, see actor Beyond the Numbers: A Human Al Jazeera, x, 32, 190n20 Perspective on Tibet’s Self- Alain, David, see Tunden Immolations, 67, 104 Anand, Dibyesh, 113–4, 146 Bhuchung Tsering, 134–5 Anzi, 118–9, 121, 202n34 Biggs, Michael, 39–40, 192n2 Ardley, Jane, 99, 198n16 Bitzer, Lloyd F., 4–6, 186n2 Arhat, 202n35 bodhisattva, xvii, 88–91, 116–7, Aslan, Reza, 81–2 119–21, 197n4, 197n8, Auden, W. H., 38 202n35 210 Index body of self-immolator, x, xvii, 37, of Motives, xix, 59, 186n5, 40, 42, 47, 54, 57, 59–60, 186–7n6, 186n7; identification, 64, 67, 71, 79, 83–85, 94–5, xvii, xix, xx, 2–6, 9, 12–4, 19, 108–10; agency of, 54, 59, 24, 28, 41, 45, 55, 85, 100, 67; associated with Buddhism, 108, 117, 125, 128, 135, 40, 83–5, 94–5, 109–10; 186n7, 207n18; Language photographs of, 42, 59–60; as as Symbolic Action, 6, 43; site of political struggle, 37, 47, logomachy, 1–4, 7, 12, 14, 46, 57, 64, 67, 71, 84, 108 109, 139, 142, 146; pentad, Bork, Ellen, 133 5–6, 9–11; perspective by Brecht, Bertolt, 8 incongruity, 19, 141, 188n2, Brook, Timothy, 140 194n17; A Rhetoric of Brown, John, 126 Motives, 1, 9, 12, 135, 207n18; Browne, Malcolm, x, 35–6, 41 sub-stance, 13–4, 85, 125, Buckley, Chris, 140, 143, 146 187n8; terministic screens, xviii, Buddhism, 82, 93, 116; apart from 6, 42–3, 125, 130, 192n4; and politics or culture, 35, 82; the unconscious, 192n4 attachment in, 116, 119; and Bush, George W., 127, 130–1, compassion, 36, 47, 85, 87–8, 207n7 93, 113, 193n8; and emptiness, 85, 119–22, 203n36; ethics of, Cabezón, José, 110–1 xvi–ix, 9, 83–91, 94, 109, 111, Cameron, David, 131, 206n12 117, 185n2, 197n8, 198n17; Central Tibetan Administration ethics and motivation, xvi–ix, 9, (CTA), xviii, 2, 20, 25, 31, 83–92, 94, 99, 109–11, 117; 39, 47, 68, 93, 96–8, 101–3, necessity of defending dharma, 186n1, 187n1, 191n1, 198n12 82, 118–9, 121, 203n38; and Chen Weiming, ix self-immolation, xvi, 40–1, Chiang Kai-shek, 144 69–72, 75, 92, 94–6, 108–9, China Daily, 19 111, 119; and self-sacrifice, xi, China, PRC (People’s Republic 69, 71–2, 82–4; and violence, of China); censorship and xvii, 13, 19–20, 22–4, 26–7, state control of media in; 19, 36, 69, 77, 89–91, 94, 108, 21, 25, 40, 45, 46, 50–1, 111, 113, 139, 190n18, 64, 69, 72–3; and collective 190–1n21, 192n5, 197n5; punishment, 30, 73–4, 79–80, Western perceptions of, 36, 40, 196n16; counter-protest laws 69, 82 and measures of, 4, 5, 22, 51, Burke, Kenneth, xix, 1, 3, 5–15, 73, 89; economic incentives 38, 43, 53, 56, 59–60, 71, for Tibetans to report on other 84, 97, 108, 125, 130, 135, Tibetans, 5, 33, 45, 73, 77, 79, 186n7, 187n8, 188n2, 126, 188n4; Eighteenth Party 190n13, 192n4, 194n17, Congress, 53, 69, 74; Western 198n10, 198n17, 201n31, media representations of Tibet; 207n18; dramatism, xvix, 9, 7, 19, 38, 49, 58, 75–8, 80; 10, 15, 186n7, 190n13; god use of money power to punish term, 97, 198n17; A Grammar Tibet friendly governments; Index 211

124, 128, 131–3, 135; Seven- 32–3; Dalai Lama's disapproval teenth National Congress, 129; of, 31–4 Tibetan negotiation with, 54, drama, dramatic, xvi, 5, 7–10, 20, 149; see also soft power 23, 29, 39–40, 45–7, 56–7, 59, Choepel [9], 71, 151 64, 74, 107, 143 Chugtso [123], 77, 158 dramatism, see under Burke Clinton, Hillary, 130, 187n7 Dreyfus, Georges, 93, 190n18, CNN, 19, 22, 111 198n13 Cold War, 2, 124, 130 compassion fatigue, 47 Economist, 23, 125, 126 Confucius Institutes, 124, 128, emotion, xvi, 9, bodhisattva 134–5, 207n15, 207n16 avoidance of, 116, 119; hatred, xvii, 23, 24, 130, 197n9, and Dalai clique, 7, 19, 29, 57, 63, 75, images of self-immolation, 35, 79, 103, 108, 138, 196n19 92; in the mind of the self- Dalai Lama, 14th (Tenzin Gyatso), immolator, xvii, 90, 110; and 2, 29, 54, 100, 102, 112, motives for protest, 19, 53–4 139, 143, 148–9; accused of engaged Buddhism, xxi, 29, 35–6, motivating self-immolators, 90, 188n6, 189n10, 190n15, 111–5; criticized by Prothero, 190–1n21 108–13; and meetings with international leaders; 36, 87, Fierke, Karin. M., 54, 55, 193n15 115, 131, 133, 134, 206n12, Fish, Isaac Stone, 194n1 206n13, 206–7n14; mortality Flame of Truth Campaign, 14, 17, 33 of, 5, 54, 103, 142; negative Free Tibet (organization), 23, 39, representation of, 32, 77, 111, 51, 60, 66, 68, 70, 71 113, 129, 134; PRC attack free Tibet movement, 2–4, 29, 33, on, 77, 103–4, 111, 121, 129, 36–8, 42, 44–5, 49, 53, 56, 60, 134–5, 207n17; response to 61, 63–4, 68, 73, 75, 78, 91, Tibetan self-immolation, xvii, 93, 99, 103, 113, 133, 139, 3–4, 27, 53, 89, 91, 111–5, 186n2, 186n3, 195–6n15; 117; Shugden proponents' defined, 2 attack on, 32 Fund, John, 206n12 Davis, Michael C., 207n2 democracy, xi, 5, 11, 19, 44, 57–8, Gandhi, Mahatma, 26, 36, 192n5 96, 100, 102, 112, 124, 135, Gangchen Lama, 30, 32–3, 190n17, 138, 144, 198n12, 204–5n2; 190n19 and freedom of expression, 11, Garchen Triptul Rinpoche, 44, 52, 58, 97, 100, 125, 135, 203n38 198n16 Garfield, Jay L., 86, 202n35 Dickyi Choezom [49], 72, 154 Geertz, Clifford, 192n6 Dolma Yanki, 104–5 genocide committed by China Dorje Shugden (also called Dolgyal), against Tibet, 89, 104–7, 30–3, 190n20, 194n17; 200–1n27, 200n28, 206n11; Shugden controversy, 31–4, as cause of self-immolation, 190n18; PRC support of, 107–8; Dalai Lama demands 212 Index genocide committed (Continued) 54–5, 68, 72, 74, 84, 93–4, investigation of, 113; defined, 96, 99, 100, 103, 107–8, 107; Hu Jintao charged with, 142–6, 150 201n28; and Rome Statute, ideology, 7, 11, 19, 63, 101, 206n11 125, 128, 132, 139, 188n2, Gladstone, Rick, 3, 48–9, 132 189n12, 192n4 god term, see under Burke Immolations au Tibet: La Honte du Goffman, Erving, 7, 190n13 monde, 91, 92, 198n11 Gordimer, Nadine, 37 India, 33, 41, 56, 66, 77, 97–8, Gries, Peter Hays, 129 145, 147–8, 150 Groner, Cary, 8 International Commission of Jurists, Guardian, 9, 19, 23, 47, 53, 143, 106 196n18 Guo Sujian, 203–4n1 Jacobs, Andrew, 35, 46, 50 Jacobs, Seth, 35 Halberstam, David, 35–6, Jameson, Fredric, 188n2 191n22 Jampa Yeshe [35], x, 41, 65, 153 “Harper’s Index,” 47, 193n9 Jamyang Norbu, 96–9 Higgins, Andrew, 34 Jataka Tales, 83–8, 117, 185n2, Hopgood, Stephen, 130–1 197n4 Hu Jintao, 29, 33, 41, 59, 69, Jigme Tenzin [135], 73, 159 106, 151, 153, 169, 201n28; Jordt, Ingrid, 189n8, 189n10 charged with genocide by the national court of Spain, 106–7; Kalachakra, 121, 203n37 and Chinese soft power, 129 Kalsang Yeshe [145], 73, 160 human rights, xvii, 2–3, 11, 20, 24, karma, 9, 34, 87–8, 93, 95, 141 34, 38, 49–53, 58, 74, 82, 107, Karmapa 17th (Ogyen Trinley 113, 124, 130–2, 147–8, 186n2, Dorje), 91, 102, 208n9; and 196n16, 196n19, 206n13; two-Karmapa schism, 146, Human Rights Watch, 51–2, 201n31, 208n7; asks self- 107; Tibetan Centre for Human immolators to stop, 115, Rights and Democracy, 74 201n31; escapes from China, hungry tigress Jataka tale, 83–6, 147; as possible successor to 197n4; see also, Jataka Tales Dalai Lama as unifying symbol, Hutzler, Charles, 27–8, 188n5 146–50 Kayang [10], 71, 151 ICT (International Campaign for Kelsang Wangchuk [8], 70, 151 Tibet), 2, 22, 39, 47, 52, 60, Kennedy, Robert F., 35 62, 65, 67, 134 , 83, 197n1 identification, see under Burke King, Sallie, 90, 113 identity, 9, 13–4, 24, 85, 118, Kovan, Martin, 87, 94, 110, 195n9, 125; Chinese; 55, 129, 142, 197n6, 197n8 198n15; communal, xvii, 38–9, Kunchok Wangmo [117], 73, 42, 115, 117, 119; political; 79, 158 104; Tibetan, xvii, 39, 45, 52, Kurlantzick, Joshua, 127–8, 205n7 Index 213

LaFraniere, Sharon, 51 New York Times, xvii, 3–4, 9, 21, Lemkin, Raphael, 107 23, 27, 45, 47, 48, 53, 61, 63, Lhakpa Tsering [2], 65–6, 151 81, 139, 144 Li Mingjiang, 129 New Yorker, 8, 9, 143, 149 Lin, Katie, 67 Newland, Guy, 203n36 Liu Xiaobo, 132 news media, xvi, xviii, 1, 18, 29, 40, Lobsang Kelsang [6], 70, 151 42, 45–6, 56, 126, 129, 141, Lobsang Sangay, 53, 83, 96–7, 143; Chinese, 46, 56, 61, 63, 100–1, 109–10, 142–3, 75–8, 134, 194n1, 196n19, 185n2, 199n18 198n17; Western, 3–4, 18–9, logomachy, see Burke 22–7, 40, 46–7, 50, 53, 60–3, Lopez, Donald, 94, 198n13 67, 69, 78, 141, 142–3, 146, Lotus Sutra, 83–4, 185n2, 197n2, 190n14, 198n17 197n6 Ngawang Norphel [47], 72, 154 Nhat Hanh, Thich, 29, 35–6, 39, Makley, Charlene, xviii, 67, 193n7, 190n15, 190–1n21 194n2 Nobel Prize, 77, 99, 130, 132, 134 Malik, Kenan, 36 non-violence, 26, 36, 133–4; and Mandhana, Niharika, 200n19 self-sacrifice, 110, 192n5 martyr, 21, 35, 51, 64, 94, 95, Nyangchag Bum [79], 72, 155 198n14 Nyangkar Tashi [80], 74, 156 Mehta, Uday S., 192n5 Nye, Joseph, 124–9, 205n3, Middle Way Approach, 2, 68, 70, 205n4 76, 93, 96–102, 147, 194n6, 199n18, 200n21; cultural Obama, Barack, 87, 97, 115, 127, autonomy, 2, 4, 55, 70, 96, 100 130–1, 133, 205n7, 206n13, Mirsky, Jonathan, 115 206–7n14 Moeller, Susan, 193n8 Orwell, George, 24, 26, 52, 111 Morrison, Chas, 198n15 Osnos, Evan, 143, 149, 203–4n1 Moyar, Mark, 191n22 Moynihan, Maura, 97, 199n18 Panchen Lama, 104–5, 142, 145–6, Myanmar, 24, 26, 30, 36, 87, 94, 208n4 189n8, 189n10; Burmese patriotic re-education, 39, 73, 104, uprisings of 2007 in, 34; 108, 121, 188n3, 191–2n1 Saffron Revolution in, 25, Tennyi [19], 71, 75, 152 188n6, 189n8 Pawo Tsultrim [18], 71, 75, 152 Penpa Tsering, 102, 108–9 Nangdrol [27], 71, 152 pentad, see under Burke narrative, narrativization, 14, 21–3, performance, performativity, xvi, 42–3, 50, 63–4, 67, 70–1, 74, xx, 5–10, 14, 21, 25–9, 38–40, 75, 84–5 53–55, 84–5, 102, 112, 115, Nepal, 33, 68, 84, 98, 148, 200n19 190–2n21 new media, xvi, 2–3, 7, 17–8, perspective by incongruity, see under 39–40, 42–3, 44–7, 52, 95–7, Burke 194n3, 199n18 Phuntsog [4], 66–7, 70–1, 151 214 Index

PLA (People’s Liberation Army), Samdhong Rinpoche, 88, 94–5, 24, 187n1, 189n11 102, 200n18 Powers, John, 89, 189n12 Sangdag [83], 73, 156 Prisoners of Shangri-la, 93–4, Sanggye Tashi [94], 74, 157 198n13 scene, 6, 8–11, 38, 45, 59–62, 69, 71, propaganda, 8, 45, 49, 52, 78, 80, 83–4, 97; computer screens and 126, 129, 134–5, 146, 189n12, new media as, 1, 30, 46–7, 62; 194n1, 196n15, 199n18 defined, 10–11, and site chosen purpose, 6, 10–1, 14, 38–9, 62, for self-immolation, 11, 48, 59, 64, 70–1, 81–5, 91–3, 138; 151–60; and Tibetan geography, defined, 10 11, 61, 95, 151–60; as uncon- tainer of the act, 38, 45, 60–1 Quang Duc, Thich, x, 35, 39–41, Schaedler, Luc, 194n17 70, 90, 117, 119 Schell, Orville, 25, 129, 206n10 Scott, James C., 25, 29 Rangzen, 84, 93, 96–102, 147 Sehgal, Saransh, 146, 208n4 reincarnation, tulku system, xvii, 4, Sen, Amartya, 204–5n2 83, 93, 103–5, 186n4, 207n1, Students for a Free Tibet (SFT), 2, 208n3, 208n6; Golden Urn 68, 113, 194n6 used by China to select Dalai Shadow Tibet, 96–7 Lamas, 144–5, 207n1, 208n3; Shakya, Tsering, 50, 84, 93–6, PRC assertion of legal control 107–8, 111, 119, 193n11, over, Western views of, 140–45, 201n29 208n4 Shambaugh, David, 128–9 RFA (Radio Free Asia), 51, 61, 63, Sheng Ding, 128 77, 79 Sherab Tsedor [15], xv–I, 152 rhetoric, xvii–ix, 2–4, 6–7, 9, 12–3, Shugden, see under Dorje Shugden 19, 39, 46, 48–9, 54, 57, 60, soft power, 25–6, 124–5, 128; and 77, 82, 85–6, 96, 98, 101, Burkean rhetoric, 125; Chinese, 103, 108–9, 113–5, 125–6, 10, 89, 115, 124–5, 127–9, 135, 140, 142, 185n6, 186n2, 134–6, 140, 205n5, 205n8, 186n7, 187n8, 190n14, 194n1, 205–6n9; Confucius Institutes 199n18, 200n21, 206–7n14; and, 128, 134–5, 207n15, and Aristotelian persuasion, 6, 207n16; defined, 124–5; 9; and Bitzer’s rhetorical situa- distinguished from hard power, tion, 1–5; Burke’s definition of, 25, 80, 125–8, 135; Rumsfeld’s xix–xx, 9, 12–14 misunderstanding of, 125–7, Ricard, Matthieu, 30 205n6; Tibetan, 2, 7, 29, 36, Rinchen [29], 75, 158 87, 99, 101, 113, 124, 127, Robertson, Tim, 186n4 135; 191n23; Western, 126–7, Rome Statute, 131, 206n11 135; smart power, 127 rule of law, 2, 11, 106, 124 Solzhenitsyn, Alexandr, 130, 132–3 Rumsfeld, Donald, 125–6, 138, Soviet Union (see also, Russia), 205n4, 205n6 124–5, 130, 140, 205n2 Russia, 125, 130 (see also, Soviet speech, speech act, 2–3, 5, 10, Union) 15, 34, 39, 45, 46, 52–3, Index 215

54–6, 86, 96, 107–8, 122, 135; Tibet Post International, 68 irreversible speech, 37, 39, Tibet: future of, 98, 99, 100, 139, 43–4, 45; self-immolation as, 5, 142, 148–50; geographical 92–3; silence, 10, 21, 50, 55, divisions of, x, 11, 60–1, 188n4 111, 114; utterance in, 2–4, Tibetan Buddhism, 3, 11, 31; 27, 42, 142 distinguished from other Sperling, Elliot, 1, 185, 201–2n31, kinds of Buddhism, 202n35; 208n3 leadership of, 115, 120, 145; splittism, 29, 33, 56, 75, 190n14, and the Lotus Sutra, 84, 87; 206n10 Orientalist appropriations of, Storm in the Grasslands, 55, 57 197n1, 202n35; PRC at- sub-stance, see under Burke tempts to control, 25, 143; suicide, 20–2, 37, 39, 43, 104, 112; reincarnation and, 82; and altruistic, 9, 21, 38, 43, 75, 86; sectarianism, 33–5, 145; copycat suicide, 90, 112; violence and, 113–4; vows distinct from self-sacrifice, regarding defense of, 116, 192n5; political, 7–8, 21, 54, 120–21, 189n10, 203n38; in 68–9, 75, 95, 104, 188n3; the West, 69, 103 Werther effect, 112 Tibetan and modernity, symbolization, xix, xx, 12, 42, modernization, 93, 144, 192n3; symbolic action, xvii, 5, 149, 200n22; Chinese 8, 45, 54, 71, 122 modernization of Tibet, 3, 76–7, 201n29; CTA discourse Tamdin Thar [46], 72, 153 of modernization, 3, 96–7, Tamding Tso [75], 74, 155 103, 144, 200n22; Dalai Lama Tapey [3], 56, 66–8, 70–3 and, 112, 144 Telegraph, 69 Tibetan protest, ix, x, xviii, 1, 4, 12, Tenzin Dorjee, 84, 113, 114–5 14, 17–28, 36, 41, 70, 89, 104, Tenzin Khedup [48], 72, 154 124, 138, 147, 187n1, 200n23; Tenzin Mingyur Paldron, 114 and anger, 14, 19, 24, 25–8, terministic screens, see under Burke 34–6, 189n10; Dalai Lama’s terrorism, xvii, 7, 55–6, 75–6, 94, response to, 27; forms of, 8, 109, 117, 124–6, 138, 190n16, 58, 94; and Lhasa riots of 2008, 195–6n15, 196n17, 196n21 xvi, 17–36, 50, 89, 147–8; Thanh Tu, Thich, 190n16 Tibetan self-immolations, xv, 1, 7, theology, xvi–ii, 4, 11, 32, 82–4, 37, 43–44, 55, 71, 72, 109; 86, 109–11, 120, 185n2, futility of, 53, 108; history 198n17 of, xviii; image of, 37–8, 57; Thierry Dodin, 65–6 listing and counting; 38–9, Thondup Tulku, 141–2 47–50, 52, 56, 60, 62–72, Thubten Ngodrup [1], 64–5, 151, 74–5, 193n10, 195n11; as 194n5, 197n9 a movement, xvi, xvii, 1, 9, Thurman, Robert, 85, 94 20, 21, 37; as self-sacrifice, Tiananmen Square, ix, 28, 148 xv–xvii, 8, 38, 42, 51, 54, 56, Tibet Oral History Project, 117, 58, 79, 83–5, 95, 110–1; as a 202n34 series, 1, 38, 43, 47, 53, 63–4, 216 Index

Tibetan self-immolations (Continued) Umaylam, 68, see also Middle Way 67, 71; sincere, sincerity, xv, Approach xvii, 8, 28, 37, 56, 58; and Unite for Tibet, 68, 194n6 violence, 20–1, 111; free Tibet United Nations, 29–30, 106, 133, movement constructions of, 2, 206n11 29, 38, 42, 45, 49, 56, 64–68, UNVD (United Nations Vesak 91, 113, 186n2, 186n3; PRC Day) conference, 29–30, 133, constructions of, 43, 45, 49, 190n16 56, 76, 186n3, 196n21; PRC responses to, 55–6, 64, 73, vajra hermeneutics, 85–6 75, 93, 106–7, 109, 111, 115, Vietnam, 29–30, 35, 40, 70, 133, 196n15–7; stated motivations 190n16, 191n22, 195n10 of self-immolators, 56; violence, xvii, 13, 18–20, 22–4, Western media constructions 26–7, 36, 69, 77, 81, 87, of, 44–5, 61, 63, 196n18 89–91, 94, 96, 108–9, 111, Tibetan unity, xvii–iii, 1–2, 7, 13, 113, 117, 126, 138–9, 187n1, 30–5, 43, 52–4, 92–3, 95–7, 190n16, 195–6n15, 197n5 101–3, 108, 146, 148, 198n15, Voices from Tibet, 26, 81, 200n20; 186n2 Karmapa and, 196n21 146–9 Tibetan Women’s Association, 65–6 Wang Lixiong, 1, 26, 89, Tibetans-in-exile, x, xv–i, 2, 5–6, 100, 189n11, 196n21, 10–1, 20, 31, 42, 44–5, 50, 198n12 57, 61–2, 64–5, 67, 77, 96–8, Watts, Jonathan, 19, 23 101–4, 105, 117, 120, 141, weapons of the weak, 25, 29 144–5, 149–50; diaspora, 1, Weaver, Richard, 198n15 95, 100, 148–50, 200n22 Weinberger, Sharon, 126 TibetInfoNet, 33 Weisser, Christian R., 50 Togmey-zangpo, 116 Werther effect, 112 Tonden or Tunden (David Alain), Whalen-Bridge, John, 194n17 69, 160 Wiesel, Elie, 149–50 totalitarianism, 18, 130, 203–4n1 Wong, Andy, 27 TPiE (Tibetan Parliament-in-Exile), Wong, Edward, 45–6, 50–1, 54, 56, xviii, 2, 17–8, 31–2, 53–4, 88, 61, 63, 77–8 92, 96, 100–1, 103, 108–9, 112, 145, 186n1, 186n4 Xi Jinping, 7, 69, 74, 132, Tsering Kyi [28], 71, 152 203–4n1 Tsering Woeser, xviii, 26, 51, 81, Xinhua, 45–6, 51, 56, 61, 63, 89–92, 95, 100, 109, 188n3, 75–6, 78–9, 194n1, 196n19, 189n11, 198n11, 198n12 198n17, 207n15 Tsewang Dorjee [50], 72, 154 Tsewang Kyab [69], 74, 155 Yardley, Jim, 23, 188n5 Tsewang Norbu [5], 70, 151 Yeh, Emily, 55, 193n15