Vol. 27, No.4 nternatlona• October 2003 etln• Mission and the Margins

margin is the blank border of a printed page. To be himself profoundly dispossessed. Born into the ethnic fringes of A marginalis to be of the edge,neither central nor signifi­ a powerfulempire, he found himselfonits margins. He annoyed, cant. Some 150 million human beings officially qualified as provoked, and was finally dispatched bycustodians of the status "migrants," of which an estimated 20 million were refugees, quo. His coterie comprised mostly people with neither pedigree according to United Nations figures for 2002. Such ciphers mask nor the capacity to make a mark on human history. The humble, the angst of social dislocation-with its attendant miseries, hu­ his motherhadsung, wouldbe exalted;themeek,he hadclaimed, miliations, and dangers-endured by specific individuals, each would inherit the earth. with a name, a story, and modest hopes. Refugees are on the And truly, it was and is such men and women who, acutely margins of the marginalized, significant only to the extent that conscious that "here we have no lasting city," have turned the they constitute an inconvenience or a security threat to their world upside down. This issue of the IBMR reflects that reality. comfortably incumbent host populations. In his lead article, Jehu Hanciles explores the impact of migrationonchurchand mission,arguingthatthe Christianfaith depends for its survival upon cross-cultural diffusion-one of On Page theinevitablesideeffects of populationdislocation. Lalsangkima Pachuau's wonderfully informative study takes a close look at 146 Mission and Migration: Some Implications for some of the most vital churches in the world, whose combined the Twenty-first-Century Church membership represents nearly a quarter of India's Christian Jehu]. Hanciles population. Inhabitingthe disdainededges of mainstreamHindu 154 Church-Mission Dynamics in Northeast India society, the peoples of Northeast India have affirmed and Lalsangkima Pachuau grounded their indigenous identitiesbyembracingan extraordi­ narily missional Christianity. 162 "Blessed Reflex": Mission as God's Spiral of In Great Britain, as elsewhere in Christendom's traditional Renewal heartlands, a once confident establishment church, having atro­ Kenneth R. Ross phied into a spiritually enfeebled, demographically decimated, and missiologically tentative vestige of its former self, now 164 Noteworthy struggles to survive. Although it has paid scant official attention to its missionary fringes in the past, its renewal-if there is 168 My Pilgrimage in Mission renewal-may spring from these now vital margins, according Jacques Dupuis, S.]. to Kenneth Ross in his article "Blessed Reflex." The essays in this issue remind us that the universe is notlike 171 The Legacy of Henry Robert Codrington a two-dimensional sheet of paper. Seeing merely the surface of Allan K. Davidson things, we humans necessarily invent and employ terms that 177 Book Reviews reflect this limitation. But the mysterious verityembedded in our moral universe is that those on the outer edges of human cogni­ 187 Dissertation Notices tive maps are at the center of God's modus operandi. God's multidimensional perspective places human margins-even re­ 188 Index, 2003 ligious ones, as Jacques Dupuis suggests-at the center of divine significance. The One whose memory "Christianity" evokes was 192 Book Notes of issionaryResearch Migration and Mission: Some Implications for the Twenty-first-Century Church Jehu J. Hanciles

uman migrationis a fact of history. Peoplehavebeenon Immigrants travel with their religion. It is central to their H the move from the earliest times, often over great way of life and a crucial means of preserving identity as well as distances and for a wide variety of reasons, including trade, homeland connections. Even the less religious among immi­ epidemics, economic opportunities, asylum, war, persecution, grantsoftenrenewor revive theirreligiouscommitmentas a vital naturaldisasters,evenadventure. Mostsignificantly,whenpeople part of dealing with uprootedness and alienation. The key pos­ move, they carry their ideas, beliefs, and religious practices with tulate developed in this article is that recent migration movements, them. Peter Stearns aptly describes such movements as cultures as a critical dimension of contemporary global transformations, have in motion.' The impact and implications of such movements can the potential to significantly affect the geographic and demographic be profound. Regardless of whether the cultural encounters that contours of the world's major religions and provide a vital outlet for occur in migration are marked by coercion or by fruitful accom­ proselytism and missionary expansion. modation, the cultural groups involved are seldom left un­ changed. The movement of peoples has the capacity not only to An Overview of Contemporary Migration foster cultural diversity but also to significantly alter demo­ graphic, economic, and social structures. This capacity makes it In recent decades international transfers of population and asso­ a potent source of social transformation and an active ingredient ciated displacements have increased to unprecedented levels, so in the great dramas of history. much so that some scholars have declared that we are living in For all the above reasons, migration movement was-and "the age of migration."! These migrant movements are incred­ remains-a prime factor in the global spread of world religions, ibly complex and varied. Credible statistics are lacking in many notably Islam and Christianity. In the first five centuries of its parts of the world, and the rising tide of undocumented workers existence (fromthe seventhto twelfth centuries), the Islamicfaith and "irregular," or illegal, immigrants compounds the difficulty. achieved a scope of expansion unparalleled in history, as it Partly for these reasons, the data on the number of international eventually stretched from Iberia and Morocco in the west to sub­ migrantsin theworldtodayinevitablyinvolveeducated guesses. Saharan Africa in the south and as far east as Persia, northern By the early 1990s there were about 17 million refugees and India, and, later, Indonesia. As a result, Muslim civilization came asylum seekers in the world, 20 million internally displaced to the fore as the most successful heir to the Roman and Persian people, 30 million "regular" migrants, and another 30 million empires, so that the period from roughly 750 to 1750 is conven­ migrants with an "irregular" status." The combined total of 97 tionally regarded in world history as the Islamic Age. This million persons represents a doubling of the global migrant emergence was largely due to a global pattern of migration that population in the space of five years." A more recent survey puts combined military conquest, imperial expansion, missionaries, the number of migrants-defined as people who have lived and merchants. outside their homeland for one year or more-at 150 million.' Not until the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries did Chris­ International migrants are also unevenly spread across the tianity achieve a similar global presence, precisely the era when globe. Sub-Saharan Africa, with an estimated 35 million mi­ the fifteenth-century maritime revolution stimulated the mili­ grants, has the largest numbers of any continent, followed by tary and colonial expansion of European powers and set in Asiaand theMiddleEast." Additionally,mostmigrants-includ­ motion one of the most extraordinary migration movements in ing the bulk of the world's 17 million officially registered refu­ history. In the nineteenth century-between 1815 and 1915­ gees and asylum seekers-stay in their region of origin. Most roughly 50-60 million Europeans emigrated overseas. It is not importantfor ourdiscussion, interregionaltransfersoccurmainly often realized, observes Samuel Huntington, that "the export of from Southto North; it is conjectured that many movements that people was perhaps the single most important dimension of the startas South-to-Southtransfers endupas South-to-Northflows. rise of the West between the sixteenth and twentieth centuries."? Thevarious theories aboutthe nature, origins, andprocesses For a host of reasons, including the growing realities of of international migration focus on a number of issues," The religiouspluralityin Westernsocieties,thefortunes of theworld's oldest and best-known, the neoclassical economic perspective, major religions (Islam and Christianity again take preeminence) explains international migration in terms of the supply of and are in the forefront of the public imagination and public dis­ demand for labor. The historical-structural approach (allied to the course these days. It is gradually becoming obvious that the world-systems theory) focuses on the unequal distribution of processtes) of globalization-in particular, the unprecedented economic and political power. Theories that emphasize social magnitude of transregional people movement and the speeding capital draw attention to the network connections on which up of globalinteractions through the development of worldwide potential migrants draw and the self-perpetuating nature of systems of transport and communication-is potentially trans­ migration networks. The more recent migration systems theory forming severalmajorfaiths intotruly globalreligions, presentin focuses on interactions within specific regions or between spe­ nearly every country, even if in culturally distinctive forms.' cific countries and regions. It proposes that "migratory move­ ments generally arise from the existence of prior links between Jehu J. Hanciles, aSierra Leonean, isAssociate Professor ofMissionHistoryand sending and receiving countries based on colonization, political Globalization at Fuller Theological Seminary, Pasadena, California. He has influence, trade investment, and cultural ties.":" writtenEuthanasiaof a Mission: AfricanChurchAutonomyin a Colonial This diversity of approaches attests to the complexity of Context (Praeger, 2002). contemporary international migration. It is important to bear in

146 INTERNATIONAL BULLETIN OF MISSIONARY RESEARCH, Vol. 27, No.4 mind that international migration is anchored in historical pro­ International Bulletin cesses-inparticular,Western colonialexpansion-andis a mani­ ofMissionary Research festation of worldwide transformations associated with global­ Established 1950 by R. Pierce Beaver as Occasional Bulletin from the Missionary ization. One of the best summary evaluations holds that "the Research Library. Named Occasional Bulletin of Missionary Research in 1977. Renamed upsurge in migration is due to rapid processes of economic, INTERNATIONAL BULLETIN OF MISSIONARY RESEARCH in 1981. Published demographic,social, political,culturalandenvironmentalchange, quarterly in January, April, July, and October by which rise from decolonization, modernization and uneven de­ Overseas Ministries Study Center velopment." Furthermore, "these processes seem set to acceler­ 490 Prospect Street, New Haven, Connecticut 06511, U.S.A. ate in the future, leading to even greaterdislocations and changes Tel: (203) 624-6672 • Fax: (203) 865-2857 in societies, and hence to even larger migrations."!' E-mail: [email protected] • Web: www.OMSC.org South-to-North Migration Movement Editor: Associate Editor: Jonathan J. Bonk Dwight P.Baker The overwhelming majority of contemporary international mi­ Assistant Editor: Managing Editor: grations are economically driven. The widening economic gap Craig A. Noll Daniel J. Nicholas between the highly industrialized countries of the North and the "developing" or "underdeveloped" countries of the South has Senior Contributing Editors: transformed the former into a magnet for migrant movement. Gerald H. Anderson Robert T. Coote "Economic crisis and social change in the South," argue Castles Contributing Editors: and Miller, "is generating new pressures for migrating to the Catalino G. Arevalo, S.J. C. Rene Padilla North."12 For example, Argentina's recent economic collapse David B. Barrett James M. Phillips saw "thousands of Argentines queuing up at foreign embassies StephenB. Bevans, S.V.D. Dana L. Robert in Buenos Aires, seeking a passport or a visa."13 Samuel Escobar Lamin Sanneh John E Gorski, M.M. Wilbert R. Shenk The unprecedented levels of international migration seem Paul G. Hiebert Brian Stanley set to continue. The various stimuli for migrant movement­ Jan A. B. Jongeneel Charles R. Taber including wars, employment, and asylum seeking-aregrowing Sebastian Karotemprel, S.D.B TiteTienou worldwide. Less widely noticed perhaps are the demographic David A. Kerr Ruth A. Tucker factors. In a world where the richest 1 percent receive as much Graham Kings Desmond Tutu Anne-Marie Kool Andrew E Walls income as the poorest 57 percent," the inverse relationship Gary B. McGee Anastasios Yannoulatos between demographic growth and economic development is a Mary Motte, EM.M. potent catalyst in the buildup of pressures that stimulate mass Advertising: migration. It is estimated that around 95 percent of all global Circulation Coordinator: Ruth E. Taylor population growth in the next quarter of a century will take place Angela Scipio 11 Graffam Road [email protected] South Portland, Maine 04106 in developingcountries (i,e., in theSouth).15 Somehavepredicted www.OMSC.org (207) 799-4387 that Africa, the fastest-growing continent of all, will triple its Books for review and correspondence regarding editorial matters should be addressed to current population of nearly 800 million." This projected in­ the editors. Manuscripts unaccompanied by a self-addressed, stamped envelope (or crease seems exaggerated, given existing social pathologies on international postal coupons) will not be returned. Opinions expressed in the the continent. Even a doubling of the population, however, will INTERNATIONAL BULLETIN are those of the authors and not necessarily of the translate into massive poverty, escalating instability, and further Overseas Ministries Study Center. migration movements. Articles appearing in this journal are abstracted and indexed in: In sharp contrast, the developed countries, which compose Bibliografia Missionaria IBR (International Bibliography of 15 percent of the world population (but account for about 60 Book Review Index Book Reviews) percent of its GDP), will experience stagnant or negative popu­ Christian Periodical Index IBZ (International Bibliography of lation growth. In every single developed country the birthrate Guide to People in Periodical Periodical Literature) Literature Missionalia has dropped well below the replacement rate of 2.2 live births per Guide to Social Science and Religion Religious and Theological Abstracts woman of reproductive age." In Europe the decline is projected in Periodical Literature Religion Index One: Periodicals to continue. Germany, the world's third largest economy, faces the prospect of having almost half its adult population aged Index, abstracts, and full text of thisjournal are available on databases provided by ATLAS, sixty-five or over by 2030. In the United States the decline in the EBSCO, H. W. Wilson Company, The Gale Group, and University Microfilms. Back birth rate has been followed by striking recovery (by the 1990s) issues may be seen on the ATLAS Web site, www.ATLA.com. Also consult InfoTrac database at many academic and public libraries. to just below the replacement level, and it continues to rise. The crucial difference between the two regions is that "America's International Bulletin of Missionary Research (ISSN 0272-6122) is published by the immigration outstrips Europe's and its immigrant population is Overseas Ministries Study Center, 490 Prospect Street, New Haven, CT 06511. For reproducing faster than native-born Americans."ls By contrast, subscription orders and changes of address write International Bulletin of Missionary Research, P.O.Box 3000, Denville, NJ 07834-3000. Address correspondence concerning increasedbarriersto immigrantentryin Europe(since1950)have subscriptions and missing issues to: Circulation Coordinator, [email protected]. contributed greatly to that continent's decline in population. Periodicals postage paid at New Haven, CT. Single Copy Price: $8.00. Subscription rate The economic and long-term geopolitical implications of worldwide: one year (4 issues) $27.00. Foreign subscribers must pay in U.S. funds drawn this demographic disparity are complex. Over the next fifteen on a U.S. bank, Visa, MasterCard, or International Money Order. Airmail delivery $16 years, observes Peter Drucker, Germanywill "haveto importone per year extra. POSTMASTER: Send address changes to International Bulletin of million immigrants of working age each year simply to maintain Missionary Research, P.O. Box 3000, Denville, New Jersey 07834-3000. its workforce." Unfortunately, growing anti-immigration senti­ Copyright © 2003 by Overseas Ministries Study Center. All rights reserved. ments in Europe, which has seen a fierce backlash against immi­ gration and foreigners, act as a major stumblingblock." Frustrat-

October 2003 147 ingly for Western governments, the general trend toward in­ abandon." Transmigrants are oftenbilingual, can lead duallives, creasing global interchange and communication is at odds with move easilybetween cultures, frequently maintain homes in two the amount of effort needed to control and provide surveillance countries, and are incorporated as social actors in both." of borders. They have erected ever higher barriers to stem this Transmigration is not a new phenomenon. The traditional flow-transforming the world less into a global village than a Western missionary was essentially a transmigrant, one who "gated community'P'-cbut the impulses stimulating mass mi­ claimed and was claimed by two societies, with strong ties and gration are often too strong for restrictions to be fully effective." commitment to both. Ona widercanvas, theWestern missionary In the United States the grotesque tragedy of September 11,2001, movementnot only played a crucialrole in the spread of Western has catapulted immigration onto the center stage of national values throughout non-Western societies but also helped to consciousness and government policy-making. Indeed, the very shape public opinion and deepen knowledge of non-Western genuine fears and concerns it has generated have provided cultures at home. In many ways it linked the destinies of two excellent cover for the rhetoric of public figures, including some worlds. What is new is the intensification of global interactions Christian leaders, given to racially motivated xenophobia." and interconnectedness, combined with the increased volume of migrant movement. Impact of Migration on Home Countries Understanding Global Christian Expansion The impactof migration on homecountries is equallysignificant. Adverse effects on homelands include the lost investment in None of the othermajorreligions has quite matchedChristianity's human capital, as well as a diminishing pool of taxpayers and expansionism and missionary mobilization. The Christian faith potential leaders. The "brain drain" is the most-cited negative was barely a decade old when its detractors complained that its effect. Africa, for instance, is calculated to have lost about one­ adherents were causing trouble "all over the world" (Acts 17:6 third of its skilled people (including 45 percent of its engineers) NIV). Contemporary critics are unlikely to disagree. Quite sim­ to Europe." But many migrants are unable to find stable employ­ ply, the missionary impulse imbedded in Christianity's core ment in their home countries in the first place, which means that message defies restraint. Already in the third century Origen a more nuanced understanding of this phenomenon is called attested that "Christians do not neglect, as far as in them lies, to for." Since it is rarely the' poorest people from the least-devel­ take measures to disseminate their doctrine throughout the oped countries who move to the richest countries, international whole world."?' Even during periods in the history of Christian­ migration is consideredbotha consequence of, and a contributor ity whenthe odds were heavilystacked againstits veryprospects to, uneven economic development." for survival, its "universalist momentum," in Adrian Hastings's From a different perspective, migrants are often of tremen­ apt phrase, has defied territorial confinement and transcended dous economic value to their homeland. For many developing all human constraints-political, social, and cultural." countriesmigrant remittances havebecomea far moreimportant Christianity's capacity for cross-cultural transmission has source of revenue than foreign aid; in several smaller countries periodicallygenerated majordemographicand geographicshifts they are a bigger source of foreign exchange than foreign invest­ involving a relocation of its cultural center, a pattern that has ment or even exports." IMF figures indicate that developing earned it the dubious distinction of being the only world religion that is a minority faith in its place of origin." Indeed, Andrew Walls argues that Christianity owes its survival as a separate faith to its capacity to expand across cultural frontiers in a International migration is mannerthatrenders"eachnewpointon the Christiancircumfer­ both a consequence of and ence ... a new potentialChristiancentre.":" This characteristic, he contributor to uneven insists, is quite peculiar to Christianity. Other world religions, even the far older Hinduismand the equally universalistic Islam, economic development. have retained the same geographic and cultural center through­ out their existence. Walls goes on to identify six historical phases in which countries receive $60 billion a year in remittances. According to transformation by cultural diffusion gave the Christian faith estimates, remittances to India exceed $9 billion per annum-six continued existence, each stage investing it with new cultural times the amount it receives in foreign aid. attributes and effectively widening its impact: Mostimportant, globalmigrationmovements linkthefate of distantcommunitiesin a mannerthattranscendsnationalbound­ 1. the Jewish age, marked by Jewish practices and ideas aries and significantly weakens culture-place or identity-place 2. the Hellenistic-Roman age, marked by the idea of ortho­ correlation." An ever-increasing number of households in the doxy South have at least one family member or close relative with 3. the barbarian age, marked by the idea of a Christian whomthey have close ties living in the North. This reality has led nation some migration scholars to reject the common notion of immi­ 4. the westernEuropeanage, markedby the primacyof the grants as individuals who uproot themselves from their home individual country to start a completely new life in a new land." Rather, 5. the age of expanding Europe and Christian recession, contemporary patterns of international migration would per­ marked by cross-cultural transplantation but also accom­ haps more helpfully be termed "transnational migration" or paniedby massive recession from the faith amongEuro­ "transmigration."This newparadigmsuggeststhat"eventhough pean peoples migrants invest socially, economically, and politically in their 6. (just beginning) the Southern age, featuring extensive new society, they may continue to participate in the daily life of penetration of new culturesin Africa, Latin America, the the society from which they emigrated but which they did not Pacific, and parts of Asia"

148 INTERNATIONAL BULLETIN OF MISSIONARY RESEARCH, Vol. 27, No.4 The sixth stage has invalidated the standard representation of Missionaryinitiatives from the old heartlands of Europe and Christianity as a Western religion. As Philip Jenkins pointedly North America are arguably diminishing in significance. A ma­ notes, "The era of Western Christianity has passed within our jor reversal (and diffusion) of missionary enterprise is under­ lifetimes, and the day of Southern Christianity is dawning. The way, one significantly tied to the fact that the direction of global fact of change itself is undeniable: it has happened, and will migratory flow is now primarily south to north and east to west, continue to happen. So little did we notice this momentous where it was once primarily north to south. Before 1925, 85 change that it was barely mentioned in all the media hoopla percent of all international migrants originated from Europe; surrounding the end of the second millennium."35 since 1960 Europe has contributed an increasingly small fraction Perhaps few areas of the world demonstrate this dramatic of emigrants to worldemigrationflows as emigrantsfrom Africa, shift more clearly than Africa, an area "experiencing the fastest Asia, and Latin America have increased dramatically." Once church growth of any region" in the world." While much of this again, the possibilities for Christian expansion and migratory increase is surely linked to population growth, it is significant movement are forcibly and intimately intertwined. thatthe percentage of Christians grewfrom 9.2 percent in 1900to But how will these post-Western Christianities affect a post­ 45 percent by 2000.37 The World Christian Encyclopedia (2d ed., Christian West? If, as Walls contends, the Christian faith has 2001) also estimates that African Christians are increasing at a depended on cross-cultural diffusion for its survival, then we rate of 23,000 new Christians a day (or 8.5 million a year), while could say that the future of Christianity is intricately bound up churches in Europe and North America lose an estimated 6,000 church members a day." There are good reasons for viewing such statistics with caution, not least because multiple member­ Traditional Western ship and fluid allegiances are common elements in African .. . Christianity. But such data are impossible to ignore completely. nussronaries were Significantly, Africa is also a major source and center of essentially transmigrants. migrantflows. It has moremigrants thananyothercontinentand is home to about one-third of the world's refugees and asylum seekers." This fact raises the question of just how much this withthe emergingnon-Westernmissionarymovement. The south­ massive upsurge of people movements may be contributing to ward shift in global Christianity's center of gravity poses intrigu­ Christian expansion on the continent, as violence and political ing and, as yet, little-analyzed questions regarding the scope and instability drive hordes of people from predominantly Christian dynamics of global Christian witness or mission enterprise. One countries to predominantlyMuslim countries, and vice versa. At consideration will be central. To the extent that it is predomi­ the same time, sub-Saharan Africa also generates significant nantly non-Western, the new face of global Christianity is one of outflows of intercontinental migrants not only to western Eu­ relative poverty and powerlessness, as for the first time in over a rope but also to North America and the Middle East. This millennium,the globalchurchdisplays the mostexplosivegrowth movement from the new heartlands of Christianity to the old and increasing missionary vitality precisely in those areas that centers where the faith is experiencing dramatic erosion and are most marginalized and impoverished."This change is bound marginalization has critical implications for global Christian to have an impact on basic assumptions. witness. A Changed Understanding Instrument of Christian Expansion The version of the Great Commission recorded in Matthew Christianity is a migratory religion, and migration movements 28:18-20 became the watchword of the Western missionary have been a functional element in its expansion." The six ages or movement-perhaps emblematic of its activistic voluntarism, phases of Christian history identified by Walls were shaped to grand strategies, focus on evangelism, and emphasis on the use one extentor anotherby migratory movements. From the outset, of means. It is doubtful that this text will retain its primacy in the the spread of the Gospel was linked to migrant networks; most growing non-Western missionary movement. The latter boasts significantly, the inception of the Gentile mission is marked by neither the economic and technological advantages of the West­ the actions of unnamed migrant refugees in Antioch (Acts 11:19­ ern missionary movement nor the protection of strong economic 20). In the centuries that immediately followed, the Christian and military powers that the Western missionary movement faith spread mainly through kinship and commercial networks, enjoyed." In acute contrast it comes not from the centers of migrantmovements (somestimulatedby persecution), andother political power and economic wealth but from the periphery. informal means. Critically also, it emanates from contexts of religious plurality The thousand years from A.D. 500 to 1500, which saw the where Christianity has historicallybeena minority faith, a perse­ entrenchment of Christianity as the faith of western Europe, cuted religion, or simply one among others. These factors have were marked, writes Kenneth Scott Latourette, "by vast move­ serious implications for the effectiveness of its "missionaries." ments of peoples," notably in the Eurasian landmass." The end They are likely to be free from the arrogance and triumphalism of that period witnessed the beginning of the momentous expan­ associated witha Christendommentality (thoughthey will likely sion of Europeans from the heartlands of Christianity to other face equally strong temptations of a spiritual superciliousness) parts of the world. From 1815 to 1914, the great century of and will plausibly have much to offer the church in the West as Western missionary enterprise, up to 60 million Europeans left it grapples with issues of identity and relevance in the face of for the Americas, Oceania, and East and South Africa. It is hardly emerging religious plurality. an accident of history that the greatest Christian missionary Other versions of the Great Commission, specifically the expansion of all time coincided with possibly the most remark­ Johannine model (John 17:18 and 20:21), will likely provide a able of all migrations in human history, culminating in an ep­ better missiological orientation. John 20:21 directs simply, "As ochal transformation of global Christianity. the Father has sent me, I am sending you" (NIV). Already in the

October 2003 149 mid-1970s John Stott began to argue that this Johannine version the 1980s the volumeof Africanmigrants to Europe rosedramati­ is in fact the "crucial form in which the Great Commission has cally as, convulsed by escalating conflicts and crises, the conti­ been handed down to US."45 He pointed out that it carries two nent spewed out a steady flow of economic refugees and asylum profound implications: first, Christian mission must be one of seekers. In Britain, the European country with the longest ties to service (not epitomized by structures or attitudes of dominance); modern African Christianity, the establishmentof African immi­ second, it must be incarnational (with an emphasis on being one grant churches dates to the early 1960s, and they now numberup with others and, by implication, being vulnerable). to 3,000 congregations.51 These churches are also mushrooming Certain aspects of Christ's ministry were unique and in unprecedented fashion throughoutcontinental Europe, where unrepeatable. Yet, focusing on his mission as the archetype of the number of African Christians are thought to be in excess of Christian mission is replete with poignancy and paradoxes that three million.52 will resonate within the non-Western missionary movementand African migration to the United States in significant num­ providemoremeaningfulreferencepoints. Tobeginwith,Christ's bers is a morerecentphenomenon. But here too all indicationsare life and ministry included the travail of a refugee, the pain of that the number of African Christians is on the rise. Up to 1965, uprootedness,andthe alienationthatcomeswithbeinga stranger. restrictive immigration laws stemmed the tide. But in the wake Even the emptying of status to take on the form of a servant has of the 1965 Immigration Reform Act, ethnic diversity in U.S. society increased markedly, reflecting greater immigration from Asia and Latin America." The United States also received thou­ In Britain, African sands of African immigrants, the majority from Nigeria. To be sure, Africans constitute a small, if growing, percent­ immigrant churches now age of all immigrants to the United States." How many of these number up to 3,000 are Christians remains anybody's guess, but if the growing number of African immigrant churches is any indication, the congregations. ratio may be fairly high. The earliest migrants tend to be rela­ tively well-educated, skilled, productive, and highly motivated, and studies indicate that a sizable majority of African immi­ its parallels in the migrantexperience. And, withoutpressing the grants are highly educated professionals. The requirement of parallel too far, the incarnational dimension is also significantly basic levels of skill and education for legal immigration to the recaptured in other ways. Non-Western Christian migrants live United States also fosters this prevalence. We know that a good amongnew peoples, dwell in the neighborhood, and are pressed proportion of Christians fall into this category, if only because into varying degrees of adaptation and assimilation, though Christian agencies have historically played a significant role in often without entirely losing cultural traits." Much about their Africa's educational development. experience also evokes sharp images of the biblical paradigm of The notion that the growth of Christianity in the southern God's people as pilgrims, migrants, and refugees. This notion of continents is fueled by contextual pathologies is simplistic. Pov­ God's mission as originating from the margins is powerfully erty and innumerable hardships are factors, but charismatic or depicted by the Cuban-American scholar Miguel De La Torre: neo-Pentecostal movements (the most dominant expressions of "God's self-revelation to humanity does not occur from the African Christianity) often originate among, and draw a signifi­ centers of worldpowerbutin themarginsof society. It is notfrom cant proportion of their membership from, the educated, the the court of Pharaoh that God's laws are revealed to humanity youth, and upwardly mobile groups. Incidentally, the emer­ but from their slaves. Nor does the incarnation occur in the gence of these movements coincides with the upsurge in migra­ imperial palace of Caesar, or to the household of the high priest tion, and the new charismatic churches are often connected to in Jerusalem. Rather, God is made flesh among the impure international or global networks that facilitate migrant move­ Galileans ... [in] a region where the unclean Gentiles outnum­ ment. Also, their leaders are the most likely to adopt a vision for bered the [ews.":" the evangelization of the West. Wallsargues that"the territorial'from-to' ideathat underlay In western Europe the rise of African immigrant churches the older missionary movement has to give way to a concept and other non-Western Christian congregations has been dra­ much more like that of Christians within the Roman Empire in matically visible because of the stark contrast between the dyna­ the second and third centuries: parallel presences in different mism of new immigrant Christian groups and the often mori­ circles and at different levels, each seeking to penetrate within bund tone of the traditional churches. Even the secular press has and beyond its circle.":" This view captures current realities. taken notice: "Missionaries Arrive to Save 'Heathen' Britain" Contemporary migration is "a network-driven phenomenon, was the provocative title of an article that appeared in the London with newcomers naturally attracted to the places where they Sunday Times on July 1, 2000; "evangelists from Latin America have contacts and the buildup of contacts facilitating later moves and Africa now hold crusades in cities like London and Berlin," to the key immigrant centers.":" Accordingly, in contrast to testified Kenneth Woodward in a more in-depthtreatment of the European-style linear structures, the emerging non-Western trend in Netnstoeek/" Academic interest is not lacking either. In movement "is cellular, travels along pre-existingsocial relations, probably the most detailed study to date, the Dutch scholar rests on charismatic leadership, communicates in songs and Gerrie ter Haar asserts: "Just as European missionaries once signals, and understands the humanpersonin his or herrelation­ believed in their divine task of evangelizing what they called the ship to community/"? dark continent, African church leaders in Europe today are convinced of Africa's mission to bring the gospel back to those African Christian Migrants who originally provided it. Thus, many African Christians who have recently migrated to Europe, generally to find work, con­ Predictably, South to North movement draws on established siderthatGod has given thema unique opportunityto spread the links between former colonies and former colonial states. From good news among those who have gone astray.T"

150 INTERNATIONAL BULLETIN OF MISSIONARY RESEARCH, Vol. 27, No.4 r mission for the 21 st century is to equip servant leaders who will mobilize the global church for the mission of God ."

Dr. Dou g McCon nell, Dean -elect, Schoo l of World Mission

~L: rofL E R THEOLOGICAL SEMINARY HAS ALWAYS - -',B EEN CO MM ITTED' TO T H IN KIN G CR EATI VELY ABOUT MISSION. ; :.. ~ !. Wh a p"'s on our minds and hearts th ese days? '\ »-¥ i~i stry to th e world's exploding population of / / Ai~ u n g people , / ,. !/::( Creative strategies for ministry to Muslims

» Serving the rapid expansion of the Church south of the equator

» Reaching those who hold a postmodern worldview

» Integrating worship with mission

» The impact of globalization and urbanization Working on innovative responses to these and other challenging contemporary issues makes Fuller an exciting pla ce for present and future leaders to study.

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------A similar pattern is becoming evident in the United States. held in English with French translation, but the worship and Diversity of Christian expression and competing forms of ethos are vibrantly African. Almost all the African members are worship are not new phenomena in America, but, generally migrants, and membership increase is mainly through informal speaking, the new Christian immigrants are expressing their contacts and networks. The combination of African leadership Christianity in languages, customs, and independent churches and conscious multinationalism makes this church a powerful thatare almost as foreign to Americans as other religions.57 While tool of mission in a context where church membership has been many immigrants adapt their religions to the social conditions of in steep decline for decades. the host country, there is already some suggestion that the In both North America and Europe, these new immigrant overall impact is what we could call the de-Europeanizing of Christian groups embody a fresh and vital spirituality that is American Christianity." likely to have an impact far beyond their immediate sphere of The Nigerian-based Redeemed Christian Church of God witness and influence. Ter Haar correctly surmises that they (RCCG), founded in 1952,is now headed by Rev. E. A. Adeboye, provide "a new outlook on the relative positions of Christians a former mathematics professor. A fully international move­ from Europe and Africa, reflecting the changed relations and the ment, the RCCG numbers 5,000 parishes in 80 countries. It is the beginning of what seems to be an irreversible trend."?' Even so, a great deal will depend on how much the second and third generations follow in the footsteps of the first. For now, these Christianity is a migratory churches are often among the fastest growing precisely because they reproduce or exhibit the same vitality and dynamism that religion and has been from are present in the homelands of immigrant members. African the outset. churches in particular are renowned not only for their irrepress­ ible religiosity anddeepspiritualitybutalso for theirevangelistic zeal." Typically urban-based and dependent on social networks, largest African Pentecostal church in the United States, where it immigrant initiated churches often become veritable centers of currently has 82 parishes. "The United States has become very transmigration or transnationalism, effectively bridging North slack," noted one of its pastors at a recent convention, "So God is and South Christianities. making us bring worship and praise to them."? Like many This non-Western missionary movement, as I have termed immigrant churches, it is primarily a place for African immi­ it, is still in its early stages. Its long-term significance and impact grants to form a community and preserve homeland traditions. remain to be seen and need to be more thoroughly researched But although its congregations tend to be predominantly Nige­ from a global perspective. One of the chief features of the history rian, the churchevangelizesaggressively,attractsAfrican-Ameri­ of Christian missions is that theoretical formulation and formal cans, Anglo-Americans, and Hispanics as members, and empha­ strategy typically lag behind actual missionary enterprise. Ques­ sizes a global vision. tions aboutthe assumptions, models, and even theology that will The majority of African immigrant churches (AICs?), how­ characterize the emerging non-Western missionary movement ever, are single autonomous units often established by individu­ may not be fully answered for some time. Institutional forms are als or groups who found North American alternatives too pallid emerging (prominently so among Latin American-based Pente­ for theirliking. The CalvaryWorshipCenterin Burnaby(Canada) costal movements in the United States),butas yet this movement is led by a young Ghanaian pastor, Samuel Awusu, who has a remains, for the most part, informal and even anonymous­ Ph.D. from Trinity College. Founded with four members in 1992, evocative of John Fairbank's astute observation that lithe mis­ the church now has an average weekly attendance of 160. In sionary in foreign parts seems to be the invisible man of . . . keeping withAwusu'svisionfor theformation of a multinational history.t''" One thing is certain: missionary movement is often a Christian community (a house of all nations), membership is 45 history-makingforce, and these newmovements will helpdefine percent African and 40 percent Anglo-Canadian. Services are the face and future of global Christianity.

Notes------­ 1. Peter N. Stearns, Culturesin Motion: MappingKeyContacts and Their 9. For a usefultreatmentof internationalmigrationtheories,see Douglas Imprints in World History (New Haven: Yale Univ. Press, 2001). Massey, "Why Does Immigration Occur? A Theoretical Synthesis," 2. Samuel Huntington, The Clash of Civilizations and the Remaking of in The Handbook of International Migration: The American Experience, World Order(New York: Simon & Schuster, 1996), p. 198. ed. Charles Hirschman et al. (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 3. Tim Dearborn is suggestive in his article "Christ, the Church, and 1999),pp.34-52; PatriciaR.Pessar, "TheRole of Gender,Households, Other Religions," in TheLocal Church in a Global Era: Reflections fora and Social Networks in the Migration Process: A Review and New Century, ed. Max Stackhouse, Tim Dearborn, and Scott Paeth Reappraisal," in ibid., pp. 53-70. See also Castles and Miller, Age of (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2000), pp. 139-41. Migration, pp. 19-29. 4. StephenCastlesandMarkJ.Miller, TheAgeofMigration: International 10. Castles and Miller, Age ofMigration, p. 24. Population Movements in the Modern World (New York: Guilford 11. Ibid., p. 139. Press, 1998). 12. Ibid., p. 79. For similar arguments, see David Held et al., Global 5. See Elizabeth G. Ferris, Beyond Borders: Refugees, Migrants, andHuman Transformations: Politics, Economics, and Culture (Stanford, Calif.: Rights in thePost-Cold War Era (Geneva: WCC Publications, 1993),p. 10. Stanford Univ. Press, 1999), pp. 303-05. 6. See James Mittelman, TheGlobalization Syndrome: Transformation and 13. Article titled "Emigration from Latin America: Making the Most of Resistance (Princeton: Princeton Univ. Press, 2000), p. 59. an Exodus," Economist, February 23,2002, p. 41. 7. Special Report, "The Longest Journey: A Survey of Migration," 14. See Human Development Report 2001 (United Nations), p. 19. Economist, November 2, 2002, p. 5. 15. Paul Kennedy, Preparing for the Twenty-first Century (New York: 8. See Mittelman, Globalization Syndrome, p. 59; also Ferris, Beyond Vintage Books, 1993), p. 24. Borders, pp. 130-31. This figure represents about 8 percent of the 16. Ibid., p. 25. Africa had half of Europe's population in 1950; by 2025 population of sub-Saharan Africa. its population is projected to be three times that of Europe.

152 INTERNATIONAL BULLETIN OF MISSIONARY RESEARCH, Vol. 27, No.4 17. See PeterDrucker, "The NextSociety," Economist, November3,2001. societies) were $2,813,550,compared with total expenditures by the 18. Special Report, "Demography and the West," Economist, August, U.S. government for the same period of $3,585,534 (Wilbert Shenk, 24-30,2002, p. 20. ed., NorthAmerican Foreign Missions,1810-1914: Theology, Theory, and 19. The recent electoral defeats and reversals of fortune experienced by Policy [Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, forthcoming]). far-right politicalparties with an anti-immigrationstancein Austria, 45. John Stott, Christian Mission and the Modern World (London: Falcon France, and Holland complicate analysis. Books, 1975), p. 23. 20. Bruce Scott, "The Great Divide in the Global Village," Foreign Affairs 46. Terms like"segmented assimilation" are increasingly used to signal 80, no. 1 (January/February 2001): 160. the fact that contemporary migrants, who are heavily concentrated 21. More than1.3millionpeople,340,000vehicles, and58,000shipments in urbanareas, increasinglydefyconventionalwisdom (andstandard are estimated to enter the United States every day. See David Sanger assimilation theory) by resisting complete assimilation, even up to and Eric Schmitt, "BushLeans Toward New Agency to ControlWho the third generation. The experience of transmigration is only one and What Enters," NewYorkTimes(InternetEdition: March20,2002). reason for this resistance. For a discussion, see Portes, "Immigration 22. Seefor examplePat Buchanan,Death oftheWest: HowDyingPopulations Theory," pp. 29-30; Roger Waldinger, "Strangers at the Gates," in and Immigrant Invasions Imperil Our Country and Civilization (New Strangers at the Gates: New Immigrants in Urban America, ed. Roger York: St. Martin's Press, 2002). Waldinger (Los Angeles: Univ. of California Press, 2001), pp. 1-29. 23. Ferris, Beyond Borders, p. 131. 47. Miguel A. De La Torre, Reading theBible fromtheMargins(Maryknoll, 24. The term ''brain circulation" is deemed more appropriate in cases N.Y.: Orbis Books, 2002), p. 31. where immigrants constantly move back and forth between home 48. Walls, Missionary Movement,pp. 258-59. and host country. A recent survey of Chinese immigrants in Silicon 49. Waldinger, "Strangers at the Gates," p. 3. Itis also worth noting that Valley revealed that50percentof those surveyed returnto theirhome the 1965 Immigration Reform Act in the United States (discussed country at least once a year on business, and 5 percent do so at least below) favored immigrants with kinship ties to permanentresidents five times a year. See Special Report, "The Longest Journey," p. 12. or citizens;see RogerWaldingerandJenniferLee, "NewImmigrants 25. See Massey, "Why Does Immigration Occur?" p. 48. in Urban America," in Strangers at theGates, ed. Waldinger, pp. 33ff. 26. Economist, February 23, 2002, p. 42. 50. RoswithGerloff, "Africa as the Laboratory of the World: The African 27. For increasing numbers of people, notes John Tomlinson, "the Christian Diaspora in Europe, Pentecostalism, and the Challenge to comforting,familiar characterof the culturalsettings [they] routinely Mission and Ecumenical Relations" (paper presented at the Society move amongst conceals the influences of distant social forces and for Pentecostal Studies, Thirty-first Annual Meeting, Lakeland, Fla., processes" (J.Tomlinson, Globalization andCulture[Chicago: Univ. of March 14-16, 2002). Chicago Press, 1999], pp. 106-7). 51. Gerrie ter Haar, Halfway to Paradise: African Christians in Europe 28. See Nina G. Schiller, "Transmigrants and Nation-States: Something (Cardiff: Cardiff Academic Press, 1998), p. 92. Old and Something New in the U.S. Immigrant Experience," in 52. Report of the Council of African Christian Communities in Europe Handbook ofInternational Migration, ed. Hirschman et al., pp. 94-119. (CACCE) at the 1999meetingin Belgium, quotedin RoswithGerloff, 29. See Alejandro Portes, "Immigration Theory for a New Century: "Religion, Culture, and Resistance: The Significance of African Some Problems and Opportunities," in ibid., p. 29. Christian Communities in Europe," Exchange 30 (2001):277. 30. Origen, "Against Celsus" (book 3, chapter ix), in The Ante-Nicene 53. Between 1980 and 1990 the number of Latinos and Asians in the Fathers, vol. 4, ed. Alexander Roberts and James Donaldson (Grand United States rose by 53 percent and 96 percent, respectively. Asian Rapids: Eerdmans, 1979),468. immigration rose from 6 percent in the 1950s to 45 percent in the 31. Adrian Hastings, "150-1550," in A World History of Christianity, ed. 1980s. Hispanics constitute more than 50 percent of the population Adrian Hastings (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1999), p. 58. in California. See Helen R. Ebaugh and Janet S. Chafetz, Religion and 32. The same claim, however, might be made for Buddhism. the New Immigrants: Continuities and Adaptations in Immigrant 33. Andrew Walls, TheMissionary Movementin Christian History: Studies Congregations (New York: AltaMira Press, 2000), p. 14. in theTransmission ofFaith (Maryknoll, N.Y.:Orbis Books, 1996),p. 22. 54. For a recent study, see John A. Arthur, Invisible Sojourners: African 34. Ibid., pp. 16-25. Immigrant Diaspora in the United States (Westport, Conn.: Praeger, 35. PhilipJenkins, TheNext Christendom: TheComingofGlobal Christianity 2000). (New York: Oxford Univ. Press, 2002), p. 2. 55. KennethL.Woodward, "The ChangingFace of the Church: Howthe 36. See John A. Siewert and Edna G. Valdez, eds., Mission Handbook, Explosion of Christianity in Developing Nations Is Transforming 1998-2000 (Monrovia, Calif.: MARC, World Vision, 1997), p. 34. the World's Largest Religion," Newsweek, April 16, 2001, p. 49. 37. See Michael [affarian, "The Statistical State of the Missionary 56. Ter Haar, HalfwaytoParadise, p. 92. See also her article "Strangers in Enterprise," Missiology 30, no. 1 (January 2002): 19. the Promised Land: African Christians in Europe," Exchange 24 38. David B. Barrett, George T. Kurian, and Todd M. Johnson, World (February 1995): 1-33. Christian Encyclopedia: A Comparative SurveyofChurches andReligions 57. See Ebaugh and Chafetz, Religion and the New Immigrants, p. 14. in theModern World (New York: Oxford Univ. Press, 2001), 1:5. These authors allude to a 1998 estimate that reported 3,500Catholic 39. Ferris, Beyond Borders, p. 94. parishes where Mass is celebrated in Spanish; 7,000 Hispanic/ 40. For a similar point, see Samuel Escobar, "The Global Scenario at the Latino Protestantcongregationsnationwide,mostofthemPentecostal Turn of the Century," in Global Missiology fortheTwenty-firstCentury: and/or evangelical; and (by 1988) 2,017 Korean Christian churches The Iguassu Dialogue, ed. William D. Taylor (Grand Rapids: Baker, and 700 Chinese Protestant churches in the United States. 2000), p. 34. 58. Fenggang Yang and Helen Ebaugh, "Transformations in New 41. Kenneth Scott Latourette, A Histo.ry of the Expansion of Christianity, Immigrant Religions and Their Global Implications," American vol. 2, TheThousand Years ofUncertainty (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, Sociological Review66 (April 2001): 269-88. 1970; 1st ed., 1938), p. 3. 59. Julia Lieblich and Tom McCann, "Africans Now Missionaries to the 42. See Massey, "Why Does Immigration Occur?" p. 35. U.S.," Chicago Tribune, June 21, 2002, p. 1. 43. An exception to this generalization is South Korea, which is 60. Ter Haar, "Strangers in the Promised Land," p. 30. experiencing rising prosperity and decreasing population growth 61. It is now common, reports ter Haar, to see African missionaries butwhichis currentlythe secondgreatestmissionary-sendingnation preaching in public places in the major cities of Europe (Halfway to (behind only the United States). Paradise, p. 2). 44. Consider, for instance, that between 1789 and 1828 the revenues of 62. John K. Fairbank, "Assignment for the '70s," American Historical the largest benevolent societies in America (including mission Review74 (February 1969):877.

October 2003 153 Church-Mission Dynamics in Northeast India Lalsangkima Pachuau

he story of the churches and missions in Northeast India Christians, the number of Christians among the nontribal people T is complex. Diverse ethnocultural groups inhabit the in the plains of Assam, Manipur, and Tripura is relatively small region, and a variety of ecclesiastical traditions have come there and insignificant. The accompanying table, tabulated from the to establish churches. To comprehend thelife and activities of the 1991census report, shows the religious composition of the seven churches, one must have a sense of the rich ethnic background states of Northeast India." and the manifold religious characteristics of the region. Because From the table, we can notice several things. With the myaim is to portraythe missionary efforts and accomplishments exception of Arunachal Pradesh and Tripura, the tribal people of Christianchurchesin theregion, Iemphasizethecontributions are largely Christian, and the nontribals are largely non-Chris­ of the indigenous Christians. This is not in any way to discount the valuable contribution of Religious Composition of the States of Northeast India Western missionaries but to highlight the role of the churches as they exist today.' (by percentage) State Hindus Christians Sikhs The Region, the People, and the Muslims Buddhists [ains Others Religions Arunachal Pradesh 37.04 1.38 10.29 0.14 12.88 0.01 38.26 Bordered in the north by Bhutan, Tibet, and Meghalaya 14.67 3.46 64.58 0.15 0.16 0.02 16.96 China, in the south and southwest by Mizoram 5.05 0.66 85.73 0.04 7.83 N 0.69 Bangladesh, and in the east and southeast by Nagaland 10.12 1.71 87.47 0.06 0.05 0.10 0.49 Myanmar, the region knownas NortheastIndia Assam 67.13 28.43 3.32 0.07 0.29 0.09 0.67 lies in the far eastern corner of the country. Manipur 57.67 7.27 34.11 0.07 0.04 0.07 0.77 Linked to the rest of India by a small strip of Tripura 86.50 7.13 1.68 0.03 4.65 0.01 N land, the region has seven states: Arunachal Total NE India 60.95 21.56 13.64 0.07 1.15 0.08 2.55 Pradesh, Assam, Manipur, Meghalaya, Source: Censusof India 1991, Series-1 India, Paper 1 of 1995, Religion (New Delhi: M. Mizoram, Nagaland, and Tripura.' At the time Vijayanunni, Registrar General and Census Commissioner, India, 1995), pp. xii-xxi. of India's independence in 1947, all but the Note: "N" stands for "Negligible." princely states of Manipur and Tripura were partof Assam. The statesof ArunachalPradesh, Meghalaya, Mizoram, and Nagaland were carved out of Assam tian. Among the hill-states, Arunachal Pradesh and Meghalaya in the 1960s and 1970s. havea good numberof"other" religious persuasions. The census Northeast India displays a distinctive geoethnic character.' report identifies these as indigenous religions, often referred to About three-quarters of the regionis coveredby hilly terrain, and as animism, found mostly in the rural areas. In terms of religious one-quarter consists of plains. So-called tribals live in the hill composition, Arunachal Pradesh can be said to be the most areas, and Sanskritized or Hinduized nontribals reside in the mixed in the region. According to Chander Sheikhar Panchani, plains. According to the 1991census, more than 71 percent of the threereligionsare harmoniouslycoexistingin ArunachalPradesh: region's population lives in the plains of Assam, and about 14.5 Hinduism in the foothills, animism in the central stretch of the percent in the four tribal hill-states of Arunachal Pradesh, hills, and Buddhism in the higher Himalayan frontiers," Meghalaya, Mizoram, and Nagaland." The nontribal communi­ ties consistmainly of the Hinduized (or Sanskritized) indigenous Christian Churches in Northeast India communities and of Hindu and Muslim immigrants from other parts of India and Bangladesh. Linguistic and cultural composi­ The total Christian population of Northeast India, which is tions of the region are extremely diverse; "no one even knows roughly 4.3 million, accounts for 22.7 percent of Indian Chris­ precisely how many languages are spoken."? From the matrilin­ tians. With roughly 1.2 million, Meghalaya has the most Chris­ eal societies of Caro and Khasi-Jaintia to the warring tribes of the tians; Tripura, with 47,000, has the fewest. Although Roman Nagas and Kukis, from the varying Sino-Tibetan cultural fea­ Catholic missionaries had made a few visits at an earlier date, the tures to the great Indic cultural system, the societies of Northeast Protestant mission bodies first established mission work in the India display a staggering cultural variety. region in the mid-nineteenth century. Until the independence of The religious composition of the region roughly parallels its India, mission agencies respected a comity arrangement. Al­ geoethnic character. With the exception of Arunachal Pradesh, though the continuation of comity became impossible, with the the vast majority of the people identify with one of the "six major result that no one denomination now has exclusive "rights" to religions of India": Buddhism, Christianity, Hinduism, Islam, any particular territory, the heritage of comity has remained [ainism, and Sikhism. While almost all the tribal people in the so­ among Protestants, with most major denominations strongest in called tribal states of Meghalaya, Mizoram, and Nagaland are the territories where their mission forebears operated. The three largest Christian groups are the Baptists, the Lalsangkima Pachuau, an ordained minister of the Mizoram Presbyterian Roman Catholics, and the Presbyterians. The Baptists, who arose Church Synod in Northeast India, teaches in the Department of Mission and from the work of Baptists from the United States, are now Ecumenics at the United Theological College, Bangalore, India. organized under the Council of Baptist Churches in Northeast

154 INTERNATIONAL BULLETIN OF MISSIONARY RESEARCH, Vol. 27, No.4 India (CBCNEI) and dominate Nagaland, theGaro Hilldistrict of After they completed their studies, two Garo boys, Omed Watre Meghalaya, the larger part of the Manipur hills, and pockets of Momin a.nd Ramkhe Watre Momin, converted to Christianity. Christian communities in Assam. Until the middle of the twen­ This decision was the result of reading a tract, probably prepared tieth century, the Catholic presence was more or less confined to by the Serampore Mission, that one of them found in a dustbin. Assam and Meghalaya. Since then, the Catholic Church has been They were baptized in 1863 at Guwahati. When the American rapidly spreadingin other parts of the region. The Presbyterians, Baptist Mission was unable to find missionaries for Garo Hills, stemming from the Welsh Presbyterian (formerly Calvinistic the two resigned their jobs, proceeded to Garo Hills, and began Methodist) Church mission, have organized themselves as the evangelistic work among their people amid severe opposition. Presbyterian Church of India (PCI) and dominate the Khasi­ WhenAmericanBaptistmissionary Miles Bronsonfinally visited [aintia district of Meghalaya, the relatively thickly populated them in April 1867, he found thirty-seven Garos ready for bap­ northern Mizoram region, the Cachar district of Assam, and part tism and, after baptizing them, formed the first Garo church and of the Manipur hills. According to F. S. Downs, 43 percent of ordained Omed to be the minister of the church." The organiza­ Christians in the region in 1990 belonged to CBCNEI, 26 percent tion of a Garo Baptist Church was followed by the adoption of to the Roman Catholic Church, and 23 percent to PCL8 Garo Hills as the mission field of the American Baptist Mission. The British Baptist Missionary Society established the Bap­ The earliest Khasi converts were introduced to Christianity tist Church of Mizoram in southern Mizoram. Historically and by Krishna Pal of the Serampore Mission. They were from the denominationally related to the Mizoram Baptist Church are a foothills of Khasi-land (now part of Bangladesh) and were bap­ few independent churches in the southernmost district of tized in 1813. After the abandonment of the SeramporeMission's Mizoram. In Tripura the evangelization process begun by the station in Cherrapunji, the Khasi and [aintia hills (now partof MizoChristiancommunitywas laterjoinedandcontinuedby the Meghalaya) came to be adopted by the Welsh Missionary Soci­ New Zealand Baptist Mission under the name Tripura Baptist ety,"which sent its first missionary, ThomasJones, in 1841. As in Christian Union. In the Brahmaputra valley of Assam, other other places of Northeast India, reduction of the language to Baptist mission agencies, namely the Australian Baptist Mission written form and formal education at the primary level became and the Baptist General Conference of America, have also been the preliminary and basic means of evangelism. The growth of working, and from them the North-Bank Baptist Association has Christianity was slow in the early years, and opposition was come intobeing. Followingtheirimmigrant-membersfromsouth­ often violent." There were only twenty Christians at the end of ern Bihar (now Jharkhand), the Gossner Evangelical Lutheran Churchandthe LutheranSantalMissionalso establishedchurches and were involved in evangelistic workamong tea garden labor­ ers in Assam. Perhaps surprisingly, the Anglican presence in Northeast India is meager; indeed, there has been no significant mission effort by any of the Anglican mission agencies.

Evangelization of Northeast India

Notable evangelization took place in the nineteenth century only in the area of present-day Meghalaya. At the beginning of the twentieth century, Meghalaya (divided into the districts of Garo Hills and Khasi-Iaintia) had the only significant Christian pres­ ence.? Although quite a few Assamese had converted to Chris­ tianity, their number was insignificant in relation to the overall population. In other parts of Northeast India mission workmade headway only in the twentieth century.

Assam and Meghalaya. At the invitation of David Scott, the first British commissioner of Assam, the Serampore Mission started rather small-scale mission work by opening a school in NORTHEAST INDIA Guwahati (Assam) in 1829. The school was closed in 1836, by which time another school had already been opened in Cherrapunji (now Meghalaya). Following the amalgamation of the first decade (1841-51).16The standard of church membership the Serampore Mission with the Baptist Missionary Society in was high, and the missionaries made no haste in baptizing new 1837, the second school was also closed, and the Cherrapunji converts." Numerical growth began only from the last two missionwasabandonedin 1837.10Aroundthesametime, in 1836, decades of the nineteenth century. the American Baptist Mission arrived in the northeastern part of The commitments of early Khasi converts are worth men­ Assam with the intention of reaching China. When they were tioning. Some women converts in the matrilineal society lost unable to move beyond the region, the missionaries gradually their rights of inheritance, and some prospective chiefs, such as turned their attention to Assam itself, adopting it as a field in U Borsing of Cherrapunji, sacrificed their thrones because of 1841.11Christian growth among the Assamese was slow, and the their Christian profession." The zeal to evangelize their own missionaries were frustrated. The only sign of success in Assam people began early and soon developed into the creation of the was among the tribal residents. Home Mission at the end of the nineteenth century. By 1940 as In 1847 Francis Jenkins, the successor of David Scott as the many as twenty-four new churches were planted, with more commissioner of Assam, opened a school in Goalpara near the than 2,500 new converts, through the work of the Home Mis­ Assam-Care Hills border that enrolled a number of Garo boys." sion." Khasi evangelists contributed greatly in the evangeliza­

October 2003 155 tion of the Khasi-Jaintia hills, but also in cross-cultural evange­ Christianity among these tribes, as well as the initiation and lism. In the history of Christianity in Mizoram, for instance, the growth among other Naga tribes, began after the independence Khasi contribution is noteworthy. Along with the first Welsh ofIndiain 1947andcontinuedafterthe missionariesleft Nagaland missionary, D. E. Jones, was Khasi evangelist Rai Bhajur, who in the early 1950s. gave up a high-rank government job and good salary to serve in The contribution of Naga Christians to the evangelization of Mizoram at a minimal income." Nagaland is enormous. As earlyas 1898the missionary reporton the Ao-Nagas said, "All ourchurches are nowself-supporting.v" Nagaland. Various factors, including a promise of "harvest," What may be called mass evangelization among the Semas was conflict between some missionaries, and a lack of response from done mostly by indigenous evangelists. From 98,068 in 1951/7 Assamese,led to attention being drawn to the Ao-Nagas, one of the number of Christians in Nagaland rose to 1,057,940in 1991.28 the sixteen Naga tribes of present-day Nagaland." The names of The Christian percentage of 87.47 in Nagaland is the highest in India. The fact thatthe majorexpansion of Christianitytookplace in the second half of the twentieth century, when all foreign missionaries had left Nagaland, is a clear witness to the role of The real pioneer among the Naga Christians themselves in the evangelization of their own Ao-Nagas was Godhula, land. given the "Christian" name Mizoram. The pioneer missionaries to Mizoram, J. Herbert of Rufus Brown. Lorrain and F. W. Savidge, belonged to a private missionary agency called the Arthington Aborigines Mission, founded, funded, and directed by Robert Arthington,Jr.29 The two reached Edward Winter Clark and his wife, Mary Mead Clark, have been Mizoramin January1894,wheretheylaboredfor aboutthreeand associated with the pioneering endeavor among the Ao-Nagas. half years. Because of differences in mission goal with their The real pioneer among them, however, was Godhula, an sponsor, Arthington, Lorrain and Savidge then offered the area Assamese convert who has been referred to as Clark's assistant to the Welsh Mission, which had earlier planned to adopt the and who received the "Christian" name Rufus Brown. After district. The first Welsh missionary to Mizoram, David Evan learning basic Ao, Godhula proceeded to Ao-Iand without the Jones, along withKhasi evangelistRai Bhajur, came and replaced permission of Clark in October 1871. Suffering threats on his life the Arthington missionaries in 1897. When the southern district as well as a brief imprisonment, Godhula managed to get across of Mizoram was transferred to the Baptist Missionary Society, his message of peace and love of God, whom he called the Bread the two pioneer missionaries returned to Mizoram as the first of Love." After a few other trips, the first group of converts, nine two Baptist missionaries in 1903. The first baptized Christians in number, were brought to Clark and were baptized in Novem­ received theirbaptismsin 1899underD. E.Jones. A thirdmission ber 1872. Clark moved to Ao-Iand in 1876 and started evangeli­ society, the independent Lakher Pioneer Mission, came to work zation through preaching, schools, and literature work. He had among the Lakher tribe in the southernmost part of Mizoram fifteen Assamese assistants, starting with Godhula, in the early from 1907. The church planted by this mission came to be called evangelization of Ao-Nagas." The early years did not see much the Independent Church of Maraland. conversion, and the Christian life he introduced was not accept­ As in other places of Northeast India, it was the first converts able to the succeedingmissionaries, who in fact dismissed almost who made headway in evangelizing their own people. Khuma, all the members of this early congregation in the course of one of the first two Mizo converts, is said to have visited almost radically reforming the church. all villages in Mizoram with a simple message of invitation to Motivated by Clark's example, other mission stations were each individual he met and each house he visited: "Believe in opened among the Angami-Nagas, and for a brief period among Jesus Christ.T" In a letter dated November 17, 1902,Jones wrote, the Lotha-Nagas. Although C. D. King, the pioneer missionary "Today six young men went out two by two, to the North, to the amongtheAngami-Nagas, who started his workin 1879,had the West, andto the East to preachthe Gospelthroughoutthe land.'?' advantage of the British administration's protection and sup­ By 1903 the small congregation appointed four evangelists, port, no visible fruit could be seen immediately. By the end of the supporting them with a salary of three rupees each. Starting in nineteenth century, there were almost no Naga Christians out­ 1910,a group of Mizo evangelists, employed by a certainWatkin sidethe Ao tribe. The drastic reformation in the Ao churchin 1894 Roberts underthe Thadou-Kuki PioneerMission, was sentacross considerably reduced the number of Christians. A later renewal the border to Manipur and Tripura, becoming cross-cultural movement occurred through the work of Caleph, a young native evangelists. convert. Along with his Assamese friend Biney, Caleph led A series of revivals in the first four decades of the twentieth evangelistic preaching tours, which greatly helped the growth of century became most instrumental in converting virtually the Ao communicant members in the last years of the nineteenth whole Mizo tribe to Christianity. The revivals also indigenized century. In the first half of the twentieth century, another phe­ Christianity, bringing about a distinctly Mizo faith." Teams of nomenal growth came about among the Sema-Nagas. Through lay converts affected by the revivals went about sharing their what Puthenpurakal calls "a chain of reaction," lay native evan­ revival experience with their fellow tribe members, spreading gelists carried on the work of evangelization, leading to what he Christianity from village to village." calls a mass movement among the Semas." While the growth of churches among the Aos, which began Manipur, Tripura, and Arunachal Pradesh. The two princely from the first decade of the twentieth century, was gradual, the states of the region of Northeast India during the British colonial growth among Semas and Lothas, dating from the 1930s, was rule-Manipur and Tripura-did not welcome missionaries. impetuous and spontaneous. The hard resistance by Angamis William Pettigrew, the pioneermissionaryin Manipur, wasfrom also began to break down from the 1930s.25 The major growth of the Arthington Aborigines Mission. He entered Manipur in

156 INTERNATIONAL BULLETIN OF MISSIONARY RESEARCH, Vol. 27, No.4 MISSION RESOURCES WCLBooks.com Between Past and Future (EMS 10) One World or Many? Evangelical Missions Entering ------"" The Impact of the Twenty-first Century Globalization on Mission Jonathan J Bonk, ed RichardTiplady, ed This volume traces its origins to the This book considers in detail the 2001 ann ual mee ting of the key drivers of globalization, its EvangelicalMissiological Society with contemporary shape, and the the theme of"Lessons in Mission from implications for world mission. It the Twentieth Century. " The papers also looks at the im pact of from thi s meeting, combined with globalization on d ifferent insightful essays by other EMS contemporary issues affecting members, reflect upon the history of mission, such as ethniciry, the evangelical missions and upon its environment, and global health, as well as globalization's effect future. "May God give us grace to draw from the lessons on more traditional "missionary" questions of the world presented in this book in ways that will enrich us as people, as a religions, contextualization, theology,and the church. One World church, and as a community calling others to come worship or Many? is written by a variety of authors from all over the Jesus Christ." A. Scott Moreau. world, including some new and distinctive voices that will have WCL384-7 William Carey Library, 2003 Paperback, 271 pp. considerable influence in the future. List: $14.99 Our Price: $11.25 3 or more: $9.75* WCL45 1-7 William Carey Library, 2003 Paperback, 292 pp. Occupy Until I Come List: $16.99 Our Price: $12.72 3 or more: $10.17* A. T. Pierson and the Evangelization of the World Holistic Entrepreneurs Dana Robert in China ArthurTappan Pierson (1837-1911) A Handbook on the World was the elder statesman ofthe student Trade Organization and New missionary movement and th e Opportunities for Christians leading evangelical advocate of Kim-kwong Chan and foreign missions in the late 1800s. Tetsunao Yamamori Occupyuntil I Comeexplores the life, "This book is educational , thought, and legacy of this major encouraging and inspirational. It is a figure in American religious history. book nor just for those in business Working from the best available but for all who care about the Chinese sources, Dana Robert illumines the people and want to understand how relationship between A. T. Pierson's economic change is bringing about a new society. It is full of role in the surging foreign missions movement and the practical information, starting with the basics anyone working development of nineteenth-century evangelicalism. in China should know about history, culture and the economy EER780-1 Eerdmans Publishing, 2003 Paperback, 332 pages and points out issues and opportunities for Christians wanting IList: $32.00 Our Price: $20.80 3 or more: $17.60* to work in China. The cumulative impact is one of Guidebook for Pilgrims to the Heavenly City encouragement." - Dr. CarolHamrin, George Mason University Gareth Lee Cockerill WCU002-X WCIU Press, 2002 Paperback, 110 pages The purpose of this book is to List: $10.99 Our Price: $7.15 3 or more: $6.05* interpret the epistle to the Hebrews so that it will be relevant and readily understood by new followers of Jesus M Wirfiam Carey Library who come from an Islamic background - with a view toward Secure Online Ordering at encouraging them to persevere amid www.WCLBooks.com difficult circumstances. This book Call Toll Free at 1-800-MISSION may also be of use to Muslims who I Please use code "IBM01"when ordering. 'I have a serious interest in Jesus and I [email protected] have begun to study th e New

I Testament. It will certainl y be helpful for people witnessing and Outside the US: (706)554-1594 discipling in Muslim contexts. Fax: (706)554-7444 WCL449-5 William Carey Library, 2003 Paperback, 176 pp. Gabriel Resources / WCL List: $12.99 Our Price: $9.75 3 or more: $7.15* PO Box 1047 *3or moresame title. Prices do not include shipping. Waynesboro, GA 30830 Prices aresubject to change without notice. February1894and started his workamongthe Meitei people, the The present Arunachal Pradesh, known in the past as North nontribal residents of the Manipur valley. Political conditions East Frontier Agency, has a long but insignificant interaction latercompelled himto move to the hills, wherehe workedamong with Christian mission activities. Its remote location and the Tangkhul-Nagas. Pettigrew changed his denominational ethnolinguistic diversity have keptit from significantinteraction affiliation from Anglican to Baptist and joined the American withoutsiders,includingChristianmissions. Significantmission Baptist Mission, whichadoptedhimas its missionaryandManipur work, mainly by Christians from other states of Northeast India, as its field." Slow and steady was the progress of mission work began only in the 1960s, and the 1970s saw signs of significant among the Tangkhuls. The early converts, including some from Christian presence in the state. the Kuki tribes, then took their new faith to their own people. Because of his active involvement in political and other secular Roman Catholic Church in Northeast India. Unlike Protestant activities," Pettigrew was unable to do much mission work. missions, the Roman Catholic Church in Northeast India has no Because of the political restrictions, only a few othermissionaries particular territory of operation. The first missionary society were permitted to enter Manipur, and the major evangelistic assigned specifically to the region, the Foreign Missionaries of work was done by native workers. The first Kuki to become Milan (PIME), came to the region briefly in 1872, but because of Christian was Ngulhao, who was instrumental in the conversion a jurisdiction dispute, no tangible work was done. From 1889 the of at least 334 persons. Similarly, it is reported that efforts of the region was reassigned to the German Society of Catholic Educa­ first Thadou-Kuki convert, Nehseh, led to the founding of the tion, popularly known as Salvatorians," who began "Catholic first church among his people." The same was true with the missionary work proper" in the region." During the First World Zeliengrong-Nagas and Mao-Nagas of northern and northwest­ War the German Salvatorians were repatriated, and the work ern Manipur." Large-scale growth of Christianity among these was entrusted temporarily to the Belgian Jesuits (1915-22), until tribes took place after the First World War. the charge was handed over to Salesians of Don Bosco in 1922. The independent Thadou-Kuki Pioneer Mission, founded The Salesian Brothers were joined by Salesian Sisters in 1923.50 by Watkin Roberts with the help of Mizo Christians, came to While numerical growth of Christians was slow under the workin southernManipur. This newnondenominationalagency, Salvatorians, the pace of growth picked up with the Jesuits, and staffed entirely by native workers mainly sent from Mizoram, thentherewasmajor growthfrom the first decadeof the Salesians' establisheditselfin the area."Whenin 1919this agency extended work. Until Indian independence Catholic mission work was its work into the neighboring states of Assam and Tripura, it confined almost exclusively to present-day Assam and changedits nameto North-East IndiaGeneralMission(NEIGM).39 Meghalaya. After independence, however, the Catholic Church Because of conflictand dissension withinthe missionand clashes experienced spectacular growth in Northeast India. Some new with other Protestant missions over allegations of a breach of the orders joined the effort, strengthening the work together with comity agreement, NEIGM could not continue its work. In 1922 diocesan clergies. From 70,000 in 1945, the Catholic community the mission was suspended from the comity of Protestant For­ grew tenfold to 700,000 in 1990.51 From the Assam plains and eign Missions in Bengal and Assam." Meghalaya, the Catholic Church soon moved out to Manipur Tripura has the fewest Christians in Northeast India mainly and Nagaland, where it has been enjoying rapid growth. because it did not permit missionaries until 1938.41The earliest Christian presence in the state, and subsequent mission work, The Churches' Missionary Activities Today began withMizo immigrations to the northern borderarea of the state in the early part of the twentieth century. While the state The popular prayer guidebook Operation World comments en­ was closed to foreign missions, pioneering work began with thusiastically about the Mizo people, noting that "Mizo mission­ Mizo Christianssettlingin the state."A missionary supportedby aries in India and beyond number over 2,OOO-one of the highest sending statistics in the world."? The Mizos' contribution is unique, but churches in other states of Northeast India have also In Northeast India, the first been making significant contributions to the overall Christian missionary effort. As we have seen, the indigenous peoples have converts evangelized their played a crucial role in evangelizing the region. Passion for own people. mission is ingrained in the very lifeblood of the region's Chris­ tianity, and almost all denominations take the mission task seriously. theMizo Christians started evangelistic workin 1917among one The history of Northeast India after independence has been of the Tripuri tribes called Darlong. The NEIGM sent a mission­ plagued by various political insurrections." With a variety of ary to work among the Mizo immigrants in 1918 and among the political demands, a number of insurgent groups have revolted Darlongtribein 1919.OtherNEIGM missionariesfollowed, most against the government of India. In state after state, foreign of them becoming pastors and teachers." missionaries were expelled and banned, under suspicion for In the meantime, the New Zealand Baptist Mission, which having played clandestine roles in these movements. No foreign was working across the border in present-day Bangladesh, suc­ missionary has beenpermitted in the region sincethe early1970s. ceeded in gaining permission to work in Tripura in 1938.44 This turn of events has challenged, and even compelled, the Gathering about one hundred Christians, mainly Garos and churches to enhance theirindigenous missionaryendeavors. The Kukis residing in the state, the New Zealand Baptist Mission missionary zeal displayed from the beginning received new formed the TripuraBaptistChristianUnion(TBCU)in December impetusas concertedmissionaryeffortsaroseamongthe churches 1938.45Until the last missionary left Tripura in the early 1970s, after foreign missionaries left the region. TBCU was led by missionaries of the New Zealand Baptist In Mizoram all the mainline Protestant churches have been Mission. The Darlong Church joined TBCU in 1940,46 as did the activelyengagedin missionwork. Fromthe PresbyterianChurch Mizo Church, then called [ampui Presbytery, in 1944.47 Synod, 968 mission workers have been sent out, including 375

158 INTERNATIONAL BULLETIN OF MISSIONARY RESEARCH, Vol. 27, No.4 so-called missionaries and 470 "native workers" or "evange­ 31 by local churches and district committees in the Synod. These lists." They serve in various places and also in partnership with missionariesare workingin variouspartsofAssam,UttarPradesh, otherchurches or mission agencies."Together with182mission­ and Nepal." The interviewees estimated that not less than 300 aries under the Home Mission project working inside Mizoram other mission workers-mainly supported by presbyteries-are among the non-Mizo (non-Christian) people." the total adds up working inside Meghalaya. Thus, we can estimate that about 350 to 1,150. According to the official church report of the Baptist missionworkersbelongto the Khasi-Jaintia PresbyterianChurch. Church of Mizoram in March 2002, there were 418 mission In addition, the Garo Baptist Church (of the CBCNEI), a mission­ workers (187"missionaries" and 231 "nativeworkers" or "evan­ minded church from its inception, has been making its contribu­ gelists")." The Evangelical Church of Maraland (formerly Inde­ tions on a relatively smaller scale. Other Protestant churches, pendent Church of Maraland) in the southernmost part of some of them indigenous, are also engaging in mission work. At Mizoram has about 60 mission workers of its own, besides a few least 70missionaries areestimatedto havecomefrom these other others in partnership with the Indian Evangelical Mission. Fur­ Protestant denominations in Meghalaya. thermore, the church has a vibrant counterpart church on the Arunachal Pradesh has been the leading recipient of mis­ Myanmar side of the border, which has as many as 54 mission sionary activities of Northeast Indian Christians. Beginning in workers." The Isua Krista Kohhran Lairam, an independent the 1960s,but especially in the early 1970s, notable conversion to church that came into being as a result of a split in the Mizoram Baptist Church, also gives its main attention to Myanmar. It has as many as 80 missionaries working mainly in Myanmar, plus a Arunachal Pradesh has few in Bangladesh and in other parts of India." Whereas local congregations in Mizoram have traditionally the highest percentage of worked closely with the central governing office, the case is growth of Christians. different with churches in other parts of the region. Each congre­ gation in the Khasi Presbyterian Church Synod and the Naga Baptist Church Council, for example, is more or less indepen­ Christianity took place among some of the tribes of the state. dent. This fact has a bearing on the collection of information on Some people, especially among the dominant Adi tribe, consid­ their mission activities. In the case of the Nagas, the Nagaland ered Christianity and the modernizing (or Westernizing) ten­ Baptist Church Council (NBCC) was formed in 1937, under dency associated with it as a threat to their traditional identity. A which the Home Mission Board was created in 1960.59 The latter cultural renewal movement that began in the 1960s was corre­ was transformed into the Nagaland Missionary Movement lated with anti-Christian activities." This development contrib­ (NMM) in 1971to become the representative missionary body of uted to Christian persecutions, which intensified in the 1970s. the NBCC.60 However,manyNaga missionaries are notaffiliated Churches reported numerous kidnappings and torture of Chris­ with NMM, and most congregations engage in mission work tians, dispossession of their belongings, and burning of their independently or as associations of regional or ethnic churches. houses." Hevukhu Achumi, the present director of NMM, estimates that Elsewhere in India two northern states, namely Orissa and "more than 300 missionaries and 500 to 600 evangelists [native Madhya Pradesh, enacted anticonversion acts under the name of workers]" are at work in the field supported by Baptist churches the Freedom of Religion Act and were involved in legal defense in Nagaland." Of the more than 300 missionaries, only 56 are of the acts in the Supreme Court." The legal battle ended in 1977 missionaries of the NMM; the rest are sent out and supported by with the Supreme Court's verdict supporting the acts of the local churches and associations. These missionaries are working states. A year later, a similar law called the Indigenous Faith Act in various parts of Northeast India and central India, and a few was enacted by the Arunachal Pradesh state. Conversion, which work outside India in such places as China, Nepal, Thailand, is defined as a renouncing of indigenous faith and adopting Cambodia, Bhutan, and Hong Kong. another faith or religion, was banned by this act. Buddhism and In Manipur, churches under the former NEIGM and the the Hindu Vaishnava sect, both of which are nonindigenous, are Manipur Baptist Convention (a member body of the CBCNEI) included among the indigenous faiths listed," which reveals the have been actively engaged in mission work, especially among religious motivesbehindthe anti-Christianculturalrevivalmove­ the non-Christian Meiteis in Manipur valley, since the early ment. The RashtriyaSvayamsevakSanghandotherfanatic Hindu 1960s. In 1980the Manipur Baptist Convention appointed a full­ groups are thought to be behind the anti-Christian movement time"evangelisticsecretary" to coordinate the churches' mission and persecutions." Despite such opposition to Christian mis­ activities." Although MBC as a body has only 15 mission work­ sion, Arunachal Pradesh has experienced the highest growth in ers, church conventions under MBC are making notable contri­ percentage of Christians during the last two decades. From 0.79 butions. The mission secretary of the Kuki Baptist Convention, percent in 1971, the Christian presence in the state increased to using the Annual ReportofManipurBaptistConvention, 2000-2001, 4.32 percent in 1981/° and then to 10.29 percent in 1991. reports that there are as many as 576 mission workers employed by various churches. Of these, 234 belong to churches under the Concluding Observations Manipur Baptist Convention. The remaining 342 belong to vari­ ous independent churches, some of which were the products of This review of church-mission dynamics in Northeast India the former NEIGM and the Presbyterian Church in Manipur.f leads to a number of observations. First, one is struck by the To account for the present mission engagement of the Khasi­ localized character of mission activity. From the early history of JaintiaPresbyterianChurchis extremelydifficult, for the Synod's Christianity in the region, sharing the Gospel with one's neigh­ report gives no information. The church's mission work came to bors hasbeena constant. Dependingon the strengthof Christian­ light in a recent interview, however, which revealed that the ity in each state, priority has always been given first to mission Synod has sent out 40 cross-cultural missionaries: 9 directly within one's state or territory (i.e., to home mission). When one commissioned and supported by the Synod, and the remaining looks at the overall missionary program, the main recipients of

October 2003 159 the missionaries' efforts are within the Northeast India region Protestant missions gave almost exclusive attention to primary itself. Although states like Manipur, Tripura, and Assam are the education, the main motive being to help people read the Bible. major recipients of missions, these states have also sent their own Finally, an observation on the understandingand practice of missionaries. The geoethnic characteristics described above also mission is in order. A dominantmilitaristic triumphalismperme­ playa role here. Missionary work is directed mainly from the ates the sense of mission among the Christians of Northeast Christiantribal areas in the hills to the non-Christian plains areas. India. They have understood mission simply as evangelism, and The main exception is the state of Arunachal Pradesh, which is evangelism mainly as verbal proclamation, and all as a battle for the only tribal hill-state dominated by non-Christian religions. Christ to conquer new lands as an extension of God's kingdom. A second area of interest is the role of Christianity in the This emotional spirit of conquest, which suits the mind-set of modernization, or Westernization, of the tribal people. Colonial people who were traditionally warring people, also steers them rule, Christianity, and educationare the mainagents of change or to adopt an imperialistic mode of mission practice. Thus, the modernization of the tribals. The missionaries' contribution in missionary enterprise in Northeast India typically gives little the field of education is significant. They reduced most lan­ attention to cultural awareness and sensitivity. Conversion and guages to writtenform, imparted a basic civic sense to the people, churchplanting are the dominant goals of the mission enterprise, and introduced formal education, thereby opening windows of and all other activities are seen as aids to these ends. The success knowledge to the tribal people that have enabled them to interact of missions is measuredby the number of baptisms and churches with the wider world. The missionaries were also given great planted. No critical and moral examination or theological reflec­ opportunities. In Mizoram, for instance, the colonialgovernment tion is allowed to interfere with this missionary enterprise. A left the entire educational work in the hands of the missionaries. wide breach between critical theological thinking and mission On their part, however, missionaries gave utmost attention to practice thus exists, and theological education has yet to make an evangelism, for which ed uca tion was preparatory. In most cases, impact on the various missionary endeavors.

Notes ------­ 1. I am indebted to David Scott, a friend and former colleague, who the Khasis: A Catholic Perspective," in Christianity in India, ed. read an earlier version of this article, for his comments and Hrangkhuma, p. 202. suggestions. 17. Morris,HistoryoftheWelsh Calvinistic Methodists' Foreign Mission, p. 91. 2. These seven states are often referred to as the seven sisters. Some 18. Ibid., p. 242; Downs, Historyof Christianity in India, p. 73. suggest that the recent birth of the state of Sikkim has produced an 19. J. Fortis [yrwa, TheWondrous Works ofGod: A Study oftheGrowth and eighth sister. Since Sikkim, slightly removed territorially, is too Development ofKhasi-Jaintia Presbyterian Church intheTwentieth Century recent an addition, I do not consider it as part of the region in the (Shillong: Mrs. M. B. [yrwa, 1980), p. 38. following discussion. 20. O. L. Snaitang, "Christianity Among the Khasis: A Protestant 3. Annanda C. Bhagabati, "Emergent Tribal Identity in North-East Perspective," in Christianityin India, ed. Hrangkhuma, p. 242. India," in Tribal Developments in India: Problems and Prospects, ed. B. 21. Joseph Puthenpurakal, Baptist Missions in Nagaland: A Study in Chaudhuri (Delhi: Inter-India Publications, 1982), p. 218. Historical and Ecumenical Perspective (Shillong: Vendrame 4. According to the 1991 Indian census, the region's total population Missiological Institute, 1984), pp. 57-62. was 31,386,911. Assam had 22,294,562, Manipur and Tripura 22. Sangma, p. 222-23. combined had 4,571,541. See Census of India 1991, Series-1 India, 23. Puthenpurakal, BaptistMission in Nagaland, p. 72. Paper 1 of 1991, Provisional Population Totals (New Delhi: Amulya 24. Ibid., p. 104. Ratna Nanda, Registrar General and Census Commissioner, India, 25. Downs, History of Christianity in India, p. 108. 1991), p. 3. 26. Quotedby Puthenpurakal, "ChristianityandMass Movement," p. 116. 5. F. S. Downs, History of Christianityin India, vol. 5, pte 5, North East 27. Downs, History of Christianity in India,p. 108. India in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries (Bangalore: Church 28. Censusof India 1991, Series-1 India, Paper 1 of 1995, Religion (New History Association of India, 1992), p. 1. Delhi: M. Vijayanunni, RegistrarGeneraland CensusCommissioner, 6. At the time of writing this article, the 2001 census report on religion India, 1995), p. xvii. was not yet available. 29. For a biography of Robert Arthington, [r., and a brief account of the 7. C. S. Panchani, Arunachal Pradesh: Religion, Culture, and Society Arthington Aborigines Mission, see Lalsangkima Pachuau, "Robert (Delhi: Konark Publishers, 1989), p. 200. Arthington, [r., and the Arthington Aborigines Mission," Indian 8. Downs, Historyof Christianityin India, p. 69 n. 15. Church History Review28, no. 2 (December 1994): 105-25. 9. Ibid., p. 80. 30. Saiaithanga, Mizo Kohhran Chanchin, 3d repro (Aizawl: Mizo 10. John Hughes Morris, TheHistory of the Welsh Calvinistic Methodists' Theological Literature Committee, 1993), p. 16. Foreign Mission, to the End of the Year 1904 (Carnarvon: C. M. Book 31. Quoted in J.M. Lloyd, HistoryoftheChurch inMizoram(Harvest in the Room, 1910),pp. 72-75; O. L.Snaitang, Christianityand Social Change Hills) (Aizawl: Synod Publication Board, 1991), p. 57. in Northeast India (Shillong: Vendrame Institute, 1993), p. 67. 32. For a detailed treatment of the revivals and their contribution to 11. Milton S. Sangma, History of American BaptistMission in North-East Mizo Christianity, see Lalsangkima Pachuau, Ethnic Identity and India (1836-1950), vol. 1 (Delhi: MittalPublications, 1987),pp. 30-45. Christianity: A Socio-Historical andMissiological Study ofChristianity in 12. Ibid., p. 188. Northeast India, with Special Reference to Mizoram (Frankfurt: Peter 13. Krickwin C. Marak, "Christianity Among the Garos: An Attempt to Lang, 2002), pp. 111-43. Re-read the Peoples' Movement from Missiological Perspective," in 33. Saiaithanga, Mizo Kohhran Chanchin, p. 21. Christianity in India: Search for Liberation and Identity, ed. F. 34. Lal Dena, Christian Missions and Colonialism: A Study of Missionary Hrangkhuma (Delhi: ISPCK, 1998), pp. 161-66. Movement in Northeast India, with Particular Reference to Manipurand 14. This was the original name given in 1840.The name was changed to LushaiHills, 1894-1947 (Shillong: Vendrame Institute, 1988),pp. 33-35. Welsh Calvinistic Methodist's Foreign Missionary Society in 1843. 35. Ibid., pp. 37, 39. For conveniencesake, we willuseits popularname "WelshMission" 36. T. Lamboi Vaiphei, Advent of Christian Missionand Its Impacton the henceforth. Hill-Tribes ofManipur (N.p.: The Author, 1997), pp. 63-65. 15. Downs, Historyof Christianityin India, pp. 73-74. 37. Ibid., pp. 68-82. 16. Joseph Puthenpurakal, "Christianity and Mass Movement Among 38. Dena, Christian Missionsand Colonialism, p. 51.

160 INTERNATIONAL BULLETIN OF MISSIONARY RESEARCH, Vol. 27, No.4 39. For a detailed treatment of the NEIGM, see Vaiphei, Advent of "Baptist Church of Mizoram: Annual Report 2001-2002," esp. p. 5. Christian Mission. 57. These figures are calculated from the list of mission workers in 40. Dena, Christian Missionsand Colonialism, p. 53. different places, entitled "Evangelical Church of Maraland: Mission 41. M. J. Eade, "Golden Jubilee-Tripura Baptist Christian Union," in Field Liata Hriatuhpa Zydua Moh List" (circulated by the church). Tripura Baptist Christian Union: Golden Jubilee Souvenir, 1938-1988 58. H. Lalsangliana, "Mission Rawngbawlna Lam," in Church (Agartala: Tripura Baptist Christian Union, 1988), pp. 10-12. Unification's Souvenir(IKK-LBK)., ed. T. Vanlalzauvaetal. (Lawngtlai: 42. Z. Lianthanga, Tripura a Kohhran 10 din tannalehChanchintha a darh zel Isua Krista Kohhran Lairam, 2001), insert pages. dan(Vanghmun: Jampui-Sakhan BaptistAssociation, [1996]),pp. 4-6. 59. Renthy Keitzer, TheTriumphofFaith in Nagaland (Kohima: Nagaland 43. Ibid., pp. 8-23. Baptist Church Council, 1987), pp. 10,33. 44. Eade, "Golden Jubilee," p. 12. 60. Ibid., p. 35. The life and works of the NMM from 1970 to the mid­ 45. Hnehliana, "Tripura Baptist Christian Union," in Tripura Baptist 1990s are briefly described in "The Formation of the Nagaland Christian Union, p. 59. Baptist Council," in From Darkness to Light ([Kohima]: Nagaland 46. Lianthanga, Tripura a Kohhran, p. 7. Baptist Church Council, 1997), pp. 117-28. 47. Eade, "Golden Jubilee," p. 2. 61. Author's telephone interview with Hevukhu Achumi on June 29, 48. George Kottupallil, "A Historical Survey of the Catholic Church in 2002, in Bangalore. NortheastIndiafrom 1627 to 1969," in TheCatholic Church inNortheast 62. R. R. Lolly, The BaptistChurch in Manipur (N.p.: Mrs. R. Khathingla India,1890-1990(Shillong: VendrameInstitute;Calcutta: FirmsKLM, Lolly, 1985), pp. 99-103. 1993), pp. 31-35. 63. The statistical report was conveyed to the author in the form of an e­ 49. Downs, History of Christianityin India,p. 92. mail letter dated August 16,2002. 50. Kottupallil, "Historical Survey," pp. 36-53. 64. Author's interview with David M. Syiem, pastor of Khasi 51. Downs, History of Christianityin India,p. 120. Congregations outside Meghalaya in Northeast India, and Lyndan 52. Patrick Johnstone and Jason Mandryk, Operation World (Carlisle, Syiem, a faculty member of Thomas Jones School of Mission and Cumbria: Paternoster Lifestyle, 2001), p. 330. Evangelism, July 21, 2002, at the United Theological College, 53. For further studyoninsurgencyand Christianityin Northeast India, Bangalore, India. see Pachuau, EthnicIdentity and Christianity,pp. 29-58, 145-75. 65. Atul Chandra Talukdar, "Tribal Cultural Revival in Arunachal 54. For details, see the report of the Synod Mission Board Coordinator Pradesh," in Impact of Christianity on North East India, ed. J. in theNinthMissionaryRetreat, May22-26,2002. Also see "Mizoram Puthenpurakal (Shillong: Vendrame Institute, 1996), pp. 486-87. Synod," Kristian Tlangau 90 (July 2002): 2-3. It indicates a slight 66. Ibid., p. 488. increase from the grand total of 941 reported in the Synod meeting 67. For a discussion of these legal conflicts and the subsequentoutcome, of December 2001. See "Synod Mission Board Report," in Mizoram see Lalsangkima Pachuau, "Ecumenical Church and Religious Presbyterian Church Synod, Synod Khawmpui Vawi 77-na, 2001: Conversion: A Historical-Theological Study, with Special Reference Programmes and Agenda, Appendix and Reports, November 29­ to India," Mission Studies 18-1, no. 35 (2001): 190-92. December 9, 2001 (Aizawl: Mizoram Presbyterian Church Synod, 68. Solomon Doraisawmy, Christianity in India: Unique and Universal 2002), p. 72. (Madras: Christian Literature Society, 1986), p. 104. 55. "HomeMission Report," in Mizoram Presbyterian Church Synod,p. 130. 69. Ibid., pp. 104ff. 56. T. C. Laltlawmlova, "B.C.M. Mission and Evangelism Department 70. Census of India 1981, Series-l India, Paper 3 of 1984, Household Report, 2001-2002," in Baptist Church of Mizoram Assembly 106-na: Population by Religion ofHead ofHousehold (New Delhi: V. S. Verma, Reportis], March 6-10, 2002 (Lunglei: Baptist Church of Mizoram, Registrar General and Census Commissioner for India, 1984), pp. 2002), p. 15. Also see the general secretary's report: K. Thanzauva, xiv-xv.

The Latourette Initiative for the Documentation of World Christianity Yale Divinity Library is pleased to announce a proactive Yale from a resource for training missionaries to a collection program to preserve and provide access to the documentation documenting the history of Christian missions. The endow­ of world Christianity. This program, called the Latourette ment he established to further the work of the Yale Divinity Initiative for the Documentation of World Christianity, pro­ Library provides the funding for the Latourette Initiative. vides funding for the microfilming of published and archival For more information on the Latourette Initiative or to resources documenting the history of Christian missions and discuss a possible project, please contact: the life of the churches in the countries to which the mission­ aries were sent. Paul F. Stuehrenberg We welcome proposals from libraries, archival reposito­ Yale Divinity Library ries, mission agencies, and others with collections of such 409 Prospect Street documentation for projects that would help carry forward the New Haven, CT 06511 work of the Latourette Initiative. We are particularly inter­ ested in ways that the Latourette Initiative might provide [email protected]

IIseed money" thatwould leverageotherresources to preserve and provide access to this documentation. Please include a description of the collection, where it is The Latourette Initiative for the Documentation of World located, the state of its organization, and the physical condi­ Christianity is named for Kenneth Scott Latourette (1884­ tion of the documents. 1968),who served as the D. Willis James Professorof Missions --PauIF.Stuehrenberg andWorldChristianityat Yale DivinitySchool. He wasinstru­ Librarian mental in changing the focus of the Day Missions Collectionat Yale Divinity School

October 2003 161 "Blessed Reflex": Mission as God's Spiral of Renewal Kenneth R. Ross

liD eally quite suddenly in 1963, something very pro a great response in many different parts of the world to the ftfound ruptured the character of the nation and its Christian Gospel introduced by missionaries from Britain. people, sending organised Christianity on a downward spiral to To look no further than Scotland, we can say with certainty the marginsof social significance." Soarguesthe historianCallum today that the number of those worldwide whose profession of Brown in his provocatively titled recent book, The Death of Christian faith arises, directly or indirectly, from the work of Christian Britain. Hedescribes a greatchange in the relation of the Scottish missionaries far exceeds the total populationof Scotland British people to the Christian faith that they had, by and large, itself. Indeed, there are at least five Presbyterian churches world­ espoused for more than a thousand years: wide owing their origins to Scottish influence and the work of Scottishmissionaries thatare todaymuchbiggerthantheChurch In unprecedented numbers, the British people since the 1960s of Scotlanditself, 5 while there are also similarlyoriginated move­ have stopped going to church, have allowed their church mem­ ments of Christian faith that have happily flowed into strong bership to lapse, have stopped marrying in church and have united churches. Just as the church in Scotland has begun to neglected to baptise their children. Meanwhile, their children, the crumble at its historic center, so on the various edges of its most twogenerationswhogrewto maturityin the last thirtyyearsof the twentieth century, stopped going to Sunday school, stopped far-flung missionary outreach, it has experienced a period of enteringconfirmation or communicantclasses, and rarely, if ever, unprecedented growth and expansion. stepped inside a church to worship in their entire lives. The cycle The irony is compounded by the fact that the overseas of inter-generationalrenewalofChristianaffiliation, a cycle which missionary involvement, which has proved to be by far the most had for so many centuries tied the people however closely or significant religious contribution that Scotland has made to the loosely to the churches and to Christian moral benchmarks, was world, has always been a hand-to-mouth enterprise, a minority permanently disrupted in the "swinging sixties." Since then, a pursuit, rather on the fringe of the life of the church, lightly formerly religious peoplehave entirelyforsaken organisedChris­ regarded by most of its mainstream leadership. Andrew Walls, tianity in a sudden plunge into a truly secular condition.' a previous St. Colm's lecturer, has commented on this anomaly: "The missionary movement is arguably the single most impor­ This experience, through which most of us have lived, Brown tant event in the history of Western Christianity; certainly no goes on to illustrate not only with the familiar, relentless down­ other so profoundly altered the form of Christian presence in the ward trend in all the statistical indicators of participation in world. Scotland played its full share within that movement. But church life but also, perhaps more important, by showing how while the Scottish perception of missions has sometimes (not markedly the population has departed from what he calls the always) been a high one, it is hard to escape the conclusion that "discursive domain" of Christianity.' With this decline in mind, the missionary project, whether forwarded by the abundance of the literary critic A. N. Wilson also observes that there has the rich or the tithes of the poor, was always a peripheral one, occurred an epochal change in the relation of the British peoples always on the edge of thehome church's vision, always the direct to the Christian faith: "Now that the habit of learning the old concern of the few."> Christian stories and prayers has all but died out, now that From a Christian point of view, it is difficult to reflect onthis Christianity has turned itself back into a sect, there really seems remarkable development without referring to the Pauline texts to be no future. There will be Christians in the next generation, thatspeak of God's topsy-turvy mode of operation. "The foolish­ but we can be sadly certain that there will be no Christian ness of God is wiser than human wisdom, and the weakness of literature-that came to an end with the generation of T. S. God is stronger than human strength.... God chose the foolish Eliot.":' So serious is the demise of Christian faith, in Wilson's things of the world to shame the wise; God chose the weakthings judgment, that he is led to predict that "Christianity will decline of the worldto shamethe strong. He chose thelowlythings of this yet further in thenext 1,000years to the pointof nearextinction­ world and the despised things-and the things that are not-to because Christians themselves no longer believe it to be true."? nullify the things that are" (1 Cor. 1:25, 27-28 NIV adapted). These two voices, among many others, suggest that we are In keeping with the church's own tradition of largely ignor­ entering a period when Christian faith has become peripheral, ing its overseas missionary engagement, contemporary critics sectarian, and irrelevant to the construction of reality in which such as Brown and Wilson make practically no reference to this the British population is engaged. dimension of the church's life when they analyze its demise. You One of the most ironic features of this sudden and dramatic would certainly never guess from reading their work that they collapse of Christian faith among the people of Britain is that it have lived through one of the great ages of expansion in the has occurred just at the point when British Christianity has history of the Christian church or that this vigorous church registered what might well be judged to be its most spectacular growth was apparently ignited by agents of a Western church success. Over the many centuries when Christian faith was that is in supposedly terminal decline. In this respect, they reflect deeply embedded in British institutions and popularculture, the a common perception of Christianity in British society today. An churches had very limited impact beyond the shores of the important purpose of this article is to register the little-appreci­ United Kingdom. In the lasttwocenturies, however,and particu­ ated fact that, while British Christianity is apparently crumbling larly in the second half of the twentieth century, there has been in its historic heartlands, in many of the new contexts around the world into which it hasbeentransplanted, it is undergoingrapid, Kenneth R. Rossis General Secretary oftheChurch ofScotland Board of World sustained, and vigorous growth. Mission, based in Edinburgh. Formerly he was Professor of Theology at the Our task is to go further, however, and to ask whether any University of Malawiwherehe taught from 1988 to 1998. kind of fruitful relation is possible between the vigorous growth

162 INTERNATIONAL BULLETIN OF MISSIONARY RESEARCH, Vol. 27, No.4 and the virtual collapse. Is there any way in which the growth on recall the hurtling bullet. ... The center of the religion shifted to the periphery could reinvigorate the center? the particular culture that was being addressed.:" Having of­ A survey of Christian history might not, at least at first sight, fered the faith to others, Western Christians must be prepared to be very encouraging. For Christianity appears to be not a very live with the consequences of their passionate engagement with centrist kind of religion. Whereas most other religions have it; and with the reality that the outcome has often proved to be continued to be organized around their historic centers, Chris­ quite different from that which was anticipated. As Dana Robert tianity has proved to be a pilgrim sort of faith-at its best when has remarked, "Ultimately, the n10st interesting lessons from the it is on a journey, crossing a frontier, entering a new context. missionary outreach during the Western colonial era is what Neither the fall of Jerusalem nor the fall of Rome in the ancient happened to Christianity when the missionaries weren't look­ world brought about its demise. For although these had been ing, and after the colonizers withdrew."? significant centers, the Christian faith was already advancing The outcome, on a global scale, is that both the nature of the across new frontiers by the time they were imperiled. It could church and the structure of its mission have undergone an readilybe argued thatit is quite typical of Christianitythat, when irreversible change. As Andrew Walls observes, "Christian faith its longtime European home is becoming inhospitable, it has is now more diffused than at any previous time in its history; not already set off on a fresh journey and has been embraced by the only in the sense that it is more geographically, ethnically and peoples of the great southern continents on an unprecedented culturally Widespread than ever before, but in the sense that is scale. On this analysis it could well be that modern Europe will share the fate of such earlier centers of Christian influence as North Africa or Turkey, which nurtured the faith in its early The untold story of the centuries but which today are largely bereft of Christian pres­ ence. The renewal of Christian faith occurring in non-Western missionary movement is societies is already leading to the establishment of new centers of that it was the missionaries Christian thought and action. It may be that the destiny of the church in Europe is simply to continue to be a steadily ebbing who were converted. backwater within the onward flow of world Christianity until it has practically disappeared. There is, however, another possibility. Just as Paul was diffused within more communities. The territorial 'from-to' idea driven by the vision that the weakened church in Jerusalem that underlay the older missionary movement has to give way to could be helped by the vigorous new congregations emerging in a concept much more like that of Christians within the Roman suchplaces as Philippi (see Rom. 15:25-29;2 Cor. 8:1-4),so it may Empire in the second and third centuries: parallel presences in be that the new life on what were once seen as the fringes will different circles and at different levels, each seeking to penetrate prove to be the source of renewal for today's European church. within and beyond its circle.":" What would have to happen for the renewal of the faith among This conceptualshiftinvolves notonlya newhumility onthe the younger churches to have an invigorating effect upon the part of the church in the West but also a new form of missionary ancient, and allegedly dying, churches of the West? What would engagement. It involves a new kind of missionary, with particu­ the Western churches have to do in order to be hospitable to such lar qualities. This need was recognized by Simon Barrington a movement and to promote it? I suggest that three steps would Ward when he reflected on what the new missionary situation have to be taken. meantfor theChurchMissionarySociety: "Wecould neverreally escape the continuing concealed colonialism. But at least we Recognize That Mission and the Mission Field must recognize now, wholeheartedly, that in so many ways we Have Completely Changed must decrease that others may increase. The world missionary task must be tackled by Christians from all the churches acting To begin with, it would be necessary to recognize the integrity of together and no longer by one-sided initiatives from or within the Christian faith of the younger churches of the south. Having theWest. ... We knewwe mustbe smallerand moreselective. But been for centuries the repository of Christian faith and its au­ our goal was to help send, bring, and place the most creative and thoritative expositor, the Westernchurchmustundergo a mental redemptive 'peoplein mission' we could find in situationswhere revolution if it is to recognize thatChristianity's center of gravity they could openthe way to a deeply pervasive, spiritualrenewal. has shifted to the south. David Smith has commented, "The Only people who are constantly being changed can bring change to perplexity experienced by many European churches today is oihers/:» Gone are the days when Christian mission could be related to the struggle to come to terms with the fact that the real confused with the extension of Western influence or when the centers of Christian life and growth are now located in the non­ Christian missionary could be the epitome of dogmatism and Western world. Long established habits of thought and practice inflexibility. based on the assumption that the churches of the West occupy center-stage in the purposes of God must be abandoned in the Recognize That We Are Always the Recipients light of this new reality. We find ourselves standingin the wings, as well as the Agents of Mission witnessing others take the lead in God's still unfolding drama of redemption.'? This recognition is a big step for Western Chris­ A critical point to recognize in the new missionary paradigm is tians to take. Ultimately, however, they have no choice. Having that all are addressees as well as agents of mission. The best encouraged and enabled others to receive the Gospel on their missionaries have always recognized this reality. It is God's own terms, the Western missionary must be prepared for the mission. God is always the authentic subject of mission, and faith to find a new form and idiom. The cat is out of the bag. As human involvement is always first as addressee and only thenas Lamin Sanneh comments, "When one translates [the Gospel], it agent. Theuntold story of the missionary movementis thatit was is like pulling the trigger of a loaded gun: the translator cannot the missionaries who were converted, as time and again they

October 2003 163 came to an enlarged and a deepened understanding of the poses that "the process and progress from church to mission to Gospel through their experience of encounter with another cul­ church should rather be seen as cyclical, and specifically as an ture and context. This story remained, unfortunately, largely a ascending, never-ending spiral. From the very beginning, there­ secret, and the church at large was little aware that it was being fore, the progress is not in a straight line awayfrom the 'sending' transformed, or at least had the potential for transformation, church to some far-away unreached 'mission field', but rather through the encounter with others and their apprehension of the curving back to it throughout."12 When I was visiting a Highland Gospel. Evenafter a generation when "partnership" has been the Presbytery recently, one of the elders remarked to me that he governing paradigm in the practice of mission, few members of regretted that we now have fewer missionaries serving in Africa the church in Scotland appear to have a vivid expectation that because they made such fine ministers when they came back!" they will be on the receiving end of evangelization through He had detected that the outreach of the Church of Scotland in engagement with church and mission elsewhere. other parts of the world had"curved back" and had an invigorat­ The thinking of many is still governed by a nineteenth­ ing effect on the church in Scotland. century linear model of mission, where it is all about the trans­ In times past this "reflex" occurred through the exploits of mission of something from here to there. Willem Saayman has missionaries and the contribution they could make when they pointed out that "in such an understanding the 'sending' church returned to their home country. That dynamic has not disap­ acts only as starting point and provider of personnel and re­ peared, but it is complemented by two significant newer move­ sources. The 'sending' church in its essential nature, though, canbe ments. The first of these is the migration of people from areas of left totally untouched by the process." By contrast, Saayman pro- church renewal and growth to areas of church decline. It is Noteworthy Personalia AndoverNewtonTheologicalSchool, NewtonCentre, Massa­ Crusade for Christ, July 19, 2003, in Orlando, Florida. A chusetts, appointed Daniel jeyaraj as the Judson-DeFrietas California businessman, he became a Christian in 1944.While Associate Professor of World Christianity, effective July I, studying at FullerTheologicalSeminary, he founded Campus 2003. He is editor of Dharma Deepika, a South Asian mission Crusade in 1951 as a ministry to students at the University of research journal. California at Los Angeles. From that beginning, the organiza­ Paul-Gordon Chandler, president and CEO of Partners tion has grown to a staff of 26,000peoplein 191countries, with International, Spokane, Washington, resigned to become rec­ 68 special ministries and projects that reach almost every tor of the AnglicanChurchof St.John the Baptist, Cairo, Egypt. segment of society. In 1957 he summarized the Christian He is the author of God'sGlobal Mosaic (2000).The new presi­ message into 77 words, known as the "Four Spiritual Laws." dent/CEO as of August 2003 is Jon Lewis, vice president of The feature-length "Jesus" film was released by Campus researchand planningfor MissionAviationFellowship,where Crusade in 1979.Since then it has been seen by more than five he served in various positions for twenty-six years, including million people in 236countries, and translated into more than as a missionary pilot in Africa. 700languages. Bright was the recipientof the TempletonPrize The Overseas Council Canada, Vancouver, appointed for Progress in Religion in 1996. Gordon T. Smith president as of June 1, 2003, succeeding Died. Robert Edward Harlow, 94,cofounder of Emmaus William Armerding. Smith is author of Beginning Well: Chris­ Bible College, now located in Dubuque, Iowa, and founder of tian Conversion and Authentic Transformation (2001) and The Everyday Publications, Inc., March 10, 2003, at home in Voice of Jesus: Discernment, Prayer, and the Witness of the Spirit Frostproof, Florida. Harlow wrote more than fifty books, (2003). He was academic vice president and dean of Regent including Come andDine: New TestamentReadings forEveryDay College. (1976).His Can WeKnowGod? (1958)was the first of a series of Died. Paul Wilson Brand, 88, medical missionary in books he wrote in simple English. It has sold some 500,000 India and leprosy specialist, July 8, 2003,in Seattle, Washing­ copies in more than a dozenlanguages. A native ofToronto, he ton. Born to missionary parents in SouthIndia,Brand returned was also a missionary in the Congo. in 1946as a medical missionary, with his wife, Margaret, also Died. DanielJoseph Harrison,62,missionaryand agency a medical doctor. Trained in orthopedic surgery, he revolu­ administrator, May 18,2003, in Madison, Wisconsin. Born in tionized medical conceptions of leprosy and its treatment, China of missionary parents, he served with Wycliffe Bible especially reconstructive surgery of the hands, as he taught Translators in Papua New Guinea, in international mission surgery at Vellore Medical College. In 1961 he was named a administration, and with the English Language Institute in commander of the Order of the British Empire by Queen China from 1966 to 1987; he also was vice president and ElizabethII,andin 1966he becamechief of rehabilitationat the directorofUrbanaMissionConventionsfor InterVarsityChris­ National Leprosarium of the United States Public Health tian Fellowship from 1987to 1997.After leaving InterVarsity, Service in Carville, Louisiana, and taught surgery and ortho­ he was the director of Middle East Media and then founded pedics at Louisiana State University. He also served as presi­ Leadership DevelopmentInternational,whichstarteda Chris­ dent of the Leprosy Mission International, based in London. tian university in China. His story is told by Dorothy Clarke Wilson in Ten Fingers for Died. Paul T. Lauby, 78, missionary scholar and admin­ God (1989). Brand's "My Pilgrimage in Mission" was pub­ istrator for the advancement of Christian higher education in lished in the IBMR in July 2002. Asia, May 20, 2003, in Mount Holly, New Jersey. He served Died. William (1'Bill")R. Bright, 81, founder of Campus from 1953 to 1969 as a United Church of Christ missionary at

164 INTERNATIONAL BULLETIN OF MISSIONARY RESEARCH, Vol. 27, No.4 instructive that several Church of Scotland congregations on The movements of African Christianity now increasingly mainland Europe have increasingly attracted members of Afri­ makingtheirpresencefelt in Britainarecharacterizedby Roswith can and Asian origin. For example, more than half the elders on Gerloff as follows: the Rotterdam Kirk Session are now Africans, who bring vigor­ ous leadership to the life of the congregation." This trend may be African missions do not distinguish between the spiritual and the little evidentin Scotland itselfat present, butit is clearlyapparent material. They base evangelism on spiritual empowerment, as in England and a remarkable sign of the times. "Christians in well as on social care for people. Different from European style Britain," writes Walter Hollenweger, "prayed for many years for linear structures, Africanmissions travel along pre-existing social revival, and whenit came they did not recognise it because it was relations such as family, friendship, village or island community, and trade and work comradeship. They rest on charismatic lead­ black.v" This migratory movement may prove to be a key to ership, communicate in songs and signals, and understand the preventing the disappearance of Christian faith in the West. human person in his or her relationship to community. Therefore Migration was much more limited at the time when Christianity faith becomes the light, reliable and comforting baggage in the practically died out in North Africa. In today's globalized world, process of migration and crisis. It testifies to a God who wanders the total disappearance of a faith in one part of the world seems with people through the wilderness. It believes in mutual respect less likely. It maybe that countries like the United Kingdomcould and sharing. It turns the personal commitment of witnesses into a continue to be islands of recession in a world where, for the most vehicle for being the gospel to be proclaimed." part, the church is being renewed and expanded, but they will be exposed to missionary movements that will resist this trend. Is it possible that this surprising new movement of Christian

Silliman University in the Philippines, where at various times cosponsoring a conference Missionaries and Translation: he was senior pastor of the University Church, dean of the Sino-Western Cultural Exchange in Early Modern Times, divinity school, vice president of the university, and acting 1840-1950, to be held May 23-25, 2004, at Peking University. president. From 1969 until retirement in 1989 he was head of For information, go to www.obu.edu/intstudies. the United Board for Christian Higher Education in Asia, Trinity Evangelical Divinity School, in Deerfield, Illi­ which works with nearly one hundred institutions in nine nois, will host a consultation on missiology June 21-22, 2004, countries, including China. His books include Sailing on the with the theme "DoingTheology in a GlobalizingWorld." The Winds of Change: Two Decades in the Lifeof the United Board for consultation will honor Paul G. Hiebert, distinguished pro­ Christian HigherEducation in Asia,1969-1990(1996)andAMan fessor of mission and anthropology at TEDS.Contact: Craig L. Without Guile: The Lifeof P. T. Chandi (1998). Ott, associate professor of mission, [email protected]. Died. Ype Schaaf, 73, a Netherlands Reformed minister In September 2003, Fuller Theological Seminary, Pasa­ and journalist, on August 16,2003, in Dokkum, Netherlands. dena, California, renamed its School of World Mission to He served with the United Bible Society in Africa, 1959-68. Schoolof Intercultural Studies. Dean C. Douglas McConnell Following his return to the Netherlands, he became assistant also reports expansion of the school's offerings in Islamic general secretary of the Dutch Bible Society, later becoming studies with the addition of Evelyne Reisacher and Joseph chief editor of Friesen Dagblad, a daily Christian newspaper, Cumming to the faculty, and the availability of a new concen­ and secretary of the missionary journal Wereld en Zending tration, Mission to Children at Risk. (World and mission). Until the end of his life, he devoted his New possibilities for missiological research in Norway'­ time to Africa, especially to the Bible in Africa and theological are now available at the Norwegian School of Mission and publications by Africans in Africa. He is best known for his Theology, Stavanger. The school has received government book On TheirWay Rejoicing: TheHistoryand Roleofthe Bible in accreditation to offer the Ph.D. in theology with a concentra­ Africa(1994). tion in missiology. Thirty-four Anglican theologians from twenty-two coun­ Announcing tries met May 13-16,2003, at Episcopal Divinity School, Cam­ The Church Meets the Muslim Community: An Anabaptist bridge, Massachusetts, to establish a voluntary network of Consultation on Islam will be held October 23-26, 2003, at Anglican Contextual Theologians. The network will provide Eastern Mennonite Seminary, Harrisonburg, Virginia. The a forum for multiple theological voices within Anglicanism to featured speakers will be Dudley Woodberry, John A. Lapp, be heard and will advance resources for theological education Lamin Sanneh, and Chantal Logan. For details, including and leadership formation for the Anglican Communion. For suggested reading, visit www.emu.edu/churchandislam. details, visit www.anglicancommunion. org/acns. The Centre for Mission Studies at Union Biblical Semi­ The first National Missionary Congress of the Roman nary, Pune, India, will hold its tenth annual mission consulta­ Catholic Church in Brazil drew more than 400 participants in tion January 15-17, 2004, with "Nationalism and Hindutva: July 2003. Discussion of mission at the congress gave particu­ A Christian Response" as the theme. Contact: Mark Laing, lar attention to poverty, diversity, and martyrdom. The con­ [email protected] or visit www.ubs.ac.in/cms/cms.html. gress, held at the initiativeof the National Missionary Council, The English Department of Peking University, Beijing, was scheduled in preparation for the Second American Mis­ and the Daniel R. Grant Center for International Studies of sionary Congress and the SeventhLatinAmericanMissionary Ouachita Baptist University, Arkadelphia, Arkansas, are Congress to be held in November 2003 in Guatemala City.

October 2003 165 mission may prove to be a spiral of renewal? Could the old when, as a member of the older generation, he contrasts his "mission fields" of the "Third World" provide the springboard experience with that of young people today: "We were loyal to for a fresh evangelization of the West?" the concept of missions, we trusted institutions, including mis­ One of the most fascinating features of this new missionary sion organizations, and of course we were interested in specific paradigm is that, by and large, it is mission from the poor to the missionaries. The younger generation today wants to know and rich, from the periphery to the center in the global economy. experience everything almost immediately and is generally im­ What excites the Christian imagination about this development patient and distrustful of institutions of all kinds. An additional is that, after the long years when the Evangel was compromised factor is a general suspicion and fear of long-term commitments, by being intertwined with imperial power and economic exploi­ which affects attitudes toward traditional institutions, including tation, it is now restored to the poorand marginalized, who were mission agencies."19To those shaped by a classic Enlightenment its original agents. Marveling at the fact that it was despised approach to the construction of knowledge and the organization Galileans who first preached the Gospel that eventually won the of society, this diffuse, individualized, networking world is a allegiance of the mighty Roman Empire, James Engel and Will­ confusing one. Yet it holds possibilities for a new generation iam Dyrness attempt to translate this history into contemporary growing up in the West to have a fresh encounter with living Christian faith. If church overseas mission boards and independent mis­ sionary societies are to be effective in this new context, they must The Christian church should undergo a considerable paradigm shift. Stanley Green indicates have learned from its long what such a shift has involved for North American Mennonites history how to engage with over the past few years: "We needed to be willing to adapt our self-identity from that of a centralized bureaucracy that 'owned' a new cultural context. the mission (we designed the initiatives, recruited the workers, deployed the personnel, and then courted and cajoled congrega­ tions to support our program) to a more decentralized, network­ terms and suggest that "a good illustration would be to suppose ing entity focused on developing synergistic partnerships with the gospel would spread from the poorest of the poorin Africa to regional ... conferences, congregations, and international part­ Wall Street in New York, the Miracle Mile in Chicago or the seats ners.'?" Perhaps the most marked feature of this paradigm shift of power in Washington, D.C. Perhaps the gospel would capture is that the missionary enterprise ceases to be the project of a the hearts of itinerant day laborers in Nigeria and spread by tightly knit core of dedicated professionals who make a career of traders throughout Africa. Eventually one of them is assigned to it and becomes instead an open-ended venture in which large an embassy in Washington, D.C., and starts a small fellowship numbers of people can enjoy direct participation for longer or that acts like an igniting spark."ls As a matter of fact, this kind of shorter periods. evangelistic movement is already happening. Certainly it would Not that the need for dedicated, full-time mission practitio­ stand outas one of God's surprises if today's asylum seekers were ners has come to an end. Onthe contrary! But they need to be able to prove to be the agents of renewal for faith and life in the West! to accommodate a vast diversity of short-term participants in the - The second great trend that we must notice is moving in the missionenterprise. Ted Ward offers wisecounselwhenhe writes, opposite direction. Just as migration is bringing non-Westerners "Although in the case of someof these people, at leastin the short into the West as never before, so Westerners are traveling and run, suchexperiences maybe a waste of time and resources of the being exposed to the non-Western world on an unprecedented mission agency, for many of these Western adventurers such scale. In 2000, 47 million people took flights out of the United overseas junkets are the sparkthat ignites mission consciousness Kingdom, and this number is currently increasing by 5 percent and awakens a concern for more effective forms of missionary per year. Even if only a modest proportion of these travelers presence. For slow-minded mission agencies the short-termphe­ encounter vibrant new expressions of Christian faith in the nomenon will be an increasing nuisance. But for creative agen­ course of their travels, this exposure would be a significant cies, ways are already being found to encourage and support expression of mission in our time. Furthermore, the arrival of the these activities as additional species and types of Christian Internet has vastly increased the contact that people have with relationship and development.'?' Not least of the reasons for distant parts of the world. If, of the 400,000 e-mails sent every undertaking such adaptation is the fact that exposure to the second, only a tiny proportion contained material of missional youthful vigor of Christian movements elsewhere may be the significance, this impact would constitute an importantmission­ spark that ignites a renewed experience of faith for a new ary movement of our time. The vibrancy of African Christian generation of Westerners. faith is refreshed in my own experience, five years after leaving that continent, bye-mails from friends who reflect it. Multiply Cultivate the Sense of Adventure That is that testimony by the total number of Westerners who have a Essential to Authentic Christian Mission similar experience, and you may find that a notable missionary movement is taking shape. There can be little doubt that the second half of the twentieth We may not easily recognize it because it has none of the century was a time of rapid cultural change in Britain or that this regimented, well-oiled machinery of the modern missionary period included a marked recession of Christian faith. So much movement of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. There is no so that Andrew Walls has remarked that "western Europe has head office, no organizingcommittee, no commandstructure, no become a prime area, perhaps theprime area for identification as comprehensive strategic direction. It is a postmodern movement a mission field. It would be easy to adapt some of the nineteenth­ of individuals making their own connections, developing their centurydescriptions of the need of the heathen-theignoranceof own perspectives, and functioning within networks that they religion, the immorality, the proneness to warfare, the inhumani­ themselveshaveconstructed. PaulPiersonreflects on this change ties and injustice widely accepted in society-as a stirring call to

166 INTERNATIONAL BULLETIN OF MISSIONARY RESEARCH, Vol. 27, No.4 Christians of the southern continents to undertake the salvation that new language, there were invariably two stages." The first of the west."22From a slightly different angle Lesslie Newbigin was one of frustration, where the missionary was painfully made a similar observation when he remarked that "the attacks aware of his or her inability to communicate the gospel message on [the liberal, secular democratic state] from powerful new in accustomed terms. The second stage was the gloriously religious fanaticisms are possible only because its own internal liberating one when the missionary realized that the new lan­ weaknesses have become so clear: the disintegration of family guage was opening up all kinds of new insights into the meaning life, the growth of mindless violence, the vandalism which finds of the Gospel, sometimes turning received understandings up­ satisfaction in destroying whatever is comely and useful, the side down. To reach that second stage it was necessary for the growing destruction of the environment by limitless consump­ missionary to enter deeply into the language and culture, to tion fueled by ceaseless propaganda, the threat of nuclear war, esteemit, to cometo love it. Onlythroughsuchexperiencewill the and-as the deepest root of it all-the loss of any sense of a faith be commended to the peoples of the West in the newcultural meaningful future.T" context into which they have entered. But you reach that stage At the same time, just as the nineteenth-century missionar­ only whenyou have the missionary sense of adventure that takes ies had to learn, often the hard way, that the societies in which youto the vulnerabilityof a newplace withthe confidencethatthe they found themselves were not all bad and that indeed they Gospel of Christ can be translated into the native idiom. often had much to teach the missionary, so it will be a surprise if We beganwithCallumBrown's claim that organized Chris­ the postmodern Western societies do not possess, besides their tianity in Britain has been sent on "a downward spiral to the obvious decadence, features that will make possible a new, margins of social significance." I have attempted to suggest that revealing, and energizing appropriation of the Gospel of Christ. there is evidence of another movement, which should not be Is not such a new cultural frontier one that excites the Christian discounted by anyone seeking to take a longer view: mission as imagination? If there is one thing the Christian church should what Willem Saayman called "an ascending, never-ending spi­ have learned from its long history, and particularly from the ral."26 Today, as we surveythe wreckage of a once-strong church great age of expansion over the last two centuries, it is how to in the United Kingdom and observe the vigorous new growth of engage with a new cultural context. As David Smith has pointed Christianity in the non-Western world, this contrast should not out: "It should be possible for churches possessing two centuries be a source of despair or demoralization. On the contrary! There of accumulated experience and expertise in cross-cultural mis­ canbea renewing force channeled from the latter to the former: sionary endeavour to discover faithful and creative ways of mission as God's spiral of renewal! It takes effect as werecognize ensuring that Christ becomes a living option for a generation the changed reality, open ourselves to engagement with the shaped by postmodern culture."?' Among the lessons learned other,and engenderthe confidencethatthenewculturalfrontier from this experience would be the confidence that Christ is is not impermeable to the Gospel of Christ but rather represents translatable, that new language is not threat but opportunity, an opportunity to rediscover Jesus Christ and make the Gospel that there is need to take risks, to be ready for the Gospel to be a living option for the peoples of Britain in the twenty-first seen in a new light, to be willing to let the terms be set by the century. Were these three dynamics to take effect, then it may "receptor" community. In the missionary's experience of learn­ transpire that the obituary of Christianity in Britain was pub­ ing a new language and seeking to communicate the Gospel in lished prematurely.

Notes------­ 1. Callum G. Brown, TheDeath ofChristian Britain (London: Routledge, future of the faith made quite a small impression on its 2001), p. 1. This essay is based on the St. Colm's Lecture, given in contemporaries, and has made a correspondingly small one on their Edinburgh on May 20,2001. "Blessed reflex" was a phrase used by historians" (Walls, The Missionary Movement in Christian History: nineteenth-centurymission leaderswho anticipated a timewhenthe StudiesintheTransmission oftheFaith [Edinburgh: T. & T.Clark,1996], "sending" churches of the West would be challenged and renewed p.144). bythechurchesthenspringingupin Africa, Asia,andLatinAmerica. 7. David Smith, "Junction or Terminus? Christianity in the West at the See Wilbert R. Shenk, "Recasting Theology of Mission: Impulses Dawn of the Third Millennium," in Mission: An Invitation to God's from the Non-Western World," International Bulletin of Missionary Future,ed. Timothy Yates (Calver: Cliff College, 2000), p. 92. Research 25, no. 3 (July 2001): 105. 8. Lamin Sanneh, Translating the Message: The Missionary Impact on 2. See, e.g., Brown, Death of Christian Britian,p. 195. Culture (Maryknoll, N.Y.: Orbis Books, 1989), pp. 53, 69. 3. A. N. Wilson, "The Poisoned Chalice," Guardian Saturday Review, 9. Dana L. Robert, "Shifting Southward: Global Christianity Since November 25, 2000, p. 2; see also Wilson, "Christianity and 1945," International Bulletin of Missionary Research 24, no. 2 (April Modernity," in Ink and Spirit: Literature and Spirituality,ed. Stephen 2000): 57. Platten (London: Canterbury Press, 2000). 10. Walls, Missionary Movement, pp. 258-59. 4. Wilson, "Poisoned Chalice," p. 1. 11. Simon Barrington Ward, "My Pilgrimage in Mission," International 5. Church of Central Africa Presbyterian, Presbyterian Church of East BulletinofMissionaryResearch 23, no. 2 (April 1999): 64, my italics. Africa, Presbyterian Church of Korea (TongHap), Presbyterian 12. Willem Saayman, "'Missionary by Its Very Nature': A Time to Take Church of Korea (HapDong), and Presbyterian Church (USA). See Stock," Missionalia 28 (April 2000): 19-20. Jean-Jacques Bauswein and Lukas Vischer, eds., TheReformed Family 13. Oral testimony, Presbytery of Dunkeld and Meigle, Pitlochry, May Worldwide: A Survey of Reformed Churches, Theological Schools, and 2000. International Organizations (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1999). 14. RobertCalvert, AnnualReport for 2000, Churchof Scotland Board of 6. Andrew F.Walls, "Missions," in Dictionary ofScottish Church History World Mission; cited with the author's permission. andTheology, ed. Nigel M. de S. Cameron (Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 15. WalterJ. Hollenweger, foreword to A Plea forBritishBlack Theologies: 1993), p. 573. In another article Walls makes a similar point in TheBlack Church Movementin BritaininItsIntercultural Theological and reviewing Owen Chadwick's Victorian Church: "Chadwick's work CulturalInteraction, byRoswith Gerloff (Bern: Peter Lang, 1992), 1:ix. reveals that the British missionary movement at its height was only 16. Roswith Gerloff, "Editorial," International Reviewof Mission 89, no. peripheral to the Victorian church. One of the features of the 354 (July 2000): 277. This special issue of the IRM, entitled "Open nineteenth century Western Christianity that most determined the Space: The African Christian Diaspora in Europe and the Quest for

October 2003 167 Human Community," includes several studies that amplify this Mission," International BulletinofMissionaryResearch 23, no. 4 (Octo­ theme. See also Gerrie ter Haar,HalfwaytoParadise: AfricanChristians ber 1999): 162. in Europe (Cardiff: Cardiff Academic Press, 1998). 21. Ted Ward, "Repositioning Mission Agencies for the Twenty-first 17. A recent press release from the Council of African Christian Century," International Bulletin ofMissionary Research 23,no. 4 (October Communities in Europe claims that "there are more than three 1999): 150. million Christians of African origin living in Europe" (International 22. Walls, MissionaryMovement, p. 258. Reviewof Mission 89, no. 354 [July 2000]: 304). 23. Lesslie Newbigin, The Gospel in a Pluralist Society (London: SPCK, 18. James F. Engel and William A. Dyrness, Changing the Mind of 1989), p. 223. Missions: Where Have We Gone Wrong? (Downers Grove, Ill.: 24. Smith, "Junction or Terminus?" p. 90. InterVarsity Press, 2000), p. 42. 25. lowe this thought to Kai Funkschmidt, who offered a reflection 19. Paul E. Pierson, "Local Churches in Mission: What's Behind the along these lines at the annual conference of the Churches ImpatiencewithTraditionalMissionAgencies?"International Bulletin Commission on Mission, Durham, September 2000. ofMissionaryResearch 22, no. 4 (October 1998): 148. 26. Saayman, "Missionary by Its Very Nature," p. 20. 20. Stanley W. Green, "How Mennonites Repositioned a Traditional

My Pilgrimage in Mission Jacques Dupuis, S.J.

was born on December 5, 1923, in Huppaye in the prov­ humanities were especially rich in academic as well as cultural I ince of Brabant, Belgium. I come from a well-to-do family pursuits. The students and the Jesuit fathers who were teaching with a long tradition of liberal professions. My father was an them enjoyed excellent human relations, amounting to a deep engineerwholaterbecamechiefmanagerof an importantfactory friendship. This setting influenced my vocation. I developed at of heavy metallurgy. My mother came from a family with a once a priestly and a Jesuit vocation in the most natural fashion. tradition of notaries. In his professional workmyfather was very Both came together and were practically inseparable. demanding on himself and on others; he was a perfectionist who Eventually I joined the Society of Jesus in September 1941, did not tolerate mediocrity. But he was at the same time very during the war and under the Germanoccupation. The first years human in his dealings with more than a thousand subordinates, of training were hard, especially with the restrictions and pre­ and an example to them of professional honesty and conscien­ carious conditions imposed by the war. Those years consisted in tiousness. He was extremely just in his dealings with all and, two years of novitiate done in Arlon, two years of classical notwithstanding the high demands he made, managed to endear studies in Namur, and three years of philosophy in Louvain. himself to those under his direction. My mother was nothing During those years I developed the wish to go to India as a short of a saint. Her meekness, attention to all, and boundless missionary. Nooneis ever sent to the "foreignmissions" who has generosity made her an ideal mother. I always thought that my not clearly expressed to the superiors a desire to go and work parents complemented each other wonderfully well. They man­ there. I had been for a long time attracted to India because of its aged to build a most closely united family. We were four children rich cultural and religious heritage, but without thinking from at home, I myself being the third, with a brother and a sister the beginning in terms of a missionary vocation. Gradually, before me, and a brother after me. The first three of us followed however, I began to think that God was calling me to that precise each other very closely in age and were really educated together; vocation. I informed my superiors of my desire to enroll for the the younger brother followed me by seven years. Calcutta Mission of the society. I was confident that the authen­ Though born in Huppaye, I spent the whole of my youth in ticity of my vocation would eventually be confirmed by the Charleroi, in the province of Hainaut, which was in those days superiors' approval of my request, and I rejoiced greatly when one of the biggest industrial centers of Belgium, called the black they notified me of their approval. country because of the many coal mines and factories, with their mountain-like heaps of coal refuse and blast furnaces forming Growth in India the horizon. This is where my father exercised his profession. This is also where in 1929, at the age of five, I entered the Jesuit In December 1948 I said farewell to my family and proceeded to College du Sacre-Coeur, where I would spend twelve years of my destination in our Calcutta Mission. The departure was very schooling-six in primary school and six in the humanities, or painful, less for those who went than for those who stayed. As far secondary school. All I know I have learned from the Jesuits: at as I was concerned, I was seeing my dream fulfilled and my the College du Sacre-Coeur to begin with, and with the Jesuits vocation followed, however hard it was to depart. It was much later when I joined the Society of Jesus. At the Jesuit College I harder and more painful for the family that one left behind. In received an exquisite education. The six years of Greco-Latin those days a vocation for the foreign missions in India meant that one left family and country once for all; there wouldbe no return. The bridges were being burned. And so, when the time came, I Jacques Dupuis, S.].,taughtsystematictheology in India(1959-84) andat the Gregorian Universityin Rome(1984-98) andwasconsultantto thePontifical said farewell to my father (my mother had already died), ex­ Council forInterreligious Dialogue (1985-95). His recent publications include pressing mytrustthatwe would meetagain in heaven, whenand Toward a Christian Theology of Religious Pluralism (Orbis Books, 1997) if both of us got there. I expressed the same hope when I took and Christianity and the Religions: From Confrontation to Dialogue leave of my brothers and my sister. (Orbis Books, 2002). Arriving at Calcutta produced a cultural shock. Enormous

168 INTERNATIONAL BULLETIN OF MISSIONARY RESEARCH, Vol. 27, No.4 crowds of people were walking the streets of a city that was returned to India, where I started teaching theology, first in already then the most crowded city of the country; the sick and Kurseong, in the Himalayas, and later in Delhi. My first years of the dying were lying on the streets, whom the sisters of Mother teaching coincided with the years of preparation for the Second Teresa, walking the streets two by two every morning, would Vatican Council (1959-61) and those when it took place (1962­ come and pick up, to bring to a home where they could die a 65).The council constitutedan enormouschallengein all spheres dignified death. But there was too, especially among the poor connected with theological training and teaching, starting with and the underprivileged, in the slums and in the backyards, an the liturgical reform that was being initiated, passing on to a new enormous potential of human solidarity and mutual help. In an notion of the church, from a perfect society to the people of God, immortal manner Collins and Lapierre have described in The and a reversal of perspectives on the mystery of the church, from City of Joy this unique character of Calcutta, where concord, pyramidal and hierarchical to communal and sacramental; more mutual comprehension, and charity seemed to be the privileged gift of the poorand the needy. There was also an immense human and cultural heritage to be discovered slowly, and a rich historic past on which this heritage was built. From the outset I was The world's religious conquered by this city of contrasts, which I then supposed would traditions represent not the become my home for the rest of my life. search of people for God My first station in Calcutta was in the school department of ourJesuits' Saint Xavier's College, which numbered more than a but God's search for them. thousand students in the school and several thousand in the university college department. For two years I taught subjects, in English, totally unfamiliar to me and for which, through hard important still, perhaps, in the Indian context, there was a new work, I kept myself from day to day one lesson ahead of the attitude toward the other religious traditions, recommending students: such courses as the history of England and of the British dialogue and collaboration. It would take time to assimilate all Empire in India, or else of English literature. The time when the these new insights and to sort out their concrete applications, yet school programs would be thoroughly revised, to be adapted to there was a desire not to waste time in making a start but rather the Indian culture and situation, had not yet come. This situation to forge ahead. Growing attention came to be given in teaching contrasted with the ideas I had already formed in my mind about and in pastoral and liturgical practice to the religious traditions adaptation to local culture, which would later be called of India. They were integrated on the theoretical level into the inculturation. But I had to make the best of it. More interestingly, various subjects of which the theological curriculum was made the course of religion for the Christian students (who were a up, and on the practical level into common worship. During all small minority) and of "moral science," as it was called, for the that time, from 1959 till 1984, I became involved on the national others, were entrusted to me in the higher classes. This responsi­ level of the Catholic Church in India in programs of theological bility was much more congenial and gave me an opportunity to and liturgical renewal in the Indian context, attending national try my hand at the subjects that would later become my life's seminars and congresses and helping to draft liturgical texts work. Between teaching catechism and lecturing in theology, adapted to the Indian context. there is continuity with a difference, as there should also be, in another sense, between teaching human values on a natural Broadened Responsibilities in Rome plane and deepening them through a religious faith. I had the sense that our teaching, especially of such topics, should refer The workin India was interrupted by my suddentransfer in 1984 much more to the Indian religious tradition than was yet being to the Gregorian University of Rome, where I became a regular done. member of the theological faculty. I had been in India thirty-six On the occasion of these classes and through human contacts years when my transfer to Rome was decided. I had never with the "non-Christian" students, as they were called, I had the wished or even envisaged the possibility of leaving India, where opportunity to discover the richness of human gifts as well as the I had come to live, to work, and to die. However, my superiors depth of cultural and religious endowments that they carried in thought that my services would be better employed in the themselves and that they had learned from their family educa­ universal context of a Roman university. I obeyed as I had tion and the religious tradition to which they belonged. Such learned to do as a religious and a Jesuit. contacts belied the trite negative ideas that still remained preva­ I have said many times, and continue to think today in the lent in the West about the worth or lack of worth of the other light of what I have seen and lived thereafter, that my exposure religious traditions. From the outset of my life in India, I was to the Indian reality has been the greatest grace I received from determined to deepen my familiarity with the religious patri­ God as far as my vocation as a theologian and a professor is mony of the country and, later, as a student of theology, to give concerned. One cannot live thirty-six years in India without special attention to the problem of the relationship between the being deeply affected by the experience. This is already true at Christian faith and the other religious traditions of the world. the level of sheer human reality. By sheer numbers it is no longer How could one make sense of the universal mission of Christian­ possible to think that the future of the world lies on "this" side; ity for the whole world without having thereby to depreciate and it belongs, whether we like it or not, to the so-called Third World, undervalue the significance of the other religious faiths for their and especially to the Asian continent. It is enough to think that adherents? My vocation as a theologian of religions and of the population of China and India together make up today over religious pluralism was already coming to the fore. 2billionpeople outof the 6billion thatcovertheearthto haveour I did my licentiate in theology in India from 1952to 1955and scale of values revised and our own claims redimensioned. The later proceeded to Rome, where I obtained the doctorate (1957­ world tomorrow will be very different from that which we have 59) with a thesis entitled "The Spirit of Man: A Study on the known in the past; it has already changed enormously and is Religious Anthropology of Origen" (published in French). I then destined to change even more.

October 2003 169 The grace of my exposure to the Asian reality becomes more what they would have been without my Indian exposure. My evidentif one thinks in terms of the rich, ancient cultural heritage mind and my intellectual makeup have been turned on their of such Eastern countries as India and China. One cannot but head by the experience. admire the exquisite beauty of ancient Hindu temples and Bud­ Comparing my teaching experience in Rome with the one I dhist monasteries. The artistic patrimony of those and other had enjoyed in India, I found there was, on the one hand, Eastern countries compares well with our own Western cultural something to regret from the past and, on the other hand, heritage. Yet, if I consider my exposure to India as a grace from something new that was welcome. In India I had the privilege of God in my professional work as a theologian, the main reason is close contact with Indian students in theology, as they were that the exposure to its religious reality forced me to revise rediscovering their cultural roots and asking radical questions altogether my former evaluation of the meaning of the religious on issues that they were living personally at a deep level in their traditions that nourished the spiritual life of the people I was own life: the relationship between their Christian faith and the meeting on my life's journey. I had gone to India with the religious traditions of their ancestors, to which in some cases prejudices enshrined in ourWestern civilization and even in our their families still belonged. Close contact with them in such Christian tradition. We thought we were the best, not to say the situationswas a deep experience; it was also a powerfulincentive only ones, wherecivilizationisconcerned;we also hadit engrained to forge ahead with a thorough reconsideration of the meaning in us that Christianity was the only "true religion" and therefore of otherreligious traditions in God's planfor humankind. But the the only one with an unquestionable right to exist. Not in the much larger audience that I found in Rome for my courses on sense that there were no human values to be found in the religions and on Christology was also a powerful incentive to try religious life of the people we met and in the religious traditions to meet the expectations that the students were placing on me. to which they belonged-we had happily got beyond a purely The cosmopolitan character of the audience, which always in­ negative appraisal-but these values were at best the expression cluded a large number of nationalities, was another source of in the various cultures of the universal aspiration toward the inspiration. It gave me the feeling that what I would manage to Infinite Being, innate in humannatureitself. In the course of time, convey could spread to all continents and so be multiplied. And I came to realize that such a position was untenable and that we I often havebeen able to verify that this multiplication was in fact would have to revise our premises altogether. The religious happening. traditions of the world did not represent primarily the search of people and peoples for God through their history but the search Interreligious Dialogue and the Mystery of Christ of God for them. The theology of religions, which was still taking its first steps, would have to make a complete turn from a Whetherin Indiaor in Rome, Ihavealways triedto share withmy Christian-centered perspective to one centered on the personal students what I have personally experienced of the faith, and dealings of God with humankind throughout the history of especiallyof the personand the mystery of}esus Christ. Through­ salvation. outmy teachingcareer,Itaughtthecourseon Christology, which In this perspective the religions became the "gifts of God to I considered a great privilege. I can say sincerely that over my the peoples" of the world and could not but have a positive forty years of teaching, trying to deepen my understanding of the significance in God's overall plan for humanity and a saving mystery of Christ has been a continuous passion. It also helped significance for their members. With this discovery, the chal- to enrich my own personal relation with the Lord. If, as I hope, I have been able to convey to the students my passion for Jesus Christ and helped them to increase their own love for the Lord, My own faith has been I will consider myselffully rewarded for my labor. The course on the theology of religions was of course closely related to deepened through dialogue Christology. I have always been convinced that the mystery of with the religions. Jesus Christ is of necessity at the center of a Christian theology of religions. I always combined both very closely, as my publica­ tions amply show. Over the years I discovered that, far from lenge for a theology of religions became how to combine the endangeringfaith in Jesus Christ, a positive approachto the other Christian faith in Jesus Christ the universal Savior with the religions helps to discover new depths in the mystery. This positive meaning in God's plan of salvation of the other religious correlation is also something I hope to have been able to convey traditions and their saving value for their adherents. My entire to my students. theological work thereafter has wrestled with the need to over­ In the course of time, I developed a concept of theology as come the apparent either-or dilemma between these two hermeneutics (interpretation), which could no longer proceed affirmations and to show that, far from contradicting each other, along a priori dogmatic lines in a merely deductive manner but they are complementary, if one succeeds in going beyond the would first be inductive, starting from the experience of lived appearances. So even while I was still teaching in India, my reality and the questions that the context raises, thereafter to literary production was centered on this key problem; it would search for answers in the light of the revealed message and become even more so after my transfer to Rome, despite the tradition. Theology was becoming interpretation in context, and distance imposed by the new circumstances and by the passage this understanding involved a reinterpretation. Such a way of of years. I think I have been able to formulate a theological theologizing was much more problematic than had been the perspective that makes sense of both affirmations, and I have traditional way, which followed a purely a priori and dogmatic developed it gradually with greater precision and a more secure method. It did imply some risks and dangers, against which one foundation in the Christian revelation and tradition. My efforts, had to guard oneself carefully. But it seemed also to be the only however, remain partial and open to improvement; theology is wayof doingtheology that would really meet the concrete reality never ended. It is clear, though, that the theology I have devel­ of the world in which we are living. Where the theology of oped and the teaching I have imparted are very different from religions was concerned, it meant that those could not claim to

170 INTERNATIONAL BULLETIN OF MISSIONARY RESEARCH, Vol. 27, No.4 engage in it seriously who had not been exposed at length to the questions, force Christians to revise gratuitous assumptions and concrete reality of the other religious traditions and of the reli­ to destroy deep-rooted prejudices or overthrow certain overly gious life of their followers. narrow conceptions and outlooks. I maytestify that myownfaith The danger is often expressed that the practice of interreli­ has been purified and deepened through the process of dialogue gious dialogue and, even more, the newtheology of religions that and familiarity with the religions and their members. is in the making is detrimental to Christian faith and risks leading It is in this perspective that my books find their place. The to doctrinal relativism and indifferentism. Some wantto reaffirm challenge consists in asking whether and how Christian faith in the "Christian identity" against such imminent dangers. The Jesus Christ the universal Savior is compatible with the affirma­ objection comes from people who have never been in serious tion of a positive role of the other religions for the salvation of their contact with the reality of other religions or even met persons members, in accordance with the one salvific plan designed by who practice them sincerely and profoundly. Those who, on the God for the whole of humankind. I, among others, give a positive contrary, have made the effort at a true and sincere encounter answer to the question and build my argument on data from both with others have had their faith strengthened in the process and the revealed Word of God and the Christian tradition. Not all deepened by the experience. I would count myself among this theologians, however, are disposed to agree with such a positive number, in more than one way. To begin with, the shock of the assessment of the religions of the world. Nor has the church's encounter forces us to rethink various prejudices and exclusivist central doctrinal authority welcomed the thesis without express­ positions, as though God had revealed himself and was present ing strong reservations, as illustrated by the discussions and the only in the Judeo-Christian tradition. A purification of the faith controversy generated by my 1997 book Toward a Christian Theol­ is necessary to divest it from preconceived ideas. There can also ogyofReligious Pluralism. Yet I remain persuaded that the thesis of ensue a simplification and an enrichment of the faith, which will this book is important to the church for the exercise of its mission reach fuller maturity. Enrichment, I say: Through the experience to the world, and to the world itself, in this age of universal and testimony of the others, Christians will be able to discover at dialogue among peoples, cultures, and religions. The church is greater depth certain aspects, certain dimensions, of the divine duty bound to recognize in a spirit of gratitude to God the divine Mystery that they had perceived less clearly and that have been endowments enshrined in the other religious traditions, even as it communicated less clearlyby Christian tradition. Purification, at is bound to proclaim to the world whatGod has done in a decisive the same time: The shock of the encounter will often raise manner for humankind in Jesus Christ.

The Legacy of Robert Henry Codrington Allan K. Davidson

n the preface to his book The Melanesians: Studies in their 1855andpriestin 1857,he servedas a curateto EdmundHobhouse I Anthropology and Folk-Lore (1891), Robert Codrington in Oxford. Hobhouse became the first bishop of Nelson (New wrote, "One of the first duties of a missionary is to try to Zealand), and Codrington followed him out to New Zealand, understand the people among whom he works." He himself serving at Collingwood for eighteen months from 1860 to 1861 reflected a deep commitment to this value. Over his many years and then at Waimea. Codrington was a moderate High Church­ withthe Melanesian people, he gained a deep knowledge of their man. He was not impressed with colonial society and found society, languages, and customs through a close association with himself very much at home working in the Melanesian Mission. them. Codrington was careful, however, in making claims about Codrington was notan ambitious man, decliningboth the postof his understanding, quoting with approval the words of the first bishopof Dunedinandthe missionarybishopricofMelanesia Methodist missionary Lorimer Fison: "When a European has after Patteson's death. been living for two or three years among savages he is sure to be The Melanesian Mission, inaugurated in 1849 by the Angli­ fully convinced that he knows all about them; when he has been can bishop of New Zealand, George Augustus Selwyn, was tenyears or so amongst them, if he be an observant man, he finds unique in its missionary approach. The mission "was a mixture that he knows very little about them, and so begins to learn."! of pragmatism, given ... [Selwyn's] inadequate financial and human resources, and romantic idealism associated with his Codrington and the Melanesian Mission vision," which was "'to make my diocese the great missionary centre of the Southern Ocean'."3 Working in the Solomon Islands Codrington was born in 1830in Wroughton, Wiltshire, England; and the northern islands of what is now know as Vanuatu, both his father and his paternal grandfather were Anglican Selwyn recruited young men and later young women to come clergymen.' Codrington attended Charterhouse from 1845 to back to New Zealand for training, with the hope that when they 1848 and then Wadham College, Oxford, graduating with a B.A. returned home, they would become evangelists among their in 1852 and an M.A. in 1856. He was elected to a fellowship at own people. From the outset the mission took a positive ap­ Wadham,whichhe held from 1855 to 1893.Ordaineda deaconin proach to Melanesians and their society. Selwyn rejected the evangelical language and attitude of his age, which condemned Allan K. Davidson teaches church history and is Director of Postgraduate people as "vile," "poor heathen," or "perishing savages."! John Studiesin theSchool ofTheology in theUniversity ofAuckland,New Zealand. Coleridge Patteson, who was consecrated as the first missionary Hetaughtin Papua New Guinea(1977-81) andspecializes in New Zealandand bishop of Melanesia in 1861, built on this approach, writing that Pacific religious history. "every single man, because he is a man, is a partaker of that

October 2003 171 nature whichis common to all, and that is the nature which at the inappropriateness of the first plans sent from England and the right hand of God is united to the Divine Nature in the Person of problems with hiring stonemasons and carpenters on Norfolk Christ."> The mission was noted for its egalitarian ideals and Island. With no one available to carve the caps and bases for the emphasis on the common humanity shared by all people. There marble shafts, Codrington set about the task himself, writing, "I was from the outset a strong desire to create a "native church" never tried to carve stone & am afraid. Besides I have so little under Melanesian leadership." time."lS He was not impressed that Patteson's cousin and biogra­ While the Melanesian Mission represented a creative and pher, the novelistCharlotteYonge, decided to donate a pipe organ innovative approach to mission, it had its limitations. Faced with for the chapel, "which we don't want & which will ruin us to get the huge diversity of languages in Melanesia, it opted to use here & make a place for it, and after all will be but seldom used at Mota, a language used in the Banks Group, as a common lan­ the best, and probably never really used up to its capabilities.v" guage. For many Melanesian students, Christianity was thus There are few reflections in Codrington's letters about the conveyed through the medium of a second language. The use of underlying purpose of the mission, apart from vague references the Book of Common Prayer and the adoption of Anglican to peoplebeing "Christianized." Conversionfor Codringtonwas patternsof ministrybroughttheirownimpositions. The model of seen in terms of changes in people's way of life. After two weeks' schooling adopted, first in Auckland, and then from 1867 at residence at Mota, where George Sarawia, the first Melanesian Norfolk Island, introduced Melanesians to a formal approach to deacon, worked, Codrington reflected that "the great fact is that education, which contrasted with their own informal methods.' there is now a native missionary among his own countrymen, Codrington served as headmaster of the Melanesian Mission who can well be trusted to teach them sensibly and according to school on Norfolk Island from 1867 to 1887. native ideas." He did not expect the island to "be Christian yet The transfer of the missionheadquarters to NorfolkIsland in awhile," althoughit mightbe "nominallyso in a very shorttime." 1867 was undertakenin order to reduce the distance between the Christianity was understood on Mota in terms of "peace & Melanesian islands and the mission base, as well as to escape the quietness," with Sunday being "kept without work." But colder Auckland climate. Initially Codrington thought of his Codrington concluded, with a touch of gentle humor, that "the removal as going into exile, reporting, "I feel that this place is most wonderful thing about heathen savages is that they are so uncomfortably remote from the world.:" Helikened the commu­ extremely like other people. When one gets used to the colour, nity at Norfolkto "thoseancientmonasteries in the N. of England whichis certainlythebestwearfor theclimate[,] it is absurdto see or in Germany you may read of where there is a good deal of the exact likeness of people you see in everyday England. My education going on side by side of labour, and two kinds of particular old friend, if white, would keep a general shop in the education viz. the Christian civilizing of savages & the learning village and be Church warden ... others are the exact counter­ of divinity by advanced students."? (The "advanced students" parts of a country parson"? were John Palmer and Joseph Atkin, missionaries preparing for Codringtonwas very critical of the impact of labor recruiters ordination.) for Queensland and Fijian sugar plantations in the Melanesian Codrington took his fair share in the running of the institu­ islands, referring to their activity as "the slave trade." He was tion. "Somehow," he wrote in 1869, "I never have time for appalled at the deception the traffickers used and the depopula­ anything now being chief cook, having 23 pupils, and a pupil tion and destabilization that their activities were causing." In his teacher to coach up, and the younger clergy also twice a week." view thelaborers who returned to their islands"comebackmuch He frequently complained of not being able to find time to read. worse than they went." Reflecting his prejudices against the worst aspects of colonial society, he complained that "the low kind of Europeans are a worse lot in every way almost than the Codrington's letters ordinary savages-what the real value of their civilization is[,] is a very difficult question to determine/"? Codrington believed helped fuel public outrage that Patteson's death at Nukapu was a Melanesian payback or over the labor traffic. revenge killing because of the activity of what he called slavers, who had forcibly taken away five young men from the island." While Patteson sought to regulate labor recruitment, he was not Although he hadbeen offered a parishin England in 1869,he had totally opposed to it. Codrington's was the most radical voice in no desire to leave NorfolkIsland, as "onecertainlygets attached to the mission on the issue. The outrage at Patteson's death, which the people[,] a little to the place but not much." On top of his Codrington's letters helped to fuel, contributed to the imperial teaching responsibilities Codrington designed the dining hall, legislation regulating the labor traffic." which seated 140,10 acquainted himself with printing," taught some students to play the harmonium," and made wedding rings Pioneering Linguistic Research in Melanesia for the Melanesian brides and plum puddings for the community wedding breakfasts!" In addition he experimented with photog­ Codrington made five voyages to the islands, including several raphy, sketched when he could, and enjoyed gardening. lengthy stays at Mota, and wrote up and illustrated journals of When Bishop Patteson was killed in 1871, Codrington be­ his experiences there. He loathed sea travel and disliked island came head of the mission, a post he held until J. R. Selwyn was food, although he confessed, "A fortnight at Mota is worth a consecrated in 1877. This position added considerably to fortnight's sea sickness."22 The expertise he developed in the Codrington's administrative responsibilities. In one letter he Mota language was considerable. He was involved in translating mentioned having received seventy letters and written thirty­ portions of the Bible for liturgical and teaching purposes. The five in reply, along with a report." Another burden was the mission did not place a high priority on completing the transla­ oversight of the building of St. Barnabas's Chapel, which well­ tion of the whole Bible, and Codrington did not finish it until wishers in England sawas a fitting memorial to Bishop Patteson. 1912. In 1875 he wrote that he had translated the historical parts Codrington entered into a lengthy correspondence over the of the Old Testament, and "when that is in print I shall not see it

172 INTERNATIONAL BULLETIN OF MISSIONARY RESEARCH, Vol. 27, No.4 necessary to do any more translation into Mota," preferring to language groups, the Melanesian tongues, which were marked begin work in one of the Solomon Island languages." In 1898, by considerable differentiation but with "a general unity of while he was translating the Prophets, he complained, "I am not language at bottom," and the Polynesian languages, which were altogether in favor of translating obscure passages & parts of the "characterized by unchangeableness" or similarity." The recog­ scripture until a fair number of natives can make something out nition of two major language families in Melanesia-what are of them.... In a mission with a great number of tongues, I shd now called the Austronesian (the Polynesian languages) and the think it better to get theNewTest. completein ten of them, before non-Austronesian (or the older Melanesian languages)-fits in getting the Old Test. complete in one."?' well with later philological understanding." While Mota was the common language, students were George W. Stocking has indicated that althoughCodrington grouped with missionaries, who were encouraged to learn lan­ was in touch with "evolutionary anthropology" through his guages from different areas in Melanesia. Codrington endorsed contacts with Edward Tylor, whose lectures he attended in Patteson's approach, believing that Melanesians "must teach Oxford in 1883, Codrington "never really became a convert to their countrymen in their own tongue, and by their own tongue evolutionism."30 Codringtonwasno armchairtheoristlike Muller, they must be taught." In the same way the layperson "must be Tylor, and Gerland, with whom he corresponded. Before field­ preached to in his own language, and in his own language he based anthropology and its development as a professional aca­ ought to pray."25 demic discipline, missionaries were among the best informants Patteson gained a reputation as a prodigious linguist and regarding other peoples, their cultures, and their languages. shared some of his early work on Melanesian languages with Missionaries' long-termresidenceand theircommitmentto learn­ Friedrich Max Muller, the noted Oxford Sanskrit scholar and ing people's languages made them participant-observersin soci­ linguist. In 1865 Muller encouraged Patteson to make a system­ eties and cultures that they were seeking to modify. Codrington atic study of Melanesian languages, arguing that "savage lan­ was among the most accomplished of the nineteenth-century guages alone can show how far languages can change." He sent missionary scholars who contributed significantly to the early to Patteson, via Codrington, who was visiting England, Edward growth of anthropology through their ethnographic and philo­ Tylor's recently published Researches into the early history of logical researches." mankindand the development of civilization (1865), along with his own review of it. Muller suggested, "It will show you how Pioneering Anthropological Insights valuable accurate, trustworthy observations of the habits of savages are for many important inquiries.T" In TheMelanesians, which was his major contribution to anthro­ Patteson, who was too preoccupied with the demands of pology, Codrington indicated that his approach was "as far as overseeing the mission to undertake detailed philological stud­ possible to give the natives' account of themselves by giving ies, encouraged Codrington to engage in linguistic work. whatI tookdown from their lips and translating whatthey wrote themselves."? The adoption of an evolutionary framework and use of social Darwinism by anthropologists led them to see Conversion for Codrington gradations among people from savagery to civilization, with inherently racist overtones. Codrington avoided these conclu­ could be seen in changes in sions, retaining a positive approach to Melanesians. Referring to people's way of life. a book by Edward Tylor, Codrington noted that he "gives credit most deservedly as most people don't, to savages for having plenty of brains. He quite confirms what I always have said that Codrington's researches culminatedin TheMelanesian Languages, savages are wonderfully like other people."33 Following his published in 1885.In the sameyear he wasawarded an honorary reading of John Lubbock's OriginofCivilization and thePrimitive D.D. from Oxford. Codrington included in his book a compara­ Condition ofMan (1870),Codrington concluded that "thesavages tive examination of seventy words in forty Melanesian lan­ of the scientific man receed [sic] farther and farther from my guages and the study of the grammar of thirty-five different experience, and my belief is that if you could get the evidence of languages. Most of his research was carried out among the people who really know and live with those savages who are studentsat Norfolk Island ''by the mediumgenerally of the Mota considered the lowest[,] you would find that the savages of the language" and reflected the contacts they provided him with the very low type does not exist in the world."?' central Melanesia societies." It was a notable achievement, given Codrington was critical of the armchair theorists, complain­ the heavy demands placed on him ing that "scientific men fit their evidence to preconceived ideas Codrington was faced with trying to understand both the ofwhatsavagesoughtto be.":"Whilehe thoughtJuliusBrenchley's bewildering multiplicity of languages in Melanesia and the "general views are good" in his travelogue about the Pacific, physical and cultural diversity among the peoples. In a lengthy Codrington described it as "one other example ... of what I find letter in 1874 to the German anthropologist Georg Gerland, he everywhere that a traveller puts his own notions into the actions identified what he called "possibly [a] modern Polynesian ele­ or work of savages and then the philosophers at home quote him ment" or "purePolynesians" livingat placeslike Bellona,Tikopia, as an authority.r" Codrington was open to acknowledging his and Nukapu within the Melanesian area. He noted considerable own biases and was conscious of the difficulties an outsider had difference between "the Banks' islanders and New Hebrides in trying to understand a society and people different from people" when compared with those living in the Solomon Is­ himself, describing how "everyone, missionary and visitor, lands. In distinguishing people, he referred to practices preva­ carrieswithhimsomepreconceivedideas; he expects to see idols, lent in some areas such as head-hunting and "native art and and he sees them.... It is extremely difficult for anyone to begin industry." Codrington distinguished between Melanesians in enquiries without some prepossessions, which, even if he can the Solomon and Santa Cruz's groups who chewedbetel nutand communicate with the natives in their own language, affect his those to the east who drank kava. He identified two major conception of the meaning of the answers he receives. The

174 INTERNATIONAL BULLETIN OF MISSIONARY RESEARCH, Vol. 27, No.4 questions he puts guide the native to the answer he thinks he anthropologist far beyond Melanesia.... In deep insight, sound ought to give.":" judgmentandat thesametimeoriginalityof ideashe standsvery TheMelanesians was a considerable achievement of scholar­ high."43 The Selwyn-Patteson-Codringtonapproachencouraged ship. Codrington describes in great detail, with multiple ex­ a form of "inculturation" of Christianity in the Melanesian amples from the different areas familiar to him, Melanesian Missionbefore theword was coined, although thatinculturation social regulations and behavior, religious and spiritual dimen­ had distinctive Anglican characteristics." The missionary strat­ sions, the stages of life and rites of passage, material aspects, egy of bringing young people to Norfolk Island, however, did dances, music, and games. The significance of Codrington's not result in the rapid evangelization of their home islands." work lay both in his descriptions and in his development of his Sara Sohmer has identified the intellectual background and own theoretical framework. missionary approach of the Melanesian Mission that contrib­ The most influential contribution Codrington made to an­ uted to its nonjudgmental approach to Melanesiansociety in the thropology was in his identifying "the belief in a supernatural nineteenth century." Codrington can be identified as sharing power or influence, called almost universally mana." In a foot­ these factors. He was not only open to the "new developments note Codrington refers to a quotation that Muller makes in his in philology, ethnology and comparative mythology" but en­ 1878HibbertLectures drawnfrom oneof Codrington'sletters, in gaged in the "careful examination of sources," was willing "to which Codrington described mana: "There is a belief in a force utilize different types of evidence," and had "an enlarged sense altogether distinct from physical power, which acts in all kinds of historical time and a strong preference for the comparative." of ways for good and evil, and which it is of the greatest For Codrington, "theuniversalityof Christianityformed bothits advantage to possess or control. This is Mana.'?" Mana for greatest innovation and the theological basis of mission/"" Codrington was "that invisible power which is believed by the In 1887 Codrington retired from the mission, returning for natives to cause all such effects as transcend their conception of a brief period in 1892, when he worked with John Palmer in the regular course of nature, and to reside in spiritual beings." producing a Mota dictionary. He was a vicar of Wadhurst in the This power could be used negatively or positively, making "rain Diocese of Chichester from 1887 to 1893, a prebendary of or sunshine,wind or calm, to causesickness or removeit, to know Chichester Cathedral from 1888 to 1895, and served for twenty­ what is far off in time and space, to bring good luck and prosper­ five years as a lecturer at Chichester Theological College.48 In ity, or to blast and curse." Mana is something a person has; it can 1902 he delivered the Wittering Lectures at the cathedral on the be gained, increased, or lost." The effect of mana, Codrington presentation of Christianity to "savage" peoples. His last major wrote, lay in people's belief in the efficacy of the prayers, offer­ publication was his entry "Melanesians" in Hastings's ings, charms, and rituals used to convey and acquire it, shrewdly Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics:" observing that "it is not onlyin Melanesianislands thatwhatever Codrington was reluctant to write about his own life and confirms a beliefis accepted and whatevermakes against it is not work. He was "ratherhorrified" to find thata journalof an island weighed.":" voyage he had sent to his brother was published." He objected What Codrington does not explore is how far Christianity to the idea of writing an autobiography on the grounds that he was seen as offering access to a new form of mana.Certainly the had no wish to obtrude himselfon the public, thathe would "say confusion between the Christian Gospel (i.e., the message) and so muchaboutotherpeople," includingMelanesians, whocould the cultures brought by the missionaries (the medium, particu­ notread whathe said, and because "it would be always doubtful larly their material possessions) created considerable confusion whether what I was writing was true." He regarded his transla­ as Melanesians sought the manaof the new teaching in order to tion work as "decent" but was aware "that there are not ten acquire the mana of the material goods that would give them people in the world who know whether it is good or bad, not 100 increased status in their own society. Melanesian cargo cults white men who know that it has been done. This knowledge must be understood within the conceptual framework of the does not puff one up much."?' Melanesian world, which Codrington began in his work to Codrington died on September 11, 1922, a few days short of reveal. Darrell Whiteman, making a "crude paraphrase" of his ninety-second birthday. The Timesin its obituary said of him Codrington, indicated that '''without manathere is no salvation;' that "his name will be remembered as the Apostle of the Pacific, salvation, of course, being an abundance and success in all the soundest of scholars, kindliest of teachers, most practical of possibilities of human life.":" friends. Therewasamongus no bettertheologian, no profounder The lastingvalue of Codrington'sworkwasin drawingfrom philologist. A truly wonderful personality, a great man, a saint firsthand informants and from his own experience in the islands and a gentleman.... Never was master more loved, venerated, insights into Melanesian life and customs and placing them in a and obeyed. Sons of chiefs thronged his school, and he was like coherent interpretative framework. As Whiteman observed, the venerable Bede in his power of teaching and learning."? however, "Western scholars, including Codrington, have made An anonymous manuscript containing a tribute to far more of it [mana] philosophically and intellectually than Codrington says of him that "it was his personality which made would Melanesians," to whom "mana is related to results ob­ himwonderful, far more than his mastery of theology and every tained, and not to an abstract concept upon which is hung a other branch of knowledge.... He was one of that great and philosophical argument."? inspiring community the Society of great people[,] adopting from choice an active career, as a missionary, a universal scholar The Missionary Approach to Melanesia and a philanthropist, he was distinguished for his place among these unselfish apostles of civilization and Christianity.... He Buildingon thefoundations of Selwynand Patteson,Codrington was the most remarkable man I ever saw/"" developed an approach to Melanesian society and missionary In his description of Robert Henry Codrington, missionary work that others were to extend. Walter Ivens and Charles Fox scholar Fox said, "If Patteson was the Apostle of Melanesia, stoodin theCodringtonmissionary/ scholartradition. Fox wrote Codrington was its Teacher. Saint and Doctor are titles that of Codringtonthathe had "a greatreputation as a philologistand rightly belong to him."?'

October 2003 175 Notes·------­ 1. R. H. Codrington, TheMelanesians: Studiesin theirAnthropology and 1951 (Madison: Univ. of Wisconsin Press, 1995), p. 39. Folk-Lore (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1891), p. vii. I am grateful to 31. John M. Hitchen, "Relations BetweenMissiology and Anthropology David Hilliard for his comments and suggestions on this article. Then and Now-Insights from the Contribution to Ethnography 2. Michael Blain, comp., Clergy in the Diocese of Auckland, 1814-1869 andAnthropologyby Nineteenth-CenturyMissionaries," Missiology: (Auckland: Diocese of Auckland, 1999), p. 31. An International Review30 (October 2002): 455-78. 3. Allan K. Davidson, "An 'Interesting Experiment'-the Founding of 32. Codrington, Melanesians, p. vii. the Melanesian Mission," in TheChurch ofMelanesia, 1849-1999, ed. 33. Codringtonto T.Codrington, "SouthernCross," September30,1872, Allan K. Davidson (Auckland: College of St John the Evangelist, MMP,1. 40. The book by Edward Tylor is not identified but is either 2000), p. 21. Researches into the early history of mankind and the development of 4. Ibid., pp. 37-38. civilization (London:J.Murray, 1865;2d ed., 1870)or Primitiveculture: 5. [J.C. Patteson], Lecture ontheMelanesian Mission,Delivered at Sydney Researches into the development of mythology, philosophy, religion, by the Right Reverend Bishop Patteson, Together with the Reports and language, art, and custom, 2 vols. (London: J. Murray, 1871; 2d ed., Accounts of the Mission,from July 1, 1862, to December 31, 1863 (n.p, 1873). n.d.), p. 7. 34. Codrington to T. Codrington, off Torres Islands, August 20, 1873, 6. Davidson,"An 'InterestingExperiment,'" pp. 38-39. MMP,1.48.SeeJohn Lubbock, Theoriginofcivilisation andtheprimitive 7. Ibid., pp. 39-40. condition ofman:Mentalandsocial conditions ofsavages, 2d ed. (London: 8. Codrington to his aunt, Norfolk Island (NO, May 9, 1867, Univ. of Longman, Green, 1870). Oxford, Rhodes House, Codrington Papers (hereafter RHCP), MSS 35. Codrington to T. Codrington, off Torres Islands, August 20, 1873, Pac. s. 4, fo1. 5. MMP,l. 48. 9. Ibid., August 1867, RHCP, fol. 12. 36. Ibid., "Southern Cross," October 21, 1874, MMP, 1. 56. See Julius L. 10. Ibid., December 1, 1869, RHCP, fols. 42, 43. Brenchley,Jottings duringthecruiseofHMS "Curacoa" amongtheSouth 11. Ibid., NI, February 12, 1875, RHCP, fo1. 145. Sea Islands in 1865 (London: Longmans, Green, 1873). 12. Codrington to T. Codrington, September I, 1879, London School of 37. Codrington, Melanesians, p. 118. Oriental and African Studies, Melanesian Mission Papers (hereafter 38. Ibid., pp. 118-19. MMP),l. 95 39. Ibid., p. 191. 13. Codrington to his aunt, NI, November 29, 1870, RHCP, fol. 57; 40. Ibid., p. 193. January 17, 1873, fol. 107. 41. Darrell Whiteman, Melanesians and Missionaries: An Ethnohistorical 14. Ibid., "Southern Cross," October 1, 1872, RHCP, fol. 102. Study ofSocial andReligious Change in theSouthwestPacific (Pasadena, 15. Codrington to T. Codrington, NI, May 8, 1878, MMP, 1.82. Calif.: William Carey Library, 1983), p. 74. 16. Codrington to his aunt, NI, July 24, 1875, RHCP, fol. 160. 42. Ibid. 17. Codrington to his aunt, at sea, October 27, 1870, RHCP, fol. 53. 43. Charles Elliot Fox, Lord of the Southern Isles: Being the Story of the 18. Ibid. AnglicanMissionin Melanesia, 1849-1949 (London: Mowbray, 1958), 19. Codrington to T. Codrington, NI, August 7, 1871, MMP, 1.31. p.220. 20. Ibid., NI, November 8, 1871, MMP, 1.33. 44. See the discussion in Whiteman, Melanesians and Missionaries, pp. 21. David Hilliard, God's Gentlemen: A HistoryoftheMelanesian Mission, 171-451. 1849-1942 (St Lucia: Univ. of Queensland Press, 1978), pp. 62-75; 45. See Hilliard, God'sGentlemen, pp. 79-120. David Hilliard, "The Making of an Anglican Martyr: Bishop John 46. Sara Harrison Sohmer, '"A Selection of Fundamentals': The Coleridge Patteson of Melanesia," in Martyrs and Martyrologies, ed. Intellectual Background of the Melanesian Mission of the Church of Diana Wood (Oxford: Blackwell, 1993), pp. 333-45. England, 1850-1914" (Ph.D. diss., Univ. of Hawaii, 1998); Sohmer, 22. Codrington to his aunt, at sea, October 27, 1870, RHCP, fol. 52. "Christianity Without Civilization: Anglican Sources for an 23. Ibid., fo1. 166. Alternative Nineteenth-Century Mission Methodology," Journal of 24. Codrington to?, November, 27, 1898,RHCP, MSS. Pac. s. 28, fo1. 10. Religious History 18 (December 1994): 174-97. 25. Codrington to C. H. Brooke, Chichester, October 12, 1917, RHCP, 47. Sohmer, "Christianity Without Civilization," pp. 180, 182. MSS Pac. s. 28, fols. 65, 66. 48. Blain, Clergy in the Diocese of Auckland,p. 31. 26. Max Miillerto I.C. Patteson, Oxford, April16,1865,RHCP,MSSPac. 49. R. H. Codrington, "Melanesians," in Encyclopaedia of Religion and s. 29, fol. 3. Ethics, ed. James Hastings (Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1915),8:529-38. 27. R. H. Codrington, The Melanesian Languages (Oxford: Clarendon 50. Codrington to T. Codrington, NI, August 7, 1871, MMP, 1.31. Press, 1885), pp. v, vi. 51. Codrington to Appleton, Chichester, June 18, 1903,RHCP, MSS.Pac. 28. Codringtonto Dr. Gerland, NI, December31, 1874,RHCP, fols. 134­ s. 28, fol. 30. 44. 52. "R. H. Codrington," Times, n.d., RHCP, MSS. Pac. s. 33, fo1. 21. 29. PeterBellwood,Man'sConquest ofthePacific: ThePrehistory ofSoutheast 53. Anonymous manuscript, RHCP, MSS. Pac. s. 7. Asiaand Oceania (New York: Oxford Univ. Press, 1979), pp. 116-34. 54. Fox, Lord of the Southern Isles, p. 220. 30. George W. Stocking, After Tylor: British Social Anthropology, 1888­ Select Bibliography Codrington's papersare at Rhodes House Library, University of Oxford. 1896 (with J. Palmer) A Dictionary of the Language ofMota, Sugarloaf A collection of his letters is in the Melanesian Mission Papers at the Island, Banks'Islands: TNith a shortgrammar and index.London: School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London. Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge. 1906 (trans.) Story ofa Melanesian deacon: ClementMarau, written by Works by Robert Henry Codrington himself. London: Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge. 1885 TheMelanesian Languages. Oxford: Clarendon Press. 1915 "Melanesians." Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics. Ed. James 1891 The Melanesians: Studies in their Anthropology and Folk-Lore. Hastings. Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 8:529-38. Oxford: Clarendon Press.

176 INTERNATIONAL BULLETIN OF MISSIONARY RESEARCH, VoL 27, No.4 Book Reviews

Signs amid the Rubble: The Purposes of God in Human History.

By Lesslie Newbigin. Edited and introduced by Geoffrey Wainwright. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans,2003. Pp.xiv, 121. Paperback $15.

Lesslie Newbigin was one of the premier many Christians are seduced by the idea, "Church, World, Kingdom," Newbigin missionary and ecumenical statesmen of so that "the popular Christian doctrine of deals in his characteristic manner with the twentieth century. He was a prolific the Kingdom of God, interpreted as several critical topics. While writer, focusing largely on the interaction meaning the progressive realization of acknowledging the abuses of some between the Gospel and human cultures. good in the life of the world, is simply a missionary work, he insists on the The present volume, edited by Christianized version of the secular idea necessity of preaching the Gospel, as well Geoffrey Wainwright, Robert Earl of progress" (p. 21).This is, in essence, the as engaging in social action. CushmanProfessorof ChristianTheology social gospel. Other Christians are The final pages of the book contain at Duke Divinity School and also preoccupiedwiththeirindividualdestiny twoshortaddressesNewbigingavein1996 Newbigin's biographer, is a collection of on the otherside ofdeath. Newbiginargues at the World Conference on Mission and previously unpublished lectures given that both the kingdom of God and Evangelism in Salvador de Bahia, Brazil. over a span of fifty-five years. individual salvation stand on the other Here he deals with the Gospel and the The first set of four lectures, entitled sideofdeathand resurrection. As in better­ human cultures to which it is addressed. "The Kingdom of God and the Idea of known writings, he makes some Newbiginis always logicaland lucid, Progress," was delivered in 1941 at the epigrammatic affirmations: "Belief in almost always persuasive, and often United Theological College in Bangalore, eschatology without belief in a literal deeply moving. This small book is a gem India,veryearlyin Newbigin'smissionary eschaton is like belief in religion without worthy of joining his other works. career. He shows astonishing maturity of belief in God" (p. 34);"There is no straight -Charles R. Taber insight as he spells out the bankruptcy of line from here [the presentworld order] to "progress," the central value of modern the Kingdom" (p. 47). Charles R.Taber, acontributing editor, isProfessor Western culture and its secular eschaton. A second set of three lectures was Emeritus of World Missionat Emmanuel School of Without God, the arguments that deliveredas the HenryMartynLecturesat Religion, Johnson City, Tennessee. He was a supposedly support the idea of progress Cambridge University in 1986. Here, in missionary in the Central African Republic and a are shown to be circular and vacuous. "Authority, Dogma, Dialogue"; translations consultantoftheUnitedBible Societies Along the way, Newbigin shows that "Conversion, Colonies, Culture"; and in West Africa.

Christian Missionaries and the missionaries were linked to Marcus State in the Third World. Garvey's Universal Negro Improvement Association. Presbyterians campaigned Edited by Holger BerntHansenand Michael openlyandsuccessfullyagainstthe Central Twaddle. Oxford: James Currey; Athens:Ohio African Federation, and the Watchtower Univ. Press, 2002. Pp. x, 307. $44.95; agent, Joseph Booth, indirectly helped to paperback $22.95. trigger the Nyasaland Native Rising of 1915. It is a pity that no essay deals with This volume contains twenty-one essays Colombia,and Eritreaand as missionaries the ambiguoussituationof FrenchCatholic by outstanding historians. With the in Uganda, Kenya, and Sudan. missionaries under an anticlerical regime exception of one article about Colombia, Missionaries, both mainstream and in French West Africa. all deal with countries of Africa or the nonmainstream, sometimes have In an introductory essay, the editors Caribbean. They show how missionaries confronted official policies and at other struggle to bring all these varied of various Christian denominations have times have lent them support. In general, experiences together in an outline of related to the state in its different forms: colonial governments sought to use the Christian missionary history, and they precolonial kingdoms, slave-owning ethnic status quo for their own purposes, draw a telling conclusion: Christian plantocracies,colonialadministrations (in usually to divide and rule. In most cases, missionaryendeavorhas beenofimmense particular, settler colonialism), and however, missionaries wanted things to importance in reshaping social and independent governments. The late evolve according to their own economic life in these states-but the AdrianHastingsonce wrotethathistorians understanding of Christianity, especially missionary era is far from over. tend to be geared to the Protestant where marriage customs, the status of -Aylward Shorter, M.Afr. missionary dynamic, rather than the women, or the goals of formal education Catholic, and this generalization holds were concerned. Missionaries were Aylward Shorter, M.Afr., is Principal Emeritus of true of this symposium. Catholics, frequently deemed subversive, especially Tangaza College intheCatholic University ofEastern however, do have their place in the book where slavery was countenanced by Africa,Nairobi, Kenya, andformer president ofthe as the dominant religion in Haiti, authority, or where African-American Missionary Institute London.

October 2003 177 Make your • The View Across the River: max~mum Harriette Colenso and the Zulu Struggle Against Imperialism.

impact By Jeff Guy. Cape Town: David Philip, Charlottesville: Univ. Press of Virginia, and The Doctor ofMinistry Oxford: James Currey, 2001 . Pp. xii, 498. in Missions and Paperback R 150/ $24.50/ £19.95. Cross-Cultural Studies Harriette was the eldest child of William Harriette as a person, struggling with and Sarah Colenso. Born in England in financial problems at home and to keep with 1847, she moved to South Africa in 1854 the family together (she had two Dr. Peter Kuzmic when her father was appointed bishop of unmarried sisters), struggling even more Natal. The bishop became one of the most desperately to provide continuity for the and notorious figures of the Victorian church. alternative church that her father had Dr. Timothy C. Tennent. Deposed as a heretic by Bishop Robert instituted in Natal. Itis fitting that recently Gray of Cape Town, Colenso appealed to the (Anglican) Church of the Province of the British Privy Council. He won the South Africa has voted to rescind the legal battle and remained bishop in Natal excommunication that had been until his death in 1883. But his relations pronounced on her father, recognition with the rest of the Anglican Church in though belated of his great service to South Africa were irreparably broken. African people. Harriette is a figure of Bishop Colenso's great work was to comparable stature, and this biography espouse and promote the cause of the gives her the recognition that she richly Zulu people, whose interests he linked deserves. with that of the royal house (the Usuthu). -Kevin Ward Harriette proved as stubborn and Dr. Peter Kuzmic Dr. TImothy 1ennent persistent a campaigner as her father, and KevinWard is SeniorLecturer in AfricanReligious it is her significance for Zulu history that Studies in the School of Theology and Religious The history of missions is a great is the central core of this superbbiography Studies, University of Leeds, Leeds, England. story. The Church has met and by Jeff Guy, already the biographer of the overcome obstacles in the past bishop and the historian of nineteenth­ that stood in the way of carrying century Zululand. Harriette's political out the Lord's mandate. apprenticeship was as secretary to her But we face new challenges in father. After his death she took over his Church: Community for the the 21st century that demand new advocacy of the Zulu cause to the British Kingdom. strategies for responding to the authorities. It was a critical time as the Great Commission. Zulu struggled to come to terms with the ByJohn Fuellenbach, S.V.D.Maryknoll, N.Y.: The Doctor ofMinistry in Mis­ loss of their independence in 1879, the Orbis Books, 2002. Pp. xiv, 238. Paperback sionsand Cross-Cultural Studies destruction of the kingdom, and its $30. at Gordon-Conwell Theological division into thirteen chiefdoms, as well Seminary can transform your as the death in mysterious circumstances John Fuellenbach, S.V.D., who teaches thinking and practice in reaching of King Cetshwayo, at Eshowe, the center theology at the Gregorian University of the world for Jesus Christ. of the British administration of Zululand. Rome, brings together the fruit of You will attend three two-week From the family home at contemporary biblical and theological intensive residencies, one each Ekukhanyeni, near Pietermaritzburg, scholarship on the kingdom of God and year for three years, including one Harrietteembarkedon a tireless campaign the church in the service of globalmission. overseas. The residencies consist of of writing to the British officials in South The main sources and tone are Roman lectures, case studies, participant Africa and in London, mastering the Catholic, but Protestants will also find his reports, and individual consulta­ political debate, using herfluent SiZulu to study both stimulating and helpful. tions. The classes are collegial articulate Zulu concerns, defending the In the author's view, "Today the in style and stress learning in a rights of Cetshwayo's young successor, church faces two big challenges: (1) how community context with a strong Dinuzulu. Harriette made the journey for to make the kingdom of God understood mentoring component. the first time "over the river" (the Tugela, in the different cultures of the world; and Visiting lecturers will include which divided British Zululand from the (2)howto live Jesus' ownlife principlesof world-renowned missiologists and colony of Natal) to attend the trial of love, justice, and compassion in a world experienced specialists in cross­ Dinuzulu and other Usuthu at Eshowe. where the poor are getting poorer and the cultural studies. She became an indispensable adviser and rich few are getting richer" (p, xiii). A new D.Min. track beginsJan. '04. strategist. She visited Dinuzulu during Fuellenbach begins by looking at the For more information, contact: his exile in St. Helena and accompanied kingdom of God, the central message of Web site: www.gordonconwell.edu him on his return to Zululand in 1898. Jesus . The kingdom of God is a broader This is where the biography ends, though E-mail: dmin @gcts.edu concept than the church. The kingdom Harriette lived on until 1932 and became represents God's plan for the world, for active in prison, hospital, and legal reform the whole of humankind. The church is in South Africa. the community of God's people, centered ~:~:~~l ~ Guy's achievement rests on his in the joyful message of salvation in Jesus unrivaled knowledge of nineteenth­ THEOLOGICAL SEMINARY and an instrument of God's kingdom. But century Zulu history. Additionally, he God's kingdom transcends the interests \V w w . g 0 r don con \\1 e II . e d u gives a wonderfully vivid portrait of and experience of the church.

178 INTERNATIONAL BULLETIN OF MISSIONARY REsEARCH, Vol. 27, No .4 The first part of the book deals with approxima tely 1 million soldiers. The Lillian Taiz, Pamela J. Walker, or Diane the church (and kingdom) in Scripture authors rely heav ily on biographies, Win ston . The standard biographies are and in the docu ments of Vatican II. The particularly one by journalist Richard two-volume studiesby HaroldBegbie and second part begin s with a review of the Collier, The General next to God (1965). St.John Ervin e.Thereare also a numberof emergence of a truly global church in the There are few references to recent biographies written by andaboutmembers twentieth century and goes on to discuss scholarship. of the Booth family. a va riety o f m odel s o f church: as For those see king inspiration, this - Norman H. Murdoch community of d isciples, instit u tion, bookfills the bill. For penetrating histories communion, sacrament, herald, servant, ofthe Booth's evangelical-socialprograms, Norman H. Murdoch is Professor ofHistoryat the basic ecclesial communities,and a contrast better sources wo uld be recent academic University of Cincinnatiand authorof Origins of society (proposed byGerhard and No rbert stu dies by John Cou tts, Andrew Mark the Salvation Army (Univ. of Tennessee Press, Lohfink),He sees the last twoas providing Eason, Roger J.Green, Glenn K. Horridge, 1994). the best models for the future ofthe church. Norman H. Murdoch , Clark C. Spence, Fuellenbach' s m agisterial study concludes with an application to the mission of the church in the twenty-first century and beyond. Despite its Catholic orientation, the a u thor draws on evangelical and mainstream Protestant Would you like to know more about scholarship, as well as fro m his own tradition. Most will not quibbl e wi th the idea that God may well save people the CHURCH and CHRISTIAN MISSION in ASIA? outside of the church (but not outside of Christ), but the idea that "every human person, no matter what his or her faith and religion, may effectively be saved by MTh in Asian Christianity following his/her own reli gion and July 2004 - May 2005 conscience" (p. 1) will be judged by most evangelical missiologists as going well beyondtheimplications of 1Timothy 2:4­ I you are a teacher in mission studies, a mission pastor, missions 5 and Titus 2:11. -W. Ward Gasque b ard executive, denominational leader, a missionary or a would­ b missionary in Asia, WlMEUD_usl This program will widen W. Ward Gasque is President of the Pacific y ur horizons, challenge your preconceptions and reshape your Association for Theological Studiesand Executive u derstanding. DirectoroftheCenterforInnovation inTheological Education, Seattle. Course Contents: a. An overview of Asian church history. b. The state of the church in Asia today. c. Sociopolitical and economic trends in 21at century Asia . d. Currents in Asian theology and Christian thinking.· William and Catherine: The Life e. Resurgence of Asian religions and the Christian response. ": and Legacy of the Booths, f. Country or area study, with on-site visit. Founders of the Salvation Army. g. A short thesis. By Trevor Yaxley , with Carolyn Vanderwal. M inneapolis: Bethany House, 2003. Pp. 303. or ff.II:)l detQiJs.0(' aft}?~l.e£!~«:fJJ!JlQI::mtRl. r-'~------, $19.99. Lecturers: Centre for the SaJdy of ChristianityIn ArB Trinity Theological College The authors of thisbiography lead Lifeway HWAYung, DMiss(AsbUry) 490 Upper8ukit Timah Road Ministries of NewZealand. Thei r aim is to LEEMoonjang,PhD(Edinburgh). Singapore 678093 inspire, not to present an objective study LEESoo Ann, PhD(Singapore) (/lUenrion: Ms CHENGTing Ting) Scott W. SUNQUIST, PhD(Princeton) ofthe lives of WilliamandCatherine Booth And others of the Salvation Army. While they draw Tel' 65-67676677; Fax: 65-67676477 Emall"[email protected]· lI\MI1I1I. ucedu.sq on on e primary source (the Booth letters in the British Library), their purpose is to extol the Booth's soul-winning passion. Six chapters deal with the Booths' lives Trinity Theological College (TIC) is one of the most before 1878, when th ey founded th e established seminaries in Southeast Asia, offering Salvation Army. Five chapters cover1878­ programs up to the doctoral level. We are located in 1912: to Catherine's death in 1890, and Singapore , a melting pot and a mosaic of many Asian and western cultures and different religions. It is also William's "promotion to glory" in 1912. one of the most dynamic centers of industrial and The book is hagiography. economic growth in Asia. Furthermore , the cost of There are gems of inspiration, but studying here is much lower than in the west. These few new insights into the Booth family or factors make TIC an ideal place for missiolog ical the urban home mission they founded reflection and studying the Asian church. in London's East End in 1865 that has grown into a Christian imperium of

October 2003 179 from New Titles The Global Impact of the Wesleyan Traditions and Their Related Regnum Books Movements.

Edited byCharles Yrigoyen,Jr. Lanham, Md.: International Scarecrow Press, 2002. Pp. xxiv, 301. $75.

Christian Microenterprise This book, number 14 in the Pietist and historians should be delighted with the Development: An Introduction WesleyanStudiesseries, isbasedon papers review of dates, names, and foreign and David Bussau and Russell Mask from a conference on the global impact of indigenous missionaries in Korea, Japan, 1-870345-28-2 $24.95 Methodism sponsored by the World and Australia. Methodist Society, held at Asbury The articles, though, tend to The Church in Response Theological Seminary in August 2000. overemphasize "personal holiness," to Human Need Donald Dayton begins by reminding obscuring the social holiness of the Vinay Samuel and Christopher Sugden readers that the Wesleyan tradition Wesleyan heritage. Topics not covered 1-59244-148-3 $24.95 originates from classical Christian includemusic,African-Americanheritage, heritage, including Roman Catholicism, and the transnational identity of Eastern Orthodoxy, Protestantism, Wesleyanism. Mission Reader Puritanism, and Pietism. With such an This volume makes it amply clear Samuel Jayakumar eclectic origin, Wesleyanism forms a that what may be distinctly Methodist 1-870345-42-8 $29.95 powerful tradition overflowing the very often does not come from conference denominationalbanksof Methodism. This directives. The practitioners' devotion study, then, celebrates the various strands breaks down institutional boundaries. Beyond Fragmentation within Christianity influenced by Global Impact leaves one with the Bernhard Ott Methodism. impression that many more articles could 1-870345-14-2 $29.95 Majorthematicareas coveredinclude have been added to it. the relationship of Pauline missions to Nevertheless, this is a great addition The Church as the Bulwark parachurch missions; Wesleyan to the literature on the Wesleyan against Authoritarianism missionary theology in the works of movement, one that set the precedent for Bishop Gideon Githiga Richard Watson; the Catholic and modern-day Pentecostalism and African 1-870345-38-X $29.95 Protestant,butpredominantlymissionary, Christian Independency. roots of Latin American Methodism; the -Casely B. Essamuah Methodist leanings of some African Sainthood and Revelatory Initiated Churches; and, finally, a Casely B. Essamuah, a Methodist minister from Discourse discussion of Wesley's works in Latin Ghana, currentlyserves asMinister ofMissionsat David Emmanuel Singh America and the Methodist Archives and the historic Park Street Church, Boston, 81-7214-728-7 $29.95 Research Centre at the John Rylands Massachusetts. UniversityLibraryof Manchester. Church transformation An International Dialogue on Mission and Ethics Beyond the Impasse: Toward a Transformation is the one Pneumatological Theology of journal that promotes Religions. dialogue between mission ByAmosYong. Grand Rapids: Baker; Carlisle, theologians and ethicists U.K.: Paternoster, 2003. Pp. 205. Paperback from the non-Western and $17.99/£11. Western world. In Beyond theImpasse, Pentecostal scholar "Spiritpoured outon all flesh" (Acts 2:17). Individual Institutional Amos Yong proposes a fresh Yongis convinced that the inclusionof the methodological approach to a theology of Filioque by the Latinchurchhas caused the $35.20 (1 yr) $54.00 (1 yr) religions that is more firmly rooted in West to subordinate the Spirit unduly to $63.40 (2 yr) $97.20 (2 yr) pneumatology, thereby restoring a more the Son, thereby weakening a full-orbed explicitly Trinitarian framework to a Trinitarianism and causing the West to be discussion that has often been framed less inclinedtowardperceivingthe Spirit's solelybyChristologicalandsoteriological work in non-Christian faiths. In contrast, considerations. The argumenthe proposes Yong invokes Irenaeus's metaphorical is as follows: For Christians to insist that a reference to the Son and the Spirit as the theology of religions be framed by "two hands of the Father" (p. 43). Yong Christological categories may position us explores how we might discern how the quite well defensively to mute the claims of "hand" of the Spirit may have extended other religions, but it is less effective in a God's presence and activity in non­ more offensive engagement that Christian religions. acknowledges that the particularity of the In the final analysis, the author's "Word made flesh" (John 1:14) must also proposedthesis standsor falls onthebasis be balanced by the universality of the of the development of a trustworthy set of

180 INTERNATIONAL BULLETIN OF MISSIONARY RESEARCH, Vol. 27, No.4 criteria that can empower the church to familiar Faith and Order tangles over missionary proclamation of the Gospel, as discern the presence of the Holy Spirit apostolicity and episcopal succession, well as the essay by Bishop Furberg of versus th e presence of demonic and wh ile the fourcontributors in part 3 reflect Visby, Sweden, who alone addresses destructive spirits that may be present in on how Porvoo thinking can affect the directly the mission demands facing the life and thought of the adherents of wider ecumenical scene. Christians in today's Europe, in line with non-Christian faiths. After setting forth a As in all collections of essays, the the briefbutunmistakablementionofthese brilliant exegetical basis for spiritual sig nificance of the individual articles issues in the statement. discernment, his prop osed threefold varies . The final four all reveal how The most mind-blowing essay is the criteria (divine presence, divine absence, dismayingly limiting is the conditioning one analyzing the complacent debate in and divine activity) are, in the end, too of the church contexts from which they Denmark, leading to the decision of its ambiguou s to provid e the assurance that come. IBMR readers will es pecially bishops that the statement could not be such an ambitious project demands.Even welcome thestrong concernofthe African accepted. Of the theological essays Yong concedes that "discerning the spirits contribu tor for joint ventures in the struggling with th e complex ities of will alw ays be inherently ambiguous" (p. 160). Indeed , far fro m Christol ogy imposing "categorical constraints" (p.167) on the church, the Council of Nicaea in BIS I A.D. 325 (264 years before the Filioque controversy)established thatChristology Robert 1. Gallagher and Paul Hertig, editors provides the only truly objective basis for evaluating competing truth claims, Mission in Acts whether those claims emerge from Arians Ancient Narratives in Contemporary Context or Buddhists, or from intra- or inter­ AmerIcan SocIety of M lsslology Series, N o. 34 religious dialogue. Nevertheless, Yong is to be Every key text of Acts in conversation with the personal challenges of commended for the humility and caution mission a nd ministry in today's multicultural context. withwhichhe has issued this prolegomena 1-57075-493-4 paper $30.00 to the more extensive theological project that he proposes. -Timothy C. Tennent Asian Christian Theologies A Research Guide to Authors, Movements, Sources Timothy C. Tennent, Associate Professor of World Missions and Director of Missions Programs at A stunning ecumenical ac hievement complete with bibliographic tools to Gordon-Conwell Theological Seminary, South enrich study, teaching, and research. All volumes indexed. Hamilto n, Massachusetts, is the author of Vol. 1: Asia Region, 7th - 20th Centuries; C hris tian ity at the Religious Roundtable: South Asia; Austral Asia 1-57075-481-0 680 pp cloth $40.00 Evan gelicalism in Co nversation withHinduism, Vol. 2: Asia Regional Survey, Southeast Asia 1-57075-482-9 650 pp cloth $40.00 Budd his m, and Islam (Baker, 2002). Vol. 3: Asia Regional Survey, Northeast Asia 1-57075-483-7 650 pp cloth $40.00 Available January 2004 Three volume set: 1-57075-484-5 $100.00 Sponsored by the Christian Conference of Asia. the Asian Paciiic Missiological and Research Program. Missio, and the Council for Wo rld Mission.

Apostolicity and Unity: Essays on the Porvoo Common Statement. Daniel Kendall a nd Gerald Collins, editors In Many and Diverse Ways Edited by Ola Tjerhom, with foreword by In Honor ofJacques Dupuis Archbishops K. G. Hammar (Llppsala) and DavidHope(York).Grand Rapids:Eerdmans; Eighteen noted schola rs pay tribute to Catholicism's foremost thinker on Geneva: wee Publications, 2002. Pp. xii, th e theology of religions by assessing his reading of the implications of 271. Paperback $30. th e Second Vatican Council's reappraisal of "other religious traditions." Through the Porv oo Common Statement 1-57057-510-8 paper $30.00 the Anglican churches of the British Isles entered into a covenant relation ship Peter C. Phan involving full mutual recognition with In Our Own Tongues the majority oftheScandinavianand Baltic Lutheran churches. This book, published Asian Perspectives on Mission and Inculturation ten years after this agreementin the Finnish Describes how Christia n mission is carried out from within th e complex­ city of Porvoo, seeks both to introduce the thinking behind that statement and to ity of Asian cultural and religious identities. contribute to constru ctive and critical 1-57075-502-7 paper $30.00 debate about it. The first nine essays set out in a predominantly factual way the intentions At your bookseller or direct: ORBIS BOOKS of the statement and what has happened 0 Visa/Me Order Online! www.maryknollmall.org Maryknoll, NY 10545 in the differentchurches.Eight theological essays in the second part mostly wrestle A World of Books that Matter 1-800-258-5838 with the positive way it handled long-

October 2003 181 apostolicity, the one by the editor struck perspective of Chris tian revi valism, so dominated by female evangelists. How me as particularl y significant-though it there is no attempt to givea full biography; and why this happened , Dora Yu's role in hardly prepares one for the news, onl y a rather, the book relies mainly on Dora this phenomenon, and why w omen few months after publication, that he has Yu's 1916 personal testimony written in "suddenly stoppedtheir publicministries" become a Roman Catholic. (According to English in an effort to portray the (p.227)after 1927 are extremely important Ecumenical News International, March 5, manifestation of God's will through her subjects that deserve much fuller study. 2003, Tjerhorns conversion was life. -Margo S. Gewurtz "de finitely notan act of protest against the While such an ap proach to the Lutherans.") "seemingly esoteric, mystical and riddle­ Margo S. Gewurtz is Professor of Humanities and - Martin Conway like episodes in Dora Yu's testimony" (p. Master of Founders College, York University, xii) can be justified, that do es not apply to Toronto, Canada. A Canadian, she has published Martin Conway, former president of Selly Oak the gaps, omi ssion s, and digression s that numerousessaysonCanadianmissionaries inChina Colleges, 1986-97, is coauthorof Int roducing the make up mu ch of this study, especially as and their Chinese partners. World Council of Churc hes (2001). the author intends his di scussion of the social context to reflect critic al historical methodology.These weaknesses undercut his claim thatYu was central to the revival movement and was indeed the foremost Chinese eva nge list of the early part of the Modern Women Modernizing Dora Yu and Christian Revival in century. At the end of the book, he notes Men: The Changing Missions of Twentieth-Century China. that Yu's work was confined mainly to Three Professional Women in Asia China's coastal cities and was amo ng the and Africa, 1902-69. By Silas H. Wu. Boston: Pishon River upper classes. Wu criticizes her lack of Publications, 2002. Pp. xxii, 257. $12. concrete proposals and dismisses the work By Ruth Compton Brouwer.Vancouver: UBC she was most devoted to, her female Press, 2002. Pp. xiu, 198. Paperback Silas Wu, pr ofessor emeritus of Chinese training ministr y,as a kind of "suppo rting Can$29.95. and Japanese History at Boston College, service" to denominational churches . His has written an ea rnest but ultima tely assess ments are simply not proven. This excellent study accomplishesfar more unsatisfactory brieflife of Dora Yu, on e of At best, this work will serve as the than its m odest title sugges ts. Ruth the leaders of the Christian revival basis for further research on the life of a Compton Brouwer, chair of the History movement of the first quarter of the fascinating woman and an era of Chinese Department of King' s College, University twentieth century. He writes from the Christianity that Wu rightly notes wa s of Western O n tario, a nalyzes the

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182 INTERNATI ON AL B ULLETIN OF M ISSIONARY R ESEARCH, Vol. 27, No.4 mission ary careers of th ree Ca na d ian Introducing Latino/a Theologies. women in the twentieth century. She examines how Dr . Chene Oliver, Dr. By Miguel A. De La Torreand Edwin David Florence Murray, and Margaret Wrong Aponte.Maryknoll, N.Y.:Orbis Books, 2001. moved beyond th e tradition al gender Pp. xiii, 209. Paperback $20. separatism of "woman's work for woman" toward modern professional standa rds. In this valu able and unique pioneering mai nline seminaries to a predomina ntly Each worked primarily with men: Oliver wo rk, Miguel De La Torre and Edwin Anglo student bod y. as a force behind the Christian Med ical Aponte share their own journeys in order The book offers basic information to College, Vellore, India;Murray as mentor to introduce the Latino]a expe riences as an audience that often knows little about to Korean doctors at Severance Hospital theologies.The method ology used is very a minority that is growing very fast in the and other locations; and Wron g as head of helpful, particul arly for those of us who United States. The six chapters and the the ecumenical ag en cy for promo ting teach U'S, Hispa nic/Latino theology in an no tate d bibliography make the book an African Christian literature. Each was a majorfigurein twentieth-century mainline Protestantmissions, and none has received proper scholarly treatment until now. While framed as a case stu dy in changing gender relati ons, Brouwer's book is also a fascinating examina tion of MISSIONARY ZEAL AND PANDITA RAMABAI'S AMERICA missions and modernization in the late INSTITUTIONAL CONTROL P ANDlTA RAMABAI colonial period, and of profession alization Organizational Contradictions in the Basel Edited, with a biographical introduction, in mission . She shows how cross-na tiona l Mission on the Gold Coast. 1828-1 917 by ROBERT ERIC FRYKENBERG and cross-gender pro fessional JON MILLER K SHlTl JA G OMES, translator relationships nourished nationalist elites Studies in the PIIILlP C. ENG B L O~I , translation editor and indigenou s mod ernizers. The first History of "Ramabai imbues chapter of the book is the best succinct Christian Missions her account - a overviewof the state of mainline missions "A comprehensive and balanced study. literary master­ in the in te rwar years -a period of piece of consider­ in ternatio nalism and optimism abo u t It is finely textured and gracefully writ­ able scope - with ecumenical mission struc tures . Brouwer perspectives that upholds her u sual high sta ndard of ten. . . . Th is book throws much-needed have no parallel in scholarship, with meticulou s research in the Western trav­ light on the role of archives, inter views, and va rie ties of elogue genre , in­ organizational structures and policies cluding even the missionary literature. in the modern mission movement." This book is grou nd b reaking in famed work of several ways. First, it shows the positi ve - Wilb ert R. She nk Alexis de Tocqueville." sideof howmissionary wo me n'sattitudes ISBN 0-8028-6085-0 - Richard Fox Young 278 pages· paperback· $40.00 progres sed beyond ge n der-separa te ISBN 0-8028-1293-7 models. Second, it correc ts one-sided 344 pages • hardcove r· $49.00 intellectualist pictures of mission history SIGNS AMID THE RUBBLE that focus only on mission theory in neglect The Purposes of God in Human History OCC UPY UNTIL I COME of mission practice. Third, it illuminates LESSLl E N EWBIGIN A. T. Pierson and the Evangelization the mainline "libe ra l" con struction of Edited and Introdu ced by of the World important socia l in stitutions o f G EOFFREY WAINWRIGHT D ANA L. ROBERT modernization, an element of missions that often gets downplayed in stu dies of "Th is volume of pre­ "Robert skillfully viously unpublished both evangeli zation and secular social and authoritatively lectures by Lesslie follows the bril­ change. Fourth, it sho ws the central role Newbigin is an unex­ liant caree r of A. T. pl ayed by Canadian mi ssion aries in pected gift, thanks to Pierson, one of the ecumenical missions during the tw entieth his biographer Geof­ most impressive century . I recommend this book to frey Wainwright. and influential per­ everyone witha serious interest in mission This gift contains sonalities in the histo ry. welcome supple­ American church. . -Dan a L. Robert ments to Newbigin's .. For anyo ne early seminal writ­ exploring the roots Dana L. Robert,Truman Collins Professorof World ings on ecumeni cal of eva ngelicalism Mission, Boston University School of Theology, is theology and world missions but also or concerned for its integrity today, this authorofAmericanWomen in Mission:ASocial includes his latest critiques of Western book is an absolute must." History of Their Thought and Practice(Mercer pluralist secular society." - Ralph D. Winter Univ. Press, 1996) and editorof Gospel Bearers, - Ca rl E. Braaten ISBN 0-8028-0780-1 Gender Barriers: Missionary Women in the ISBN 0-8028-0989-8 332 pages· paperbac k· $32.00 Twentieth Century (Orbis, 2002). 136 pages· paperback· $15.00

At your bookstore, 3022 11\' WM. B. EERDMANS or call 800-253-7521 _ It, PUBLISHING CO. www.eerdmans.com255JEFFERSONAVE.S.E./GRANDRAPIDS.MI49503

October 2003 183 indispensable tool for those who want a within the complex world of religious imagination to struggle daily for a future real map of Lat ino]a theologies and the ir practices a nd ex p eriences like of freedom and dignidad. Finally, the relation with key issues like ecumenism, cuaranderismo, espiritismo, and sanieria, authors offer their own testimonio as a postmodern thought, new world order, which exist primarily within a popular hermeneutical tool for our pastoral gay and lesbian topics, and the religion that is very dynamic, flu id, and practices. environment, all of which are challenging unsophisticated. Ourpeoplelive their faith I recommend the book to teachers, our theologizin g and our faith practices. in a quasi-magic world so difficult to pastors, and laypeople as we continue in The authorspresentfourperspectives understand by us academicians and our journey of faith as Laiinoslas. To non­ that are very relevant in doing contextual traditional pastors. Latinoslas the authors extend a warm theology today. They start with the Third, these writers remind us that invitation to dialogue and solidarity, particular(personaljourneys)butendwith we bringa strongcolonial heritage butare --Carmelo E. Alvarez the universal (new ecumenism). Second, not determined historically by it: Our our Hispanic religiosity is presented destiny as a people challenges our Carmela E. Alvarez, Affiliate Professor of Church History and Theology at Christian Theological Seminary, Indianapolis, Indiana, is a missionary­ consultantfortheCommonGlobal BoardMinistries Readers of the IBMR are invited oftheChristian Church(Disciples ofChrist> in the U.S.and Canada and the UnitedChurchofChrist, XIth Quadrennial International Conference assigned to the Latin American Coordination of !CMS Pentecostal Churches, with headquarters in InternationalAssociation for Mission Studies Maracaibo,Venezuela.

July 3I-August 7, 2004 Port Dickson, Malaysia "Integrity of Mission in the Light of the Gospel: The Challenge of Bible Bearing the Witness of the Spirit" Translation: Communicating God's Word to the World. The lAMS conference will interact with the conference theme through: ~ Local exposure trips to Malay historical, religious, cultural and social settings Edited by Glen G. Scorgie, Mark 1. Strauss, ~ Interaction with Muslim intellectuals at Islamic University, Kuala Lumpur and Steven M . Voth . Grand Rapids: Zonderoan, 2003. Pp. 428. $29.99. ~ Plenary presentations on Integrity of Mission in continental perspectives ~ Mission study groups, sharing of research projects, special interests groups This importantcollectionof articles on the "d isciplined art" of Bible translation is Venue: Regency Hotel, Port Dickson. Located on the Straits of Malacca. publishedin honorof Ronald Youn gblood upon his retirement. As a scholar of bibli­ For details and online registration: www.missionstudies.orglconference cal studies and languages, Youngblood hasparticularlybeenassociated with Bible translation and, more specifically, with the highly successful New International Version (NIV). As with any edited collec­ RESCUING THE MEMORY tion, thearticles vary in quality and poten­ tial popular interest. The volume's eigh­ OF OUR PEOPLES teen articles, written by twenty friends Archives Manual andcolleagu es, are divided into three the­ maticunits:six address issues in the theory Compiled by ofBible translation, six focus on the history Martha Lund Smalley, Yale of Bible translation, and six concern the University Divinity School, New practice of Bible translation. In the introduction,GlenScorgieout­ Haven, and Rosemary Seton, lines various ass umptions that unite the School of Oriental and African articles. First, the collection is evangelical, Studies, London infused with a high view of the Bible and thecon viction that Bible translationis cru­ Published in 2003 by the Interna­ cial to the life of the church. Furthermore, tional Association for Mission Stud­ the writers assume that translation across ies, copies are available for US$10 cultures and generations is possible; that each. Send your request to: translation, though complex and always imperfect, produces substantial results; Overseas Ministries Study Center and that functional equivalence is the best 490 Prospect Street theoretical framework in which to prac­ New Haven, CT 06511 USA tice Bible translation. This collection also contributes to the To purchase with a credit card and for other OMSC mission debate am ong conservative English­ speaking Christians concerning gender resources, visit: www.OMSC.orglbooks.htm inclusiveness and Bible translation. The fact that Zondervan is also publisher of

184 INTERNATIONAL BUL LETIN OF M ISSIONARY RE SEARCH, Vol. 27, No.4 the NIV and Today's NIV should not be trenchan t in his criticism of the TSPM worthwhile stu dy, despite some minor his­ missed. Read ers gain insight into the pro­ lead ers of the 1950s and those he consid­ torical inaccuracies and lack of an index . cesses behind the tran slation of the NIV ers their Western academic apologis ts, - Daniel H. Bays thr ough two articles de dicated to the topi c. speculating that they wo uld have ratio­ The editors' goa l was to produce ar­ nalized the Nazi takeover of the Germa n Daniel H. Bays is Professorof Histon)and Directorof ticles that would enhance the general churches in the 1930s. But he also has the Asian Studies Program at Calvin College, Grand public's understanding of the task and not some very sensible comments and sug ­ Rapids, Michigan. He is coeditor, with Grant Wacker, just serve tran slation specialists. Though gestions for surmo unting the di vision s of The Foreign Missionary Enterprise at Ho me : the focu s of this significa nt volume is on betw een Pr otest ants today and fo r Explorations in No rth American Cultural History translati on of the Bible into English, much dep oliticizin g the TSPM. In all, a very (Univ. of Alabama Press, 2003). applies to other lan gu ages as well. - John R. Watters

John R. Walters, Executive Director of Wycliffe BibleTranslators International,served in Africafor twenty-six years and participated in translationof the New Testament for the Ejagham people of southwest Cameroon and southeast Nigeria.

Acquainted with Grief: Wang Mingdao's Stand for the Persecuted Church in China.

By Thomas Alan Harvey. Grand Rapids: BrazosPress,2002.Pp.190.$21.99;paperback $14.99.

The autho r, a faculty member at Trinity Theological College,Singapore,based this book on his Duke Divinity School Ph.D. dis sertation. Wang Min gd ao 0 900-1 991) is certainl y one of the towering figu res in mod ern Chinese church history. Harvey is justified in choosing him as a figu re around wh om to construc t an interpreta­ tion ofChinese Protestantism under Com­ munist rul e. This study, however, is less a biography of Wan g than it is a dissection and int erpretation of Wang's great nem ­ ' ''With vivid insight, lively narrative.'and "This i~ , an impor tant , unique, and useful esis, the leadership of the Three-Self Pat ri­ .down-to-earth practicality, this ' book. Though missionaries have taught otic Mov em ent (TSPM), the orga niza tion qyleading Chnsttananthropologtsts is . , cross-cultural ly for more t han two formed in the earl y 1950s to br ing all Pro t­ essential reading for anyone interested .centuries, almost nothin g has been written estants under Communist party direction . in ministering cross-cultura lly:' on the sub ject. This book is a practical handbook th at can help cross-cultural _, Wan g, a prominent in dependent - ROBERT PRIEST, Trinity Evangelical Beijing fundamentalist pastor, was re­ Divi(lity School teachers communicate more effectively." spected by man y Chinese Chri stians for - CHARLES VAN ENGEN, his integrity, and his refusal to join the "This model is simple and straightforward yet Fuller Theological Seminary TSPM in the 1950s wa s well known.There­ profoundly helpful in assisting cross-cultu ral fore the party, through the TSPM, broug ht sojourners to recognize value differences, "Much is said today about contextualizing terr ific pressure to bear on Wan g. After an assess and mod ify their behavior, and build the gospel but little about the waysin initial failed attempt to discredit him, the trust in cross-cultural relationships." which we communicate it. This is particu­ larly true of teachi ng. which is what many au tho rities fina lly arrested him, forced a - MURRAY DECKER. Biola University, confession of political tr an sgr essions School of Intercultural Studies of us do much of the time. Judith and (which he soon recanted ), and impris­ Sherwood Lingenfelter do us great service oned him for over tw enty years. He sur­ by helpi ng us to teach the gospel in vived and in 1979 was released unbowed , cultura lly appropriate ways that enable people to truly understand it." in moral victory over his TSPM oppo­ nents. - PA UL G. HIEB ERT, Trinity This is a rather black-and-white study Evangelical Divinity School with Wan g as a paragon of the faith and the TSPM as mod ernists who were drawn by theological compromise into worship Baker Academic

of the nation, fina lly resh aping the churc h Subscribe to Baker Academic's electronic news lette r (E-N otes) at www.bakeracad emic .com and its doctrines to fit the political de­ ma nds of the day. Harvey is relentless ly

Octo ber 2003 185 Despite Good Intentions: Why for development. This Darwinian view of Development Assistance to the development is di sappointing, particu­ Third World Has Failed. larly for the poor. - Brya nt L. Myers By Thomas W. Dichter. Boston: Univ. of MassachusettsPress,2003.Pp.296.Paperback Bryant L. Myersis Vice President of Development $19.95. andFood ResourcesforWorldVisionInternational.

Dichter, an anthropologist with someover­ w he re HIV/ AIDS has reversed th e up­ seas experience, has written a difficult w ard trend), an d twice as man y people book. The case is ma de that developme nt now have access to clean wa ter. is complex, multifaceted, and open-ended Second, responsibility for the sup­ and therefore not susceptible to man age­ posed failure of the dev elopmentcommu­ ment by objectives. The case is made th at nity is also not established. While Dichter Malay Muslims: The History and development projects over th e last fifty offers valid criticisms of mistak es, mis­ Challenge of Resurgent Islam in yea rs have been less than a story of un­ taken method ologies, and failed projects, Southeast Asia. qua lified success. The case is also made he does no t help us di scern w he ther th e that people in the developme nt industry failures occur because the entire enter­ By Robert Day McA mis. Grand Rapids: keep changing their minds, me thods, and prise is ill conce ived or w hether, as Iw ould Eerdmans, 2002. Pp. xii, 173. Paperback$20. measures. But the book fails to ma ke the arg ue, they provide evidence of learning case that the poor wo uld be better off through honest acceptance of failure on This book provid es an introduction to the witho ut development assistance at all. th e part of the World Bank, NGOs, and Malay Muslims in Southeas t Asia, the First, the con tention tha t development others. lar gest ethnic Muslim community in the ass istance has been a failure is more as­ It is particularly disappointing that w orld. Writing as a n ex per ie n ce d sumed than supported . A list of statistics no option othe r th an th e dustbin is pre­ mission ary with more th an for ty years' is presented in the intro d uction th at shows sented. Ap pare ntly th e poor ar e to be left experience in the Phi lip pi nes, Robert th ere are an awful lot of poor people to th eir own cu ltu res, geogra phies, gover­ M cAmis provides a history of the around tod ay. But the presentati on ig­ nance, and initiative, and th ey w ill de­ penetrationofIslam, its influence, and th e nor es othe r statistics that show tha t since velop w he n they develop. Alex de Waal hist or y of Chris tia n-Mus lim relations. th e 1960s, infant mo rtality has halved , life has taken tha t position on humanitarian Noteworthy is the attention give n to the expec tancy has rise n (except in Africa, responses, and now Dichter does th e same traditions and cus toms of the Malays . In recounting the recent Islamic resu rgence, McAmis pleads for Christian-Mus lim dialogue, understanding,andcooperation. The extensi ve bibliogr aphy (42 pages) is an excellent resource for fu rther study. OIVISC There ar e some inaccuracies to note. The ruling coalition group is the National Spring 2004 Front,not the Na tional Party(p.83).Anwar Ibrahim was cha rge d in 1998, not 1999 (p. Senior Mission Scholars in Residence 87). After 1996 Cano n Batumalai was no longer th e d ean of Sem ina ri Theoloji The Overseas Ministries Study Cen ter Senior Mission Scholars provi de lead­ Ma laysia (p, 121), and th e seminary is ership in OMSC's Study Program and are available to OMSC residents for located in Serernba n, not Kuala Lumpur counsel regarding their own mission resea rch interests. (p , 121). On p. 88 Batumalai's writing should be in 1994, not 1944. Sr. Janet Carroll, M.M. In d iscu ssing Islamic resurgence in Sr. Carroll is a member of the Maryknoll Sisters. She serves as Ma laysia, McA mis fails to highlight the n u m ero u s Is la mization p ro grams Exec utive Director of the U.S. Catholic China Bureau, South impleme nted by th e govern me nt since Orange , New Jersey. She was a missionary in Taiwan and a th e ea rly 1980s, widely recognized as th e member of the Permanent Observer Mission of the Holy See period of sig nificant Islamic resurgence. to the United Nation s. The au tho r also ap pears not to be familiar wi th the works of Chris tian scholar Ng Dr. Chun Chae Ok Kam Wen g on the Islamic resurgence or A former president of the International Assoc iation for Mis­ wi th Batu malai's latest work on Islamic sion Studies, Dr. Chun teaches at Ewha Womans University, resurgence published in 1996 (pp. 121­ Seoul, Korea. She was a professor in the Department of Chris­ 22). It is also unfortunate that th ere is no tian Studies until 2000, when the university named her dean interaction with th e extensive scholarly publication s by Mu slim scholars in th e of the Graduate School of Theology. Malay language. These criticisms are not meant to Overseas Ministries Study Center d et ract fr om w hat is clearly a good 490 Prospect St., New Haven, CT 065 11 USA introduction for th ose who have no prior (203) 624-6672, Ext. 315 Fax (203) 865-28 57 kn owl edge of the Ma lay Muslim world. -Kar-Yong Lim www.O MSC.org [email protected] Kar-Yong Lim is a master of theology candidate at Seminari TheolojiMalaysia, Seremban , Malaysia.

186 INTERN ATIONALB ULLETIN OF MISSIONAR Y R ESEARCH, Vol. 27, No. 4 Dissertation Notices

Byun, Chang Uk. Quashie, John A bedu. Swanso n, Herbert R. "Comity Agreements Between "Caring for Akan Marriages: A "Prelu de to Irony: The Princeton Missions in Korea from 1884 to 1910: Critique of the Approach to the Theology and the Practice of The Ambiguities of Ecumenicity and Pastoral Care of Marriages by Selected Presbyterian Missions in Northern Denominationalism." Christian Organisations in Ghana." Siam, 1867-1880." Ph.D . Princeton: Princeton Theological Ph.D. Birmingham, U.K.: Un iv. of Ph.D. Melbo urne: M elbourne College of Seminary, 2003. Birmingham, 2002. Div inity, Melbourne Unio., 2003.

Cincala, Petre. "A Theoretical Proposal for Reaching Irreligious Czech People Through a Mission Revitalization Movement." Ph.D. Berrien Springs, M ich.: A ndrews A SBURY Uni o., 2002 .

Cuellar, Rolando Wilfreda. THEOLOGICAL "The Influence of Spiritual and Educational Formation on the SEMINARY Missionary Vision and Programs of Four Hispanic Churches in the United E. Stanley Jones School States of America." of World Mi ssion & Evangelism Ph.D. Deerfield, Ill.: Tri nity In ternational Unio., 2002. Prepare for a Lifetime of • Effective Ministry, ANYWHERE! Foust, Thomas Fowler. "Christology, Restoration, Unity: An hristianity's World Mi ssion would be less intimidating and more manageable Exploration of the Missiological Cif everyone spokethe same language, followed the same customsand Approach to Modem Western Culture viewed life the same way. That idyllic world, however. is not the world Christ calls us to engage. According to Lesslie Newbigin." The real world features at least a dozen majorcultural families and more Ph.D. Birmingham, U.K.: Univ . of than 2,000 religions, 6,000 languages and 30,000 distinct societies and cul­ Birmingham, 2003. tures. There are also an unknown (and shifting) number of sub-cultures, counter-cultures and peoples with their own distinct name, historyand iden­ Harmelink, Daniel Nat han. tity. Furthermore, secularization has transformed Western nations into "mis­ "Mission and Kenosis: Di scovering, sion fields" once again. Several fields of knowledge prepare the effective missionary to "exegete" Classifying, and Evaluating the biblical text and people's cultural context. Th ese literatures are as neces­ Contemporary Missiology's sary, and as sophisticated, as the literatures that prepare physicians to make Understanding of 'Mission' and Its sense of an epidemic, or astronomers of a galaxy. Asbury's ESJ School will Appropriation and Use of the prepare you to understand the historical, cultural and religious contexts of 'Self-Emptying' of Christ in the field of mission to which Christ has called you, and to serve, communi­ Philippians 2:7." cate and help grow the indigenous Church in that place. Ph.D. Fort Wayne, Ind.: Concordia Soif you are interested in making senseof a piece of the world, and in help­ ing its people make sense of the Christian gospel, call the admissio ns office today Theological Seminary, 2003. at 1-800-2-ASBU RYor e-mai l us at adm [email protected].

Kim, Kirsteen. DEGREE PROGRAMS "Mission Pneumatology, with Special M.A. and Th.M. in World Mission and Evangelism, Doctor of Missiology, Reference to the Indian Theologies of and Do cto r of Philosophy in Intercultural Studies. the Holy Spirit of Stanley Samartha, Vandana, and Samuel Rayan." Ph.D. Birmingham, U.K.: Univ. of Birmingham , 2001.

Koll, Karla A nn . Darrell Whiteman Ron efOndoll George Hunter Eunice Irwin "Struggling for Solidarity: Changing Dean, Anthropology, Evangelism. Small Churches. ChurchGrowth, Primal Religions, Indigenous Christ ianity Church Planting Communication, Leadership Contextual rheology Mission Relationships Between the Presbyterian Church (USA) and Christian Communities in Central America During the 1980s." Ph.D. Princeton: Princeton Theological Terry Muck Russell West Howo,d Snyder Mike Ryn kiewich Seminary, 2003. World Reiiqions. Leadership Education History of Mission, Anthropology Buddhism & Christianity Theology of Mission

O nyi nah,Opoku. KENTUCKY (AMPU S: 204 N. Lexington Avenue, Wilmo re, KY 40390·1 199 ~rjJ~ A S B U RY "Akan Witchcraft and the Concept of FLO RIDA (AMPUS: 8401 Va lencia College Lane, Orlando, FL 32825 A T HEOLOGICAL Exorcism in the Church of Pentecost." VIRTUAL (AMPUS: www.asburyseminary.edu/ exl/e xl.htrnl •• SE MINARY Ph.D. Birmingham , U.K.: Univ . of Birmingham , 2002.

October 2003 187 INTERNATONAL BULLETIN OF MISSIONARY RESEARCH INDEX-VOLUME 27 January through October 2003

(pages 1-48 arein theJanuary issue; pp.49-96 in April; pp. 97-144 in July; and pp. 145-92 in October) ARTICLES AnnualStatisticalTable on Global Mission: 2003,byDavidB.Barrett Knight, George A. F. [Obituary], 27:75 and Todd M. Johnson, 27:24-25 Lauby, Paul T. [Obituary], 27:164 "Blessed Reflex" :Mission as God'sSpiral of Renewal, by Kenneth R. The Latourette Initiative for the Documentation of World Christian­ Ross, 27:162-68 ity, by Paul Stuehrenberg, 27:161 Brand, Paul Wilson [Obituary], 27:164 The Legacy of Henry Robert Codrington, by Allan K. Davidson, Bright, William ("Bill") R. [Obituary], 27:164 27:171-76 Catholics in China: The Bumpy Road Toward Reconciliation, by The Legacy of James Gilmour, by Kathleen L. Lodwick, 27:34-37 Jean-Paul Wiest, 27:2-6 The Legacy of M. D. Opara, by Felix K. Ekechi, 27:79-83 Christian Mission as Complex Reality [Editorial], 27:49 The LegacyofJohnSchuette,S.V.D.,by HeribertBettscheider,S.V.D., Church-Mission Dynamics in Northeast India, by Lalsangkima trans. by Louis J. Luzbetak, S.V.D, 27:29-33 Pachuau,27:154-61 Mazhar Mallouhi: Gandhi's Living Christian Legacy in the Muslim Clifford, Paul Rowntree [Obituary], 27:75 World, by Paul-Gordon Chandler, 27:54-59 Counting Christians in China: A Cautionary Report, by Tony Lam­ Mission and Migration: Some Implications for the Twenty-first- bert, 27:6-10 Century Church, by Jehu J. Hanciles, 27:146-53 Dain, A. Jack [Obituary], 27:128 Mission and the Margins [Editorial], 27:145 Doctoral Dissertations on Mission: Ten-Year Update, 1992-2001, by Munthe, Ludvig [Obituary], 27:128 Stanley H. Skreslet, 27:98-133 My Pilgrimage in Mission, by Ralph R. Covell, 27:26-28 Doctoral Dissertations on Mission: Ten-Year Update, 1992-2001 My Pilgrimage in Mission, by Jacques Dupuis, S.J., 27:168-71 [Editorial], 27:97 My Pilgrimage in Mission, by Marcella Hoesl, M.M., 27:77-79 From Imitation to Innovation: The Church in Asia [Editorial], 27:1 Neely, Alan Preston [Obituary], 27:128 From Jerusalem to Oxford: Mission as the Foundation and Goal of Noteworthy, 27:20-21, 74-75, 128-29, 164-65 Ecumenical Social Thought, by John Flett, 27:17-22 The Recent KoreanMissionaryMovement: A Record of Growth, and Harlow, Robert Edward [Obituary], 27:164 More Growth Needed, by Steve S. C. Moon, 27:11-17 Harrison, Daniel Joseph [Obituary], 27:164 Schaaf, Ype [Obituary], 27:165 How the Catholic Church in Latin America Became Missionary, by Shaull, M. Richard [Obituary], 27:21 John F. Gorski, M.M., 27:59-64 Unravelinga "ComplexReality": SixElementsofMission,by Stephen Keeping Faith with Culture: Protestant Mission Among Zoroastri­ B. Bevans, S.V.D., 27:50-53 ans of Bombayin the NineteenthCentury,byFarshidNamdaran, What the Ila Believed About God: Traditional Religion and the 27:71-77 Gospel, by Dennis G. Fowler, 27:64-71 CONTRIBUTORS OF ARTICLES Barrett, David B.,and Todd M. Johnson. Annual Statistical Table on Hoesl, Marcella, M.M. My Pilgrimage in Mission, 27:77-79 Global Mission: 2003, 27:24-25 Johnson, Todd M., and David B. Barrett. Annual Statistical Table on Bettscheider,Heribert,S.V.D.,trans. by LouisJ.Luzbetak,S.V.D.The Global Mission: 2003, 27:24-25 Legacy of John Schuette, S.V.D., 27:29-33 Lambert, Tony. Counting Christians in China: A Cautionary Report, Bevans, Stephen B., S.V.D. Unraveling a "Complex Reality": Six 27:6-10 Elements of Mission, 27:50-53 Lodwick, Kathleen L. The Legacy of James Gilmour, 27:34-37 Chandler, Paul-Gordon. Mazhar Mallouhi: Gandhi's Living Chris­ Moon, Steve S. C. The Recent Korean Missionary Movement: A tian Legacy in the Muslim World, 27:54-59 Record of Growth, and More Growth Needed, 27:11-17 Covell, Ralph R. My Pilgrimage in Mission, 27:26-28 Namdaran, Farshid. Keeping Faithwith Culture: Protestant Mission Davidson, Allan K. The Legacy of Henry Robert Codrington, Among Zoroastrians of Bombay in the Nineteenth Century, 27:171-76 27:71-77 Dupuis, Jacques, S.J. My Pilgrimage in Mission, 27:168-71 Pachuau, Lalsangkima. Church-Mission Dynamics in Northeast Ekechi, Felix K. The Legacy of M. D. Opara, 27:79-83 India, 27:154-61 Flett, John. From Jerusalem to Oxford: Mission as the Foundation Ross, Kenneth R. "Blessed Reflex": Mission as God's Spiral of and Goal of Ecumenical Social Thought, 27:17-22 Renewal, 27:162-68 Fowler, Dennis G. What the Ila Believed About God: Traditional Skreslet, Stanley H. Doctoral Dissertations on Mission: Ten-Year Religion and the Gospel, 27:64-71 Update, 1992-2001,27:98-133 Gorski, John F., M.M. How the Catholic Church in Latin America Stuehrenberg, Paul F. The Latourette Initiative for the Documenta­ Became Missionary, 27:59-64 tion of World Christianity, 27:161 Hanciles, Jehu J. Mission and Migration: Some Implications for the Wiest, Jean-Paul. Catholics in China: The Bumpy Road Toward Twenty-first-Century Church, 27:146-53 Reconciliation, 27:2-6

188 INTERNATIONAL BULLETIN OF MISSIONARY RESEARCH, Vol. 27, No.4 BOOKS REVIEWED Allman, Jean, and Susan Geiger, eds. Women in African Colonial Dow, James W., and Alan R. Sandstrom. Holy Saints and Fiery Histories, 27:91-92 Preachers: The Anthropologyof Protestantism in Mexicoand Central Armour, Rollin, Sr. Islam, Christianity, and the West: A Troubled America,27:140 History, 27:89-90 Erh, Deke, and Tess Johnston, eds. Hallowed Halls: ProtestantColleges Bevans, Stephen, and Roger Schroeder, eds. Mission for the Twenty­in Old China,27:42-43 first Century, 27:40-41 Escobar, Samuel. Changing Tides: Latin America and World Mission Bill, James A., and John Alden Williams. Roman Catholics and Shi'i Today,27:84 Muslims: Prayer, Passion, and Politics, 27:142 Freeman-Grenville, G. S. P., and Stuart C. Munro-Hay. Historical Bradshaw, Bruce. Change Across Cultures: A Narrative Approach to Atlas of Islam. Rev. and expoed., 27:134. Social Transformation, 27:90 Fuellenbach, John, S.V.D. Church: Community for the Kingdom, Brouwer, Ruth Compton. Modern Women Modernizing Men: The 27:178-79 ChangingMissions of Three Professional Women in Asia and Africa, Gittins, AnthonyJ.Ministry attheMargins:StrategyandSpiritualityfor 1902-69, 27:182-83 Mission, 27:40 Brown, Judith M., and Robert Eric Frykenberg, eds. Christians, Goheen, Michael W. '.I1s the Father Has Sent Me, I Am Sending You": Cultural Interactions, and India's Religious Traditions, 27:45-46 J. E. Lesslie Newbigin's Missionary Ecclesiology, 27:40 Burgess, Stanley M., and Eduard M. van der Maas, eds. The New Guy, Jeff. The View Across the River: Harriette Colenso and the Zulu International Dictionaryof Pentecostal and Charismatic Movements. Struggle Against Imperialism, 27:178 Rev. and expo ed., 27:38 Hamlin, Catherine, with John Little. TheHospital bytheRiver-a Story Burns, J. M. Flickering Shadows: CinemaandIdentity in Colonial Zimba­of Hope,27:88-89 bwe,27:46 Hanciles, Jehu. Euthanasia ofaMission:AfricanChurchAutonomy in a Chandler, Paul-Gordon. God'sGlobal Mosaic: What WeCanLearn from Colonial Context, 27:90-91 Christians Around the World,27:41-42 Hansen, Holger Bernt, and Michael Twaddle. ChristianMissionaries Cox, Jeffrey. Imperial Fault Lines: Christianity and Colonial Power in and the State in the Third World,27: 177 India, 1818-1940,27:141 Harper, Keith. SendtheLight:LottieMoon's LettersandOther Writings, Davidson, Allan K.,ed. TonganAnglicans,1902-2002:FromtheChurch 27:139-40 of EnglandMission in Tonga to the Tongan Anglican Church,27:84 Harvey, Thomas Alan. Acquaintedwith Grief: Wang Mingdao's Stand De La Torre, Miguel A., and Edwin David Aponte. Introducing for the Persecuted Churchin China,27:185 Laiino]a Theologies, 27:183-84 Jenkins, Philip. TheNext Christendom: TheComingof Global Christian­ Dichter, Thomas W. DespitegoodIntentions: Why Development Assis­ity,27:45 tanceto the Third WorldHas Failed, 27:186

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Yale Divinity School Library, 1895-1925 The Geneva Archives, 1919-1956 The WSCF was created in 1895 to encourage and The reports and letters included in this collection provide coordinate the work of existing national student insight into the contexts and issues that informed the movements in countries where they did not yet exist. development of the Church in North and South America, This collection represents the Correspondence and continental Europe, Great Britain, Ireland, Asia, History sections of the Archive including letters from Australia, South Africa and other areas. John R. Mott, William Temple and W.A. Visser 't Hooft. 211,095 files 200 boxes 208 microfilm reels 2,138 microfiches Including EAD finding aid at www.idc.nl Including EAD finding aid at www.idc.nl

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October 2003 189 That the World May Know

Feb. 23-27, 2004 April 19-23 Digital Video and Global China's Social Transforma­ Christianity. Dr. James M. tion: Crucible for Religion Ault, James Ault Produc­ and Church Today. Sr. Janet tion s, in a practical work ­ Carroll, M.M., U.S. Catho­ shop, covers how to use digi­ lic Chi na Bureau and an tal video to portray the life OMSC Se nio r Mission of faith in community. Eight Scholar in Residence, asks sessions. $125 how Christians in China can eva ngel ize Chinese society March 1-5 while remaining true to their Servant Leadership: Bib­ fai th. She addresses com­ lical Principles for Mis­ plexities and ambiguities for sion. Dr. Donald R. Jacobs, After completing an academic year at OMSC, residents received the mission arising from the Chi­ Mennonite Le adership Certificate in Mission Studies on May 13, 2003. nese quest for new spiritual Foundation, and Dr. Douglas and ethical/ moral moorings. McConnell, School of World Eight sessions. $ 125 Mission, Fuller Theological Seminary, lead a study of biblical personalities to establish foundational principles for responsible April 26-30 leadership in mission. Cosponsored by Eastern Mennonite Mis­ Personal Renewal in the Missionary Community. Rev. Stanley sions and Mennon ite Central Committee. Eight sessions. $125 W. Green, Mennonite Mission Network. blends classroom in­ struction and one-on-one sessions to offer a time of personal March 15-1 9 renewal, counsel, and direction for Christian workers. Cospon­ Unbound by Time: Isaiah Still Speaks. Dr. William L. Holladay, sored by Mennonite Mission Network. Eight sessions. $125 Andover-Newton Theological School, discusses the historical and theological background to important texts in the book of Isaiah May 3-7 and how they fit into Christian proclamation. Cosponsored by Deuteronomy: A Challenge to Mission. Dr. Christophel' J. H. Maryknoll Mission Institute and held at Maryknoll, New York. Wright, Langham Partnership International, London, unfolds the Eight sessions. $140 relevance of Deuteronomy, the heartbeat of the Old Testament, for Christian mission and ethics. Cosponsored by First Presby­ March 22-26 terian Church (New Haven). Eight sessions. $125 Christian Approaches to World Religions. Dr. Timothy C. Tennent, Gordon-Conwell Theological Seminary, offers an evan­ gelical perspective that calls for honest engagement and fruitful Overseas Ministries Study Center dialogue with adherents of other faiths. Cosponsored by the Bap­ 490 Prospect St., New Haven, CT 06511 USA tist Convention of New England and Greenfield Hill Congrega­ (203) 624-6672, Ext. 315 Fax (203) 865·2857 tional Church (Fairfield, Conn.). Eight sessions. $125 www.OMSC.org study @OMSC.org Publishers of the I NTERN>\TIONAL B ULI.ETIN OF MISSIONAR\ R ESEARCH Mar. 29-Apr. I Culture, Interpersonal Conflict, and Christian Mission. Dr. r------­ Duane H. Elmer, Trinity Evangelical Divinity School, helps I Please send more information about these seminars: Christian workers strengthen interpersonal skills and resolve con­ I flicts among colleagues, including host-country peoples. Con­ 1--- -- _ ------­ I cludes Thursday. Cosponsored by Black Rock Congregational 1 1 Church. Eight sessions in four days. $125 1­------I I April 13-1 6 I NAME --­------Evaluating Cross-cultural Missions: A Korean Case Study. 1 Dr. Chun Chae Ok, Ewha Womans University, Seoul , Korea, I ADDRESS ---­------­ I and an OMSC Senior Mission Scholar in Residence, draws on the rapidly growing Korean missionary movement to offer crite­ i 1 ria for assessing different approaches to cross-cultural mission. : E-MAIL . I Cosponsored by United Methodist Board of Global Ministries I and Wycliffe International. Four morning sessions. $90 Clip and return this coupon or register onlin e Spring 2004 I I ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~;L .J Kwantes, Anne, ed . Chapters in Philippine Church History, 27:87 Scorgie, Glen G., Mark L. Strauss, an d Steven M. Voth, eds. The Lai, Wha len, and Michael von Bruck. Christianity and Buddhism: A Challenge of Bible Translation: Communicating God's Word to the Multi-Cultural History of Their Dialogue, 27:85 World,27:184-85 Lampe, Armando. Mission or Submission? Moravian and Catholic Stackho use, Max L., and Tim Dearborn, eds . The Local Church in a Missionaries in the Dutch Caribbean During the Nineteenth Century, Globa l Era : Reflections for a New Century, 27:88 27:46 Swerts, Lorry, and Koen De Ridder. Mon Van Genechten(1903 -1974), McAmis, Robert Day. Malay Muslims: The History and Challenge of Flemish Missionary and Chinese Painter: lnculturation of Christian Resurgent Islam in Southeast Asia, 27:186 Art in China, 27:42 McGrath, Alister E. The Futureof Christianity, 27:85-86 Tjerhom, a la, ed. Apostolicityand Unity:Essays on the Porvoo Common Mellor, How ard , and Timothy Yates, eds. Mission and Spirituality: Statement, 27:181-82 Crea tive Ways of Being Church, 27:142 Tuwere, Ilaitia S. Vanua:Towards a Fijian Theologyof Place, 27:136-37 Minaha n, James. Encyclopedia of the Stateless Nations: Ethnic and Ustorf, Werner, and Tos hiko Murayama, eds.Identity and Marginal­ National Groups Around the World. 4 vols, 27:134-35 ity: Rethinking Christianity in North East Asia, 27:86-87 Mo ucarry, Chawkat. The Prophetand theMessiah:An ArabChristian's Wa lldorf, Friedeman n . Die N euv angelisierung Europa s: Perspectiveon Islam and Christianity, 27:92 Missionstheologien im europdischen Kontexi, 27:93 Newbigin, Lesslie. Edited by Geoffrey Wainwright. Signs amid the Wei-ying, Ku, ed . Missionary Approaches and Linguistics in Mainland Rubble: The Purposes of God in Human History, 27:177 China and Taiwan, 27:39 Nikkel, Marc R. Dinka Christianity: The Origins and Development of Wei-ying, Ku, and Koen De Ridder, eds. Auth entic ChineseChristian­ Christianity Among the Dinkaof Sudan, with Special Referenceto the ity:Preludes toIts Development(NineteenthandTwentiethCenturies), Songs of Dinka Christians, 27:87 27:44 Norris, Frederick W. Christianity: A Short Globa l History, 27:43-44 Wijsen, Fra ns, and Peter Nissen, eds. "Mission Is a Must": Intercul­ Okkenhaug, Inger Marie. TheQuality ofHeroic Living,ofHigh Endeav­ tural Theology and the Mission of the Church, 27:141-42 our and Adventure: Anglica n Mission, Women, and Education in Wu, Silas H. Dora Yu andChristian Revivalin Twentieth-Century China, Palestine, 1888-1948, 27:138 27:182 Pachua u, Lalsa ngkima, ed . Ecumenical Missiology: Contemporary Yaxley , Trevor, with Carolyn Vanderwal. Williamand Catherine:The Trends, Issues, and Themes, 27:1 35-36 Lifeand Legacy of the Booths, Founders of the Salvation Army, 27:179 Phan, Peter C The Asian Synod: Texts and Commentaries, 27:136 Yong, Amos. Beyond the Impasse:TowardaPneumatological Theology of Phipps, William E. William Sheppard: Congo's African American Religions, 27:180-81 Livingstone, 27:91 Yrigoyen, Charles, [r ., ed . The Global Impact of the Wesleyan Traditions Rutherdale, Myra. Women and the White Man's God:Gender and Race and Their Related Movements, 27:180 in the Canadian Mission Field, 27:138 Zeleza, Paul Tiyambe, and Dickson Eyoh. Encylopedia of Twentieth­ Sacks, Jon athan. The Dignity of Difference: How to Avoid the Clash of Century African History, 27:1 37-38 Civilizations, 27:138-39 REVIEWERS Ajayi , J. F. Ad e, 27:90-91 Newman, Las, 27:46 Akinade, Akintunde E., 27:91 O'Brien , Dellan na West, 27:139-40 Alvarez, Carmelo E., 27:183-84 Pennoyer, F. Douglas, 27:87 Anderson, Gera ld H., 27:42-43, 45 Robert, Dana L., 27:182-83 Askew, Thomas A., 27:85-86 Ross, Ca thy, 27:138 Bays, Danie l H., 27:185 Rynkiewich, Michael A., 27:136-37 Beva ns, Stephen B., S.V.D., 27:141-42 Sanneh, Larnin, 27:134 Bohr, P. Richard, 27:42 Schroeder, Edward H ., 27:40-41 Brouwer, Ruth Compton, 27:91-92 Shorter, Ay lward, M.Afr ., 27:137-38, 177 ANNOUNCING: J ANUARY 2004 Burrell, David B., CSC, 27:142 Smith, Gordon T., 27:40 STUDENT S EMINARS ON Conway, Martin, 27:181- 82 Smith, Jane 1., 27:89-90 Covell, Ralph R., 27:39 Steigenga, Timothy J., 27:140 WORLD MISSION Douglas, Ian T., 27:41-42, 88 Stockdale, Nan cy L., 27:138 Essarn ua h, Casely. B., 27:180 Taber, Charles R., 27:177 Forman, Charles W., 27:84 Tennent, Timothy C, 27:180-81 Thy Kingdom Come: Fou ntain, Dan, 27:88-89 Thomas, Norman E., 27:135-36 Great Commandment and Frykenberg, Robert Eric, 27:141 Thompson, Jack, 27:46 Great Commission Gasque, W. Ward, 27:142,178-79 Tienou, Tite, 27:134-35 Gewurtz, Margo S., 27:182 Ward, Kevin, 27:178 Cosponsored by OMSC Gor ski, John F., M.M., 27:84 Wa tters, John R., 27:184-85 and 30 Seminaries Handles, Jehu J., 27:43-44 Whi teman, Darrell, 27:90 Hedlund, Roger E., 27:45-46 Witts, Diana, 27:87 Hunsbe rger, George R., 27:40 Young, Richard Fox, 27:44 For complete details Johnston, David L., 27:92 and to register, visit: Jongen eel, Jan A. B., 27:93 DISSERTATIONS www.OMSC.org Knitter, Paul F., 27:138- 39 Larbi, E. Kingsley, 27:38 Dissertation Notices, 27:94, 187 Lee, Moonjang, 27:86-87 Overseas Ministries Study Center Lim, Kar-Yong, 27:186 490 Prospect Street, New Haven,CT 06511 Min, Anselm Kyongsuk , 27:136 BOOK NOTES (203) 624-6672 , Ext. 315 Muck, Terry C , 27:85 Book No tes, 27:48, 96, 144, 192 [email protected] Murdoch, Norman H., 27:179 Fifteen Outsta nd ing Books of 2002 for Myers, Bryant L., 27:186 Mission Stu dies, 27:39

190 INT ERN ATIONAL B LrLLETtN OF MISSIONARY R ESEARCH, Vol. 27, No.4 Book Notes In Corning Asad, Talal. Formations of the Secular: Christianity, Islam, Modernity. Issues Stanford, Calif.: Stanford Univ. Press, 2003. Pp. 269. Paperback $19.95.

Atwood,Craig D. After Conversion-Then What? The Distinctiveness of Moravian Culture: Essays and Documents in Moravian Christopher J.H. Wright History in Honor of Vernon H. Nelson on His Seventieth Birthday. Converts or Proselytes? The Crisis Nazareth, Pa.: Moravian Historical Society, 2003. Pp. 297. Paperback $29.95. over Conversion in the Early Church Andrew F. Walls Bonk, Jonathan J., ed. BetweenPastand Future: EvangelicalMissionEnteringtheTwenty-firstCentury. Shopping Around: Conflict over Pasadena, Calif.: William Carey Library, 2003. Pp. 271. Paperback $14.95. Interpretation of Conversions in Latin America Braaten, Carl E.,and Robert W.Jenson, eds. Edward L. Cleary, O.P. The Strange New World of the Gospel: Re-evangelizing in the Postmodern World. Christians and Indians: Conflict, Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2002. Pp. viii, 176. Paperback $23. Compromise, or Completion? Catherwood, Christopher. John F. Gorski, M.M. Christians, Muslims, and Islamic Rage: What is Going on and Why it Happened. Said's Orientalism and the Study of Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2003. Pp. 256. $16.99. Christian Mission Gorder, A. Christian van. Herb Swanson No God but God: A Path to Muslim-Christian Dialogue on God's Nature. The Religious Worldview of the Maryknoll, N.Y.: Orbis Books, 2003. Pp. ix, 204. Paperback $25. Indigenous Population of the Northern Ob' as Understood by Heuser, Andreas. Christian Missionaries Shembe,Gandhiunddie SoldatenGottes:WurzelnderGewaltfreiheitinSiidafrika. AnatoliiM. Ablazhei Munster: Waxmann, 2003. Pp.324. Paperback €29.90 Pre-Revolution Russian Mission to Lindner, John. Central Asia: A Contextualized God's Special Agents: Modern Missionary Heroes from the Two-thirds World. Legacy Charlottesville, Va.: Christian Aid Mission,2003. Pp. 288. Paperback. No price given. DavidM. Johnstone

Lingenfelter, Judith E.,and Sherwood G. Lingenfelter. In our Series on the Legacy of Teaching Cross-Culturally: An Incarnational Model for Learning and Teaching. Outstanding Missionary Figures of Grand Rapids: Baker, 2003. Pp. 134. Paperback $12.99. the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries, articles about Lodwick, Kathleen L. Norman Anderson TheWidow's Quest: The Byers Extraterritorial Case inHainan, China, 1924-1925. Thomas Barclay Bethlehem, Pa.: Lehigh Univ. Press, 2003. Pp. 199. $43.50. George Bowen Lowe, Chuck. Helene de Chappotin Honoring God and Family: A Christian Response to Idol Food in Chinese Dorothy Davis Cook Popular Religion. Francois E. Daubanton Wheaton, Ill.: Evangelism and Mission Information Service, 2001. Pp. x, 305. Paperback John Duncan $14.95. Nehemiah Goreh Pa Yohanna Gowon Mogensen, Mogens S. Hannah Kilham Fulbe Muslims Encounter Christ: Contextual Communication of the Gospel to Rudolf Lechler Pastoral Fulbe in Northern Nigeria. Leslie E. Maxwell [os, Nigeria: Intercultural Consultancy Services, 2002. Pp. xvii, 449. $30. Lesslie Newbigin James Howell Pyke Peskett, Howard, and Vinoth Ramachandra. Pandita Ramabai The Message of Mission: The Glory of Christ in All Time and Space. Elizabeth Russell Leicester: InterVarsityPress, 2003. Pp. 288. Paperback £9.99. Bakht Singh Quinn, Frederick. James Stephen African Saints: Saints, Martyrs, and Holy People from the Continent of Africa. Philip B. Sullivan New York: Crossroad Publishing, 2002. Pp. xii, 235. Paperback $22.95. John V. Taylor James M. Thoburn Taylor, Michael. M.M. Thomas Christianity, Poverty, and Wealth: The Findings of "Project 21." Harold W. Turner London: SPCK; Geneva: WCCPublications, 2003. Pp.xiii, 98. Paperback SFr23 / $15.95 / Johannes Verkuyl £9.95/ €I5. William Vories