Water Quality and Pollution Control Handbook

ANR-790 Water Quality And Pollution Control Handbook

Compiled by James E. Hairston, Extension Water Quality Scientist Assisted by Leigh Stribling, Technical Writer

Alabama Cooperative Extension System, Alabama A&M and Auburn Universities ARCHIVE Contents

Preface Acknowledgments —Part One—

Chapter 1 Water As A Resource Section 1.1 Getting To Know Water 1.1.1 Understanding Water As A Resource 1.1.2 How Nature Recycles And Puriﬁes Water: The Hydrologic Cycle 1.1.3 Where Water Supplies Are Stored: Surface Water And Groundwater 1.1.4 How Water Supplies Become Contaminated: Water Purity And Pollution Section 1.2 Protecting Water Quality 1.2.1 Recycling Household Wastes 1.2.2 Composting Yard Wastes 1.2.3 Disposing Of Household Chemical Wastes 1.2.4 Using Pesticides Safely Around Your Home 1.2.5 Understanding Your Septic System And Water Quality 1.2.6 Controlling Runoff From Your Yard Section 1.3 Conserving Water 1.3.1 Why Conserve Water? 1.3.2 Installing Water-Saving Devices 1.3.3 Developing Water-Conserving Habits: A Checklist 1.3.4 Xeriscaping: Landscape Design For Water Conservation

Chapter 2 Managing Drinking Water Quality Section 2.1 Drinking Water Standards 2.1.1 Safe Drinking Water—Who’s In Charge? 2.1.2 Drinking Water Standards: How Are They Set? 2.1.3 Protecting Your Health: Primary Standards 2.1.4 Regulating Nuisance Contaminants: Secondary Standards 2.1.5 What Happens At A Water Treatment Plant? Section 2.2 Water Testing 2.2.1 Should You Have Your Water Tested? 2.2.2 Where Can You Have Your Water Tested? 2.2.3 How Should You Collect Water Samples? 2.2.4ARCHIVE Which Tests Should You Request? 2.2.5 Interpreting Water Tests: What Do The Numbers Mean? Section 2.3 Typical Contaminants And Problems 2.3.1 Bacterial Contaminants 2.3.2 Water Hardness 2.3.3 Iron And Manganese 2.3.4 Turbidity (Cloudy Water)

iii 2.3.5 Color, Odor, And Taste Problems 2.3.6 Corrosion 2.3.7 Metal Contaminants 2.3.8 Lead 2.3.9 Nitrate 2.3.10 Sodium Chloride 2.3.11 Fluoride 2.3.12 Pesticides And Organic Contaminants 2.3.13 Radionuclides (Radon) Section 2.4 Possible Treatments 2.4.1 Buying Water Treatment Equipment 2.4.2 Questions To Ask When Shopping For Water Treatment Equipment 2.4.3 Filters 2.4.4 Reverse Osmosis 2.4.5 Distillers 2.4.6 Ion Exchange Units: Cation Exchange (Softeners) And Anion Exchange 2.4.7 Chemical Feed Pumps 2.4.8 Ultraviolet Radiation, Ozone Treatment, And Aeration 2.4.9 Bottled Water: Is It Really Better? Section 2.5 Water Supply Wells 2.5.1 Constructing A Well 2.5.2 Protecting The Well Site 2.5.3 How To Seal An Abandoned Well 2.5.4 Testing Well Water 2.5.5 Disinfecting Well Water By Chlorination 2.5.6 Maintaining Well Records Section 2.6 Drinking Water For Livestock And Poultry

Chapter 3 Managing Wastewater Section 3.1 Municipal Wastewater Treatment 3.1.1 Wastewater Collection And Treatment Processes 3.1.2 Land Application Of Municipal Wastewater 3.1.3 Constructed Wetlands: A New Concept In Treating Wastewater Section 3.2 On-site Sewage Treatment (Septic Tank Systems) 3.2.1 Planning For A Septic System 3.2.2 Understanding Septic System Design And Construction 3.2.3ARCHIVE Maintaining A Septic System

iv —Part Two—

Chapter 4 Controlling Nonpoint Source (NPS) Pollution Section 4.1 Nonpoint Source (NPS) Pollution Of Alabama Waters Section 4.2 The Rural Environment And NPS Pollution 4.2.1 Understanding Agricultural Erosion, Sedimentation, And NPS Pollution 4.2.2 Regulating Agricultural NPS Pollution 4.2.3 Controlling Agricultural NPS Pollution Through Best Management Practices Section 4.3 Soil Management To Protect Water Quality 4.3.1 Understanding Soils And How They Affect Water Quality 4.3.2 Estimating Soil Erosion Losses And Sediment Delivery Ratios 4.3.3 Cropping And Nonstructural Agronomic Practices For Soil Management 4.3.4 Reduced Tillage Practices For Soil Management 4.3.5 Structural Measures For Soil Management 4.3.6 Irrigation Systems And Soil Management Section 4.4 Fertilizer Management To Protect Water Quality 4.4.1 Understanding Nutrients And How They Affect Water Quality 4.4.2 Soil Testing And Plant Analysis For Fertilizer Management 4.4.3 Fertilizer Application Techniques 4.4.4 Cropping And Tillage Practices For Fertilizer Management 4.4.5 Nitrogen Management Practices For Fertilizer Management 4.4.6 Nutrient Management Of Land Applied Sludge 4.4.7 Irrigation Systems And Fertilizer Management Section 4.5 Pesticide Management To Protect Water Quality 4.5.1 Understanding Pesticides And How They Affect Water Quality 4.5.2 Regulating Pesticide Registration And Tolerances 4.5.3 Integrated Pest Management 4.5.4 Using Pesticides On The Farm: From Selection To Disposal 4.5.5 Structural Controls And Land Management Strategies For Minimizing Pesticide Losses 4.5.6 Chemigation Safety 4.5.7 Common Sense Tips For Safe Aerial Spraying Section 4.6 Animal Waste Management To Protect Water Quality 4.6.1 Animal Waste And How It Affects Water Quality 4.6.2 Regulating Animal Wastes 4.6.3 Animal Waste Management Systems 4.6.4 Land Application Of Animal Wastes 4.6.5 Analyzing Nutrient Value Of Animal Wastes 4.6.6ARCHIVE Calculating Rates Of Application Based On Nitrogen Needs 4.6.7 Calibrating Manure Spreaders 4.6.8 Managing Open Lots And Pasture Systems To Minimize NPS Pollution Section 4.7 The Urban Environment And NPS Pollution 4.7.1 Urbanization And How It Affects Water Quality 4.7.2 Understanding Urban Stormwater Runoff 4.7.3 Regulating Urban Stormwater Runoff

v 4.7.4 Best Management Practices To Control Urban NPS Pollution 4.7.5 Best Management Practices For Construction Activities 4.7.6 Best Management Practices For Individuals Section 4.8 Underground Storage Tanks (USTs) And NPS Pollution 4.8.1 USTs And How They Affect Water Quality 4.8.2 Regulating USTs 4.8.3 Managing Commercial And Municipal USTs: Installing And Upgrading Tanks 4.8.4 Managing Commercial And Municipal USTs: Preventing Spills And Leaks 4.8.5 Managing Privately Owned USTs: Guidelines For Private Property Owners

Appendixes Appendix A. Water Quality Contacts, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) Appendix B. Water Quality Contacts, Alabama Department Of Environmental Management (ADEM) Appendix C. Water Quality Contacts, Alabama Cooperative Extension System Appendix D. Water Quality Contacts, Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA) Appendix E. Other Organizations Involved With Water Quality Appendix F. Organizations Involved With Solid Waste Management And Recycling Appendix G. Laboratories Certiﬁed For Biological Testing Of Drinking Water (Compiled by Alabama Department of Public Health, November 1993) Appendix H. State Of Alabama Licensed Water Well Drillers Appendix I. Laboratories That Test Water And Wastewater (Compiled by ADEM, November 1993) Appendix J. Tank Tightness Testing Companies (Compiled by ADEM, October 1993) Appendix K. Cathodic Protection (Tank and Pipe Corrosion) Consultants (Compiled by ADEM, February 1992) Appendix L. Approved Response Action Contractors For Alabama Tank Trust Fund (Compiled by ADEM, October 1993) Appendix M. Water Quality Videos Available From The ACES Media Library

Glossary Of Water Quality, Water Resources, And Conservation Terms ARCHIVE

vi Preface

ost people take water for granted. They are satisfied velop and deliver programs for public education on Mas long as a supply of good quality water is avail- water quality. Providing the public with in-depth in- able; they view water as an inexpensive and unlimited formation on important environmental issues and resource. delivering water quality programs falls mainly to However, water supplies in this country are no CES field staff. Consequently, CES must provide longer unlimited. In many parts of the country, water field staff with current knowledge on water quality supplies are threatened by contamination, and future issues. water supplies are uncertain. Purpose Of The Handbook Defining The Problem The primary purpose of this handbook is to The Clean Water Act of 1972 established regula- provide CES field staff with multi-disciplinary in- tions and permits to control commercial, industrial, formation on protecting water quality and pre- and municipal point sources of pollution; however, venting nonpoint source pollution. these regulations do not apply to most nonpoint sources. The handbook presents a comprehensive picture Recent water quality information has shown that a ma- of water as a vital natural resource: how water jority of the remaining water quality problems in rivers moves; how it becomes contaminated in nature and lakes are caused by nonpoint sources of pollution. and by the activities of people; how it is purified in Every individual or business is potentially a non- nature and by people; and how to recognize, test, point source polluter because everyone uses water. correct, or prevent water pollution problems. Everyone also uses products that have the potential to become water pollutants, and everyone generates waste How To Use The Handbook by-products that may find their way into the natural water cycle. The handbook includes four chapters: Activities that disturb land such as agriculture, ¥ Water As A Resource. forestry, mining, excavation, and construction can cause ¥ Managing Drinking Water Quality. nonpoint source water pollution over relatively large ¥ Managing Wastewater. areas. Forestry and crop production agriculture inten- ¥ Controlling Nonpoint Source Pollution. tionally release a variety of chemicals into the environment that may find their way into water supplies if It also includes appendixes: not managed and handled properly. Concentrated animal ¥ Contacts for further information. production agriculture also generates large volumes of ¥ Services related to water quality. waste by-products capable of damaging adjacent water ¥ A list of water quality videos available from the sources. Stormwater runoff and leaching to groundwa- Alabama Cooperative Extension System Media Library ter in urban areas are also major sources of water pol- at Auburn University. lution. ¥ A glossary of terms related to resource conserva- Thus, the major water quality issue for the 1990s tion and water quality. and beyond will be finding ways to protect surface water and groundwater from nonpoint source pollu- Chapters 1-3 present information for the general tants. public: both urban and rural families, teachers, and stu- dents. Chapter 4 presents information for farmers, city Extension’s Role In Water Quality Education planners, urban residents, and others interested in con- The Cooperative Extension System (CES) is a trolling pollutants from agribusinesses and municipali- unique partnership of federal, state, and local organi- ties. The appendixes and the glossary are provided pri- zations: Extension is theARCHIVE educational arm of USDA, a marily as resources for CES field staff. part of the land-grant university system, and a part of ¥ Chapter 1, Water As A Resource, presents back- local government. In teaming with the land-grant sys- ground information on water supplies, the water cycle, tem, Extension brings scientific knowledge and princi- and pollution. It also gives specific recommendations ples for solving problems to people in every county in about what concerned citizens can do at home to prevent the nation. pollution, protect water quality, and conserve water. USDA has identified water quality as a nation- ¥ Chapter 2, Managing Drinking Water Quality, al initiative and has a mandated responsibility to de- discusses treatment of both public water sources

vii (community water systems) and private sources includes principles, problems, and management (wells). It includes information on drinking water practices. standards, water testing, water pollutants and problems, and water treatment equipment. Drinking The appendixes provide names, addresses, and water for livestock is also discussed. phone numbers for federal, state, local govern- ¥ Chapter 3, Managing Wastewater, covers pub- ment and organizational contacts as well as private lic and private wastewater treatment. Both treatment businesses. at municipal facilities and on-site sewage treatment (septic systems) are discussed. Most information is presented as short articles ¥ Chapter 4, Controlling Nonpoint Source ranging from 2 to 6 pages, which may be used as Pollution, addresses speciﬁc problems in agribusi- reference materials directly or as basic information nesses and urban areas. Soils, fertilizers, pesticides, animal wastes, urban stormwater runoff, and to prepare other water quality educational materials underground storage tanks are covered. Discussion for a wide range of audiences.

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viii Additional copies of the articles will be available from the Alabama Cooperative Extension System or may be photocopied directly from the handbook. Acknowledgments his handbook was ﬁnanced in part by a Section 319 grant from the U.S. EPA through the Alabama Department Tof Environmental Management and by funds from the Tennessee Valley Authority. Appreciation is extended to the staff of the Department of Agronomy and the Alabama Cooperative Extension System for their contribution of time and expertise. County Extension agents across Alabama ranked topics and iden- tiﬁed audiences for this handbook. We appreciate their enthusiastic support. The mention of trade names or commercial products by the Alabama Cooperative Extension System does not con- stitute the endorsement of or use of these products or services at the exclusion of other products and services which may be equally suitable.

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For more information, call your county Extension ofﬁce. Look in your telephone directory under your county’s name to ﬁnd the number. Issued in furtherance of Cooperative Extension work in agriculture and home economics, Acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914, and other related acts, in cooperation with the U.S. Department of Agriculture. The Alabama Cooperative Extension System (Alabama A&M University and Auburn University) offers educational programs, materials, and equal opportunity employment to all people without regard to race, color, national origin, religion, sex, age, veteran status, or disability.

ix Agriculture and Natural Resources WATER QUALITY: Water As A Resource

ALABAMA A&M AND AUBURN UNIVERSITIES

Getting To Know Water Understanding Water As A Resource

ANR-790-1.1.1 ne of our more precious resources, water is abso- What Is Water? Olutely essential for life as we know it. All living Water is a unique substance. It is the only known things require water for their survival. substance on earth that commonly exists in three Water makes up about 70 percent of the human forms: solid, liquid, and gas (vapor). Solid water is body. Every system in the body needs water. Water ice, which is cold and strong. Liquid water is fluid helps digest food. Water lubricates joints. Water regu- and wet. Gaseous water is steam, which is wet, lates body temperature. Water transports nutrients, weightless, and hot. Water vapor is present in the air hormones, enzymes, minerals, respiratory gases, and at all temperatures. In pure form it is colorless, odor- body wastes. Water makes up almost 85 percent of less, and tasteless. the blood. Human beings can live much longer without food How Much Water Is Available? than they can without water. Each day the average There is no shortage of water on earth. Water is adult must replace 2 to 3 quarts of water. This can one of the most abundant substances with oceans cov- average from 13,000 to 20,000 gallons over a normal ering more than 70 percent of the earth’s surface. If human life span. Some of this water comes from eat- the earth were a perfect sphere, ocean water would ing food and the rest from drinking. submerge the entire globe to a depth of 800 feet. Water is used for food production, power genera- Salt Water And Fresh Water. The oceans make up tion, transportation, recreation, heating, cooling, ﬁre 97 percent of all water on earth, but this water is salt ﬁghting, cooking, and bathing. water and not suitable for many uses. The remaining We use water in so many ways that we take it for 3 percent is fresh water. About two-thirds of this granted. We tend to forget that it is absolutely essen- water, however, is in ice at the North and South poles. tial for life. The other one-third, or only 1 percent of the total water on earth, is liquid fresh water available for most common uses. (See Figure 1.)

97% Salt Water 2% Glaciers And Polar Ice 1% Liquid Fresh Water

0.98% Groundwater ARCHIVE0.02% Surface Water

Source: Owen 1985.

Figure 1. Availability of fresh water.

ANR-790 Water Quality 1.1.1 Visit our Web site at: www.aces.edu Source: Owen 1985.

Figure 2. Average annual rainfall distribution (in inches) 56 Lauderdale in the United States. Limestone 52 Madison Jackson Colbert One form that liquid fresh water takes is pre- Lawrence Franklin DeKalb cipitation. Essentially all fresh water comes from Morgan Marshall precipitation. At any given time only about 0.001 Cherokee Marion 56 Cullman 52 percent of the earth’s total water supply is in the Winston Etowah atmosphere. Blount Walker Calhoun Fayette Global rainfall is plentiful enough to supply Lamar St. Clair Cleburne all human demands except for two factors: rainfall Jefferson is extremely variable and its distribution is far Pickens TalledegaTalladega Tuscaloosa Clay Randolph from uniform. For example, some areas of the 48 Shelby world receive more than 400 inches of rain per Bibb Coosa Chambers year while others may wait several years for a Greene Tallapoosa Chilton 48 modest shower. The average rainfall of the United Hale Perry Lee States is about 30 inches per year. But the distri- 52 Sumter Autauga Elmore bution is very uneven. The average annual precipi- Macon tation per state is shown in Figure 2. Dallas Montgomery Russell Choctaw Marengo Bullock Alabama is blessed with plenty of rainfall 56 Lowndes with an annual average of 55 inches. This is sec- Wilcox Barbour ond only to Louisiana, which receives 57 inches Butler Pike yearly. Although the statewide average is 55 inch- Clarke Monroe Crenshaw es, annual rainfall distribution is somewhat vari- Conecuh Coffee Dale Henry able ranging from 48 to 68 inches. (See Figure 3.) 60 Washington ARCHIVECovington Houston Surface Water and Groundwater. Of the total Escambia Geneva liquid fresh water on earth, about 2 percent is sur- 64 face water and 98 percent is groundwater. This Mobile means that lakes and ﬂowing streams, which 68 account for most water uses, make up only 0.02 Baldwin percent of the total water found on earth. So most Source: Moore et al. 1992 of the liquid fresh water is found beneath the earth’s surface as groundwater. That’s where most Figure 3. Annual rainfall distribution in Alabama.

1.1.1-2 Lauderdale groundwater for municipal supply, especially in south Limestone Madison Jackson Alabama where groundwater is readily available and Colbert of good quality. (See Figure 4.) High yields of Lawrence Morgan DeKalb Franklin Marshall groundwater also guarantee water for industrial development. Cherokee Marion Winston Cullman Etowah Blount How Much Water Do We Use?

Walker Lamar Fayette St. Clair Calhoun An average American family of four uses about Cleburne 88,000 gallons of water a year. This amounts to an Jefferson average of more than 240 gallons a day for the house- Talledega Tuscaloosa Randolph Pickens Shelby Clay hold or more than 60 gallons per person per day. In large homes with several bathrooms and irrigated Bibb Coosa Chambers lawns, families can use more than 75 gallons of water Greene Tallapoosa Hale Chilton

per person per day.

Perry Elmore Lee

Sumter Autauga Most people use 50 to 70 gallons of water

Macon indoors each day and may use just as much or more Dallas Montgomery Russell Marengo

outdoors, depending on the season. Indoors, three- Lowndes Bullock

quarters of all the water is used in the bathroom. Out- Choctaw Wilcox Barbour @@@@@@@@@@ÀÀÀÀÀÀÀÀÀÀ doors, lawn and garden watering and car washing Butler Pike @@@@@@@@@@ÀÀÀÀÀÀÀÀÀÀClarke Crenshaw @@@@@@@@@@ÀÀÀÀÀÀÀÀÀÀ account for most of the water used.

@@@@@@@@@@ÀÀÀÀÀÀÀÀÀÀMonroe Henry @@@@@@@@@@ÀÀÀÀÀÀÀÀÀÀ Most items we use every day require water in

@@@@@@@@@@ÀÀÀÀÀÀÀÀÀÀ Dale Washington Conecuh Coffee @@@@@@@@@@ÀÀÀÀÀÀÀÀÀÀ their manufacturing. For example, it takes 148 gallons @@@@@@@@@@ÀÀÀÀÀÀÀÀÀÀ Covington

@@@@@@@@@@ÀÀÀÀÀÀÀÀÀÀ Houston of water to produce a Sunday newspaper, 32 gallons Escambia Geneva

@@@@@@@@@@ÀÀÀÀÀÀÀÀÀÀ

@@@@@@@@@@ÀÀÀÀÀÀÀÀÀÀ to make a pound of steel, and 158 gallons to produce

@@@@@@@@@@ÀÀÀÀÀÀÀÀÀÀMobile @@@@@@@@@@ÀÀÀÀÀÀÀÀÀÀ High yields yields (150 (150 gpm+). gpm+). a pound of aluminum. It requires almost 800,000 gal-

@@@@@@@@@@ÀÀÀÀÀÀÀÀÀÀ

@@@@ÀÀÀÀ lons of water a year to provide one person with food. @@@@@@@@@@ÀÀÀÀÀÀÀÀÀÀBaldwin Relatively high high yields yields (150 (150 gpm+); gpm+); @@@@@@@@@@ÀÀÀÀÀÀÀÀÀÀ @À@@ÀÀ@Àpotential for saltwater encroachment. Water is used not only to grow food, but to process @@@@@@@@@@ÀÀÀÀÀÀÀÀÀÀ potential for saltwater encroachment. @@@@ÀÀÀÀ @@@@@@@@@@ÀÀÀÀÀÀÀÀÀÀ High yields yields (150 (150 gpm+); gpm+); primarily primarily in carbonate in carbonate food as well. It takes 148 gallons of water to make a @@@@@@@@@@ÀÀÀÀÀÀÀÀÀÀ@@@ÀÀÀ rock areas areas where where cavity cavity systems systems have developed. have developed. loaf of bread and 285 gallons to make a pound of Low yields yields (10 (10 gpm). gpm). ground beef.

Low yields; yields; highly highly mineralized mineralized water in in major major aquifers. aquifers. Who Owns The Water?

Source: Moore et al. 1992. Unlike ownership of land, ownership of water is Figure 4. Potential yields of aquifers in Alabama. not a simple matter. In fact, water law is one of the most controversial issues of modern civilization because water is constantly changing. The location of fresh water is stored although some of it is not readily water changes over time. Water is also changed by available. the climate, the water cycle, the way it is used, and The United States has 2 million miles of streams the way people modify land. and more than 30 million acres of lakes and reser- Water may be obtained from three sources: sur- voirs. In addition, there are huge reserves of fresh face water, watercourses, and percolating water. Sur- water underground. Groundwater supplies about half face water is that water on the earth’s surface which of all Americans with their drinking water. does not flow in a well-defined channel. Most of us Few states can match Alabama’s surface water think of surface water and watercourses as being the resources. Alabama has 14 major river systems or same thing, but in terms of water law that is not nec- basins, 348,826 acres of lakes and reservoirs, 400,000 essarily the case. acres of estuaries, andARCHIVE more than 3,000,000 acres of A watercourse may be defined as water flowing marshes and wetlands. Surface water is used for in a well-developed channel on or below the surface drinking water by about 56 percent of the state popu- of the land. Groundwater that is moving in a well- lation. defined aquifer may be defined as a watercourse. Groundwater provides approximately 44 percent Water beneath the earth that is not confined to a well- of Alabama’s population with home water supplies. defined channel is called percolating water. The sepa- In many rural areas, however, groundwater makes up ration of percolating water and underground water more than 90 percent of domestic water supplies. that is in a watercourse has been a subject of much Several large cities and many smaller towns also use argument because both may be classified as ground-

1.1.1-3 water. The difference is that one is confined and the The right of use of percolating water in Alabama other is not. is very similar to surface water use. Individual In general, surface water in Alabama belongs to landowners have the right to reasonable and benefi- the individual landowner to use as he pleases, except cial use of these waters even to the extent that neigh- in municipal limits of incorporated cities. Rural boring properties can be affected, as long as the water landowners are entitled to all the surface water they use is not wasteful and does not cause personal injury can retain and use on their land. This allows higher to others. elevation landowners in rural areas to deprive lower With a growing interest in preserving the natural elevation landowners of water benefits from surface quality of scenic rivers or other areas, the Public water. With Alabama’s abundant rainfall, there is usu- Trust Doctrine is likely to be adopted by more states ally little concern about surface water usage but more in the future. It has been invoked in California. The concern about surface water discharge. In rural areas principle of this doctrine is that private rights to use the higher elevation landowner has the right to dis- water may be limited by the need to preserve environ- charge surface waters over the property of lower elemental, scenic, recreational, or scientific areas that vation landowners. The lower landowners cannot benefit all. Hence, certain waters may be held in pub- interrupt or obstruct this flow. lic trust to preserve their quality and use for future The use of watercourse water in Alabama is generations under this doctrine. based on the principle of the Riparian Rights Doc- So who owns the water? It depends on the loca- trine. The basic premise of this doctrine is that water tion of the water over time. in its natural state, a watercourse, can be used only on For effective water management, however, there that land through which it flows. Thus, a riparian must be cooperation between federal, state, and city landowner can use riparian water anywhere, so long governments as well as individuals. as it does not extend beyond the natural watershed of the riparian source of water. References However, the use of riparian water is subject to Fetter, C. W. 1988. Applied Hydrogeology. 2nd ed. Merrill Publishing Company. Columbus, OH. the Reasonable Use Doctrine. This means that riparian water may be used for any purpose so long as Moore, James D., Robert M. Baker, Neil E. quality and quantity of flow are adequate for other Moss, and Sydney S. DeJarnette. 1992. Water In downstream riparian owners. Since “reasonable use” Alabama. 1990. Circular 122H. Geological Survey of is difficult to define, many states now have permitting Alabama. Tuscaloosa, AL. programs to monitor riparian uses so that all owners Owen, Oliver S. 1985. Natural Resource Conser- can have their reasonable share of the available vation: An Ecological Approach. 4th ed. Macmillan sources. At this time, Alabama does not have a Publishing Company. New York, NY. statewide permitting program for all riparian water- Wright, Kenneth R. 1990. Water Rights Of The course users, although cities and industrial users are Fifty States And Territories. American Water Works permitted. Association. Denver, CO.

Issued in furtherance of Cooperative Extension work in agriculture and home economics, Acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914, and other related acts, in cooperation with the U.S. Department of Agriculture. The Alabama Cooperative Extension System (Alabama A&M University and Auburn University) offers educational programs, materials, and equal opportunity employment to all people without regard to race, color, national origin, religion, sex, age, veteran status, or disability. ANR-790-1.1.1 ECP, Reprinted July 1999, Water Quality 1.1.1

1.1.1-4 Agriculture and Natural Resources WATER QUALITY: Water As A Resource

ALABAMA A&M AND AUBURN UNIVERSITIES

Getting To Know Water How Nature Recycles And Puriﬁes Water: The Hydrologic Cycle ANR-790-1.1.2 ater is a natural resource that is continuously renewed as illustrated in the hydrologic or water Wcycle shown below. In this process water is in constant motion cycling from ocean to sky to earth. The cycle is powered by solar energy and gravity. This process could be called the earth’s water circula- tion system. Water supply is regulated by the hydrologic cycle. Local occurrence, quantity, and quality can be modiﬁed to some degree, but water is not destroyed by human activity. The total amount of water on earth has remained constant for millions of years.

Precipitation Transpiration

Run-In Surface Runoff Inﬁltration Sinkhole Wells Water Percolation Table Evaporation Interﬂow Recharge

Baseﬂow

Lake Ground- water

Aquitard ARCHIVEAquifer Aquitard Conﬁned Aquifer

Aquitard

ANR-790 Water Quality 1.1.2

Visit our Web site at: www.aces.edu Precipitation is one of the most familiar parts of Natural Purification the hydrologic cycle. Precipitation that falls on the As water moves through the hydrologic cycle it land surface enters into many pathways of the hydro- tends to be purified. Many separate processes con- logic cycle. tribute to this purification. When precipitation builds up on the soil surface, Distillation. On evaporation, the salts of the sea are surface runoff occurs. This water moves by overland left behind. This world-wide distillation process flow into a stream channel or other body of water. The results in rain water containing only traces of non- sun warms the water surface thus changing water into volatile impurities, along with gases dissolved from vapor, a process known as evaporation. the air. Evaporation is not restricted to streams, lakes, or Crystallization of ice from ocean water results in rel- oceans. Water intercepted by the leaves of plants or atively pure water in the form of icebergs. held in the upper layers of soil can also evaporate into Aeration of surface water that trickles over rocks the atmosphere. In the air this water vapor condenses allows volatile impurities, previously dissolved from to form clouds which eventually release their mois- mineral deposits or other sources, to be released into ture in the form of precipitation. And thus, the water- the air. Aeration also promotes rapid growth of cycle repeats itself. microscopic plant and animal organisms that use cer- When precipitation falls on a porous soil surface, tain water contaminants for food and energy. some of the water will seep into the ground by a pro- Sedimentation. Solid particles are removed in slow- cess called infiltration. Some water clings to soil par- moving streams and lakes. ticles and is drawn into the roots of growing plants. It Filtration. When water moves through sand, sus- is transported to leaves where it is lost to the atmo- pended matter such as silt and clay is removed. sphere as vapor. This process is called transpiration. Oxidation. Through a complicated series of steps, all Another portion of water that enters the soil can naturally occurring organic matter—plant and animal move either vertically or laterally through the soil. tissues, as well as their waste products—is changed in Significant lateral movement of water through soil is water to simple molecules common to the environ- called throughflow or interflow. Downward movement. ment of water through the soil is called percolation. Dilution. Dilution with relatively pure water can Percolating water eventually makes its way to a reduce the concentration of most pollutants to harm- saturated zone, where all spaces between rock and less levels. soil are filled with water. The top of the saturated Conclusion zone is the water table. The water filling the spaces between soil particles and rock in the saturated zone Three key points should become clear after this is called groundwater. brief discussion of the hydrologic cycle. First, nature controls the movement of water on earth; there is lit- Groundwater can be stored in two types of geo- tle we can do to alter the hydrologic cycle. Second, logic regions: aquifers or aquitards. If water can the portion of precipitation that either flows off the permeate or move through the geologic material the earth’s surface or enters it to eventually become region is called an aquifer. If water cannot move groundwater is variable. These two statements lead to through the material the region is an aquitard. a third: As water moves over and through the earth’s Aquifers and aquitards vary in their occurrence, surface, it can transport some of the things we place thickness, continuity, and depth. A confined aquifer in or on the soil as well as materials that occur there is bounded on the top and bottom by aquitards. In naturally. contrast, unconfined aquifers are overlaid by permeable layers and are generally found close to the land Important Terms surface. In discussing the water cycle, we often have to Groundwater flows through rock and soil layers use many scientific terms. All of the terms that appear ARCHIVEbelow are discussed in the text and appear there in of the earth until it discharges as a spring or seep into bold type. Many of the terms are illustrated in The a stream, lake, or ocean. The groundwater contribu- Hydrologic Cycle. tion to a stream is called baseflow, while the total flow in a stream is called runoff. Precipitation The water that has moved through the soil is once Surface Runoff again warmed by the sun, changed into water vapor, Overland Flow becomes a cloud, and falls to the earth as precipita- Evaporation tion. The cycle is completed again. Infiltration

1.1.2-2 Transpiration Throughflow Interflow Percolation Saturated Zone Water Table Groundwater Aquifer Aquitard Confined Aquifer Unconfined Aquifer Baseflow References Bicki, Thomas J. 1989. Water Quality And The Hydrologic Cycle. Land And Water Number 13. Illi- nois Cooperative Extension Service. University of Illinois at Urbana. Champaign, IL. Fetter, C. W. 1988. Applied Hydrogeology. 2nd ed. Merrill Publishing Company. Columbus, OH. Hermanson, Ronald E. 1991. Washington Groundwater: A Vital Resource. EB1622. Washing- ton Cooperative Extension Service. Washington State University. Pullman, WA. Magette, William L. 1990. Ground Water Protec- tion: An Introduction. Water Resources 22. Maryland Cooperative Extension Service. The University of Maryland. College Park, MD.

1.1.2-3 Agriculture and Natural Resources WATER QUALITY: Water As A Resource

ALABAMA A&M AND AUBURN UNIVERSITIES

Getting To Know Water Where Water Supplies Are Stored: Surface Water and Groundwater ANR-790-1.1.3 What Is Surface Water? where precipitation infiltrates the soil, percolates Surface water supplies are quite familiar to most downward to a saturated zone where all spaces of us. They include streams, rivers, ponds, lakes, and between rock and soil are filled with water. The top springs. of the saturated zone is the water table. The water Streams and rivers begin as precipitation. When filling the spaces between soil particles and rock in water cannot infiltrate the soil, it flows over the soil the saturated zone is groundwater. Major reservoirs of surface and collects in channels to form streams, then groundwater are referred to as aquifers. rivers. Aquifers are an important part of the groundwater Ponds and lakes occur where nature obstructs the resource. Aquifers are water-bearing rock layers that normal flow of surface runoff. People can also create supply sufficient water to serve as a water supply. water-holding depressions by building dams or exca- Aquifers extend from near the surface to thousands of vating into the earth. Excavated ponds can be filled by feet below. They can range in thickness from a few surface runoff, by springs, or by a high water table. feet to thousands of feet. They can underlie a few acres to thousands of square miles. Springs occur at the land surface where water from underground sources appears. Springs have spe- Aquifers function in two very important ways: cific points of exit and should not be confused with they both transmit and store large volumes of ground- seeps, which do not have them. Springs can occur water. In a sense they act as both pipes and storage (1) where a depression meets the water table, tanks. Aquifers are classified into two principal (2) where an impermeable soil layer deflects the types—unconfined and confined. downward movement of water, and (3) where frac- Unconfined aquifers are overlaid by permeable tured rock intersects the land surface. Although layers of soil and rock and are generally found close springs originate from groundwater, they do appear at to the land surface. Unconfined aquifers provide the ground surface, and therefore, they must be treated water to wells by draining the materials surrounding differently from groundwater to protect their quality. the well. (See Figure 1.) What Is Groundwater?

Groundwater and the way it moves is not as easy

to understand as surface water simply because we cannot see it. To some people groundwater is a mys- terious resource—magical, pure, and inexhaustible.

But groundwater has no magic; it follows natural Well

laws. Groundwater is simply water filling spaces

W between rock grains or in fractures and fissures in ate r Ta bl e

rocks. Stream

UnsaturatedUnsaturatedUnsaturated zonee zonezone Groundwater does not go all the way to the core

of the earth. Beneath water-bearing rocks every-

ARCHIVE

where, at some depth, rocks are watertight. This Zone of saturation Saturated zone

depth may be a few hundred feet, or more likely tens

Source: Fetter 1988. of thousands of feet.

Groundwater, like surface water, originates as

precipitation. Rain falling on recharge areas, areas Figure 1. Unconfined or water table aquifer.

ANR-790 Water Quality 1.1.3 Visit our Web site at: www.aces.edu Recharge Once water enters an aquifer, it may remain there area Water table well for centuries. If contaminated, an aquifer may need just as long to cleanse itself. Because groundwater

Artesian well must pass through soil and sediments, particulate

matter can be filtered and some organic compounds

Flowing well absorbed. But some substances can continue to be

leached and do contaminate groundwater. Passing

Water through soil can also increase dissolved solids; thus,

pressure hardness can be higher in groundwater than in surface level

Aquitard Aquifer water in nearby streams.

Water contained in surface supplies is in most

cases directly linked to groundwater. Water flowing

into a stream is actually the continuation of an aquifer

AquicludeAquitard which has been intersected by the stream. During

periods of very low stream flow, groundwater moves Source: Fetter 1988. out of the aquifer and into the stream to supplement Figure 2. Confined or artesian aquifer. stream flow. During floods, water can flow from the stream into the surrounding aquifer. Therefore, surface water supplies directly impact groundwater sup- Confined or artesian aquifers are overlaid by plies and vice versa. This should let us know that sur- impermeable rock layers that prevent free movement face water and groundwater cannot be viewed as of air and water. Thus the water is confined under entirely separate resources. pressure, as in a pipe system. Drilling a well into a confined aquifer is like puncturing a water pipe. Water References under pressure gushes into the well, sometimes even American Institute of Professional Geologists. rising to the surface and overflowing. (See Figure 2.) 1985. Ground Water: Issues And Answers. Arvada, Groundwater is an important resource. Although CO. it makes up less than 1 percent of the total amount of Chapman, Stanley L. 1989. The Nature Of water on earth, it constitutes 98 percent of the fresh Groundwater: Groundwater In The Water Cycle. Fact water that is suitable for human consumption. Sheet 2039. Arkansas Cooperative Extension Service. What Is The Relationship Between University of Arkansas. Fayetteville, AR. Surface Water And Groundwater? Fetter, C. W. 1988. Applied Hydrogeology. 2nd Movement of groundwater can be complex and is ed. Merrill Publishing Company. Columbus, OH. much different from the flow of surface water. Hermanson, Ronald E. 1991. Washington Groundwater usually moves more slowly than surface Groundwater: A Vital Resource. EB1622. Washing- water. Whereas surface water moves at the rate of ton Cooperative Extension Service. Washington State tens or even hundreds of feet per minute, groundwa- University. Pullman, WA. ter moves at the rate of inches per day or less. This is Magette, William L. 1991. Water Resources because groundwater must overcome more friction or Information: Protecting Your Water Supply. Water resistance to move through small spaces between Resources 20. Maryland Cooperative Extension Ser- rocks and soil particles. vice. The University of Maryland. College Park, MD.

1.1.3-2 Agriculture and Natural Resources WATER QUALITY: Water As A Resource

ALABAMA A&M AND AUBURN UNIVERSITIES

Getting To Know Water How Water Supplies Become Contaminated: Water Purity and Pollution ANR-790-1.1.4 ater purity and pollution are difficult to define suspended solids but less minerals and iron than Wbecause both terms are relative. Many people groundwater. Thus, surface water is softer: ground- consider pollution and contamination to mean the water is harder. Excessive iron and hardness are the same thing. If this is true, then all water on earth is most common natural problems for private users of polluted somewhat because there is no such thing as groundwater in Alabama. Salty groundwater is a chemically pure water in nature. Water is a very good problem in only a few areas of Alabama. solvent and tends to take into solution some of almost Because of its accessibility and its exposure to air everything that it contacts. And water contacts most and rainfall, surface water is easy to contaminate and things since it is constantly moving through the relatively easy to purify. We once thought that most hydrologic cycle. groundwater was safe from surface pollution. We Water is most pure in nature when it evaporates now know that this is not true: groundwater can be from a water surface because it leaves many contami- contaminated by surface activities. And cleaning up nants behind. However, it does not remain in this pure groundwater is difficult and time consuming. state very long. Even while forming water droplets in clouds and while falling back to the earth as precipita- Groundwater pollutants introduced by people tion, rainwater picks up small amounts of gases, dust, include pathogens (bacteria and viruses), heavy met- and particulate matter from the atmosphere. Oxygen, als, pesticides (mostly organic), and other organic nitrogen, and carbon dioxide—the most common chemicals from manufacturing, industry, and agricul- gases in the atmosphere—are always found in water. ture. Traces of solvents and fuels have also been Natural rainfall is somewhat acidic (pH=5.6) because found in Alabama groundwater. of the dissolved carbon dioxide from the air. Bacteria and nitrates are the greatest pollution After rainfall reaches the ground and flows over or threats to rural groundwater in Alabama. Septic tanks through the surface layers, it dissolves and carries with and animal wastes are the primary culprits. it some of almost everything it touches, including In Alabama, eroded sediments and animal wastes materials dumped by people. Naturally occurring are the major sources of agricultural pollution. Alaba- impurities may give water a bad taste, color, odor, or ma is second in the nation in poultry production. cloudy appearance (turbidity) and may cause hardness, Therefore, large poultry production units have huge corrosiveness, staining, or frothing. Impurities may amounts of on-farm waste, including litter and car- damage growing plants and transmit disease. Other casses, that must be used or disposed of in an environ- than suspended solids and dissolved solids and gases, mentally safe manner. most natural water also contains living creatures, The most common sources of groundwater con- most of which are not harmful to healthy humans. tamination in urban areas are chemicals leaking from Water purity means different things to different tanks and pipelines, concentrated chemical spills, and people and is not an absolute term. Water that is ideal leaching waters from landfills and buried wastes. for one use may be poor quality for a second use. ARCHIVEScope Of Water Pollution Purity Of Surface Water And Groundwater When the natural quality of water is degraded Surface water is affected by the surrounding soils through the activity of people, we call this “pollu- and land features but not to the same extent as tion.” Most pollution occurs when we exceed the nat- groundwater. Surface water usually contains more ural capacity of water to purify itself to a certain stan-

ANR-790 Water Quality 1.1.4 Visit our Web site at: www.aces.edu Table 1. Water Pollutants. Classes Examples Oxygen-demanding wastes...... Plant and animal material Infectious agents...... Bacteria and viruses from humans and animals Plant nutrients...... Nitrates and phosphates from fertilizers, detergents, plant wastes, and animal wastes Organic chemicals ...... Pesticides, solvents, fuels, cleaners, detergents Other minerals and chemicals ...... Road salts, mine drainage, industrial by-products Sediment from land erosion...... Clay and silt Radioactive substances ...... Waste products from mining and processing radioactive materials Heat...... Cooling water used in steam or nuclear power generation dard in reference to a particular pollutant and par- makes them more difficult to quantify and control ticular use. than point source pollutants. While natural processes can contaminate water, A few examples of how human activity has influ- human activity has caused the rapid, widespread enced runoff by accelerating it or by loading it with degrading of water resources in the last few centuries. undesirable substances may illustrate the scope of the For example, the natural process of erosion, one of nonpoint source pollution problem. the most destructive processes in nature, has been Urban stormwater runs off buildings, manufactur- accelerated by human activity. Humans have also ing and industrial sites, streets, and parking areas into engineered many chemicals that are direct environ- storm sewers, where it flows untreated into water mental threats to water quality. ways. It carries with it oil, grease, trash, salts, lead, In general, water pollutants may be classified into and other pollutants. eight broad categories. These classes, with some Construction site runoff carries soil and debris examples, are shown in Table 1. into streams and lakes. Sources Of Pollutants Agricultural runoff carrying barnyard effluent, fertilizers, pesticides, and topsoil can pollute surface Water pollutants can also be categorized as to waters. their source. Numerous classification systems have been devised but the most general approach is to clas- Acid mine drainage deposits acid residue and sify all pollutants as coming from either a point or a metal tailings in water bodies. nonpoint source discharge. Point source pollutants enter the water from a specific point through a sewer pipe, a ditch, or a cul- vert. Common point sources of pollution are discharges from factories and municipal sewage treatment plants. This pollution is relatively easy to collect and treat. Nonpoint source pollution, on the other hand, is really a new name for an old problem— runoff and sedimentation. Nonpoint source pollution (NPS) runs off or seeps from broad land areas as a directARCHIVE result of the way the land is used. It actually comes from a variety of sources, such as farm fields, animal feedlots or pastures, residential developments, roadsides, and urban parking lots. Sediment, plant nutrients, toxic materials, and animal wastes are the major types of NPS pollutants. The diffuse source of these pollutants

1.1.4-2 Logging and timber cutting operations cause ero- tants means control programs will not produce crys- sion in forests where the soil has been disturbed. tal-clear water overnight. Leaching water from septic tanks, agricultural The best protection against pollution is preven- land, landfills, or underground waste disposal areas tion—stopping contaminants from entering the system may pollute groundwater. at the source. Federal and state agencies have expand- Leaking chemical storage tanks and pipelines ed their efforts to prevent contamination of our water, may also contaminate water supplies in rural areas. but private citizens also have an active role to play. There are many speciﬁc things that can be done Conclusion to prevent surface water and groundwater contamina- There was once a time when polluted water could tion. First, we must realize that groundwater is a be thought of in terms of dissolved minerals, nat- shared resource, used simultaneously by many indi- ural silt, and contaminants associated with the viduals, municipalities, and businesses. natural wastes of animals and humans. As Second, we must understand that each the use of water has increased, pollution of us contributes to the pollution has become more diversiﬁed. threat. Finally, we must make a Nonpoint sources account for at conscientious decision to least half of the pollutants that change the way we con- get into our waters. The com- duct our daily activi- plex nature of the NPS pollu- ties.

1.1.4-3 Agriculture and Natural Resources WATER QUALITY: Water As A Resource

ALABAMA A&M AND AUBURN UNIVERSITIES

Protecting Water Quality Recycling Household Wastes

ANR-790-1.2.1

s a nation, we are producing an ever-increasing Paper. As paper is recycled, its quality degrades slight- Aamount of municipal trash. Referred to as the ly, and eventually paper may end up in a landfill. But 1 “throwaway society,” we produce almost twice as ton of recycled paper saves 17 8-inch trees and 390 gal- much solid waste as other developed countries. lons of oil. Currently, 35 percent of all newspaper is re- Americans generate about 160 million tons of mu- cycled—one-third of it back into newsprint and two- nicipal solid wastes annually or enough garbage to fill thirds into tissue paper, paper towels, and packaging. a convoy of trash trucks reaching halfway from the Office papers are excellent for recycling. High earth to the moon. This amount is equivalent to about grade computer paper, white copier paper, and letter- 1,300 pounds of waste per year for every person in the head are valuable papers. Colored copier paper is also United States, or about 25 pounds per person per week. recyclable. These types of paper account for the ma- This tremendous amount of waste puts a burden on jority of waste paper generated through offices. both community landfills and the environment. Plastics. Recycling plastic gives it an extra “life,” Recycling can reduce the amount of waste needing to turning a milk jug into a paint brush handle or a park be buried in a landfill or incinerated. Recycling can add bench. Plastics recycling is a young industry and only to the useful life expectancy of a landfill and may re- 1 percent is currently recycled. But as processing tech- duce disposal costs. Recycling also puts discarded ma- nologies are developed, plastics recycling is expected terial to valuable use, cutting down on litter and con- to expand. serving natural resources. Recyclable plastics can be identified by looking for What Can Be Recycled? the symbols developed by the Society of the Plastics Seventy to 80 percent of trash in landfills could be Industry. These symbols are molded to or imprinted as recycled. Recyclable materials include aluminum, close to the bottom of containers as possible. paper, cardboard, glass, yard wastes, textile rags, other Motor Oil. Americans throw away or dump as much metals, and easily recyclable plastics. Many items can oil as 30 Valdez spills every year. That’s enough oil to be recycled through companies when there is no orga- power 11,600 cars for one year. The oil from one nized community collection program. change could contaminate a million gallons of fresh Recycling is the refining or reprocessing of dis- water if it is dumped down a storm drain and leaches carded materials into new products—again and again into groundwater. Used oil is insoluble, persistent, and and again. Different products have different levels of contains toxic chemicals and heavy metals. It is also reuse and save different amounts of energy and re- slow to degrade. Recycling oil saves the United States sources. 2.3 million barrels of oil per day. One gallon of used oil Glass. Containers made of glass are 100-percent recy- provides the same amount of lubricating oil as 42 gal- clable. They never need to reach a landfill. At least 30 lons of crude oil. percent of the glass onARCHIVE store shelves is recycled glass. In Alabama used motor oil can be recycled. The Recycling glass saves 4 to 32 percent of the energy Statewide Oil Acquisition and Reprocessing Program, needed to manufacture new glass and produces 20 called SOAR, is under the direction of the Auburn percent less air pollution. University Department of Chemical Engineering. The Aluminum. Aluminum may be recycled endlessly. waste oil reprocessing lab at Auburn will transport Using recycled instead of raw materials saves 95 per- the oil from collection sites to Auburn. Tax incentives cent of the energy to produce new cans and produces are available to marketers and organizations who col- less air and water pollution. lect and donate used oil.

CIRCULAR ANR-790 Water Quality 1.2.1 Recycled Oil Saves Energy, called project ROSE, You can further reduce the volume of your garbage is coordinated by the University of Alabama at by providing your own reusable grocery bags, using Tuscaloosa. both sides of paper, buying products with reduced Latex Paint. Leftover paint from home redecorating packaging when safe to do so, buying products in re- projects may be donated to a school, community the- cyclable packaging, repairing existing items, not buy- ater, youth center, or church. ing products if they are not needed, and minimizing the Tires. Many scrap tires are being cut up for fuel or amount of toxic substances used. mixed with asphalt to extend highway life and soften Rethink. Become informed and consider all waste airport runways. disposal options available. Find out all you can about Household Batteries. Some worn-out flashlight and the local solid waste issues in your community and hearing aid batteries contain mercury, cadmium, and examine several viewpoints. lead. One idea is to place boxes at area convenience Find out how waste is managed where you live. stores for collecting used batteries. What waste products are used or produced by large in- Lawn Clippings. Rather than bagging lawn clippings dustries in your area? How are toxic substances used, and putting them in the garbage, think about two ways handled, or stored? Is there a special program for the to recycle them. disposal of household products such as solvents, empty paint cans, or pesticide containers? Are septic tank Compost the clippings. Blend lawn clippings with ordinances adequate to protect groundwater? other yard and household trash and a small amount of soil. They will easily break down and provide good If you use your own property for solid waste dis- mulch for shrub beds or gardens. posal, consider the effect that your own solid waste management could have on the quality of your drinking Use a mulching or recycling blade on mowers and water. Evaluate the location of your landfill in terms of let clippings fall back on the lawn. Shredded clippings potential groundwater quality effects. A map identify- will not cause thatch because they rapidly decay when ing the landfill or garbage sites and location of nearby they reach the soil surface. In addition, clippings con- wells might be one way to begin evaluating this po- tain plant foods, so 25 to 30 percent less fertilizer is tential problem. needed. To correctly recycle clippings, cut them no more than 1 inch in length. This means mowing the Conclusion lawn every 5 or 6 days in fast growth periods. Recycling requires a conscious effort to change What Else You Can Do: Reduce And Rethink the way we live. But becoming waste wise can pay off. Through reducing waste and recycling materials, we Reduce. Reduce the volume of garbage you generate can preserve our resources and have a cleaner, health- by making thoughtful choices when you buy prod- ier environment. ucts. Make refillable, reusable, and durable merchandise a substitute for disposable and one-use items. Reference Search out information about products you use Neimeyer, Shirley, et. al. 1990. Household Waste every day and stay abreast of recent research. For ex- Management. G90-959. Nebraska Cooperative ample, there is considerable debate about the true Extension Service. University of Nebraska. Lincoln, biodegradability of plastics. Learn the recycling sym- NB. bols and consider the amount of packaging used in the products you purchase. Think before you buy.

Issued in furtherance of Cooperative Extension work in agriculture and home economics, Acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914, and other related acts, in cooperation with the U.S. Department of Agriculture. The Alabama Cooperative Extension System (Alabama A&M University and Auburn University) offers educational programs, materials, and equal opportunity employment to all people without regard to race, color, national origin, religion, sex, age, veteran status, or disability. ANR-790-1.2.1 UPS, New June 1995, Water Quality 1.2.1

1.2.1-2 Agriculture and Natural Resources WATER QUALITY: Water As A Resource

ALABAMA A&M AND AUBURN UNIVERSITIES

Protecting Water Quality Composting Yard Wastes

ANR-790-1.2.2

cross the nation, composting is gaining increased etable scraps, shredded newspaper (black and white Aattention as an environmentally sound way to man- print), small amounts of wood ash, and sawdust. age yard wastes. The smaller the plant pieces, the more rapidly they Yard wastes, such as leaves, grass clippings, brush, will break down. Use a shredder or power mower to and tree prunings, account for nearly 20 percent of all chop up leaves and non-woody shrub trimmings or garbage generated in the United States each year (more small twigs before adding them to the pile. than 31 million tons). During peak months (primarily Sawdust requires the addition of extra nitrogen; summer and fall), yard wastes can represent as much as wood ash raises compost alkalinity and may result in ni- 50 percent of municipal solid waste. In many com- trogen loss from the pile. munities and 12 states, new laws have banned yard There should be little need to compost grass, since wastes from landfills. clippings may be safely left on the lawn if you mow Not only is composting sensible from an environ- regularly and remove only one-third of the blade length mental perspective, it also effectively converts yard each time. If you do compost grass, mix it with other wastes into a useful soil additive or mulch. yard wastes. Grass clippings, alone, pack down and restrict air flow, which limits the availability of oxygen Building A Compost Structure that is needed for decomposition. To save space, keep your yard looking neat, and Some things should not be composted. Pet feces speed composting time, plan to contain your compost in can transmit diseases. Meat, bones, grease, whole eggs, some type of structure. Typical dimensions of a com- and other dairy products attract rodents and other ani- post pile are 5 x 5 x 5 feet. Simple bins can be built mals. Badly diseased or insect-infested plants and from woven wire fencing and metal posts. More per- weeds that are loaded with seed may not heat up manent and elaborate structures can be made from enough to be rendered harmless. rot-resistant wood, wire, and metal posts. Preparing Your Compost Pile For a more detailed discussion of composting and composting structures, contact your county Extension The microorganisms responsible for decompos- office. ing yard wastes need oxygen, water, and nitrogen, so build your compost pile in layers. Begin with a layer of Locating Your Compost Pile 8 to 10 inches of leaves, grass, or plant trimmings. Locate your compost pile close to where it will be Water it to the point of being moist, but not soggy. used so it won’t interfere with activities in the yard or Then add a nitrogen source, such as ammonium nitrate, offend neighbors. The pile will work best where it is ammonium sulfate, or an inexpensive high nitrogen somewhat protected from drying winds yet receives par- lawn fertilizer without herbicide. 1 1 tial sunlight to help heat it. Sprinkle the pile with ⁄3 to ⁄2 cup of fertilizer per 25 ARCHIVEsquare feet of surface area (a 5 x 5 foot bin). If you live Deciding What To Compost in a rural area and have access to livestock manure, you Many organic materials can be composted besides can use a 2-inch layer of manure as your nitrogen grass and leaves: non-woody shrub trimmings or twigs source. 1 less than ⁄4 inch in diameter, faded flowers, weeds, You may choose to add a l-inch layer of soil or leftover plants at the end of the gardening season, lake completed compost over the nitrogen to increase the plants, straw, coffee grounds, eggshells, fruit and veg- number of decomposing microbes in the pile. However,

ANR-790 Water Quality 1.2.2 Visit our Web site at: www.aces.edu most leaves and plant scraps have enough microor- Composting Other Organic Wastes ganisms to get the job done without the addition of soil Composting can convert a wide variety of other- or compost. wise wasted materials into safe, valuable, and mar- Repeat these layers until the pile reaches a height of ketable soil amendment products. Researchers are doc- 5 feet, watering each time you add new layers. umenting an ever increasing array of materials that may be composted. Other than yard trimmings, com- Maintaining Your Compost Pile postable materials include food scraps, nonrecyclable An active compost pile will heat to somewhere paper, food and seafood processing by-products, live- between 130 degrees and 160 degrees F. As the center stock manures, dead chickens, municipal sewage cools, turn the pile to help speed decomposition and sludge, and other clean, source-separated, decompos- minimize any objectionable odors. You will need to do able organic materials. More expertise is required in the this once or twice a month. Continue to water your composting of some materials. compost pile periodically to keep it moist but not soggy. You can add a little fresh material when you turn Conclusion the pile, but generally, you are better off beginning a Composting provides a way in which solid wastes new pile. and water quality concerns can be joined together. An A well-managed compost pile will be ready in 2 to increasing number of individuals, communities, and 4 months in the warm season, whereas an untended pile businesses are expected to turn to composting to divert will take a year or more to decompose. When com- materials from landfills and to lower waste management pleted, your compost pile will be about half its original costs. Although waste stream managers view com- height and will have a pleasant, earthy smell. posting primarily as a means to divert materials from disposal facilities, the environmental benefits, including Liming reduction in water pollution, should be substantial. It is normally not necessary to add lime to your compost pile to improve the breakdown of most yard Tips For Composting Yard Wastes wastes. Finished compost is usually slightly alkaline; if ¥ Do not try to compost woody material that is 1 you add lime during the decomposition process, it will greater than ⁄4 inch in diameter. If larger, it should be probably be too alkaline when completed. If your pile chopped. contains large amounts of acidic materials, such as ¥ Mix manure (if available) or high nitrogen fertil- pine needles or fruit wastes, you might add lime, but no izer with yard wastes. Sprinklings of fish fertilizer, more than 1 cup per 25 cubic feet of material. Excessive ammonium sulfate (20-percent nitrogen), or urea (45- lime application can lead to loss of nitrogen from the percent nitrogen) also work well. Do not use more 1 1 compost pile. than ⁄4 pound of fertilizer per 15 square feet ( ⁄3 cup per 25 square feet) of compost. When composting low- Using Finished Compost nitrogen materials such as sawdust, paper, and woody Gardeners have used compost for centuries to im- plants, increase fertilizer rates. prove the physical condition of soil and to add some of ¥ Add lime, small amounts of wood ashes, or the nutrients needed for plant growth. Incorporating crushed eggshells to neutralize acids which may form compost into light, sandy soil helps it hold both mois- in compost and cause an odor problem. ture and nutrients, while adding it to heavy soil improves internal drainage. If you've added fertilizer or ¥ Layer materials 2 to 6 inches thick, taking care to manure during the composting process, you may find mix up grass clippings. (Grass clippings tend to com- the compost is all you need to achieve good plant pact.) growth and production. ¥ Add topsoil to layers to provide a good source of To use compost for lawns, screen the material and microorganisms. use as a seed-starting material or as a top-dressing. ¥ Avoid composting weeds that are heavily laden When working the compost into the soil of flower with seeds. (Some weed seeds might not be killed dur- beds or the vegetable gardenARCHIVE (before or after planting), ing the heating process.) apply at a depth of 2 to 3 inches. ¥ Turn the pile when strong odors are detected. Compost can be mixed with topsoil for use with in- ¥ Avoid adding meat or fish scraps to the compost door potting plants. Sterilize the compost by baking it mixture. They may attract animals (dogs, cats, rats, in a 200 degrees F oven for 1 hour. etc.), and they do not decompose easily.

1.2.2-2 ¥ Avoid adding diseased vegetable plants to the pile if compost will be used on a vegetable garden. The disease organisms may reappear the next year. ¥ Use compost only when it is ready. Unﬁnished compost will rob your plants’ nitrogen instead of acting as a fertilizer. You can also spread garden diseases with unﬁnished compost. References Brown, Deborah, and Carl Rosen. 1990. Backyard Composting. AG-FS-3899-A. Minnesota Cooperative Extension Service. University of Minnesota. St. Paul, MN. Chown, Cathy. 1990. Backyard Composting. Extension Bulletin WM-O2. Michigan Cooperative Extension Service. Michigan State University. East Lansing, MI.

Issued in furtherance of Cooperative Extension work in agriculture and home economics, Acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914, and other related acts, in cooperation with the U.S. Department of Agriculture. The Alabama Cooperative Extension System (Alabama A&M University and Auburn University) offers educational programs, materials, and equal opportunity employment to all people without regard to race, color, national origin, religion, sex, age, veteran status, or disability. ANR-790-1.2.2 UPS, New June 1995, Water Quality 1.2.2

1.2.2-3 Agriculture and Natural Resources WATER QUALITY: Water As A Resource

ALABAMA A&M AND AUBURN UNIVERSITIES

Protecting Water Quality Disposing Of Household Chemical Wastes

ANR-790-1.2.3

roducts found in your kitchen, bathroom, garage, may become unreadable. Discard or relabel anything Pworkshop, or garden shed may be hazardous. This that cannot be identified. means that these products can poison, corrode, To dispose of a container with less than 1 quart of explode, or burst into flame if not handled properly. a liquid formulation, leave it in the original container, When you place these products in the trash or pour with cap securely in place to prevent spills or leaks. them down drains, the chemicals can injure others or Wrap container in several layers of newspaper and tie contaminate drinking water sources. securely and place in a covered trash can for routine The average household has about 5.5 pounds of collection. Liquid in containers up to a gallon should hazardous waste to dispose of annually. Among the be poured onto an absorbent material such as dry most common materials are motor oil, paint, pesticides, kitty litter, clay soil, or sawdust, then shoveled into a cleaning products, and batteries. Collectively, these plastic bag, and placed in trash. materials can poison our water if they are not used cor- Wrap individual packages of dry pesticides such rectly, stored carefully, and disposed of properly. as granules or dust formulations in several layers of What Is The Best Way To Dispose Of newspaper and place in a plastic bag; tie or tape Potentially Hazardous Household Products? closed and then place in routine trash collection. Empty pesticide containers should be triple rinsed The best advice is, don’t. If you cannot use up and the rinse water used as spray material for pest the product, think of someone who can. A neighbor, control purposes. Empty tripled-rinsed containers can school, youth group, church, or service organization be placed in household trash collection. may be glad to share your remaining cleaning solution, paint, fertilizer, gasoline, or insect spray. When Never flush waste pesticides down a drain or toilet. you shop, buy only those house, yard, and automo- Attempt to give excess containers of pesticides to bile products you need and purchase in quantities that neighbors for their use according to labeled directions. you will use up. Finally, consider buying safe substi- Pesticides that have been banned by EPA may be tutes for potentially hazardous products. on the Hazardous Waste List and cannot be placed in Motor Oil. An auto service or repair station—or household trash. For specific instructions on banned any station that changes oil—may pesticides or pesticides classified as Hazardous Waste, accept used motor oil for recycling. contact your state pesticide To dispose of used motor oil, which education specialist through contains hazardous petroleum prod- the county Extension office or ucts, first drain the oil through a fun- call your state department of nel into a clean container that can be agriculture or state environmental agency. tightly sealed. Then deliver it to Aerosols. Discard only completely your local recycling center. The empty aerosol cans. Before discarding ARCHIVEthe cans, spray the contents outside local health department, chamber of commerce, or Extension office can and away from human beings or help you find the nearest center that animals until the can is completely accepts used motor oil. empty. Then discard the can with Pesticides. Homeowners often store household refuse. Never put pres- unused pesticides for many years. surized cans, even empty ones, in a Pesticides may deteriorate when trash compactor or incinerator. stored for a long period and labels

ANR-790 Water Quality 1.2.3 Visit our Web site at: www.aces.edu Key To Disposal Instructions (or toilet) on a city sewer using plenty of water; rinse The following chart recommends disposal meth- the container thoroughly, then discard it as household ods for potentially hazardous products that you may refuse. If the capacity of the sewage or septic system is have in your home. When more than one disposal small or if large amounts are to be disposed, recycle. method is given, the first is preferred. Choose another Solidify/Double Wrap. Solidify with absorbent method only when the first is not feasible. material such as kitty litter, sawdust, charcoal, or dry Household Refuse. Discard with household refuse soil. Allow the material to dry, then double wrap it in that is carried to a sanitary landfill or municipal incin- plastic and discard it with household refuse. erator. Rinse empty containers well with water before Evaporate/Double Wrap. Allow the chemical to you discard them. evaporate outside away from children or pets; double Wrapped Refuse. Wrap in newspaper and then in wrap the container in plastic; then discard it with plastic before you add it to house refuse. household refuse. Small Amount Down Drain. Pour small quantities Special Recycling Center. Take the product to a spe- (less than one-third of the container) down the drain cial recycling facility or return it to its manufacturer.

Disposal Recommendations For Household Chemical Wastes Disposal Instructions Item (Use key above)

Personal Care Cosmetics...... Household refuse Hair permanent solution ...... Small amount down drain Hair straightener...... Small amount down drain Medicines, liquid* ...... Small amount down drain Medicines, nonliquid ...... Small amount down drain Wrapped refuse Nail polish ...... Solidify/double wrap Evaporate/double wrap Nail polish remover...... Evaporate/double wrap Perfume...... Small amount down drain Shaving lotion...... Small amount down drain Solidify/double wrap Shoe polish...... Household refuse Shoe dye...... Household refuse Home Care And Maintenance Batteries (D cell or smaller)...... Special recycling center Mercury ...... Special recycling center Wrapped refuse Nickel-cadmium ...... Wrapped refuse Hearing aid...... Household refuse Cleaners: (Do not mix chlorine and ammonia-base cleaners.) Ammonia base ...... Small amount down drain Basin, tub, tile...... Small amount down drain Bleach ...... ARCHIVE....Small amount down drain Drain (lye base)*...... Small amount down drain Powder/abrasive ...... Household refuse Mildew (fungicide) ...... Wrapped refuse Oven (lye base)*...... Small amount down drain Toilet bowl* ...... Small amount down drain Upholstery/rug (detergent base) ...... Small amount down drain Upholstery/rug (solvent base) ...... Evaporate/double wrap

1.2.3-2 Window...... Small amount down drain Disinfectants* ...... Small amount down drain Dry cleaning fluid ...... Evaporate/double wrap Fiberglass (epoxy resin)...... Solidify resin and hardener, then treat as wrapped refuse Fluorescent lamp ballast ...... Household refuse (manufactured prior to 1978 or with label stating it contains no PCBs) Glue (solvent base) ...... Evaporate/double wrap Glue (water base)...... Evaporate/double wrap Mothballs...... Household refuse Paint or stain Latex ...... Evaporate/double wrap Solidify/double wrap Oil ...... Special recycling center Primer...... Household refuse Rust ...... Solidify/double wrap Stain...... Solidify/double wrap Varnish...... Solidify/double wrap Paint remover ...... Evaporate/double wrap Paint thinner...... Evaporate/double wrap Paintbrush cleaner (phosphate base)*...... Small amount down drain Paintbrush cleaner (solvent base)...... Solidify/double wrap Paint/varnish stripper (lye base)...... Solidify/double wrap Polish Copper...... Evaporate/double wrap Floor ...... Solidify/double wrap Furniture...... Solidify/double wrap Silver ...... Solidify/double wrap Evaporate/double wrap Rust remover (phosphoric acid base)...... Small amount down drain Smoke detector (ionization type)...... Special recycling center Return to manufacturer Spot remover (solvent base)...... Evaporate/double wrap Turpentine ...... Evaporate/double wrap Automobile And Motor Care: Antifreeze ...... Special recycling center Automatic transmission fluid...... Special recycling center Batteries ...... Special recycling center Brake fluid ...... Special recycling center Carburetor cleaner...... Evaporate/double wrap Degreasing chemicals ...... Evaporate/double wrap Diesel fuel...... Special recycling center Enamel ...... Evaporate/double wrap Fuel oil...... Special recycling center Gasoline ...... ARCHIVE...... Evaporate/double wrap Kerosene ...... Special recycling center Light lubricating oil ...... Special recycling center Motor oil ...... Special recycling center Polish or wax Automobile ...... Evaporate/double wrap Chrome (solvent base) ...... Evaporate/double wrap Windshield washer fluid ...... Small amount down drain

1.2.3-3 Lawn And Garden Care: Fertilizer (liquid, less than 1 gal) ...... Use on lawn or wrapped refuse Fertilizer (less than 5 pounds dry; less than 25 pounds of combined lawn fertilizer/pesticide)...... Use or wrapped refuse Pesticides, fungicides...... Wrapped refuse Poison (rat/mouse, arsenic base) ...... Wrapped refuse Poison (rat/mouse, warfarin base) ...... Wrapped refuse Roach/ant killer...... Wrapped refuse Flea collar ...... Wrapped refuse Weed killers ...... Wrapped refuse Garden insecticides...... Wrapped refuse

*Use special caution when disposing into septic system

Tips For Disposing Of Conclusion Household Chemical Wastes Some communities sponsor clean up/collection ¥ Buy only what you need and use up the products. days for collecting common hazardous waste materi- ¥ Substitute nontoxic substances whenever possible. als from neighborhoods. Among the most common ¥ Use collection days for household chemical materials collected are motor oil, paint, pesticides, wastes whenever possible. If your community does cleaning products, and batteries. By participating in not have a collection day or recycling center for or sponsoring clean up/collection days, you can chemical wastes, talk with your community leaders encourage people to cleanup their own property and about organizing one. to remove old or unwanted, potentially dangerous materials from their homes. ¥ Recycle remaining materials. ¥ Read labels carefully and observe the precautions Reference for use; follow the recommendations for disposal. Disposal Of Household Hazardous Waste. 1989. ¥ Avoid mixing wastes; this could create a violent Washington State University. Pullman, WA. reaction or form a more hazardous product. ¥ Dispose of liquid wastes properly, not in drains, storm sewers, or in the trash. ¥ Discard small quantities of household wastes at one time. The suggestions contained in this publication advise safe ¥ Bury household wastes only if you have ob- disposal of products using the best technology available at the tained a permit from your local health department or current time. The authors assume no liability for the effectiveness environmental agency. or results of the procedures described.

1.2.3-4 Agriculture and Natural Resources WATER QUALITY: Water As A Resource

ALABAMA A&M AND AUBURN UNIVERSITIES

Protecting Water Quality Using Pesticides Safely Around Your Home ANR-790-1.2.4

ou can make a difference when it comes to pre- of years and are discussed in detail in many Extension Yserving the quality of your water. Many of your publications. These same or similar strategies should routine activities such as pest control and home land- work around the home to reduce pesticide use. scape fertilization can pose a threat to water quality if not done correctly. Recommendations For Safe And To reduce the risk of water pollution from pesti- Effective Pesticide Use cide chemicals around your home, follow this advice: Remember that no pesticide is completely safe ¥ Reduce the amount of pesticides you use. because all are poisons and should be handled with ¥ Handle and use all pesticides care. The safety comparison of safely to prevent water contamina- pesticides is expressed in relative tion. terms, because some pesticides are more toxic than others. Look for ¥ Properly dispose of containers one of the following signal words: as well as unused or unwanted Danger, Warning, or Caution on chemicals. the front of the label. It will tell Alternatives To Pesticide Use you how poisonous a pesticide is if swallowed, inhaled, or absorbed There are numerous methods for through skin. Danger means high- controlling pests, many of which do ly poisonous; Warning means not involve the use of pesticides. moderately poisonous; and Cau- Overuse of insecticide may actually tion means least hazardous. create a problem by killing benefi- There are many valid recom- cial insects in some cases. Select mendations on the safe use of pes- lawn, garden, and ornamental plants ticides. These recommendations that are well adapted to your loca- are designed to protect personal tion. Choose varieties that have dis- safety and to reduce the incidence ease and insect resistance or toler- of environmental contamination of ance and no history of pest-related nontargeted areas. problems. Your Extension agent should be able to help you in select- Purchasing Pesticides ing adapted plants that require mini- 1. Use a pesticide only after mal pest management. you have exhausted all other control methods. Practices such as mulching, hand weeding, and 2. Select the specific chemical for the pest you other cultural methods are very effective. In some want to control. The pesticide label will provide cases, these practicesARCHIVE alone may be sufficient to con- information on which pests are controlled by the trol pests. In other cases, they can be integrated with chemical selected. Never use a pesticide for any pur- pesticide use to reduce the overall amount of pesti- pose not specified. cide needed. 3. Buy only the amount of pesticide you need. If The process of using both cultural practices and you buy more than you can use in the immediate reduced amounts of pesticides is called integrated pest future, you may have to dispose of it later. management or IPM. Integrated pest management 4. Store pesticides carefully. Always keep them strategies have been used in field crops for a number out of the reach of children and animals. Store flam- ANR-790 Water Quality 1.2.4 Visit our Web site at: www.aces.edu mable pesticides away from flames and hot places. Table 2. Equivalent Measures For Mixing Various The label will tell you if a pesticide is flammable. Quantities Of Liquid Pesticides. 5. Keep pesticides in original containers so that instructions, precautions, and antidotes will always be Material Material Material Material at hand. per 100 gal per 25 gal per 5 gal per 1 gal water water water water 6. Do not use a restricted-use pesticide unless you are a certified applicator. These products are too 1 3 ⁄2 pt 2 oz 1 T ⁄4 t dangerous to be used without special training. 1 1 pt 4 oz 2 T 1 ⁄2 t Mixing Pesticides 2 pt 8 oz 4 T 3 t

1. Mix only the amount of chemical you intend to 1 use each time. 3 pt 12 oz 6 T 4 ⁄2 t 2. Never mix pesticides with anything unless the 4 pt 1 pt 8 T 6 t 1 1 label directs you to do so. 5 pt 1 ⁄4 pt 10 T 7 ⁄2 t 3. Keep special tools for measuring and mixing pesticides outside of the house. Never mix pesticides T=tablespoon in containers used for foods. t=teaspoon 4. Do not breathe vapors or dusts and avoid con- Source: Whalen, 1989b. tact with skin, eyes, and mouth. Wear whatever degree of protective clothing the label recommends. some thought to the process, you will be saving Protect yourself by wearing rubber gloves, long- money and preserving water quality at the same time. sleeve shirt, long pants, and goggles. Never eat, drink, Pesticide application equipment comes in all or smoke while mixing chemicals, and be sure to shapes, sizes, and prices. Select equipment according wash up after you are done. to common sense. 5. Always use the least amount of pesticide Proportioner On Hose-End Sprayer. These inex- required. Do not exceed the recommended rate. Fol- pensive sprayers are designed to be attached to the low label directions explicitly. If they call for one part pesticide to a certain amount of water, do not exceed end of a garden hose. They operate by metering out a the amount of pesticide. More pesticide will not give desired amount of chemical into a stream of water. more effective control. Problems may be encountered with poor spray distri- Many formulations of pesticides are sold in large bution and clogged nozzles. All hose-end sprayers quantities that do not include instructions for mixing should have an antisiphon device to prevent backsi- smaller amounts. Table 1 and Table 2 can be used phoning of chemicals into your water system. when mixing smaller amounts. Compressed Air Sprayer. The spray is generally Selecting Application Equipment mixed in a small tank which is carried in your hand or Selecting the appropriate application equipment over the shoulder. A uniform concentration spray can is a key component of proper pesticide use. By giving be maintained since the pesticide is mixed with a known quantity of water. You can get excellent coverage of plants with this type of sprayer and it is a good Table 1. Equivalent Measures For Mixing Various choice for treating small fruit trees, vegetables, and Quantities Of Wettable Powder Pesticides. ornamentals. Material Material Material Material Hand Duster. The duster may consist of a squeeze tube per 100 gal per 25 gal per 5 gal per 1 gal or shaker, a plunger that slides through a tube, or a fan water water water water powered by a hand crank. Uniform coverage is difﬁcult to get with any duster. In addition, materials applied 1 lb 4 oz 5 T 1 T with dusters are more susceptible to drift because of 2 lb 8 ozARCHIVE 10 T 2 T their light weight and poor sticking qualities. 3 lb 12 oz 1 cup 3 T Calibrating Sprayers And Spray Patterns 1 4 lb 1 lb 1 ⁄4 cup 4 T Most homeowners apply pesticides to a given

1 1 5 lb 1 ⁄4 lb 1 ⁄2 cup 5 T area by mixing 1 or 2 tablespoons of a material and

1 2 applying it on the problem area. This is acceptable if 6 lb 1 ⁄2 lb 1 ⁄3 cup 6 T the label gives a recommendation in tablespoons. T=tablespoon Some pesticides, especially those used on the lawn, Source: Whalen, 1989b. only give rates per 100 or 500 square feet. Often-

1.2.4-2 times, the homeowner will solve this problem by the protective clothing and equipment the label rec- guessing how much to use. ommends. A better approach is to calibrate the sprayer. 4. Do not apply chemicals when it is extremely Once this has been done, it will not have to be repeat- windy. Generally, the safest times of the day to spray ed provided the nozzles remain unchanged and clean to avoid drift are early morning or late evening. You and adequate pressure is used. can also avoid drift by using low pressure and nozzles The following procedures can be used to calibrate with large openings. If a moderate wind comes up a sprayer: while you are working, it is best to stop immediately. 1. Fully pressurize the sprayer and determine the 5. Guard against runoff of chemicals into streams. delivery time. This can be done by spraying water Do not spray within 50 feet of streams. Do not spray through the sprayer into a pint jar for 30 seconds. If if you think it is going to rain within an hour. Clean 1 after 30 seconds there is ⁄2 cup in the jar, mark this up spills promptly with soil, sawdust, or kitty litter delivery time on the sprayer for future reference. and dispose of properly, or spread the material at its 2. Calculate the area to be treated. The following normal recommended rate if it is applied to soil. formulas can help you determine the area of regularly Avoid over-application when treating lawn, shrubs, or and irregularly shaped areas: garden. Rectangles: Area = length x width 6. Guard against contamination of groundwater. Circles: Area = 3.14 x radius squared Do not spray chemicals next to operative wells, aban- Triangles: Area = base x height ÷ 2 doned wells, or sink holes. Do not spray where runoff 3. If the area is large, divide it into equal pieces or spills can drain into abandoned wells or sink holes. that are equal to the size of the delivery area. Do not rinse containers or store chemicals next to 4. Spray an area at a normal speed with water for wells. 30 seconds. Measure the area you sprayed. This tells Disposal Of Pesticides you how much area you can treat in 30 seconds. Proper disposal of pesticides and empty contain- Example: If the label calls for 3 tablespoons of ers is as important as proper application. Since pesti- pesticide per 1000 square feet, how much water cides are expensive, mix only the amount you need should you mix the 3 tablespoons with to get proper for immediate application. However, there may be an spray coverage? occasion when you must dispose of excess pesticides. Amount of water delivered in 30 seconds = 1 cup The goal of proper disposal of pesticides and pes- Amount of area covered in 30 seconds = 100 sq ft ticide containers is to prevent pesticides from getting Amount of water needed to cover 1000 sq ft = in the general environment and contaminating water. 1 cup covers 100 sq ft Empty Container Disposal 1000 sq ft / 100 sq ft = 10 All containers should be completely empty before 1 cup x 10 = 10 cups or 80 oz (2.5 qt) disposal. In general, both pressurized and nonpressur- So 3 tablespoons of pesticides must be mixed in ized containers can be disposed of in home refuse 80 ounces of water to achieve proper spray coverage. headed for a sanitary landfill. Call your sanitation The best spray pattern used to cover an area of department to confirm this, however, because some ground is one that gives uniform coverage with little have a special collection center for pesticide contain- overlap. The spray pattern should be continuous and ers. uninterrupted. Sometimes overlap may be useful. If Empty paper pesticide containers should be ﬂat- good coverage is questionable such as with hose-end tened and rolled for disposal. Then the containers sprayers, cut the application rate in half and apply the should be wrapped in heavy paper and tied securely pesticide ﬁrst in an east-west pattern, then in a north- with a cord. Plastic, metal, and glass containers must south pattern. The spray pattern should form an arc no be triple-rinsed prior to disposal. The following more than 3 to 4 feet on either side of the applicator. instructions should be followed: Applying Pesticides Correctly 1. Empty the container into the mix or spray tank. 1. Keep children andARCHIVE pets away from areas where Allow it to drain for 30 seconds. you mix or apply pesticides. Keep everyone out of the 2. Fill the container one-quarter full of water. treated area until the spray has dried or for as long as 3. Replace the lid and agitate the container so that the label directs. the water contacts all the interior surfaces. 2. Allow adequate ventilation when applying pes- 4. Pour the contaminated rinse water in a sprayer, ticides indoors. When spraying outdoors, close the allowing the container to drain for 30 seconds after windows of your house. emptying. Do not pour the rinse water onto the 3. Do not smoke or eat while mixing or applying ground or street. Rinse water should be sprayed on a pesticides. When applying pesticides, be sure to wear site listed on the label.

1.2.4-3 5. Repeat the procedure at least two more times. Getting rid of unused or unwanted pesticides in 6. Puncture cans so they cannot be reused. ways other than labeled uses is a problem. Burning, 7. Wrap the empty, rinsed container in several burying, and pouring pesticides down the drain pose layers of newspaper and place it in the garbage for potential problems. Some states have periodic collec- disposal. If the container is glass, tie it securely in tion drives for unwanted pesticides. Alabama has no thick paper and break it prior to disposal. Aerosol such program at the present time. cans should be wrapped but not punctured. If you are interested in initiating a pesticide col- Pesticide Disposal lection program and getting the appropriate organiza- The best way to dispose of a small quantity of tions involved, guidelines are available. A paper enti- pesticide is to apply it according to label instructions. tled “Summary of Interim Guidelines for Disposal of If you have a small amount of chemical left over, mix Surplus Pesticides and Pesticide Containers” is avail- it with a large volume of water to make a weak solu- able at a cost of $3.00 each. Contact National Techni- tion and spray over the normal target area to encour- cal Information Service, Department of Commerce, age rapid break down. Do the same thing with sprayer 5285 Port Royal Road, Springfield, VA 22151. rinse solution. References Pesticides banned by EPA may now be classified Whalen, Joanne. 1989a. Pesticide Application, as hazardous wastes and require special guidelines for Equipment Calibration, And Spray Patterns. Non- disposal. If this information is not available from point Source Pollution Fact Sheet NPS 4. Delaware your county Extension agent call your state environ- Cooperative Extension Service. University of Dela- mental agency. In Alabama call the Alabama Depart- ware. Newark, DE. ment of Environmental Management (ADEM) at 334- Whalen, Joanne. 1989b. Pesticide Basics. Non- 271-7700 and ask for the Hazardous Waste Branch of point Source Pollution Fact Sheet NPS 5. Delaware the Land Division for specific instructions on disposal Cooperative Extension Service. University of Dela- of hazardous waste. ware. Newark, DE.

1.2.4-4 Agriculture and Natural Resources WATER QUALITY: Water As A Resource

ALABAMA A&M AND AUBURN UNIVERSITIES

Protecting Water Quality Understanding Your Septic System And Water Quality ANR-790-1.2.5

s a homeowner, you can have a significant impact and environmental pollutants. Effluent flows into the Aon how well your septic system works by the way perforated drain lines, passes through the holes in the you maintain it. A well-maintained system will func- pipe, and then trickles down through the gravel to the tion without problems for many years. A failing sep- soil. As effluent enters and flows through the soil, tic system, on the other hand, is a nuisance and a many of the bacteria that can cause diseases are fil- health hazard that can result in pollution of wells, tered out. Some of the smaller germs, such as viruses, lakes, and streams. are adsorbed by the soil until they are destroyed. The By understanding your septic system—what it is, soil can also retain many chemicals including phos- how it works, and how to properly maintain it—you phorus and some forms of nitrogen. can avoid septic system failures. What Maintenance Is Needed? What Is A Septic System? With conscientious maintenance, a septic system There are a number of different septic systems, should work correctly for many years. Such mainte- each with its own design. The conventional system is nance begins with water use and waste disposal habits. the one most commonly used in Alabama. It consists Since your family will determine which materials of two main parts: the septic tank and the soil absorp- enter the system, you should establish rules for proper tion system. use and maintenance. Some suggestions follow. What Takes Place In The Septic Tank? Water Conservation. Each gallon of water that flows The septic tank is simply a container usually pre- into the drain must be treated and disposed. Typical fabricated from concrete. The tank’s primary purpose indoor water use is about 50 to 70 gallons per day for is to retain and digest or decompose the solid wastes each person in the family. A number of water-saving while releasing liquid sewage effluent to the absorp- devices and just plain water conservation techniques tion field. may double the life of your system. Repair all leaky All of the wastewaters from the home should flow plumbing fixtures, and, if possible, reduce the amount into the septic tank, even waters from the shower, of water used for bathing, doing laundry, and flushing bathtub, and washing machine, which can contain the toilet. disease-causing germs or environmental pollutants. Proper Disposal Of Household Wastes. Avoid pour- As wastewater flows into the tank, the heavier solid ing liquid fats, grease, or oils down the kitchen sink materials settle to the bottom (forming a sludge drain. Fats and greases solidify and can block parts of layer), the lighter greases and fats float to the top the system. Do not deposit coffee grounds, wet- (forming a scum layer), and the liquid (sewage efflu- strength towels, disposable diapers, facial tissues, ent) flows out of the tank. An outlet baffle (or a sani- feminine hygiene products, cigarette butts, and similar tary tee at the outlet end) prevents solids from flowing nondecomposable materials into the house sewer. out with the liquids. ARCHIVENone of these materials will decompose, and they will What Happens In The Absorption System? cause a rapid accumulation of solids in the septic tank. The soil absorption system consists of a distribu- Most septic tanks can handle normal amounts of tion box and up to 300 feet or more of tile or plastic detergent, but some drain cleaners, bleaches, organic drain lines buried in the soil. The real treatment of the solvents, oven cleaners, paints, paint thinners, pesti- wastewater occurs in the absorption field—the soil cides, and a variety of other petroleum products may beneath the drain lines. be harmful. They can kill the bacteria that help break Sewage effluent flows out of the tank as a cloudy down the solids in the septic tank and may also enter liquid that still contains many disease-causing germs groundwater. ANR-790 Water Quality 1.2.5 Visit our Web site at: www.aces.edu Restrict the use of your garbage disposal if you ¥ Maintain adequate vegetative cover over the have a septic tank system. Garbage disposers can absorption field. overload the system with solids which may spill over ¥ Keep surface waters away from the tank and into the absorption lines and clog the soil. absorption field. Regular Pumping. Pump the system regularly. If a ¥ Keep automobiles and heavy equipment off the septic tank is not pumped out regularly, solids build system. up until they are carried along with the wastewater ¥ Keep any building additions, pools, driveways, into the absorption field where they clog soil pores. or other construction work away from the septic sys- When this happens, the system fails and a new tem or the repair area. absorption field must be built. ¥ Plant trees or shrubs away from drain lines. Conclusion ¥ Use water conservatively. Typical indoor water You are a key factor in how well your septic sys- use is about 50 to 70 gallons per day for each person tem functions. The old adage “out of sight, out of in the family. mind” is not applicable to septic systems. Any time ¥ Avoid pouring grease or cooking oils down the and money you spend to properly maintain your sys- sink drain. tem will be returned in the long run as you avoid the ¥ Put only domestic wastewater into the system. headaches and expenses associated with trying to Adding other materials (special additives, chemicals, remedy a failing septic system. sanitary napkins, and so on) may harm the system. Reference ¥ Restrict the use of your garbage disposal. Hoover, Michael T. 1990. Soil Facts: Septic Sys- ¥ Have the solids pumped out of the septic tank tems And Their Maintenance. AG-439-13. North Car- periodically. olina Cooperative Extension Service. North Carolina The following articles in Chapter 3 of the Water State University. Raleigh, NC. Quality series may be helpful: Tips For Maintaining Your Septic System On-Site Sewage Treatment ¥ Make a diagram showing the location of your Planning For A Septic System septic tank, absorption field, and repair area. Understanding Septic System Design And ¥ Install a watertight concrete riser over the sep- Construction tic tank to simplify access. Maintaining A Septic System

1.2.5-2 Agriculture and Natural Resources WATER QUALITY: Water As A Resource

ALABAMA A&M AND AUBURN UNIVERSITIES

Protecting Water Quality Controlling Runoff From Your Yard

ANR-790-1.2.6

hen rain falls in your yard, where does it land? grassed areas are much more effective than barren WWhile this might seem like a ridiculously simple soils which may become so compacted and low in question, its answer can tell you a great deal about organic matter that they produce almost as much controlling runoff in your yard. runoff as pavement. If rain falls on paved or impervious surfaces (like To induce greater infiltration, homeowners can roads, driveways, or rooftops), almost all of the water make sure no soil is left bare, reduce the amount of will run off. grass, and increase the area allocated to beds or mass- If rain falls on grassed areas, more than half of es of densely planted shrubs, trees, and other woody the water may still go directly to surface runoff, ground covers. Plants to use in these densely planted depending on soil and rainfall characteristics. areas are usually native plants which are adapted to If rain falls on areas planted in dense shrubs and the growing conditions of a particular area. Take note trees, very little water will have a chance to run off, of the native plants growing under similar conditions and most will sink into the soil. in surrounding areas. Infiltration or allowing water to sink into the soil By selecting plants that are adapted to the grow- is the main goal of controlling rainfall runoff. If water ing conditions where the plant will be located, home- can be encouraged to sink into the soil instead of run- owners can reduce the amount of fertilizers, pesti- ning off, then it cannot transport pollutants to surface cides, and water that plants need. Homeowners waters. should also try to match a plant’s moisture requirements with its location in the yard. To reduce runoff and increase infiltration, homeowners can try the following: The following tables list plants that can be used on either dry sites or wet sites. All plants require ¥ Plant a dense cover of trees and shrubs in less additional care for the first 1 or 2 years. The follow- intensively used areas. ing plants are drought tolerant but will not perform up ¥ Use mulches on planting beds and especially to their reputation until they are established. on slopes to slow water movement and allow for infiltration. Table 1. Plants For Droughty Soils. ¥ Use permeable paving materials where possible. Botanical Name Common Name ¥ Install contouring and infiltration devices. Trees (Deciduous): Plant A Dense Cover Of Trees And Shrubs Acer ginnala Amur Maple A. rubrum Red Maple When forests or agricultural areas are developed Castanea mollissima Chinese Chestnut for residential subdivisions, the dense, natural vegeta- Catalpa bignonioides Southern Catalpa tion is cleared and most of the area is either covered Celtis occidentalis Hackberry with impermeable surfacesARCHIVE (like houses or pavement) Cercis canadensis Eastern Redbud or it is planted with turf (like backyards, school yards, Cotinus coggygria Smoke Tree and parks). Crataegus spp. Hawthorn When forested areas are converted to grass, the Diospyros virginiana Common Persimmon Elaeagnus angustifolia Russian Olive trees and shrubs that slow rainfall are eliminated. Fraxinus pennsylvanica Most grassed areas are not as effective as wooded Marshal Marshall Seedless Ash areas in encouraging water to soak into the ground. In Ginko biloba Maidenhair Tree fact, surface runoff from properly managed turf may (male cutivar) be 33 to 50 percent higher than forest runoff. But Gleditsia triacanthos Honey Locust (thornless) ANR-790 Water Quality 1.2.6 Visit our Web site at: www.aces.edu Koelreuteria paniculata Golden-Rain Tree Table 2. Plants For Wet Soils. Koelreuteria bipinnata Flame Tree Maclura pomifera Osage-orange Botanical Name Common Name Phellodendron amurense Amur Cork Tree Trees (Deciduous): Pistacia chinensis Chinese Pistache Acer rubrum Red Maple Pyrus calleryana Callery Pear Quercus acutissima Sawtooth Oak Alnus glutinosa Black Alder Q. falcata Bur Oak Betula nigra River Birch Q. macroearpa Southern Red Oak Carpinus caroliniana American Hornbeam Q. rubra (borealis) Northern Red Oak Celtis laevigata Sugar Hackberry Q. shumardii Shumard Oak C. occidentalis Hackberry Q. stellata Post Oak Liquidambar styraciflua Sweet Gum Sassafras albidum Sassafras Liriodendron tulipifera Tulip Tree Sophora japonica Japanese Pagoda Tree Magnolia acuminata Cucumber Magnolia Ulmus parvifolia Lacebark Elm M. virginiana Sweet Bay Magnolia Zelkova serrata Japanese Zelkova Nyssa sylvatica Black Gum Trees (Evergreen): Platanus occidentalis Sycamore Cedrus deodara Deodar Cedar Quercus bicolor Swamp White Oak Ilex opaca American Holly Querqus lyrata Overcup oak Magnolia grandiflora Southern Magnolia Salix babylonica Weeping Willow Pinus taeda Loblolly Pine Salix nigra Black Willow P. thunbergiana Japanese Black Pine P. virginiana Virginia Pine Taxodium distichum Bald Cypress Thuja occidentalis Arborvitae Trees (Evergreen): Shrubs (Deciduous): Pinus elliotti Slash Pine Acanthopanax siebold- P. taeda Loblolly Pine ianus Fiveleaf Aralia Thuja occidentalis Arborvitae Berberis thunbergii Japanese Barberry Tsuga canadensis Canadian Hemlock Cytisus spp. Broom Euonymus alata Winged Euonymus Shrubs (Deciduous): Jasminum nudiflorum Winter Jasmine Aronia arbutifolia Red Chokeberry Kolkwitzia amabilis Beauty-bush Clethra alnifolia Summersweet Lonicera fragrantissima Winter Honeysuckle Comptonia peregrina Sweet Fern Potentilla spp. Cinquefoil Cornus alba Siberian Dogwood Rhamnus spp. Buckthorn C. sericea Red Osier Dogwood Rhus spp. Smooth Sumac Ilex verticillata Winterberry Robinia hispida Rose-acacia I. decidua Possum Haw Spiraea spp. Spiraea Syringa vulgaris Common Lilac Lindera benzoin Spicebush Tamarix spp. Tamarix Salix caprea Goat Willow Viburnum lentago Nannyberry Sambucus canadensis American Elder Vitex agnus-castus Chaste Tree Vibumum dentatum Arrowwood Shrubs (Evergreen): Shrubs (Evergreen): Abelia grandiflora Glossy Abelia Bambusa spp. Bamboo Hypericum calycinum St. Johnswort Ilex glabra Inkberry Ilex cornuta Chinese Holly I. vomitoria Yaupon Holly I. latifolia Luster Leaf Holly Myrica cerifera Southern Wax Myrtle I. vomitoria Yaupon Holly Juniperus spp. Juniper (many varieties) Source: Pitt et al. 1991. Ligustrum spp. Privet Mahonia bealei ARCHIVEHolly Grape Nandina domestica Nandina or Heavenly In areas where children play actively, turf often is Bamboo the only vegetative cover that will survive. Where turf Prunus laurocerasus Cherry Laurel is used, infiltration can be enhanced through cultural Pyracantha coccinea Pyracantha practices such as aeration and periodic thatch Santolina chamaecy- removal. In the rest of the yard, lawn areas might well parissus Lavender-cotton be converted to beds or masses of shrubs, trees, and Yucca filamentosa Adam’s Needle Yucca other ground cover plants that encourage rainfall to Source: Pitt et al. 1991. soak in.

1.2.6-2 Use Mulches In Plant Beds And On Slopes used on poorly drained soils or steep slopes. Water Used in planting beds and on slopes, mulches can will not soak into tightly bound, shallow, or already help slow water movement and increase infiltration. saturated soils or steeply sloped sites. Mulches decrease runoff during storms, provide more Use Contouring And Infiltration Devices water for plant growth, reduce water loss from evaporation, and promote water penetration by reducing For many years, normal structural and pavement compaction. However, more than 2 to 3 inches of construction practices have assumed that once water mulch can harm plants got onto a paved surface, it had to stay on that paved surface and be discharged onto another paved surface The best mulch for reducing runoff is one that is or into a pipe or channel. Thus, roof downspouts fine textured and light weight. Examples include pine drained onto driveways and driveway pavements were straw, pine bark mini-nuggets, and pine bark mulch. graded to discharge surface runoff into gutters, drain Organic mulches, such as grass clippings, should be inlets, and other components of a stormwater man- avoided. agement system. The result has been an almost imme- Use Permeable Paving Surfaces diate discharge of surface runoff following a rainstorm in urban areas. The concept of a permeable paving surface seems almost a contradiction of terms. Yet there are many Many of these practices are warranted. Surface paving surfaces that provide the durability of materi- runoff from extensively paved areas can erode soil als such as concrete while allowing appreciable infil- when it flows off the pavement. Water left on a paved tration of surface runoff. These materials generally surface may create safety hazards. Poorly drained fall into two categories: wood decking and pavers. soils with low infiltration capacities also need surface drainage. However, pavement and rooftop runoff can People seldom consider wood decking to be a be directed onto well-drained soils containing infiltra- paving surface. But low decking can be a functional tion structures. As long as the erosive force of the and attractive ground surface. Whether decking is con- water flowing onto the soil can be accommodated, structed of redwood or treated Southern pine (the two pavement runoff can be deflected onto and spread most commonly used decking materials in Alabama), over well-drained soil where infiltration will occur. it possesses much of the durability of more imperme- Where soil characteristics prohibit retention and infil- able paving surfaces. Because decking is constructed tration of pavement runoff, detention devices could be in plank modules, its infiltration capacity is high. 1 used to slow the rate of pavement runoff. Quite often, a ⁄8-inch space is left between planks, A note of caution is needed, however. Runoff providing ample room for rainfall and runoff on the from large areas of paving can be substantial, and it boards to drain directly onto the soil surface. The can travel at an erosive velocity. Thus, in collecting decking generally shades out weed growth. As long as pavement runoff, it is important to consider how the a minimal air space can be maintained between the water will be channeled to the infiltration or retention soil surface and the decking, problems of rot resulting device. If runoff is not conveyed safely from the from the wood coming into direct soil contact can be pavement to the device, serious erosion problems minimized. One of the problems associated with deck- may result. ing at or near the ground surface is the extensive soil excavation required to provide room for the deck’s Contouring supporting structure below grade level. In nearly every soil drainage condition, home- Modular pavers include various kinds of stone owners can create swales, berms, and basins to detain (flagstone, bluestone, or granite), brick, lattice paving runoff on their property, reduce runoff velocity, and blocks having a honeycombed configuration, and any increase the time over which runoff is released from of the interlocking pavers currently available. To be the site. For example, land immediately adjacent to effective as infiltration devices, all of these materials the house needs to have a positive downhill slope must be placed on a permeable base of well-drained away from the house so that water does not seep soil, or 4 to 6 inches ARCHIVEof crushed stone and a 1- to 2- through the foundation and into the house. Once the inch bed of sand or stone dust. In addition, all con- water has been carried 10 feet from the house, how- struction must involve use of sand or stone dust in the ever, the surface might be regraded so that runoff is joints between pavers rather than mortar. As an alter- temporarily detained on the site and released gradual- native to chemical or physical control of weed growth ly rather than immediately after the storm. between pavers, miniaturized ground covers such as Surface runoff can be directed, detained, or Corsican mint moss or thyme can be grown. retained on a site by changing the elevation and slope As devices to promote infiltration of surface of the land. Swales (linear depressions in the land runoff, however, neither decking nor pavers should be surface having a continuous downhill gradient of 2

1.2.6-3 percent) move water from one area to another. Berms Conclusion (low ridges) direct water into and through swales. Controlling stormwater runoff from individual Finally, basins (enclosed depressions in the land sur- residential lots in urban or suburban environments face) gather, slow, and retain runoff. can have a significant impact on water quality in your In some instances, homeowners may be able to community. Not only does this stormwater runoff correct a wet soil problem by coordinating a system carry potential pollutants from your property that of berms and swales with the location of planned use would normally degrade through soil infiltration, but areas in the yard. To the extent possible, locations it joins with runoff from many other yards to increase receiving intensive use should avoid wet soil. When it its force and capacity. Storm sewers may overflow, is not feasible to avoid a wet area, it may be possible and erosion and property damage may result. If the to move the wet area to another less intensively used storm sewer is not separated from the wastewater portion of the yard (such as a shrub and tree mass) by sewer system, the flow capacity could exceed the installing a swale to carry the water across the yard. capacity of the wastewater treatment plant. If this The relocated wet area is then planted with trees and occurs, raw sewage could be released into nearby shrubs that tolerate wet soil. In this fashion, a wet streams. area becomes usable. Small ponds can also be created Homeowners can manage runoff by providing to establish water or wetland gardens. good, permeable ground cover and by landscape If this approach to a drainage problem is not fea- alterations. Berms can be created to detain or retain sible, subsurface drainage systems may be warranted. runoff and areas may be planted with shrubs and Infiltration Devices trees. This dense planting could allow more infiltration than a similar area planted with turf. Porous On sites with well-drained soils, infiltration paving material could be used to promote infiltration. devices can increase chances of rainfall soaking in Pavement runoff and all runoff from the residence and not running off. could be channeled into detention basins and infiltra- If soils are poorly drained, water will stand and tion devices installed in lower-lying areas created in not soak in, which could create health and safety the yard by regrading. problems. While most homeowners are unable to recontour Using berms and swales, homeowners with well- and replant an entire yard, almost every homeowner drained soils could enhance on-site infiltration by is faced with landscape choices. These choices often channeling surface runoff into a gravel-filled seepage pit, a Dutch drain, a gravel-lined recharge basin, or by concern land use (grassed areas versus densely plant- spreading runoff over the land surface by a series of ed areas), plant selection (adaptive versus nonadap- terraces. However, seepage pits, gravel-lined recharge tive), or paving materials (porous versus imperme- basins, and terraces lose their effectiveness as infiltra- able). By choosing the option that encourages rainfall tion devices when the land surface becomes clogged to soak in, homeowners can control runoff and poten- with clay, silt, or fine sand particles. tial pollution from their yards. The infiltration devices should not be located immediately under an intensively used area. Intensive Reference use usually implies heavy foot traffic, which leads to Pitt, David G., William Gould, Jr., and Leo LaSo- soil compaction. Unless properly covered with a filter ta. 1991. Landscape Design To Reduce Surface Water blanket and sandy loam topsoil, heavy foot traffic Pollution In Residential Areas. Water Resources 32. could lead to premature clogging of the infiltration Maryland Cooperative Extension Service. University device. of Maryland. College Park, MD.

1.2.6-4 ANR-790-1.3.1

labama has abundant water resources envied by ly designed septic systems are overloaded, nutrient Apeople in less fortunate parts of the country. In and bacterial contamination of nearby lakes and those places, conservation by homeowners is often streams can occur. Even the drinking water from your necessary, just to have enough water for basic needs. own well can be contaminated. Overloading munici- But why conserve here in water-rich Alabama? pal sewer systems can also cause untreated sewage to flow to lakes and rivers. The smaller the amount of Saving Money water flowing through these systems, the lower the The simplest answer is that conserving water likelihood of pollution. saves money, in many cases, very significant amounts Pollution costs money, too. Excessive weed of money. If you depend on your own well and septic growth in a lake caused by nutrient enrichment from system, the hundreds of gallons of water released leaky septic systems often means costly weed control each day will, over a period of years, saturate the soil measures paid for by you and your neighbors. Pollut- near the septic system absorption field to the point ed home water wells cost thousands of dollars to fix if where extensive repair or replacement is necessary. they can be repaired at all. Replacing a septic system costs $2,000 to $4,000. Conserving water can extend the life of the system Preserving Water Resources and delay the need for repair. Finally, water conservation will help preserve our If you live in an area serviced by a municipal sys- water resources. Although liquid water is one of the tem, the greater your water use, the more you pay for most plentiful substances on earth, many scientists water and sewer service. In some communities, costly feel that a shortage of fresh water is likely to be one sewage system expansion has been avoided by com- of the most severe long-term environmental problems munity-wide household water conservation. facing our nation. A shortage of fresh water could Protecting The Environment occur for any number of reasons including rising water demands by agriculture, industry, and cities; a In addition to saving money, water conservation rapidly increasing population; pollution; flagrant can help protect the environment. Citizens and the gov- waste; and unequal distribution. ernment are becoming more sensitive to the negative Increased demands on water resources by agricul- impacts that developing new water supplies has on our ture, industry, cities, and individuals can lead to many environment. It is becoming increasingly difficult to problems including accelerated pollution. This water create “new” water by damming wild rivers or diverting pollution can further limit the supply of available fresh water from one natural drainage basin to another. water or significantly increase water treatment costs. A more subtle environmental impact is the intru- While most people would not think that they waste sion of saltwater into freshwater aquifers because of water, few individuals actually know how much water unwise water withdrawals. These areas are often ARCHIVEthey use in a day. Studies show big differenc es in the close to metropolitan population centers where water amount of water used by rural and urban families. In is needed the most. Implementing water conservation one study, the range was from 66 to 118 gallons per programs could minimize or even prevent such envi- person per day, with urban households using the larger ronmental impacts and also delay the need for the amounts. Around home, the average American family creation of “new” water supplies. uses about twice the daily water of Europeans, a good Preventing Water Pollution indication that we may be somewhat wasteful. Water conservation also helps tremendously in Unequal distribution of water resources can also preventing water pollution. When old, leaky, or poor- cause water shortages. For example, droughts are not ANR-790 Water Quality 1.3.1 uncommon, even in the humid southeastern United States. According to the U.S. Weather Bureau, a drought exists whenever rainfall for a period of 21 days or longer is only 30 percent of the normal average for that particular time and place. Conclusion So why conserve water? Conserving water makes sense: it saves money and energy; it protects the environment and prevents pollution; and it preserves one of our most precious resources. References Peart, Virginia. 1989. Using Water Wisely: Water As A Resource. HE3086. Florida Cooperative Exten- sion Service. University of Florida. Gainesville, FL. Sharpe, William E., and Theodore B. Shelton. 1989. A Guide To Designing A Community Water Conservation Program. Extension Circular 378. Penn- sylvania Cooperative Extension Service. The Penn- sylvania State University. University Park, PA. Solomon, Dean, and Eckhart Dersch. 1987. How To Conserve Water In Your Home And Yard. Exten- sion Bulletin WQ16. Michigan Cooperative Exten- sion Service. Michigan State University. East Lans- ing, MI.

1.3.1-2 ANR-790-1.3.2

ater-saving devices offer an inexpensive and water pressure. In most applications these shower- Wlasting approach to conservation. The devices heads will pay for themselve s in approximately 1 can be easily installed and used throughout the house month in energy savings alone. without major disruptions in water use habits; conse- Installation, where the shower arm does not end quently, they offer a palatable approach to water con- in a ball joint, is quite simple. Just remove the exist- servation for the American consumer. ing showerhead by turning it counterclockwise with Because such a huge percentage of the water is an adjustable wrench, while being careful not to twist used in the bathroom, that is where water conserva- the shower arm. Place some Teflon tape or pipe dope tion efforts should focus. You can install a few simple, inexpensive devices in the bathroom that can save on the exposed threads and thread on the water-sav- both water and money with no changes in your ing showerhead by turning it clockwise. lifestyle or your present habits. The devices recom- For ball-joint showerheads a special adaptor or a mended for showers, faucets, and toilets should pay new shower arm will be necessary. If an adaptor is for themselves in energy savings alone in 4 to 6 used, turn it into the threaded ring around the ball months. until snug. Then thread the water-saving showerhead Devices For Showers onto the other end of the adaptor. There are three widely used types of ball joints; each requires a spe- A standard showerhead uses 5 to 7 gallons of cial adaptor. water per minute. To find out your shower flow rate, all you need is a plastic bucket, a watch, and a mea- If adaptors are not available, the shower arm can suring cup. Turn your shower on all the way with be replaced with a nonball-joint shower arm. This cold water only. Quickly place the bucket under the operation is a little tricky in that the shower arm is shower stream and hold it there so that you catch all attached inside the shower wall. Rotating the shower of the water for 15 seconds then quickly remove it. arm counterclockwise will free it from the threaded Measure the amount of water in the bucket and multi- elbow that it is attached to in the wall. A new shower ply by 4. This will give you the equivalent flow of arm with its thread dressed with Teflon tape or pipe water for 1 minute. Remember: 4 quarts = 1 gallon, 8 dope can then be inserted into the elbow and tight- pints = 1 gallon, 16 cups = 1 gallon. Use these con- ened by rotating it clockwise. Because this fitting is versions to figure the total gallons. You no w have the behind the wall, it is important that it not leak. If an actual shower flow rate in gpm (gallons per minute). access panel is available behind the shower wall, it Low-Flow Showerheads. During an average shower, should be opened to check for leaks after the installa- a person may use 25 to 35 gallons of water. The most tion is complete. effective way to reduce the amount of water used in the shower is to installARCHIVE a low-flow showerhead. A Showerhead Restrictors. Showerhead restrictors are low-flow showerhead delivers water with just as small plastic adaptors that can be inserted between much force as a standard showerhead, but it uses only the showerhead and the shower arm to reduce the 2 to 3 gallons per minute. These showerheads deliver flow of water. They usually allow only 3 gallons of a very fine spray which cannot be adjusted. water to leave the showerhead each minute. They are The 2-gpm showerhead has been shown through not as effective as low-flow showerheads, however. research to reduce shower water usage by 30 to 60 Restrictors may reduce flow but they also reduce percent. The actual amount of savings will depend water pressure. The shower may have to be run upon the type of showerhead that is replaced and the longer to make up for the lost water pressure. ANR-790 Water Quality 1.3.2 Devices For Faucets Devices For Toilet Tanks Faucets manufactured before 1980 allowed a flow The ordinary flush toilet uses from 4 to 6 gallons of 5 to 7 gallons per minute. Most new faucets allow of water every time it is flushed. Today, low-volume a flow of 2 to 3 gallons per minute. To reduce the commodes that use 3 gallons of water per flush are flow rate of older faucets, there are some inexpensive available. Low-volume commodes perform as well as methods available. do the standard-volume models. Aerators. The simplest device for faucets is the flow- These low-flush toilets have a shallow trap that control aerator that uses 0.5 to 1.0 gpm of water. reduces the amount of water needed for flushing. Dis- placement devices are not effective in low-flush toilet These devices are designed to fit faucets with thread- tanks because of the shallow trap design. ed spouts. Since faucet diameters and thread sizes vary widely, an adaptor may be necessary. To reduce the amount of water the standard-volume toilet flushes, customers can install a displace- A faucet aerator causes water to spray out of the ment device. Displacement devices cause the water faucet without splashing. This allows people to rinse level to rise in the toilet even though no additional and wash with less water. Installation of flow-control water has been added. In the past, customers may aerators is relatively simple. Just remove the old aera- have put a pair of bricks in the toilet tank to reduce tor by turning it counterclockwise with a large pair of water use. This method was effective, but if the bricks pliers. Then install the flow-control aerator by turning crumbled, they would clog the toilet tank. Some sys- it clockwise onto the spout until it is snug. tems now provide water bags for customers to put in Before you decide that your faucets already have their toilet tanks. aerators, check them first. Many faucets are equipped Weighted Plastic Bottles. Standard volume toilets with little screw-in plastic inserts and strainers, but no can be modified to use less water by adding weighted aerators. The aerator will be a small disk with one plastic bottles to the toilet tank. Tests have shown that small hole or a series of small holes or slits through up to three weighted plastic bottles can be placed in it. Many people think they have aerators on all their the toilet tank to reduce water use per flush. The num- faucets when in fact they do not. ber of bottles that can be used depends on the toilet After a few years, aerators may become rusty or and the type of bottles used. Water saved will be clogged. Replacement aerators are available at most equivalent to the volume of the bottles used, so that a hardware and home appliance stores. 1-quart bottle will save a quart of water and so on. More bottles can be added based on how well the toi- Aerators can save you money in three ways. First, let flushes with the bottles in place. Fine-tuning of the since they help you to use less water, they can save on flush volume can be achieved by substituting a small- your water bill. Second, since many cities set your er size bottle. sewage bill based on your water usage, they can help The recommended procedure is as follows. you save on sewage costs. And, third, since they help 1. Save three plastic bottles for each toilet in your conserve on hot water usage, they can lower your home. Two of these bottles should be of 1-quart heating bill. capacity and one should be of 1-gallon capacity. A Flow Restrictor. A flow restrictor fits on the end of recycled 1-gallon milk jug can be used as the large the faucet and can reduce the flow rate of the faucet bottle. without reducing water pressure. A flow restrictor can 2. Cut the tops out of all the bottles with a sharp 1 reduce flow rate to as little as ⁄2 gallon per minute to pair of scissors. 1 3 ⁄2 gallons per minute depending on the water pres- 3. Add enough small stones to the bottles so that sure. Restrictors are most effective in homes where they do not move around when submerged in the toi- people usually run faucets at full pressure. let tank. Water Faucet Repairs. A faucet leaking 100 drops 4. Fill the plastic bottles with water and place per minute can wasteARCHIVE 350 gallons of water each them in the toilet tank wherever they will not interfere month. Homeowners should check their faucets for with the flush mechanism. (Place the bottles in the leaks every 6 months. lower right-hand corner of the commode, as far away Most leaks are caused by worn washers and o- from the flush mechanism as possible.) Eliminate any rings. Homeowners may have to remove the faucet to bottles that do not fit into the tank. replace these parts. Usually, faucet repairs are easy 5. Use the toilet for a period of time. If flushing and may save thousands of gallons of water each problems are encountered, reduce the size of the 1- year. gallon bottle by cutting a portion of it away.

1.3.2-2 6. If flushing problems persist, remove the 1-gal- Point-Of-Use Water Heaters. Installing these lon bottle entirely. beneath the kitchen and bathroom sinks gives you Up to 30 percent of the water used for toilet instant hot water and also saves water and electricity. flushing can be saved using weighted plastic bottles. You don’t have to run the tap to wait for the water to The average family of four could save about 10 gal- get warm. Sizes vary from 2 to 12 gallons. The lons of water per day through the installation of these heaters operate on normal house voltage (120V). displacement devices. Washing Machines Toilet Dam. Another device known as a “water closet Washing machines may use up to 14 percent of dam” can block off the lower portion of your water the water in a home. Most washers use 32 to 59 gal- closet and prevent the water located behind the dam lons of water per cycle, depending on the size of the from ever leaving the tank. Generally, devices such as load. Consumers who are shopping for a washing these are installed in pairs, one dam on each side of machine should consider a water-saving model. These the flapper valve. Properly installed, the dams reduce models may use up to 30 percent less water than stan- water consumption by about 2 gallons per flush. dard washing machines. These dams are easy to install and cost about $5 a Washing machines with adjustable water levels pair. allow consumers to use only the amount of water they A family of four could save about 25 gallons of will need to wash the load. If a washing machine does water per day through installation of toilet dams. not have adjustable water levels, the consumer should Toilet Repairs. If tank parts are not working proper- wash full loads only. ly, toilets may use even more water. Consumers can Dishwashers check their toilets by placing a few drops of food col- Standard dishwashers use about 20 gallons of oring in the toilet tank. If the bowl contains food col- water per cycle. Because of this, only full loads oring after 10 minutes, the toilet tank is leaking. should be washed. If consumers are shopping for a Food coloring, however, can stain a chipped or new machine, they should consider an energy-saving badly worn bowl. Another method is to shut off water model. Energy-efficient dishwashers use 25 to 30 per- to the tank, note the water level in the tank, and sever- cent less water than standard washers. They also al hours later, recheck for a lower water level. require less electricity to operate. Worn flush valves and leaking fill valves are two common causes of leaks in toilet tanks. Consumers References can usually repair these parts themselves. Toilet tank Hermanson, Ronald E. 1991. Home Water-Saving repair kits are available at most hardware stores. Methods. EB0732. Washington Cooperative Exten- sion Service. Washington State University. Pullman, Other Water-Saving Devices WA. Pressure-Reducing Valves. Too much pressure caus- National Rural Water Association. 1989. Water es high flow rates and wastes water. A pressure- Conservation Tips For Consumers. TB5. Duncan, reducing valve maintains an adequate water-supply OK. pressure of 50 pounds per square inch. Older homes, Sharpe, William E., and Theodore B. Shelton where hard water has left mineral deposits in the 1989. A Guide To Designing A Community Water pipes which reduce their diameters, may need higher Conservation Program. Extension Circular 378. Penn- pressure. sylvania Cooperative Extension Service. The Penn- Hot Water Pipe Insulation. A hot water faucet left sylvania State University. University Park, PA. running to get hot water to the tap wastes water and energy. Insulating hot water pipes reduces this waste.

ALABAMA A&M AND AUBURN UNIVERSITIES

ANR-790-1.3.3

here are many inexpensive ways to reduce water and garden watering and car washing account for Tuse in and around the home. Families who prac- most of the water used. tice conservation can reduce the amount of water they This checklist is designed to help you see how use by about one-third. effectively you are using water and to alert you to The first step in understanding how to conserve ways of saving water. Some actions would need to be water in your home is to know where water is used. implemented only in emergency situations. Most people use 50 to 70 gallons of water indoors As you read this list, check the steps you have each day and as much as the same amount outdoors, already taken to conserve water. Note what you still depending on the season. Indoors, three-quarters of need to do to become a better manager of water all the water is used in the bathroom. Outdoors, lawn resources. Concentrate on the big water uses first. Test Yourself Using Your Water Conservation Checklist Have Will Done Do Plumbing System ______Inspect the plumbing system to see that there are no leaks. ______Turn off all water if you are going to be away on a vacation or trip. This prevents someone from turning on outside faucets while you are away. ______Check to see how often your home water softening equipment regenerates and back- washes. It can use as much as 100 gallons of water each time it does this. You may want to cut down on the use of such equipment. Reserve softened water for kitchen use, bathing, and laundry. Use unsoftened water for all other purposes. This may require a bypass line. ______Never use the toilet as a trash basket for facial tissues, etc. Each flush uses 5 to 7 gallons of water. Items carelessly thrown in could clog the system and add to sewage disposal problems. Emergency Situations ______When the toilet needs flushing, use gray water saved from cleaning, bathing, etc. Put the water in the toilet bowl, not the flush tank. If the system loses pressure, gray water could backsiphon and get into the system and contaminate the drinking water. Laundry ______Wait until you have a full load before washing, or use a lower water level setting. Save ARCHIVEhandwashing jobs and do several items at one time. Example: Wash a week’s supply of hosiery rather than washing daily. ______Use the permanent press cycle sparingly; it may include an additional fill with cold water that can use 10 to 20 gallons extra. ______Check garments to make sure they need washing. Don’t wash clothes more often than necessary. ______Encourage children to change into play clothes after school so that s chool and play clothes can be worn several times. ANR-790 Water Quality 1.3.3 u Emergency Situations ______Use the gray water that siphons from your washing machine into a laundry tub or other container for cleaning, to flush the toilet, or to water plants. Use the gray water as soon as possible. Do not store longer than 24 hours. Personal Care ______Urge family members to take showers instead of tub baths. Showers—especially those fitted with flow restrictors or low-volume heads—usually use less water than a bath. Plug the tub during a shower and compare the water used with that for a bath. ______Limit shower times to 2 minutes or less. If you prefer a tub bath, keep the water level low—no more than 5 inches of water. ______Cut down on the number of showers taken. Replace some of them with sponge baths. ______Limit the amount of shower water by the way you use the controls for the hot and cold water faucets. ______Turn off the shower water while you apply soap to your body or while you lather your hair and massage your scalp. Emergency Situations ______Close the bathtub drain during a shower so the water stays in the tub. Use this water to flush the toilet or to water outdoor plants. Food Preparation ______Use a pan of water when peeling and cleaning vegetables and fruits rather than letting the sink tap run. ______Limit your use of the garbage disposal. Save food scraps and run the disposal once per meal to conserve water. You can use the disposal even less by saving food scraps for a compost pile. ______Use the smallest amount of water necessary to cook foods such as frozen vegetables and stews. You’ll preserve nutrients as well as save water. ______Use a tight-fitting lid on a pan to prevent water from boiling away and also to cook food faster, thereby using less energy. ______Plan more one-dish meals in which vegetables are cooked or baked without adding water. ______Use a tea kettle or covered pan to heat water to avoid the loss of water through evaporation. ______Time foods while cooking to avoid overcooking and losing liquids through evaporation. ______Select the proper size pans for cooking. Large pans require more water. ______Use a pressure cooker to save water, energy, and time. ______Keep a bottle of drinking water in your refrigerator to save running the tap to get cold water. ______Save water leftover from cooking vegetables to use for soups and stews, for cooking raw or frozen vegetables, and for making gravy. ______Use syrups and juices from canned goods to save water and make foods taste better. ARCHIVEUse leftover fruit juices for drinking and making gelatin salads. Emergency Situations ______If a water shortage seems likely, store water in clean plastic or glass jugs with tight-fitting lids. Keep in the refrigerator and use sparingly. Meal Service ______Chill water in bottles in the refrigerator to avoid running excess water from the lines to get cold water for meals. Shake the bottle before serving to incorporate air into the water so that it doesn’t go flat.

1.3.3-2 ______Encourage drinking water but put it on the table only if people ask for it. Dishwashing ______Cut down on the number of utensils used in food preparation and on the plates and glassware used with meals. This will help save dishwashing water. ______Wash only full loads of dishes in the dishwasher. Energy-efficient dishwashers use about 9 to 13 gallons of water per cycle. ______Avoid unnecessary rinsing of dishes that go into the dishwasher for immediate washing. Scrape if necessary. ______When washing dishes by hand, use one pan of soapy water for washing and a second pan of hot water for rinsing. Rinsing in a pan requires less water than rinsing under a running faucet. Household Cleaning______Wipe up small spills as they occur to avoid frequent mopping. ______Regularly vacuum carpets and rugs so you won’t need to shampoo them as often. There is less danger of permanent stains when you take care of spots as they occur. ______Collect household cleaning chores. Do them together to save water. Clean the more lightly soiled surfaces first—mirrors, walls, woodwork, and then floors. Use door mats to keep dirt out of the house. ______Use rinse water (gray water) saved from bathing or washing clothes to water outdoor plants. Do not use soapy water on indoor plants. It could damage them. ______Water indoor plants only when needed. Too much water can damage plants. Outside The Home ______Washing your car can waste a lot of water. You may have to lower your standards and wash the car less often. ______Use a bucket of warm, sudsy water to remove soil from the car. Hose down only as a final rinse. ______Take advantage of a soft summer rain to wash your car. Get outside with soap and a sponge! Children will enjoy this. ______If the water supply permits the use of an outdoor pool, cover the pool when it is not being used to prevent evaporation. ______Clean the swimming pool filter often. Then you won’t have to replace the water as often. ______Use a broom, not the hose, to sweep the garage, sidewalks, and driveway.

List Water Conserving Practices You Plan To Use. 1. ______2. ______3. ______ARCHIVE 4. ______5. ______

1.3.3-3 6. ______7. ______8. ______9. ______10. ______

References Hermanson, Ronald E. 1991. Home Water-Saving Carroll, Jack. 1989. Water Conservation Check- Methods. EBO732. Washington Cooperative Exten- list For The Home. MO524. Mississippi Cooperative sion Service. Washington State University. Pullman, Extension Service. Mississippi State University. Mis- WA. sissippi State, MS. Peart, Virginia, and Kathy Walker. 1989. Using Dorman, Dale. Develop Water Saving Habits. Water Wisely In Household Cleaning And Outdoor Georgia Cooperative Extension Service. The Univer- Uses. HE 3089. Florida Cooperative Extension Ser- sity of Georgia. Athens, GA. vice. University of Florida. Gainesville, FL.

1.3.3-4 ANR-790-1.3.4

n recent years, some Alabama residents were asked Before You Start: Conduct A Site Analysis Ito restrict their water usage during periods of sum- Site analysis is a crucial step in any landscape mer drought. They saw firsthand how dependent before you begin xeriscaping. Whether your land- plants are on water to survive and remain healthy and scape is new or old, a thorough investigation of your attractive. property can reveal ways of implementing water-sav- Unfortunately, with increased land development ing practices. Simple site-specific information that and only a limited supply of usable water, restricted would help you in planning for a more water-conserv- water usage could become a way of life. ing landscape might include the following: How can landscape practices change or adapt to Climate. Angles of the sun at various times of the better water conservation? In this day of rising water day (also note seasonal changes in sun angles). costs and diminishing water supplies, people con- Wind. Summer and winter wind patterns through the cerned about water use on their property can turn to property. xeriscaping—using landscaping and horticultural strategies that minimize water use. Microclimates. Areas on the property that are warmer or cooler because of the orientation of the Property owners can reduce their water use by one-third by following xeriscaping principles when house and existing plants on the property. planning, planting, and maintaining their landscape. Rainfall. Monthly amounts. In addition to cutting down on water use, xeriscaped Topography. Slopes, rock outcroppings, flat or low gardens generally require less maintenance and are wet areas; their orientation to the sun. more resistant to drought during a dry summer than Vegetation. Type, location, and condition of existing conventional gardens are. trees, shrubs, lawn, and ground covers. Plant selection in a xeriscaped garden may vary Geology. Drainage (surface and subsurface) and soil from area to area, but there are seven basic principles types. (A soil analysis can be extremely helpful. that can be used everywhere: Request instructions from your county Extension • Group plants by similar water use, as well as agent.) appearance. Armed with this information, you can design or • If sites are dry, choose as many plants with low redesign your landscape to be water-conserving and water requirements as possible, such as some of the better adapted to your site conditions. ornamental grasses, barberries, Chinese hollies, and junipers. Group And Select Plants • Reduce the amount of turfgrass area. Turfgrass Plant selection is one of the most important fac- is the largest water user in landscaping. Use it only tors in designing a successful drought-tolerant land- where necessary or consider some of the newer, scape. Along with concern about plant size, texture, drought-resistant types.ARCHIVEand color, we must be concerned about how a plant • Use plenty of organic material (peat moss, will perform from an ecological and horticultural pinebark, compost) in preparing soil. standpoint. Gardens that thrive for many years are • Use about 4 inches (no more) of mulch (wood those that use horticulturally sound principles like the chips, shredded bark). Mulch reduces water use by following. slowing evaporation, and it adds organic matter to the • Use only plant varieties that are well adapted to soil and helps prevent erosion. your locality and soil conditions. Poorly chosen vari- • Use efficient watering systems. eties often need greater amounts of fertilizer and • Prune, fertilize, and divide plants regularly. water just to stay alive. ANR-790 Water Quality 1.3.4 ¥ Group plants with similar water needs together. Are you trying to grow grass where maintenance For example, group the vegetables requiring more is nearly impossible, such as on steep slopes, among water together in the garden to make the most of rock outcroppings, or in that narrow space between water applications. the walkway and the house? ¥ Choose moisture-loving plants for wet, poorly Are you trying to grow grass where active play drained sites and drought-tolerant plants for hotter or tramples out all vegetation? sunnier areas. Are you growing grass just because you can’t ¥ Select and plant drought-tolerant varieties that think of anything else to do with your property? require minimal amounts of water. Maintain Turf Properly Trees. Certain species of ashes, oaks, ginkgo, hack- Once the lawn has been reduced to manageable berry, Japanese pagodatree, Japanese zelkova, Deodar proportions, it can be given the care and management cedar, Southern magnolia, Chinese pistache, lacebark it needs. elm, American holly, golden-rain tree, and pines are Soil Test. Take a soil test to determine the pH and good tree selections. fertilizer needs of your lawn. The ideal pH for turf is Shrubs. Chinese and yaupon hollies, vitex, abelia, between 6.0 and 7.0. Alabama soils tend to be acid, nandina, and junipers are excellent shrub selections. so regular applications of lime are often necessary. Flowers. Mints, perennial salvias, and composites Fertilizer and Lime. Do not overfeed your lawn. (like coreopsis, rudbeckia, and purple coneflower) are Fertilizing three times per year is adequate for a drought-tolerant. Composites are plants with ray and healthy lawn. For a “lean lawn” it is possible to get disk flowers arranged in dense heads that resemble away with only one feeding, which should be applied single flowers. in mid to late November for cool season grasses and Ornamentals. Many ornamental grasses and plants May or June for warm season grasses. Avoid late- with succulent foliage (sedums, hens and chicks, and spring fertilization on cool season grasses. Excess ni- cacti) have low water requirements. trogen in late spring promotes lush, succulent growth. Plants grown in the shade use less water; consider The turf is then very susceptible to disease, insect, using plants that do not need full sun. Plants that and drought injury. Ask your county Extension office mature early (like spring-flowering bulbs) or late (like for information on the fertility requirements of the autumn-blooming crocus or lycoris where the foliage grass you are growing. dies back in the summer) do most of their growing Lime is even more important than fertilizer; in when water is plentiful. the acid soils of Alabama, several of the essential nutrients become unavailable to lawn grasses. Adding Reduce Turf Grass lime to raise the soil pH to between 6.5 and 7.0 not In most suburban neighborhoods the lawn is the only makes these nutrients available, but also makes a most prominent vegetation. This observation should lawn more drought-resistant. come as no surprise. The aesthetics of an emerald Weeds And Grubs. Control weeds in your lawn. green carpet, the physical benefits of erosion control Weeds reduce the quality of the turf and compete and heat absorption, and a ground cover that will with desirable turf species for precious water. Control endure both passive and active recreation are benefits beetle grubs. They destroy the root system of lawn that only the lawn can provide. grasses making it very difficult for your turf to sur- When drought occurs, the lawn quickly and obvi- vive soil moisture stress conditions. ously becomes stressed. Indeed, of all outdoor con- Mow. Mowing height is also an important considera- sumers of water, the lawn is the main one. Reducing 1 tion during droughts. Cut the lawn no lower than 2 ⁄2 the size of the lawn and using common sense to to 3 inches during the summer for cool season grasses establish, maintain, and manage it will reduce the 1 and 1 to 1 ⁄2 inches for most warm season grasses. quantity of water needed. This mowing height is less stressful to turf than closer The question manyARCHIVE homeowners should ask is, mowing, and longer turf shades the ground, conserv- “Do I have too much grass?” The answer is yes if the ing water. homeowner is trying to grow grass under the follow- Water. Water the lawn only when and where it needs ing situations: it. Become aware of stress areas within the lawn, such Are you trying to grow grass under the dense as areas in competition with shade and shallow tree shade of shallow-rooted trees? roots, and water them first. When a lawn doesn’t Are you trying to grow grass among and around recover quickly from foot traffic, it is a sign for your shrubs? watering.

1.3.4-2 3 The typical summer thunderstorm may provide ⁄4 established in the landscape. Smaller trees become inch water. No watering should be necessary for a established more quickly than large ones. Their roots minimum of 4 days, so turn off automatic timers that spread throughout the soil and begin to absorb water control your underground sprinkler system. Remem- more efficiently. A larger tree undergoes a much ber that millions of acres of crops depend entirely on greater transplant shock than a small tree and does natural rainfall; watering is necessary only when rain- not begin to grow as quickly. fall does not occur for an extended period. Fall is a very good time to plant deciduous trees 1 If natural rainfall is deficient, apply 1 to 1 ⁄2 inches and shrubs. Spring-planted trees are under the extra 1 3 water once per week on heavy textured soils or ⁄2 to ⁄4 stress of supporting an emerging leaf canopy, with inch twice per week on light textured (sandy) soils. high nutrient and water demands. In fall, their energy Once grass is established, it will tolerate more drought. can be devoted to establishing the feeder root system. Water as infrequently as possible. Watering less Avoid planting during periods of drought. Newly frequently “teases” the roots to lower depth, making planted trees require water weekly. Take advantage of the turf more tolerant of stressful periods. Frequent the natural rainfall in the fall or spring to provide watering keeps moisture near the surface, promoting most of the required water. the growth of shallow roots, which makes the plants Prepare a planting hole that will encourage rapid less drought-tolerant. spread of the root system into the surrounding soil. Watering should be done only in the cool of the Dig out a broad, saucer-shaped depression two to morning or when the lawn is in shade. On a windy, three times the width of the root ball. By digging a bright, sunny day as much as 40 percent of sprinkler- wide hole, you encourage root spread. When plant- applied water is lost to evaporation. ing, dig only a few holes at a time, and dig only as Although mentioning it may seem unnecessary, many holes as can be planted that day. Unplanted sprinklers should be set to water the lawn, not the open holes lose available soil moisture. street, driveway, or sidewalks. Be aware that regular There is no advantage to adding organic matter to irrigation where water hits trunks of trees has been backfill in the hole. However, use plenty of organic reported to cause crown rot and possible death of the materials such as peat moss and compost in preparing trees. an entire planting bed. By incorporating compost into the soil, you can improve the water-holding capacity Use Alternatives To Turf and aeration of the soil. Aesthetic options to turf grasses provide visual variety to the landscape, are often easier to maintain, Use a hose to trickle water into the hole and settle and require less water than turf grasses. Categories the backfill. This prevents the roots from finding dry include organic mulches, inorganic mulches, and liv- pockets of air and soil in the early establishment peri- ing alternative ground covers. od. Do not compact the soil around the plant with heavy pressure with your foot or tamper. You will A bedline or mowing strip that separates the lawn loose the benefit you gained from loosening the soil. from the shrub border can reduce maintenance problems. Mowing around tree trunks, shrubs, and clumps After the hole has been filled, and if you are in a of herbaceous perennials is a time-consuming nui- dry site, create a basin at the edge of the root ball to sance. It may also damage or kill the plant if a mower hold water while the plants get established. Fill it or weed eater wounds the plant. with water. If you are not on a slope or a well-drained site, do not create a basin. Too much water is as bad To create a bedline, “draw” a smooth, flowing as too little water. Do not overwater newly planted line with lime. Once you’ve drawn a satisfactory line, trees and shrubs. A tree may wilt if the planting hole use a sharp spade to create a permanent bedline. is constantly water-logged and oxygen depleted. Remove grass and weeds from the bed side of the cut. Cover the ground with organic mulches, inorganic Finally, cover all newly planted trees and shrubs mulches, a living ground cover, or some combination with a 2- to 4-inch layer of mulch. Use no more than of these alternatives.ARCHIVE Mowing strips with brick or 3 to 4 inches of mulch. Too much mulch can smother some other paving material will reduce trimming and the roots. But properly used, mulches retain soil keep lines smooth. moisture and keep down competitive weeds. Weed control is important for water conservation. Prepare The Soil And Plant Properly Weeds will compete with desired plants for water and Planting your landscape using xeriscaping princi- nutrients. A 2-inch layer of mulch is the best defense ples requires proper soil preparation. against weeds. Other methods of weed control in the In recent years, researchers have found that small home landscape include hand pulling, mechanical to mid-sized trees have the best chance of becoming cultivation, and the selective use of herbicides.

1.3.4-3 Use Mulch with the garden hose they often make a very attractive Mulches conserve soil moisture by reducing evap- rock mulch surface. Gravels may be purchased in oration from the soil surface. Mulches also control many dyed colors, but natural colors blend best into weed growth and reduce erosion and soil compaction the landscape. run in. Gravel is used more effectively in areas with Mulches are divided into two major groups: or- evergreen shrubs or no plant material. Gravel is diffi- ganic and inorganic. cult to keep clean in deciduous tree and shrub areas. Organic Mulches. Organic mulches include straw, Gravel can also get scattered into lawns causing prob- leaves, manure, pine needles, leaf clippings, shredded lems with mowers. bark, wood chips, sawdust, compost, composted One type of mulch that is not only aesthetically sewage sludge, etc. A good organic mulch has the fol- offensive but may harm plant materials is white mar- lowing qualities: it should retain moisture, retard ble chips. Reflected glare hurts the eye and may cause weed growth, be free of weed seed, create an attrac- leaf scorch. A marble chip mulch is especially dam- tive neutral surface, improve the soil as it decays, and aging to rhododendrons and their kin. As the chips be inexpensive to acquire and maintain. weather, soil pH is raised, causing iron deficiency Peat moss, a popular mulch among homeowners, (yellow leaves with green veins). fails nearly all these criteria. Peat, as it dries, actually Cobbles, or naturally rounded stones, can be very draws water from the soil, and the following year it useful as a ground cover. If no roof drains are present, provides an ideal seed bed for weeds. It can blow these stones break up the force of splashing water. away, float away, and catch fire. Furthermore, peat They also can be moved aside, creating planting holes moss is expensive. Peat moss should be used as a soil for annuals. During the summer, flowers spread conditioner, not a mulch. across the stones, creating color delights during the Wood chips or bark mulches are better. Shredded growing season. In the fall, after frost kills the annu- bark mulch products are also successful organic als, the dead plants are pulled and composted. Then mulches. They mat together and are less likely to float cobbles can be put back in place. Herbs, herbaceous away than chips. Bark nuggets, however, should be perennials, and woody ground covers like junipers avoided where slopes are present. They are more can also be successfully planted in the cobbles. expensive, they float, and they tend to be weedy. The one advantage of bark nuggets is that they break down Water Efficiently more slowly than shredded bark mulches. Maintaining your landscape using xeriscaping principles includes an efficient watering system. Organic mulches last one to three seasons and then must be replaced. Some types of organic mulch Water Requirements. Water according to the follow- form a crust that inhibits water percolation. Periodi- ing recommendations if enough rainfall does not cally rake the mulch to break up any crust that has occur. formed. Remove or incorporate decayed organic Shade Trees mulch into the soil before adding more mulch. Weed Newly planted—Water once per week. control using organic mulch can be enhanced if pre- Established—Water twice a month in summer and fall. emergent weed-control chemicals are applied to the soil surface prior to mulching. Evergreens Inorganic Mulches. Inorganic mulches provide a New planted—Water weekly, especially into fall and long-term ground cover. Inorganic mulches may winter. range from pea-size gravels and river-worn cobbles to Established—Water twice a month all year. boulders. (If the gravel is too small, it will stick to the Shrubs feet of pedestrians walking across it.) Newly planted—Water 2 to 3 times per week for con- A weed-control mat should be placed below the tainer plants then reduce to 2 times per week for the mulch. Use a mat thatARCHIVE allows water to penetrate. remainder of the growing season if no rain occurs. Roots of plants under black plastic are closer to the Established (3 to 5 years old)—Water weekly during surface and more susceptible to drought stress. The the growing season and twice a month in fall and black plastic usually becomes exposed over time and spring. becomes an eyesore. Many homeowners develop a hatred for the Flowers native rocks that impede their horticultural endeavors, Newly planted—Water 3 times per week. but once these “indigenous” rocks are washed down Established—Water weekly during the growing season.

1.3.4-4 Vegetables and little water is lost from evaporation. For turf, After planting seed—Water lightly every other day water at night. Little evaporation occurs, and since until seedlings emerge. the blades of grass are already wet from dew, the risk Established—Water once a week during the growing of disease is lowered. season. If at all possible, avoid overhead sprinklers. Over- Many individual vegetables have critical periods head sprinklers are 75-percent efficient whereas drip of growth during which irrigation is absolutely essen- or subsurface irrigation is 90-percent efficient. Use an tial. For example, cucumbers must have water from open hose at the base of small or newly planted shrubs flowering through fruit development, and peppers and trees. For larger trees, spread a soaker hose over require a steady supply of moisture from the seedling an area under the tree about as wide as the tree is tall, stage to maturity. However, once onions and musk- Put hoses on timers to avoid waste. Drip or subsurface melons start to mature, water should be withheld. irrigation systems are the most efficient ways to water landscape plants. If you must use overhead sprinklers, Grass never use them on windy days and locate them so you There are two cases when you must water grass avoid watering sidewalks and driveways. An alarm in order for it to survive—new sod and newly planted should be used to remind you to turn off sprinklers seed. Water every day for the first week and every when you have applied enough water. other day the second week or until the lawn becomes Try trickle or drip irrigation systems in outdoor green. gardens. These methods use 25 to 50 percent less Established lawns—Water when: water than hose or sprinkler methods. The tube for 1 ¥ a weekly rain of 1 to 1 ⁄2 inches does not occur. the trickle system has tiny holes for watering closely A rain gauge measures the amount of water your spaced plants. The drip system tubing contains holes garden receives and can be purchased at a local gar- or openings at strategic places for tomatoes and other den center. plants that are more widely spaced. ¥ the lawn begins to show signs of wilting—when Guide To The Cost Of Watering. Table 1 will allow the grass does not spring back when you step on it— you to estimate the quantity of water flowing from a rather than on a regular schedule. typical 50-foot garden hose at the standard house- ¥ the bright green “normal” lawn color turns dull hold water pressure of 40 pounds per square inch green. Once your lawn turns brown, it is dormant and (psi). Longer hoses will decrease flows slightly. there is no need to water it. As long as you have not Higher pressures will cause greater flows. overfertilized or used too much herbicide, the lawn will go dormant when not enough water is provided Table 1. Estimating The Flow Rate Of and will turn brown. It will recuperate as soon as a Water Through Hoses Of Different Diameters. steady supply of water is provided. Hose Length, Pressure, Flow Rate, Watering Methods. Deep soakings that wet the soil Diameter, in ft psi gal/min to a depth of 5 to 6 inches are the most efficient way to 1 water. This 4- to 6-inch penetration can be accom- ⁄2 50 40 5.0 5 plished with about 1 inch of water. Deep soakings will ⁄8 50 40 6.4 3 encourage deep rooting. Light surface watering will ⁄4 50 40 8.8 encourage shallow rooting and turf that is more sus- Source: Shelton and Hamilton, 1987. ceptible to drought. To determine the depth that is wet, probe the soil with a screwdriver or a probe that To apply 1 inch of water to 1,000 square feet of removes a soil plug. lawn or garden requires 620 gallons of water. This 5 takes 97 minutes water time, using the ⁄8 inch hose If water is applied faster than the percolation rate from the table above. of the soil, runoff will occur. In that case, water until runoff, allow the waterARCHIVE to soak in and water again 1 620 gal ÷ 6.4 gal/min = 97 min hour later. Continue until the soil is wet to a depth of The cost of water in Alabama ranges from ap- 5 to 6 inches. proximately $0.50 to $3.25, with $1.50 per 1,000 gal- It is best to water in the early morning or late lons being about average. Thus, 620 gallons cost afternoon when it is cool and less windy. Loss of approximately $0.93. You can compute your watering water to evaporation will be less. Water your garden costs using the formula below: early in the morning when the water pressure is high, Number of square feet of lawn or garden x 620 the plants aren’t stressed from the rigors of the day, gal per inch of water applied ÷ 1,000 sq ft x cost of

1.3.4-5 water in your town per 1,000 gallons ÷ 1,000 = total locate and take up water. Consequently, fertilize cost of watering perennial plants in the fall. Example: Conclusion 5,000 sq ft of lawn x 620 gal (1 in of water) ÷ Please do your part to help conserve water and 1,000 sq ft x $1.5 ÷ 1,000 gal = $4.65 keep our landscape growing. You can make a differ- Note: If your water is measured and sold in cubic ence. feet, 7.5 gal = 1 cu ft, 1,000 gal = 133 cu ft, and 620 gal = 83 cu ft. References If sewer and water costs are combined in your Au, Eunice-Ann. Using Water Wisely In The city, a separate meter for irrigation will reduce your Garden. FS450. New Jersey Cooperative Extension water bill. Service. Rutgers University. New Brunswick, NJ. Barton, Susan S. 1989a. Landscape Management. Prune And Fertilize Regularly Nonpoint Source Pollution Fact Sheet NPS 10. Dela- Many plants require more nutrients than can be ware Cooperative Extension Service. University of obtained from the native soil for vigorous growth. Delaware. Newark, DE. Nutrients are added in the form of fertilizers. Most Barton, Susan S. 1989b. Lawn Management For fertilizers include nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassi- Conservation. Nonpoint Source Pollution Fact Sheet um. It is best to fertilize perennial plants (trees, NPS 11. Delaware Cooperative Extension Service. shrubs and lawns) in the fall or winter. A second University of Delaware. Newark, DE. application in early to mid June will encourage vigor- Himelick, Kirk. 1989. Landscape Design For ous vegetative growth. Water Conservation. Nonpoint Source Pollution Fact The addition of fertilizer (especially nitrogen) Sheet NPS 8. Delaware Cooperative Extension Ser- will encourage new growth. Too much nitrogen can vice. University of Delaware. Newark, DE. encourage too much vegetative growth and reduction Shelton, Theodore, and Bruce Hamilton. 1987. in ﬂowering for some plants. In the spring, plants put Landscaping For Water Conservation: A Guide For the extra nutrients into increased top growth. New New Jersey. EO80. New Jersey Cooperative Exten- growth is undesirable just before a period of drought sion Service. Rutgers University. New Brunswick, stress. In the fall, most plants put extra nutrients into NJ. root growth, which increases the plant’s ability to

1.3.4-6 Agriculture and Natural Resources WATER QUALITY: Managing Drinking Water Quality

ALABAMA A&M AND AUBURN UNIVERSITIES

Drinking Water Standards Safe Drinking Water: Who’s In Charge?

ANR-790-2.1.1

any Americans take safe drinking water for from the rocks that form the earth’s crust; agricultural Mgranted. It’s not hard to see why. What could be pesticides, fertilizers, and animal wastes; leaking easier than turning on the tap and getting gallons and underground storage tanks and pipelines; industrial gallons of drinkable water? But behind each gallon, effluents and sewage treatment plants; seepage from behind each drop is the unceasing effort of scientists, septic systems and landfills; and improper disposal of engineers, legislators, water plant operators, and reg- chemicals in or on the ground. ulatory officials. It is their mission to keep this pre- Although disinfection of drinking water is abso- cious resource clear, clean, and—above all—safe. lutely essential to prevent diseases, this treatment pro- Our drinking water comes from two different cat- cess itself must be monitored to prevent the creation egories of untreated water. About half comes from of potentially hazardous by-products. Chlorine, for rivers, streams, and other forms of surface water. The example, can react with natural organics or other syn- other half comes from groundwater—reserves of thetic hydrocarbon chemicals in water to form sub- water hidden beneath the earth in areas known as stances called trihalomethanes (THMs). These have aquifers. Protection of both surface water and been shown to cause cancer in laboratory animals. groundwater is vital if we are to have drinking water Chloroform is a common THM which has been that is not only safe but plentiful. linked to bladder cancer in those who drink from treated public water supplies. How Can Water Become Unsafe? Other disinfectants have also been found to gen- Several different kinds of contamination can erate undesirable by-products. Developing a safer dis- result from natural causes. Undissolved material— infectant for drinking water is a high research priority known as suspended matter—shows up frequently in for water chemists. untreated water, as do dissolved minerals and salts, such as sulfates, chlorides, and nitrates. Both arsenic Who Keeps Your Drinking Water Safe? and fluoride occur naturally as impurities in some The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and areas. Radionuclides occur naturally in minerals such state water quality agencies, Alabama Department of as radium and uranium and include the radioactive Environmental Management (ADEM) in Alabama, gas known as radon. work together to protect surface water and groundwa- People, too, can have an adverse effect on water ter so that every citizen drinks safe water. quality. Throughout most of recorded history, human Historically, states set their drinking water stan- organic waste has posed the greatest threat to the dards and ran their drinking water programs. This safety of drinking water. Although water treatment changed in 1974, when Congress passed the Safe processes have greatly improved the quality and safe- Drinking Water Act (SDWA). Alabama was granted ty of drinking water in the United States, there are primary enforcement of this Act in 1976. This Act still many thousands ofARCHIVE cases each year of waterborne established national drinking water standards. These diseases caused by such microorganisms as bacteria, standards set limits on the amount of various contami- viruses, protozoa, parasitic worms, and fungi. nating substances allowed in drinking water. The Chemical contaminants, both natural and synthet- SDWA has been amended several times, most recently ic, might also be present in water supplies. Contami- in 1986. The amendments require the development of nation problems in groundwater, which supplies 85 more drinking water standards and more technical percent of the small community systems, are fre- requirements. quently chemical in nature. Common sources of EPA has responsibility for writing the regulations chemical contamination include minerals dissolved and carrying out the provisions of the SDWA. Howev-

ANR-790 Water Quality 2.1.1 Visit our Web site at: www.aces.edu er, EPA does more than simply issue drinking water Community water systems range from water standards for states to enforce. It has awarded grants treatment plants serving major cities to systems serv- to many states for the purpose of improving their testing a single trailer park. Although most people are ing and analytical capabilities. It has also sponsored served by a large water supplier, the majority of com- research into many different aspects of drinking water munity systems are very small. This is reflected in the pollution, including important research on organic following table. chemicals and radionuclides. In addition, EPA is responsible for ensuring that water systems notify the public when contaminant Table 1. Distribution By Size For Community levels exceed federal water quality standards. These Water Systems. notices of violation must explain the health signifi- cance in nontechnical terms. This important require- Size Of System Percent Of Systems Population Served ment is a keystone of EPA’s efforts to assure compli- Large (>3,300 pop.) 13 percent 180 million ance with the national drinking water regulations and Small (<3,300 pop.) 87 percent 20 million to protect public health. It also fosters awareness of the importance of safe drinking water and encourages Source: USEPA 1990b. the public to assist in solving water quality problems. The federal drinking water program was designed to be delegated, which means that approved govern- Of the 850 public water systems in Alabama, 250 ment agencies (usually states) carry out the program water suppliers are noncommunity systems. They on a day-to-day basis. Most states (49) have been del- include restaurants, schools, highway rest areas, and egated “primacy,” or the authority to run the program. campgrounds. State public health or environmental agencies, therefore, have primary responsibility for carrying out and Individual wells and systems that serve fewer enforcing the drinking water regulations written to than 25 people or have fewer than 15 service connec- implement the SDWA. In Alabama, this responsibility tions are not considered to be public systems. They is relegated to the Water Supply Branch under the are the sole responsibility of the states to regulate. Water Division of ADEM. Community Wellhead Protection Programs: Each regulatory agency has the option to make its Keeping Groundwater Sources Safe own requirements more strict than EPA’s. In addition, Local public water systems and municipalities regulatory agencies can issue variances and exemp- can keep drinking water safe by participating in pro- tions from some of the requirements for public water grams to protect groundwater sources, known as systems that are having major technical or financial Wellhead Protection Programs (WHPP). Discharges problems in meeting the requirements. Variances and of many potential groundwater contaminants are not exemptions are rare, and the supplier of water must regulated at the state and federal levels. These unreg- prove there is no undue health risk by allowing the ulated and often overlooked activities are sources of variance or exemption for a period of time. potential contamination and pose additional risks to Finally, local public water systems must ensure local groundwater sources. that drinking water supplies meet standards and regu- Acting within federal guidelines, ADEM has lations established by the state regulatory agency. developed a WHPP strategy for local public water Public Water Systems: Supplying Safe Water systems and municipalities in Alabama. A WHPP fol- Public water systems are divided into two cate- lows a four-step process: geologic and hydrologic gories: community systems and noncommunity sys- investigations, definition of protection area bound- tems. A community system serves people year-round aries, contaminant source inventory, and management (in a town, for example) whereas a noncommunity plan development. system serves people only for a portion of the time The first step in WHPP development is a geologic (in a resort or campground).ARCHIVE Different types of and hydrologic investigation. To understand where requirements apply to each type of water system. groundwater is located and how it moves, the geology Nationwide, about 200,000 public water supply and hydrology of an area must be defined on a local, systems are regulated under the SDWA. Of these, site-specific level. approximately 60,000 community systems serve The next step is defining a wellhead protection nearly 200 million residential customers (about 80 area boundary with the information generated in step percent of the U.S. population). In Alabama about one. Because of different geologic and hydrologic 3.25 million residents (approximately 80 percent of conditions, protection areas will be quite different in the population) are on community water systems. shape and size.

2.1.1-2 Step three, a contaminant source inventory, is possibly the most important WHPP development Rights And Responsibilities: step. The size of a community, the size of the well- Keeping Drinking Water Safe. head protection area, and the extent of industrial or residential development will determine the number Nationally and the type of contaminant sources. Local knowl- EPA Drinking Water Program: edge and local participation are the keys to a success- ¥ Sets primary and secondary drinking water stan- ful contaminant source inventory. dards. The ﬁnal step in a WHPP is to design a manage- ¥ Establishes monitoring and reporting requirements. ment plan to reduce hazards of known contaminants ¥ Provides funds and technical assistance to the states. and control development of facilities with potential ¥ Conducts research. for contamination. A locally developed management Statewide plan identifies the responsible authorities and the goals of the local WHPP. State Groundwater Protection Agencies: ¥ Develop groundwater protection plans. In Alabama the ﬁrst locally developed and com- ¥ Develop programs and laws to control contaminat- prehensive WHPPs have been developed by Dauphin ing sources and activities. Island, Loxley, and Madison. These communities ¥ Conduct statewide monitoring of groundwater. developed WHPPs that provided local, community- specific programs for protecting their groundwater State Drinking Water Programs: supplies. ¥ Enforce primary drinking water standards. ¥ Provide technical support and training to staff of Assistance in developing a local WHPP is avail- local water systems. able from Alabama Department Environmental Man- ¥ Inspect systems and maintain records. agement, Water Supply Branch (334-271-7773) or ¥ Take enforcement action against systems that vio- Geological Survey of Alabama, Water Resources late monitoring and reporting regulations or drink- Division (205-349-2852). ing water standards.

You And Your Drinking Water Locally What can you—the average U.S. citizen and con- Local Pollution Control Agencies: sumer of drinking water—do to make sure your ¥ Protect surface water through land-use control. drinking water is safe? What are your rights and ¥ Protect groundwater from contamination by control- responsibilities? ling potential sources of contaminants. You have the right to know who is supplying your ¥ Monitor groundwater to detect contaminants. water, where it comes from, how it is treated, how it Local Water Systems: is tested, and what its quality level actually is. ¥ Site wells and intakes (pipes that draw water into You have the right to be told—and your water drinking water systems). supplier must tell you—if your water does not meet ¥ Treat water to meet drinking water standards. the minimum national standards for protection of ¥ Sample water and maintain test records. public health. You must be told what the violation is, ¥ Notify the public if problems arise. what adverse health effects it is likely to have, what Personally steps are being taken to correct the violation, and whether you need alternative water supplies. You, The Citizen: ¥ Notice potential sources of surface water and The fact that your state water quality agency or groundwater contamination. local water supplier announces a violation of a drink- ¥ Support efforts to protect vital water resources. ing water standard is not by itself cause for alarm. It ¥ Keep track of local and state developments relating is a safety precaution required by Congress to call to the quality of your drinking water. public attention to deficiencies in the drinking water ¥ Attend public hearings related to protecting local supply. This procedureARCHIVE is intended to keep you drinking water. informed so that you can make intelligent decisions ¥ Stay informed of drinking water tests in your area about the problem. ¥ Lend political and financial support when necessary . If your drinking water supply comes from a well a to efforts to improve the quality of your drinking or some other private system, you have the responsi- water. bility to ensure your drinking water is safe. ¥ Exercise your right to bring civil suits when your local water system, your state, or your federal offi- A description of rights and responsibilities for cials fail to do their job in maintaining the quality of protecting and maintaining safe drinking water fol- your water. lows. Source: USEPA 1986

2.1.1-3 Other Laws Protecting regional office of the EPA can also provide you with Drinking Water Supplies information. (Call 404-347-4727.) The Clean Water Act sets water quality stan- Conclusion dards for all significant bodies of surface water, requires sewage treatment, limits the amount of Congress continues to challenge EPA and the industrial effluents that can be discharged into the nation with stricter drinking water legislation. Along nations’s surface waters, and requires programs to with setting new standards, EPA is also reevaluating control nonpoint source pollution from stormwater the existing standards. Making a reality of the stricter runoff. provisions will require greater efforts by all those Under the Resource Conservation and Recov- involved in protecting drinking water: local, state, and ery Act (RCRA), EPA has developed “cradle to federal officials; scientists, engineers, and water treat- grave” regulations governing the generation, storage, ment plant operators; and individual citizens. transport, treatment, and disposal of hazardous When these provisions become reality, we will all wastes. RCRA gives EPA the power to protect all reap the benefits and reassurance of even safer drink- sources of groundwater from contamination by haz- ing water than we already enjoy. No one can exagger- ardous waste. This law also prohibits pollution of sur- ate the importance of safe drinking water to the health face water and air by hazardous waste sites. and prosperity of all U.S. citizens. The Comprehensive Environmental Response, References Compensation, and Liability Act (CERCLA), bet- a ter known as “Superfund,” is used to cleanup existing U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1986 . A hazardous waste sites that pose a threat to water or Decade Of Achievement: Accomplishments Under other resources. The Safe Drinking Water Act Of 1974. EPA Journal. 12(7):18-19. The Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and b Rodenticide Act (FIFRA) and the Toxic Substances U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1986 . Control Act (TSCA) give EPA the power to regulate Drinking Water In America: An Overview. EPA Jour- pesticides and toxic substances that may have an nal. 12(7):14-15. adverse effect on the environment, including ground- U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1989. Is water and other sources of drinking water. Your Drinking Water Safe? EPA 570/9-89-005. Office Additional information about safe drinking water, Of Water. Washington, DC. the amendments to the Safe Drinking Water Act, and U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1990a. other related issues is available from EPA’s Safe Environmental Pollution Control Alternatives: Drink- Drinking Water Hotline: 1-800-426-4791. ing Water Treatment For Small Communities. Special The EPA Region IV (covering Alabama, Florida, Publication. Office Of Water. Washington DC. Georgia, Kentucky, Mississippi, North Carolina, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1990b. South Carolina, and Tennessee) has its offices at 345 Maintaining Safe Drinking Water. EPA 570/9-90-001. Courtland Street, NE, Atlanta, GA 30365. This Office Of Water. Washington, DC.

2.1.1-4 Agriculture and Natural Resources WATER QUALITY: Managing Drinking Water Quality

ALABAMA A&M AND AUBURN UNIVERSITIES

Drinking Water Standards How Are They Set?

ANR-790-2.1.2

hen you fill a glass with water from your tap, between acute and chronic effects of harmful sub- Wyou expect to drink water that is safe and pure. stances. However, gases, minerals, bacteria, metals, or chemi- Acute effects are usually seen within a short time cals suspended or dissolved in water can inﬂuence its after exposure to a toxic substance. An example is a quality and affect your health. farmer who accidentally spills a pesticide and shortly Drinking water supplied by public water systems thereafter suffers from nausea, dizziness, and vomiting. is monitored for many contaminants. As authorized Nationally, and in Alabama, the most commonly by the 1974 Safe Drinking Water Act and its amend- detected drinking water problem is bacterial contami- ments, the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) nation from human or animal sources. Bacterial con- has established limits on the concentration of certain tamination is a common cause of acute toxicity, caus- drinking water contaminants allowed in public water ing symptoms as mild as stomach upsets to diseases as serious as dysentery, typhoid fever, and hepatitis. supplies. These limits, or standards, are set to protect Chronic effects result from exposure to a sub- human health and to ensure that public drinking water stance over a period of weeks or years. An example is is of good quality. In addition, many state environ- a coal miner who breathes in traces of coal dust for mental or health agencies (ADEM in Alabama) have many years and later develops serious respiratory issued other limits for specific drinking water con- problems. With contaminants such as pesticides and taminants. volatile organic chemicals (VOCs) in drinking water, Contaminants are regulated when (1) they occur health officials are almost always concerned about in drinking water supplies, (2) they are expected to chronic effects such as cancer or damage to the cen- threaten public health, and (3) they can be detected in tral nervous system. drinking water by current laboratory methods. The EPA standards for drinking water fall into two cate- How Standards Are Set In setting standards for drinking water contami- gories: primary standards and secondary standards. nants, regulatory ofﬁcials estimate the concentration Primary standards are based on health considera- of contaminant that a person can drink safely over a tions and are enforced by the EPA. They protect you, lifetime. These calculations are based on all available the U.S. citizen, from three classes of toxic pollutants: toxicological information and allow a generous safety pathogens, radioactive elements, and toxic chemicals. margin. Secondary standards regulate contaminants that The EPA standard for drinking water, the Maxi- cause offensive taste, odor, color, corrosion, foaming, mum Contaminant Level (MCL), is the highest and staining. Secondary standards are not enforced by amount of a contaminant allowed in drinking water EPA, although some are enforced at the state level, as supplied by public water systems. The MCL is set as is the case with ADEMARCHIVE in Alabama. Secondary stan- close as possible to the Maximum Contaminant Level dards are useful guidelines for water treatment plant Goal (MCLG), which is a preliminary standard set operators and state governments attempting to provide but not enforced by the EPA. MCLGs are health goals communities with the best quality water possible. based entirely on health effects; MCLs take into consideration the feasibility and the cost of analysis and What Are The Health Concerns? treatment of the regulated contaminant. Although Contaminants in drinking water are always cause often less stringent than the corresponding MCLG, for concern. However, it is important to distinguish the MCL is set to protect health.

ANR-790 Water Quality 2.1.2 Visit our Web site at: www.aces.edu Because the levels of contaminants found in which the risk, while present, is judged to be accept- drinking water are seldom high enough to cause acute able (that is, extremely low). Alabama, for example, health effects, health officials are most concerned uses risk levels ranging from one additional case of about chronic health effects such as cancer, birth cancer in 100,000 people to one in 1,000,000. defects, miscarriages, nervous system disorders, and organ damage. These health effects may occur after Confidence In The Standards prolonged exposure to small amounts of a substance. How much confidence should we place in numer- In addition, when regulatory officials set drinking ical standards and guidelines for drinking water? water standards, they treat substances that cause can- Unfortunately, there is no simple answer. cer (carcinogens) differently from contaminants that One area of uncertainty stems from the difficulty cause other health effects. of applying the results from tests on genetically similar laboratory animals in a controlled environment to Setting Standards a diverse human population living in a complex envi- If A Chemical Does Not Cause Cancer: Officials ronment. A second area of uncertainty stems from set standards using a figure calculated from animal incomplete toxicity data on some chemicals. A third studies called the Acceptable Daily Intake (ADI) for area of uncertainty exists because objective scientific chemicals that cause adverse health effects other than analysis involves numerous assumptions and judg- cancer. The ADI is the daily dose of a substance that ments. a person can ingest over a lifetime without suffering To compensate for some of these uncertainties, any adverse health effects, and it includes a conserva- scientists typically make a series of “safe” or conser- tive safety margin. vative decisions when assessing health risks. For If A Chemical Causes Cancer: In setting primary example, if there is doubt about whether to use a safe- standards for chemicals believed to cause cancer, reg- ty factor of 10 or 100, the larger number is used. Sim- ulatory officials assume that no concentration is safe. ilarly, the acceptable daily intakes are usually calcu- Consequently, the MCLG is set at zero. A zero level lated to protect a small child, which results in a is not practical nor even possible to achieve in many greater degree of protection for larger adults. cases, so officials estimate toxicity by calculating a Many of these uncertainties will continue to exist figure called a risk estimate. unless people are willing to volunteer as laboratory In theory, any concentration of a carcinogen in test animals. This is not likely. Therefore, we must drinking water may possibly cause cancer. In prac- rely on the best possible information available to us. tice, however, at very low concentrations, the risk of cancer becomes so small that it is considered negligi- Do The Standards Guarantee Safety? ble. Therefore, regulatory officials must decide what All human activities, even those considered per- level of risk is acceptable. It may be one excess can- fectly safe, involve some degree of risk. Ultimately cer in 10,000 persons or one excess cancer in most people are probably less interested in guarantees 1,000,000 persons exposed over a lifetime (70 years). of absolute safety than in reasonable assurances. The concentration of chemical estimated to cause the Drinking water standards provide a reasonable assur- “acceptable level” of risk is the risk estimate. ance that water from the tap will not cause any health The important difference between a risk estimate problems now or in the future. and the ADI method is that the ADI method assumes Like other laws designed to protect public health, that there is a threshold, or “safe” dose, below which drinking water standards cannot always guarantee there will be no adverse health effects. The risk esti- that there is absolutely zero risk from water contain- mate assumes that at any dose, no matter how small, ing a contaminant. Drinking water standards do, how- some adverse health effect is theoretically possible. ever, guarantee that scientists and public officials Drinking water standards or health advisories based have looked at all available information on the health on the risk estimate ARCHIVEapproach are set at a level at effects of a substance and have made a careful, con-

2.1.2-2 servative judgment of the level of contamination that Water Standards. Water Quality Fact Sheet 1. USDA will not endanger public health. Extension Service. Washington, DC. Stewart, Judith C., Ann T. Lemley, Sharon I. References Hogan, and Richard A. Weismiller. 1990b. Health Jackson, Gary, and Bruce Webendorfer. 1990. Effects Of Drinking Water Contaminants. Water How Drinking Water Standards Are Established. Quality Fact Sheet 2. USDA Extension Service. Washington, DC. G3338. Wisconsin Cooperative Extension Service. Stewart, Judith C., Ann T. Lemley, Sharon I. University of Wisconsin. Madison, WI. Hogan, and Richard A. Weismiller. 1990c. Water Stewart, Judith C., Ann T. Lemley, Sharon I. Testing And Interpretation: The Secondary Drinking Hogan, and Richard A. Weismiller. 1990a. Drinking Water Standards. Water Quality Fact Sheet 3. USDA

2.1.2-3 Agriculture and Natural Resources WATER QUALITY: Managing Drinking Water Quality

ALABAMA A&M AND AUBURN UNIVERSITIES

Drinking Water Standards Protecting Your Health: Primary Standards ANR-790-2.1.3

he Primary Standards for drinking water, as set themselves but indicate that other more harmful or- Tforth in the Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA), ganisms may be present in the water. Waterborne are based on health considerations and are en- diseases such as typhoid, cholera, infectious hepati- forced by the EPA in public community water sys- tis, and dysentery have been traced to improperly tems. Some of the substances currently regulated disinfected drinking water. If you should receive by Primary Standards occur naturally in our envi- notice that the bacteria level in your water exceeds ronment and in the foods we eat. The Primary the minimum standard, follow the directions given Standards set by EPA reﬂect the levels we can safe- in the notice. ly consume in our water, taking into account the Nitrate in drinking water above the national amounts we are exposed to from other sources. standard poses an immediate threat to children, es- Primary Standards set a limit, called a Maximum pecially those under 6 months old. In some infants, Contaminant Level (MCL), on the highest allowable excessive levels of nitrite, which is generated from concentration of a contaminant in drinking water nitrate, have been known to react with the hemo- supplied by municipal water systems. The MCL is globin in the blood to produce an anemic condi- usually expressed in milligrams per liter (mg/L). tion commonly known as Blue Baby Syndrome. If Many labs report contaminant levels in parts per you receive notice that your drinking water con- million (ppm). These units are numerically equiva- tains an excessive amount of nitrate, do not give lent. the water to infants and do not use it to prepare a Primary Standards protect you from formula. Do not boil the water because boiling three classes of toxic pollutants: patho- will only increase the nitrate concen- gens, radioactive elements, and tration. Simply read the notice toxic chemicals. you receive and follow its in- Only two substances for structions carefully. which standards have been set Although only microbi- pose an immediate health ological organisms and ni- threat whenever they are ex- trate pose an immediate ceeded: microbiological agents threat to public health, other (primarily bacteria) and nitrate. substances must be con- Effects from other contaminants, trolled because drinking especially radioactivity, may be water that exceeds MCLs over cumulative. long periods of time may Coliform bacteria from prove harmful. MCLs for human and animal wastes may be National Primary Drinking found in drinking water if the water Water Standards and health ef- is not properly treated. These bacte- fects of contaminants are pre- ria generally do not cause diseases sented in Table 1. Chemicals with ARCHIVEspecial monitoring requirements in Alabama are presented in Table 2.

ANR-790 Water Quality 2.1.3 Visit our Web site at: www.aces.edu Table 1. Levels And Effects Of Primary Drinking Water Contaminants. Name Of Maximum Contaminant Level (MCL) Health Effects Of Contaminant Contaminant (mg/L, unless noted otherwise) Inorganic Chemicals Antimony 0.006 Decreases longevity, alters cholesterol and glucose levels Asbestos 7 MFL (million ﬁbers per liter Benign tumors longer than 10 microns) Arsenic 0.05 Dermal and nervous system toxicity effects Barium 2 Circulatory system effects and increased blood pressure Beryllium 0.004 Cancer risk and damage to bones and lungs Cadmium 0.005 Concentrates in the liver, kidneys, pancreas, and thyroid Chromium 0.1 Skin sensitization, liver, and kidney effects Cyanide 0.2 Spleen, liver, and brain effects Fluoride 4 (secondary MCL of 2 Skeletal damage triggers public notice) Mercury 0.002 Central nervous system disorders; kidney effects Nickel 0.1 Nervous system and skin sensitization Nitrate (as N) 10 Methemoglobinemia (Blue Baby Syndrome—oxygen deprivation in infants) Nitrite (as N) 1 Methemoglobinemia (Blue Baby Syndrome—oxygen deprivation in infants) Total Nitrate/Nitrite 10 Methemoglobinemia (Blue Baby Syndrome—oxygen deprivation in infants) Selenium 0.05 Nervous system effects Sulfate 500 Gastrointestinal effects Thallium 0.002 Liver, kidney, intestinal, and brain effects Lead 0.015 (action level) Nervous system damage and kidney effects; highly toxic to infants Copper 1.3 (action level) Indicates potential high lead level Organic Chemicals Pesticides Alachlor 0.002 Cancer risk Aldicarb 0.003 Nervous system Aldicarb sulfoxide 0.002 Nervous system Aldicarb sulfone 0.004 Nervous system Atrazine 0.003 Reproductive and cardiac effects Carbofuran 0.04 Nervous system and reproductive system Chlordane 0.002 Cancer risk Dalapon 0.2 Liver and kidney effects Dibromochloropropane 0.0002 Cancer risk (DBCP) DinosebARCHIVE 0.007 Thyroid and reproductive effects Diquat 0.02 Kidney and gastro intestinal effects and cataract risk Endothall 0.1 Liver, kidney, gastrointestinal, and reproductive effects Endrin 0.002 Kidney and nervous system

2.1.3-2 Name Of Maximum Contaminant Level (MCL) Health Effects Of Contaminant Contaminant (mg/L, unless noted otherwise) Organic Chemicals (cont.) Pesticides (cont.) Ethylene dibromide 0.00005 Cancer risk (EDB) Glyphosate 0.7 Liver and kidney effects Heptachlor 0.0004 Cancer risk Heptachlor epoxide 0.0002 Cancer risk Lindane 0.0002 Nervous system, kidney, and liver effects Methoxychlor 0.04 Nervous system, kidney, and liver effects Oxamyl (Vydate) 0.2 Kidney effects Pentachlorophenol 0.001 Cancer risk Picloram 0.5 Liver and kidney effects Simazine 0.004 Cancer risk Toxaphene 0.003 Cancer risk 2, 4, 5, - TP (Silvex) 0.05 Nervous system, kidney, and liver effects 2, 4 - D 0.07 Nervous system, kidney, and liver effects Volatile Organic Chemicals Benzene 0.005 Cancer risk Carbon tetrachloride 0.005 Cancer risk para-Dichlorobenzene 0.075 Cancer risk ortho-Dichlorobenzene 0.6 Kidney and liver effects 1, 2 - Dichloroethane 0.005 Cancer risk 1, 1 - Dichloroethylene 0.007 Kidney and liver effects cis - 1, 2 - Dichloro- 0.07 Nervous system and liver effects ethylene trans - 1, 2 - Dichloro- 0.1 Nervous system and liver effects ethylene Dichloromethane 0.005 Cancer risk 1, 2 - Dichloropropane 0.005 Cancer risk Ethylbenzene 0.7 Kidney and liver effects Monochlorobenzene 0.1 Kidney and liver effects Styrene 0.1 Nervous system and liver effects Tetrachloroethylene (PCE) 0.005 Cancer risk Toluene 1 Nervous system and kidney effects 1, 2, 4 - Trichlorobenzene 0.07 Liver and kidney effects 1, 1, 1 - Trichloroethane 0.2 Nervous system effects 1, 1, 2 - Trichloroethane 0.005 Liver and kidney effects Trichloroethylene (TCE)ARCHIVE 0.005 Cancer risk Vinyl chloride 0.002 Cancer risk Xylenes (total) 10 Liver and kidney effects

2.1.3-3 Name Of Maximum Contaminant Level (MCL) Health Effects Of Contaminant Contaminant (mg/L, unless noted otherwise) Organic Chemicals (cont.) Synthetic Organic Chemicals Benzo (a) pyrene 0.0002 Cancer risk Di (2 - ethylhexyl) adipate 0.4 Liver and reproductive effects Di (2 - ethylhexyl) 0.006 Cancer risk phthalate Hexachlorobenzene 0.001 Cancer risk Hexachlorocyclo- 0.05 Kidney and stomach effects pentadiene (HEX) PCBs 0.0005 Cancer risk 2, 3, 7, 8 Tetrachloro- 3 x 10-8 Cancer risk dibenzo - p - dioxin Disinfection By-Products Total trihalomethanes 0.1 Cancer risk (TTHMs) Turbidity Turbidity For conventional and direct filtration Interferes with disinfection plants, less than 0.5 NTU, 95% of the time. For slow sand filters, diatomaceous earth filters, and other technologies, less than 1 NTU, 95% of the time. For groundwater supplies, less than 5 NTU. Microbiological Contaminants Total coliform Less than 40 samples/month, no The presence of these bacteria indicate other more than 1 positive. 40 samples or disease-causing organisms may be present in the more/month, no more than water. 5% positive. MCLG = 0 for total coliform, fecal coliform, and E. coli. Giardia lambliaa MCLG = 0 Giardiasis Virusesa MCLG = 0 Gastrointestinal and other viral infections Radionuclides Natural Gross alpha 15 pC/lb Cancer risk Combined Radium 226 5 pC/l Bone cancer risk and Radium 228 Gross beta 4mrem/yrc Cancer risk Tritiumd ARCHIVE20,000 pCi/l Cancer risk Strontium 90d 8 pCi/l Bone cancer risk aAt present no Alabama standards have been set for these. Sources: ADEM 1992, and Linker 1993. bpCi/l = picocuries per liter. cmrem/yr = millirem per year. dADEM regulates even though EPA does not.

2.1.3-4 Table 2. Chemicals With Special Monitoring Requirements In Alabama. Herbicides, Pesticides, And Miscellaneous Synthetic Organic Chemicals Aldrin Carbaryl Dieldrin Methomyl Metribuzin Butachlor Dicamba 3-Hydroxycarbofuran Metolachlor Propachlor Volatile Organic Chemicals: Bromobenzene Chlorodibromomethane 1,1-Dichloroethane Naphthalene Bromochloromethane Chloroethane 1,1-Dichloropropene n-Propylbenzene Bromodichloromethane Chloroform 1,3-Dichloropropane 1,1,1,2-Tetrachloroethane Bromoform Chloromethane 1,3-Dichloropropene 1,1,2,2-Tetrachloroethane Bromomethane o-Chlorotoluene 2,2-Dichloropropane 1,2,3-Trichlorobenzene n-Butylbenzene p-Chlorotoluene Fluorotrichloromethane 1,2,3-Trichloropropane sec-Butylbenzene Dibromomethane Hexachlorobutadiene 1,2,4-Trimethylbenzene tert-Butylbenzene m-Dichlorobenzene Isopropylbenzene 1,3,5-Trimethylbenzene Dichlorodiﬂuoromethane p-Isopropyltoluene Source: ADEM 1992.

Conclusion Pontius, Frederick W. 1993. Federal Drinking Water Update. Journal American Water Works With increased monitoring and evaluation of Association. 85:42-51. Denver, CO. chemical contaminants, drinking water quality will improve in the future. Maximum Contaminant Tyson, Anthony, and Kerry Harrison. 1989. Levels for additional chemicals becomes effective in Water Quality For Private Water Systems. Bulletin 1995 and 1996. Under the currently proposed regu- 939. Georgia Cooperative Extension Service. lations many additional standards are likely to be University of Georgia. Athens, GA. included within the near future. The costs of moni- U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1989. Is toring alone is going to increase the price we pay Your Drinking Water Safe? EPA 570/9-89-005. Ofﬁce for this precious commodity—safe drinking water. Of Water. Washington, DC. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1990. References The Safe Drinking Water Act: A Pocket Guide To The Requirements For The Operators Of Small Alabama Department Of Environmental Water Systems. Region 9, W-6-1. San Francisco, CA. Management. 1992. Primary Drinking Water Information about speciﬁc Maximum Contami- Standards ADEM Admin. Code R. 335-7-2-.03 to nant Levels is available from the Small Systems 335-7-2-.08. Montgomery, AL. Clearinghouse at West Virginia University (1-800- Linker, Bob. 1993. Safe Drinking Water Act 624-8301) and from the EPA Safe Drinking Water Amendments Update: September 1992 Update. Hotline (1-800-426-4791). The Clearinghouse also HDR Engineering Inc. Charlotte, NC. has a newsletter, On Tap, and brochures, which are NSF International. 1991. Determining The free of charge. Quality Of Your Drinking Water: A Step By Step Guide. Ann Arbor, MI.

This publication, supported in part by a grant from the Alabama Department of Environmental Management and the Tennessee Valley Authority, was prepared by ARCHIVEJames E. Hairston, Extension Water Quality Scientist, assisted by Leigh Stribling, Technical Writer. For more information, call your county Extension ofﬁce. Look in your telephone directory under your county’s name to ﬁnd the number.

Issued in furtherance of Cooperative Extension work in agriculture and home economics, Acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914, and other related acts, in cooperation with the U.S. Department of Agriculture. The Alabama Cooperative Extension System (Alabama A&M University and Auburn University) offers educational programs, materials, and equal opportunity employment to all people without regard to race, color, national origin, religion, sex, age, veteran status, or disability. ANR-790-2.1.3 UPS, New June 1995, Water Quality 2.1.3

2.1.3-5 Agriculture and Natural Resources WATER QUALITY: Managing Drinking Water Quality

ALABAMA A&M AND AUBURN UNIVERSITIES

Drinking Water Standards Regulating Nuisance Contaminants: Secondary Standards ANR-790-2.1.4

econdary Drinking Water Standards, also known Private well owners who wish to ensure that their Sas Secondary Maximum Contaminant Levels water is suitable for all household uses, including (Secondary MCLs or SMCLs), are concentration lim- drinking, bathing, washing, and cooking, should have its for nuisance contaminants and physical problems their water tested for Secondary Standards. that are not generally hazardous to human health. If a water analysis identiﬁes a contaminant signif- These contaminants can cause offensive taste, odor, icantly greater than its Secondary MCL, the decision color, corrosion, foaming, and staining. on whether to treat the water will largely be based on While EPA recommends Secondary Standards to personal preference. The level and the possible source the states as reasonable goals, Alabama has adopted of contamination are important data to consider for these as mandatory standards. Most community water home water treatment. Alternative remedies such as systems across the U.S. monitor and correct for these bottled water may be cheaper and more practical at conditions where feasible. With exception of odor least for drinking water. and foaming agents, community and nontransient Table 1 presents the National Secondary Drinking noncommunity (NTNC) public water systems are Water Standards as set forth in the Safe Drinking required to test for and report the levels of secondary Water Act along with effects of the various contami- contaminants in their drinking water supplies. nants.

Table 1. Levels And Effects Of Secondary Drinking Water Standards. Secondary Contaminants Suggested Levels Contaminant Effects Inorganics

Aluminum 0.20 mg/La Metallic taste Chloride 250.00 mg/L Salty taste; corrosion of pipes; blackening and pitting of stainless steel Copper 1.0 mg/L Bitter taste; green or bluish stains Fluorideb 2.0 mg/L Mottling of teeth; skeletal damage Iron 0.30 mg/L Bitter, metallic taste; brown-orange stains; brackish color Manganese 0.05 mg/L Bitter taste; black stains on laundry and ﬁxtures Silver ARCHIVE0.10 mg/L Skin discoloration Sulfate 250.00 mg/L Bitter, medicinal taste; laxative effects; “rotten-egg” odor (more associated with hydrogen sulﬁde) Total Dissolved Solids 500.00 mg/L Salty or bitter taste; can damage plumbing and limit effectiveness of soaps and detergents Zinc 5.0 mg/L Metallic taste

ANR-790 Water Quality 2.1.4 Visit our Web site at: www.aces.edu Secondary Contaminants Suggested Levels Contaminant Effects Physical Problems

Color 15 color units Visible tint Corrosivity noncorrosive Metallic taste; staining because of lead, copper, iron, or zinc dissolved from plumbing Foaming Agents 0.50 mg/L Soapy taste; unpleasant odor; frothy, cloudy appearance Odor 3 threshold odor number “Rotten-egg,” septic, musty, or chemical smell pH 6.5 to 8.5 Low pH: bitter or metallic taste; high pH: soda taste, slippery feel, scaly deposits amg/L = milligrams per liter = parts per million = ppm. Source: USEPA 1989, and ADEM 1992. bUnder review.

Conclusion References Secondary Standards are not enforced by EPA Alabama Department of Environmental Manage- although corrosion control may become a mandatory ment. 1992. Secondary Drinking Water Standards. measure to control lead. Corrosion control may ADEM Admin. Code R. 335-7-3-.02 to 335-7-3-.03. include control of pH, total alkalinity, carbon dioxide, Montgomery, AL. hardness, temperature and specific conductance, or Stewart, Judith C., Ann T. Lemley, Sharon I. total dissolved solids. Many states have adopted Hogan, and Richard A. Weismiller. 1990. Water enforceable regulations governing these contami- Testing And Interpretation: The Secondary Drinking nants, as has Alabama. Check with your state water Water Standards. Water Quality Fact Sheet 3. USDA quality agency for more information. Extension Service. Washington, DC. Tyson, Anthony, and Kerry Harrison. 1989. Water Quality For Private Water Systems. Bulletin 939. Georgia Cooperative Extension Service. Univer- sity of Georgia. Athens, GA. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1989. Is Your Drinking Water Safe? EPA 570/9-89-005. Ofﬁce Of Water. Washington, DC.

2.1.4-2 Agriculture and Natural Resources WATER QUALITY: Managing Drinking Water Quality

ALABAMA A&M AND AUBURN UNIVERSITIES

Drinking Water Standards What Happens At A Water Treatment Plant? ANR-790-2.1.5

or thousands of years people have treated their Water treatment facilities process water through Fdrinking water to make it look cleaner and taste many steps before it reaches your tap as drinking better. Medical lore from ancient India to Egypt water for your family. The overall process generally advised that water should be filtered through sand and begins with intake at the source, followed by pre-treat- coarse gravel. In Greece, Hippocrates, the Father of ment, mixing, coagulation and flocculation, sedimen- Medicine, recommended boiling water and straining tation, filtration, disinfection, and distribution to the it through a cloth to remove particles. tap. See Figure 1. Other steps may be necessary Early in the 1800s, scientists began to suspect depending on the quality of the water supply. that diseases could be transmitted by drinking water. Since the discovery of bacteria in the 1870s, treat- Preliminary Treatment Processes ment to eliminate disease-causing microorganisms Preliminary treatment processes to purify water has dramatically reduced the incidence of diseases depend on the nature of the water supply and the type transmitted through water. and the amount of contaminants. Quality may vary

MAIN TREATMENT PROCESSES Chemical Feed Lime Alum

yyyyyyyyyyyyy

yyyyyy

yyyyyyyyyyyyy Preliminary

yyyyyyyyyyyyy Treatment yyyyyyMixing Coagulation And Floculation Processes (screening, presedimentation, micro-straining, chemical pretreatment)

Disinfection ARCHIVESedimentation Filtration

Distribution

Source: Marek 1984.

Figure 1. What happens at a water treatment plant. ANR-790 Water Quality 2.1.5 Visit our Web site at: www.aces.edu seasonally, thus requiring more or less treatment dur- for people with high blood pressure. In soft water ing certain waterflow conditions. Most groundwater lead is more easily leached from plumbing. Finally, in Alabama receives only the disinfection treatment detergents that clean favorably in hard water are read- process. All surface water and water from wells sus- ily available. There are no softening plants in Alaba- ceptible to contamination from surface water receive ma since total dissolved solids are not excessive. full treatment through a filter plant. The various pre- Coagulation And Flocculation. The water is sent liminary treatment processes may include the follow- into large basins where the alum clings to other ing. chemicals and impurities in the water (coagulation), Screening. Large objects such as logs, sticks, fish, causing them to form larger, heavier particles called and plants are usually screened out at the intake or as floc. Gravity causes these larger particles to settle to the water is drawn into the treatment plant from a the bottom. river, lake, or other surface water source. If the source Sedimentation. The water is allowed to sit undis- is groundwater, the screening is done by nature as the turbed long enough so that solid particles completely water travels under the surface of the earth. settle to the bottom. This process removes chemical Presedimentation. Gravel, sand, some silt, and other precipitates as well as extremely fine clay and organic gritty materials may be removed by fine screening. particles, including dead microorganisms. Micro-straining. In some cases, algae, aquatic Filtration. After flocs (large, heavy particles) settle plants, and other very small debris may be removed to the bottom, the water continues on its trip through by still finer screening. filters. Layers of sand, gravel, and sometimes hard Chemical Pretreatment. The water is conditioned coal are used to remove any other impurities that are for removal of natural organics, primarily algae and left in the water. Filtration helps to control biological other aquatic microorganisms, as well as their by- contamination and turbidity. (Turbidity is a measure products. This may precede micro-straining. of the cloudiness of water caused by the presence of suspended matter.) Turbidity can shelter harmful Main Treatment Processes microorganisms and reduce the effectiveness of disin- Chemical Feed And Rapid Mix. Chlorine and other fection. Removing organics prior to final chlorination chemicals, such as alum or lime, are added to the of drinking water supplies is important. water to help remove impurities, destroy any taste or Disinfection. After most impurities have been odor, raise pH, disinfect, and sometimes remove removed from the water, a small amount of chlorine excess minerals such as iron that may cause rust or is added to keep the water from developing bacteria staining problems. The water is then mixed rapidly to as it travels throughout the distribution pipes. The distribute the chemicals evenly. amount of chlorine (usually no more than 3 parts per Since the early 1900s, chlorine (as a solid, liquid, million) is carefully measured to be the lowest possi- or gas) has been the primary disinfectant used in the ble amount needed to keep the water free of germs. United States because it is effective and inexpensive Residual chlorine at the tap should be near 0.5 parts and can provide a disinfectant residual in the distribu- per million. tion system. Ozone and ultraviolet radiation can also A primary health concern with cholorination is be used as primary disinfectants, but chlorine or an the formation of disinfection by-products. When appropriate substitute must also be used as a sec- chlorine combines with organic matter in water, such ondary disinfectant after the main treatment processes as decaying plants or animals, it forms substances to prevent regrowth of microorganisms in the distri- called trihalomethanes (THMs). These have been bution system. shown to cause cancer in laboratory animals. Chloro- Chemicals may be added to oxidize ferrous iron form is a common THM which has been linked to (Fe++), which is relatively high in some groundwater, bladder cancer in those who drink from treated public to the ferric state (Fe+++). If pH of the water is above water supplies. There is a drinking water standard for 7 (either naturally orARCHIVE by adding lime), the insoluble total trihalomethanes (TTHMs) of 0.10 milligrams compound of ferric hydroxide is precipitated. per liter, but it applies only to those systems that Softening. Sometimes chemicals are included to serve more than 10,000 people. reduce the “hardness” or mineral content of drinking New regulations concerning disinfection by-prod- water. This usually involves the exchange of sodium ucts will likely be proposed in the near future for calcium and magnesium and, sometimes, the Fluoridation. In some places fluoride at concentra- removal of iron and manganese. However, softening tions up to 1 part per million is also added to help is not as popular as it once was for several reasons. prevent tooth decay. This is not as common as it once The increased sodium in softened water is unhealthy was because of the health concern for excess fluoride.

2.1.5-2 EPA has established a maximum contaminant level connect copper pipes. Lead can also be corroded from (MCL) of 4 milligrams per liter (4 parts per million) public distribution system pipes and joints. for fluoride in drinking water. Aeration effectively strips radon gas from source If conventional steps in the main treatment pro- waters. Oxidation and aeration will remove hydro- cess are not adequate, certain inorganic and organic gen sulfide gas. contaminants must be removed by other methods. Treatment To Remove Organic Contaminants Treatment To Remove Inorganic Contaminants Methods to remove organic contaminants include Reverse osmosis or ion exchange are used to activated carbon filtration and aeration. Special filters remove nonmetal inorganic contaminants. Nitrate and may be used at water treatment plants to remove fluoride are the nonmetals of greatest health concern in many toxic organic substances such as pesticides and drinking water. Nitrate is frequently found in groundwater supplies in high-density agricultural areas. Like- solvents; however, these filter systems are expensive ly sources of groundwater nitrate are nitrogen fertiliz- to build and maintain, and they slow down the treat- ers as well as decomposing plant and animal wastes, ment process. As water passes through carbon filters, including human waste from septic systems. organic impurities are trapped inside the filter materi- Coagulation and filtration, reverse osmosis, al. This is called adsorption. ion exchange, or activated alumina are used to Sources of organic compounds include stormwa- remove metal inorganic contaminants. The metals of ter runoff and leaching from improperly disposed greatest health concern in drinking water include wastes, accidental spills, leaking fuel storage tanks mercury, cadmium, selenium, lead, arsenic, chromi- and pipelines, pesticides from agricultural areas, and um, and barium. Industrial sources can contribute rare industrial effluents. metals and toxic heavy metals to surface waters. Controlling corrosion of inorganic chemicals Testing from the distribution or plumbing system is another Water samples are taken regularly at many points treatment alternative. Corrosion of plumbing by-prod- in the treatment process for laboratory testing. These ucts such as copper and lead at the point of use (the tests let water plant personnel know whether the pri- consumer’s tap) can usually be indirectly eliminated mary and secondary drinking water standards set by by controlling pH and water hardness. the EPA are being met. The laboratory equipment Lead contamination is the most serious threat being used is so sensitive that it can measure sub- from corrosion. Lead usually enters the water from stances in parts per million, parts per billion, or even private plumbing where it is found in solder used to parts per trillion in some cases.

Table 1. Routine Sampling Frequency For Major Contaminant Groups. Contaminant Group Surface Water Groundwater Inorganicsa One time per year Every 3 years Organics: Herbicides, pesticides, PCBsb Four times per year Four times per year TTHMs Four times per year One time per year Turbidityc Continuous monitoring Once per day Total Coliformd Monthly Monthly Radionuclides ARCHIVEEvery 4 years Every 4 years aThe system must be sampled at least once for corrosivity characteristics including pH, calcium hardness, alkalinity, temperature, total dissolved solids, and calculation of the Langlier Index. The system must monitor sodium for reporting purposes. In Alabama, public water systems must sample for asbestos, nitrates, and nitrites more frequently than for other inorganic contaminants. bSampling frequency depends on how vulnerable the system is to contamination as determined by the state regulating agency. Under high vulnerability, sampling frequency will increase. cMonitoring frequencies depend on the ﬁltration system used by the water treatment plant. dSampling frequency may vary somewhat depending on the size of the system and the requirements of the state regulating agency. In Alaba- ma, public water systems must submit a sampling plan to ADEM with the proposed number of samples and sites. Sources: USEPA 1990b, and ADEM 1992.

2.1.5-3 Testing frequency required by the Alabama De- the threshold of danger insures ample time to correct partment of Environmental Management for different situations that might eventually lead to problems. contaminant groups is given in Table 1. References Conclusion Alabama Department Of Environmental Manage- Today we can take a closer look at our drinking ment. 1992. Water Supply Regulations ADEM Admin. water than ever before. With careful monitoring, the Code R. 335-7-2 and 335-7-3. Montgomery, AL. ability to detect parts per million—or even trillion— American Water Works Association. 1984. The offers the opportunity to spot potential contamination Story Of Drinking Water. Catalog No. 70001. Denver, long before the point of danger. Being able to detect CO. 15pp. potentially harmful substances (whether naturally How Much (Or How Little) Is One Part Per Bil- occurring or synthetic) at concentrations well below lion? 1990. Fact Sheet. Alliance For A Clean Rural Environment. Washington, DC. Marek, Linda G. 1984. Water And Sewage Treat- ment For Small Communities. BR. 1347. Vermont Cooperative Extension Service. University of Ver- mont. Burlington, VT. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1990a. Environmental Pollution Control Alternatives: Drink- ing Water Treatment For Small Communities. U.S. Government Printing Ofﬁce. Washington, DC. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1990b. The Safe Drinking Water Act: A Pocket Guide To The Requirements For The Operators Of Small Water Systems. Region 9, W-6-1. San Francisco, CA.

2.1.5-4 Agriculture and Natural Resources WATER QUALITY: Managing Drinking Water Quality

ALABAMA A&M AND AUBURN UNIVERSITIES

Water Testing Should You Have Your Water Tested? ANR-790-2.2.1 he question of whether or not to have your tions. Also, some rural water supply districts do not Twater tested is a serious matter that concerns have enough money to hire trained specialists or to the health of you and your family. Water that is immediately comply with expanding government contaminated with bacteria or chemicals can cause requirements. In addition, corrosive water or deteri- both immediate and long-term health problems. In orating plumbing in the house can add contami- addition to illness, a variety of less serious prob- nants after water enters your home. lems such as taste, color, odor, and staining of Even if your water comes from a public supply, clothes or fixtures are symptoms of water quality it should be tested for total coliform bacteria when problems. major changes are made in the plumbing of your Whether or not to have your water tested also home or the water treatment system. Changes or depends on the supplier and the source of your additions to plumbing or water treatment systems water. Many people get water simply by turning on could introduce contaminants. the faucet and making a monthly payment to a municipal water system. Others provide their own Testing Your Water: Private Water water. Your water supply is either public (supplied by a municipality) or a private system. Public water Supplies systems draw water from rivers, reservoirs, springs, More than 720,000 Alabama citizens, or 17 per- or groundwater wells. Most private drinking water cent of the state population, depend on their own comes from wells, though springs and ponds are wells, springs, or cisterns for drinking water. sometimes used. Individual water supplies of this sort are considered private. The owner has sole responsibility for assur- Testing Your Water: Public Water ing the safety of the water source for drinking. For this reason, routine testing for a few of the most Systems common contaminants is highly recommended. If your water comes from a public system, fed- Private wells should be tested yearly for col- eral and state standards require regular testing for iform bacteria, nitrate, hardness (total dissolved contaminants such as pathogens, radioactive ele- solids), and pH. A big change in either of these pa- ments, and certain toxic chemicals. Individuals rameters from one year to the next indicates poten- using public water supplies pay for water testing tial contamination. Tests for iron, sulfate, and chlo- and treatment as part of their water bill. ride should be done every 3 to 5 years. If your public water system fails to meet • If you are expecting a baby in your home, Primary Drinking Water Standards, you must be no- you should test for nitrate at the beginning of the tified. The kind of contamination and what effects pregnancy. Depending on the test result, you may it might have on your health will determine the wish to test again before bringing the baby home type of notification. Usual means of notification in- and during the baby's first 6 months. clude newspapers, letters, radio, or television. • If your wellhead becomes flooded or sub- Even though federalARCHIVE and state water testing is merged, test for bacteria. thorough, some contamination of drinking water • If a chemical spill or leak occurs within 500 can still occur. Some public water supplies have feet of your well, test your water for possible cont- quality problems caused by inadequate municipal amination. Also test your water supply if your treatment facilities or distribution systems. Main neighbors have found contamination. lines in old systems may have cracks that allow untreated water to be drawn in under certain condi-

ANR-790 Water Quality 2.2.1 Visit our Web site at: www.aces.edu • If you are buying a new house with a private tical, unnecessary, and very expensive to test for all water supply, have the water tested for bacteria possible contaminants. Testing, however, is the and nitrate to insure its quality. Lending agencies only sure way to conﬁrm that certain problems often require the bacteria test before approving a exist so that appropriate treatment can be recom- loan. mended. Given the high cost of housing, it is also pru- dent to test for radon and mineral radioactivity. References If you have a well that contains soft or acidic Mengel, David B., and Cheri L. Janssen. 1990. water (pH below 7.0), this water may be leaching Why Test Your Water? WQ 4. Indiana Cooperative metals from your plumbing. If you have corrosive Extension Service. Purdue University. West water, test the water coming from your faucet for Lafayette, IN. copper and lead. This is especially important for a Population Served By Public Water Systems. new well that uses a brass, submersible pump. 1991. Alabama Rural Water Association Inc. If you have an old or shallow well, it is espe- Montgomery, AL. cially important to test your water regularly. Older Powell, G. Morgan. 1990. Suggested Water Tests methods of well construction and the well’s loca- For Private Systems. Engineering 4-5 (Water tion in relation to septic or livestock facilities on Quality). Kansas Cooperative Extension Service. many farms make older and shallow wells prone to Kansas State University. Manhattan, KS. contamination. Stewart, Judith C., Ann T. LemIey, Sharon I. The testing frequencies suggested here are gen- Hogan, and Richard A. Weismiller. 1990. Home eral guidelines. Test more often if you suspect Water Testing. Water Quality Fact Sheet 4. USDA there is a problem with the quality of your drinking Extension Service. Washington, DC. water.

Summary You should have your water tested if you suspect or observe a water quality problem. Not all residents need to test their water, and it is imprac-

Issued in furtherance of Cooperative Extension work in agriculture and home economics, Acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914, and other related acts, in cooperation with the U.S. Department of Agriculture. The Alabama Cooperative Extension System (Alabama A&M University and Auburn University) offers educational programs, materials, and equal opportunity employment to all people without regard to race, color, national origin, religion, sex, age, veteran status, or disability. ANR-790-2.2.1 UPS, New June 1995, Water Quality 2.2.1

2.2.1-2 Agriculture and Natural Resources WATER QUALITY: Managing Drinking Water Quality

ALABAMA A&M AND AUBURN UNIVERSITIES

Water Testing Where Can You Have Your Water Tested? ANR-790-2.2.2

any places in Alabama test water for the pres- ever, is somewhat limited because of budget con- Mence of contaminants. Local health authorities, straints and annual work load for the lab. private laboratories, and water treatment companies Many private laboratories in Alabama will ana- can even help determine the tests you need and may lyze water from either public or private water sup- make some of the analyses. If you have reason to sus- plies. Some labs will test private water supplies for pect that your water is contaminated, contact one of bacteria. Other labs also analyze drinking water for the following sources. metals, minerals, pesticides, and other organic sub- Municipal water supply systems regularly test stances. ADEM has established a list of certified lab- for Primary Drinking Water Standard contaminants, oratories for water analyses. This list is updated twice monitor levels of sodium and certain unregulated yearly. Private testing laboratories are also listed in chemical contaminants, and look for corrosion in the the yellow pages of the telephone book; make sure water distribution system. They will provide water they are certified by ADEM for appropriate analyses. quality reports upon request. Laboratories in local universities, especially in The health department in each county can their departments of agronomy, biology, chemistry, arrange to test for bacteriological contamination, usu- aquaculture, toxicology, or natural resources, may ally for less than $15.00. The samples are analyzed at offer a variety of water testing services. state health labs or at certain private laboratories under contract with the County Health Department. Auburn University offers limited water testing through the Soil Testing Laboratory (118 Funchess The Alabama Department of Environmental Hall, Auburn University, AL 36849, 334-844-3958). Management (ADEM) certifies laboratoriess for Although not certified for drinking water tests, the lab- testing drinking water in Alabama. A current list of oratory offers tests for certain minerals, pH, soluble certified laboratories may be obtained from ADEM at salts, and nitrates for a fee of $15.00. The major pur- no charge pose of this testing service is to provide nutrient value The Alabama Department of Agriculture and of water. Table 1 lists contaminants tested for in a rou- Industries (ADAI) tests for special pesticide residue tine water analysis at the Soil Testing Laboratory. problems at the Alabama Pesticide Residue Laborato- ry (P.O. Box 370, Highway 29 at Donahue Drive, Tuskegee University offers water testing for Auburn, Alabama 36830, 334-844-4705). Contact the nitrate and lead in the Department of Agricultural Sci- pesticide laboratory director or the pesticide educa- ence for less than $10.00. Additional metals can be tion specialist with the Alabama Cooperative Exten- analyzed by special requests. The university is also sion System for information on available analyses beginning an immuno-assay testing program for cer- and specific sampling instructions. tain agricultural pesticides. Tuskegee uses EPA ADAI test samples are sometimes taken for evi- approved procedures to test for lead in drinking water. dence in court cases.ARCHIVE Official samples taken by an Information on sampling can be obtained from county ADAI inspector are free. Other samples generally Extension offices or directly from the Tuskegee Water cost $35.00 each. Call ADAI in Montgomery (334- Quality Laboratory (Department of Agricultural Sci- 261-2631) with details concerning why an analysis is ences, Milbank Hall, Tuskegee University, AL 36088, needed. 334-727-8400 or 8073). ADAI also tests for specific problems at a county Water treatment companies and plumbing sup- Extension agent’s request. The number of free sam- ply stores may offer certain tests in your home for ples that can be analyzed at an agent’s request, how- free. Local engineering firms may also test water for

ANR-790 Water Quality 2.2.2 Visit our Web site at: www.aces.edu Table 1. Contaminants Tested For By The Soil Mail-order water tests are now available. The Testing Laboratory At Auburn University. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has a list of laboratories that conduct mail-order water tests. Con- Contaminant Concentration In Solution tact EPA’s Drinking Water Hotline (1-800-426-4791) Minerals: for specific information. Aluminum ppma Barium ppm Summary Boron ppm Many places in Alabama can test your water. Calcium ppm While free-flowing or soil-filtered water may provide Chromiumb ppm good quality drinking water, it can also be polluted Cobalt ppm with bacteria or chemicals from unseen sources. If you Copper ppm b doubt the quality of your drinking water, you should Iron ppm have your water supply tested for contamination. Full Leadb ppm Magnesium ppm analysis for volatile and synthetic organic contami- Manganeseb ppm nants plus inorganic contaminants costs several hun- Molybdenum ppm dred dollars; thus, you should request testing for the Phosphorus ppm specific suspected contaminants in your water Potassium ppm Additional information about testing drinking Silicon ppm water is available from EPA’s Drinking Water Hot- Sodium ppm line: 1-800-426-4791. Zinc ppm Nitrate ppm References pH pH units Brodie, Herbert L. 1989. Testing For Water Qual- Soluble Salts ppm ity. Water Resources 15. Maryland Cooperative aFor the purposes of this article ppm = parts per million = mg/L = Extension Service. The University of Maryland. Col- milligrams per liter. lege Park, MD. bThe upper acceptable Primary Drinking Water Standards for chromium and lead and the upper recommended Secondary Mancl, Karen. 1988. Where To Have Your Water Drinking Water Standards for iron and manganese are below the Tested. AEX-315. Ohio Cooperative Extension Ser- detection limits of this laboratory. vice. Ohio State University. Columbus, OH. Mengel, David B., and Cheri L. Janssen. 1990. certain contaminants. And local hospital laboratories Why Test Your Water? WQ4. Indiana Cooperative often offer water testing services. Extension Service. Purdue University. West Home screening tests are currently on the mar- Lafayette, IN. ket. These allow you to test for hardness, iron, or Powell, G. Morgan. 1990. Suggested Water Tests nitrate in your home. Keep in mind that these tests are For Private Systems. MF-871. Kansas Cooperative a simplified version of the tests conducted by a lab. Extension Service. Kansas State University. Manhat- The results indicate only whether your sample con- tan, KS. tains the tested contaminant and the approximate Stewart, Judith C., Ann T. Lemley, Sharon I. level of that contaminant. These screening tests serve Hogan, and Richard A. Weismiller. 1990. Home as useful tools for indicating if further testing is need- Water Testing. Water Quality Fact Sheet 4. USDA ed. If the results are positive, you should follow up Extension Service. Washington, DC. with a laboratory test.

2.2.2-2 Agriculture and Natural Resources WATER QUALITY: Managing Drinking Water Quality

ALABAMA A&M AND AUBURN UNIVERSITIES

Water Testing How Should You Collect Water Samples?

ANR-790-2.2.3

he first step for any water quality test is getting a your water pipes or storage tanks. (Some tests, such Treliable, representative sample. The need for care- as maximum contamination for lead, require that ful sampling techniques varies according to the con- water stand in the pipes overnight before being sam- taminant being tested. Bacteria and volatile organics, pled. Follow the instructions provided by the lab.) for example, are very sensitive to sample collection ¥ Take the sample midstream. Do not breathe into procedures while hardness and salts are fairly insensi- or touch the inside of the collection bottle or the tive to sampling technique. Storage procedures before inside of the cap. analysis and time between sampling and analysis are important but also vary substantially for each sub- ¥ If needed, store the sample in the refrigerator stance. before taking it to the lab. A general procedure for taking a sample is given ¥ Don’t pump gasoline before taking the sample; below and would be sufficient for many problems volatile organics in the gasoline such as benzene and including bacteria. Specific sampling procedures for 1,2-dichloroethane will evaporate off your hands into some contaminants follow. In cases where there is the sample. doubt, the laboratory performing the test should be con- ¥ Submit the sample as soon as possible. Labs tacted for instructions and a sampling bottle. In fact, in should receive samples within 24 hours (particularly some cases the laboratory may want to take the sample. for bacteria tests) and within 48 hours at the latest. General Procedures ¥ Transport the sample in a cooler or ship in an insulated container. For most water tests, follow these steps when collecting a sample: Testing For Volatile Organic Chemicals ¥ Use the container specified by the testing lab. Many organic contaminants are volatile and will For some tests, water samples may be submitted in a form a gas when they come in contact with air. When plastic bag or bottle. Other tests require special dark- collecting a sample to be tested for volatile organic colored glass bottles. chemicals, follow these additional steps: ¥ Take the sample close to the pump before the ¥ Remove the faucet aerator and let water run for water goes through a treatment system. 5 minutes to clear the pipes and bring in fresh water. ¥ Do not take the sample from a swing-type ¥ Partially close the faucet until a slow, steady, faucet if others are available. Inspect the faucet for non-aerated stream of water flows. leaks. Select another faucet if there is leaking. ¥ Hold the laboratory sample bottle at an angle to ¥ Remove faucet aerator. reduce aeration when filling. ¥ Disinfect the faucet with bleach or a flame. ¥ Fill the bottle completely and replace the cover. ¥ Run the water severalARCHIVE minutes (up to 10 minutes) to clear the line if you are interested in the actu- ¥ Invert the bottle and check for air bubbles. If al quality of the main source of water (groundwater, bubbles are present, empty and take another sample. stream, river, or water from the main distribution ¥ Take the sample to the laboratory in person, if lines of a public water system). possible, or use an overnight mail service. ¥ Take the sample within 3 or 4 seconds after you Again, timeliness and cleanliness are extremely turn the water on if your concern is the condition of important to prevent false results.

ANR-790 Water Quality 2.2.3 Visit our Web site at: www.aces.edu Testing For Pesticides Sampling For Court Cases Samples for pesticide testing must be taken so Sometimes water samples are taken for evidence they will not deteriorate or become contaminated in a court case to show pollution or damage to a water before reaching the lab. Contact the lab testing the supply. These samples should always be collected by sample for complete instructions or a collection kit. a disinterested third party trained in proper sample Specific steps when testing for pesticides include the collection who can testify as to how the sample was following: handled. ¥ Do not use a plastic container. Use a state-certified laboratory for all water test- ¥ Collect the sample in an amber-colored glass ing. Your record of routine sampling can provide evi- bottle if available. These are provided by many labo- dence about your water supply before pollution or ratories. The dark glass prevents light from degrading damage. the sample. Summary ¥ Cap the bottle with a Teflon-coated lid. This For the most accurate results, water samples special lid may also be provided by a lab. It prevents should always be collected using proper sample col- false positive results caused by certain plastics. Do lection procedures. They should be tested by a labora- not use lids with waxy seals. tory that uses methods approved by the Environmen- ¥ Keep the sample refrigerated preferably at 35 to tal Protection Agency. 38¡F and submit it to the lab within 48 hours. Sampling is the most important part of water test- ¥ If shipping the sample, pack it in ice and ship it ing. A carelessly collected or an inaccurate sample in an insulated container. may cause misleading results, and false results can be The Alabama Pesticide Residue Laboratory in costly to both your family’s health and finances. Auburn, Alabama requests a 1-gallon sample in a clean glass container with a screw-type lid lined with References aluminum foil. American Farm Bureau Federation. 1989. Water If test results show an unacceptable contamina- Quality: Self Help Checklist. Natural And Environ- tion level, seek the advice of a professional. In most mental Resources Division. Park Ridge, IL. cases, a second test will be taken before possible Haman, Dorota Z., and Del B. Bottcher. 1986. treatment is recommended. Home Water Quality And Safety. Circular 703. Flori- da Cooperative Extension Service. University of Corrosion Sampling Florida. Gainesville, FL. When sampling for evidence of corrosion, follow Mancl, Karen. 1988. Water Testing. AEX-314. these additional steps: Ohio Cooperative Extension Service. The Ohio State ¥ Allow the water to stand in the water lines University. Columbus, OH. overnight or longer. Do not let the water run before Mengel, David B., and Cheri L. Janssen. 1990. collecting a sample because water held in the pipes How To Take A Water Sample. WQ3. Indiana Coop- will contain the corrosion products you are trying to erative Extension Service. Purdue University. West sample. Lafayette, IN. ¥ Take the sample from an inside faucet in a laboratory container. ¥ Deliver the sample to the laboratory in person or use an overnight mail service.

2.2.3-2 Agriculture and Natural Resources WATER QUALITY: Managing Drinking Water Quality

ALABAMA A&M AND AUBURN UNIVERSITIES

Water Testing Which Tests Should You Request?

ANR-790-2.2.4

esting water for every contaminant is possible but Annual tests for household water supplies should Tvery expensive and not necessary. If your water include tests for total coliform bacteria, nitrate, pH, source is private, you should test regularly for con- and total dissolved solids. taminants which can cause adverse health effects. If your water supply is public, you may only need Private Water Supplies: Testing For to test if someone in your family becomes ill or if the Suspected Contamination taste, odor, or color of your water changes. Water tests are especially important if the supply is threatened by nearby activities. Good records prior Private Water Supplies: Routine Testing to contamination will be needed to prove that the sup- Even if your private water supply is safe and ply was damaged. Table 1 presents situations that pure, regular testing for a few indicators of contami- may affect a water supply and useful laboratory tests nation is valuable because it establishes a record of to monitor for potential contamination. water quality. This record helps to identify changes in the supply, contamination of the water source, or Testing For Nuisance Water Contamination deterioration of the water system. Good records of While nuisance contaminants in water may not water quality are also important should you need to present a health hazard, the water may not be satisfac- prove that your water has been contaminated by some tory for all uses. Common complaints about nuisance outside activity such as mining or waste disposal. water include staining of fixtures and fabrics, off-

Table 1. Activities That Can Cause Health-Threatening Contamination And Appropriate Tests. If You Suspect Or Observe: Request These Tests:

Intensive agriculture Volatile organic chemical (VOC) scan of chemicals used in the area, coliform bacteria, nitrate, and pH. Livestock facilities Total dissolved solids (TDS), coliform bacteria, nitrate, and phosphorus. Waste water systems: lagoons, septic Coliform bacteria, fecal streptococcus, nitrate, ammonia, TDS, systems, sludge, etc. chlorides, sodium. Mining: coal and other minerals Chloride, sodium, pH, heavy metals, corrosion index, acidity, sulfate, TDS. Oil or gas: test holes, wells, abandoned wells, buried Chloride, hydrocarbons, oil, oil components, sodium, TDS, VOC storage tanks, operationalARCHIVE or abandoned gas station scan. Dump, junkyard, landﬁll VOC scan, heavy metals, acidity, ammonia, oil components. Industrial site, factory, or dry cleaning VOC scan of chemicals used, produced, or stored on the site operation (such as gasoline components and cleaning solvents), pH, chloride, sulfate, and metals.

Source: Powell 1990.

ANR-790 Water Quality 2.2.4 Visit our Web site at: www.aces.edu Table 2. Nuisance Indicators And Appropriate Tests. If You Suspect Or Observe: Request These Tests: Stained fixtures and clothes: red or brown Iron black Manganese green or blue Copper Reddish-brown slime Iron bacteria Off-color appearance to water: cloudy Turbidity black Hydrogen sulfide, manganese brown or yellow Iron, tannic acid Unusual taste and odor: rotten egg Hydrogen sulfide metallic pH, corrosive index, iron, zinc, copper, lead salty Total dissolved solids (TDS), chloride septic, musty, earthy Total coliform bacteria, methane alkali pH, TDS gasoline or oil Hydrocarbon scan soapy Surfactants Corrosion of pipes or plumbing pH, lead, iron, manganese, copper Low pressure or plugging of pipes and fixtures TDS (hardness) Rapid wearing of water faucets pH and filterable solids; if pH is less than 7.5, test for alkalinity, lead, copper, zinc

Source: Powell 1990. color appearance, unusual taste or odor, deposits, and water changes. Call individual laboratories for costs pitting of metals. Testing can identify particular prob- of speciﬁc tests that you desire. lems and help you select water treatment equipment. References Table 2 presents appropriate tests for specific water Mancl, Karen. 1988. Water Testing. AEX-314. quality indicators. Ohio Cooperative Extension Service. The Ohio State Summary University. Columbus, OH. Powell, G. Morgan. 1990. Suggested Water Tests The tests you request depend on whether your For Private Systems. MF-871. Kansas Cooperative water source is public or private. Private systems Extension Service. Kansas State University. Manhat- should be routinely checked for contaminants which tan, KS. can cause health problems. While public water supply Stewart, Judith C., Ann T. Lemley, Sharon I. systems are routinely tested for these contaminants, Hogan, and Richard A. Weismiller. 1990. Home individual homeowners may need to test for nuisance Water Testing. Water Quality Fact Sheet 4. USDA contamination if the taste, odor, or color of their Extension Service. Washington, DC.

2.2.4-2 Agriculture and Natural Resources WATER QUALITY: Managing Drinking Water Quality

ALABAMA A&M AND AUBURN UNIVERSITIES

Water Testing Interpreting Water Tests: What Do The Numbers Mean? ANR-790-2.2.5

urrent laboratory techniques can detect impurities sumptive, the confirmed, and the completed test. The Cat very low concentrations in water. Consequent- presumptive test is based on the ability of coliform ly, water that we once considered pure really contains bacteria to ferment lactose sugar broth, producing numerous contaminants, very often from natural gas. The confirmed test consists of growing cultures sources and usually below harmful levels. Since of bacteria from the presumptive medium that sup- water can dissolve thousands of substances, we can- presses the growth of other organisms. The completed not expect pure water, but we want to be sure of safe test is then based on the ability of the cultures to drinking water. again ferment lactose broth. This test is very specific To protect family members and livestock, private for coliform. water supplies should be checked to see if they meet The membrane-filter technique is faster than the minimum criteria for bacterial and chemical con- the fermentation procedure and is becoming the col- tent. Three general types of water testing are applica- iform test standard in most laboratories. It has the ble to residential water: advantage of giving a direct count of the number of ¥ Bacteriological analysis to determine if the coliforms, but it is not as specific for coliform as the water supply is contaminated by human or animal fermentation technique. The number of coliform bac- waste. teria present is determined by passing a known vol- ¥ Chemical analysis to check for contamination ume of water through a membrane filter that has a by hazardous chemicals. very small pore size. The coliform bacteria are trapped on the filter. A sterilized growth medium is ¥ Mineral and pH analysis to determine the quali- then poured over the filter, and the bacteria are left to ty of the water and its desirability for a domestic grow. After incubation, the coliform colonies are water supply. counted, and the concentration in the original water Bacteriological Tests sample determined. It is not possible to test for every water-borne dis- Coliform tests alone will not distinguish whether ease-causing bacteria and virus. If such tests were bacteriological contamination is from humans or other possible, they would be very costly. Instead, only a animals. Therefore, some labs are beginning to ana- test for total coliform bacteria is usually performed. lyze for fecal streptococci as well as fecal coliform. The quantities of fecal coliforms and fecal streptococ- Coliform bacteria are found in the digestive sys- ci discharged by human beings are significantly differ- tem and pass through in the waste of human beings ent from the quantities discharged by other animals. and warm-blooded animals. Coliform bacteria are not Thus, the ratio of fecal coliform (FC) count to the general pathogens but serve as indicators to show that fecal streptococci (FS) count (the FC:FS ratio) can disease bacteria may be present and that treatment or be used to show whether the suspected contamination corrective measures should be taken. Coliform tests derives from human or from animal wastes. have become the basisARCHIVE for bacteriological evaluation of water in the United States. If these bacteria are pre- Interpreting Bacteriological Tests sent in a water supply, sewage or manure may be con- A general bacteriological report from the labora- taminating the water. tory will indicate that the water is either coliform Tests for coliform may be carried out using either negative or coliform positive. A positive coliform test the multiple-tube fermentation technique or the mem- means that coliform bacteria do exist in the water. If brane filter technique. The multi-tube fermentation this is the case, then you should take immediate steps procedure involves three test phases called the pre- to eliminate the source of contamination and to disin- ANR-790 Water Quality 2.2.5 Visit our Web site at: www.aces.edu fect the water before use. It is not unusual for private to screen the water sample for the presence of some water supplies to have bacterial contamination. unknown chemical. However, if a particular chemical Therefore, it is important that all new wells and pri- is suspected, a test can usually be performed at a nom- vate water sources be tested before being used and inal fee (less than $50.00). Fees for testing the levels retested at some prescribed interval. If your lab uses of certain chemicals may be very high (from $200 to the fermentation technique, the report will come back more than $1,000). with a number designated as MPN which is an abbre- A mineral analysis indicates the extent of miner- viation for “most probable number” per 100 ml. This al impurities in the water. Large amounts of minerals is not an absolute concentration of organisms present and other impurities may not only affect the appear- but a statistical estimate of that concentration. ance of the water, they can also pose a health hazard. If the lab uses the membrane-filter technique, the For minerals which are generally found in high report will come back with a concentration of coliform concentrations, colorimetric and titrametric testing colonies. For example, if 100 ml (about 3.4 ounces) of methods are commonly used. The results are com- water were filtered and 1 colony grew on the plate, the pared to representative standards in field test kits. reported concentration would be 1 per 100 ml. Some- For trace elements and organic contaminants times samples come back designated TNC which is an which are found in much lower concentrations, other abbreviation for “too numerous to count.” analytical techniques are used. These techniques The ratio of fecal coliform (FC) count to the fecal include atomic absorption spectroscopy, activation streptococci (FS) count (FC:FS ratio) can be used to analysis, chromatography, mass spectroscopy, and determine the source of pollution in rural areas where emission spectroscopy. These techniques are usually septic tanks are used and animal wastes are common. expensive and require sophisticated laboratory equip- Typical ratios of FC to FS for human beings and ment and well-trained personnel. Procedures are various animals are presented in Table 1. The FC:FS described in standard methods of chemical analyses ratio for domestic animals is less than 1.0 whereas the handbooks. ratio for human beings is more than 4.0. If ratios are obtained in the range of 1 to 2, the most likely inter- Interpreting Chemical, Mineral, And pH Tests pretation is that the pollution is derived equally from Most analyses for contaminants—both chemical human and animal sources. and mineral—provide results in terms of concentration. (See previous articles on drinking water stan- Table 1. Estimated Fecal Coliform To Fecal dards.) These results are usually expressed in units of Streptococci Ratio From Feces Of Human Beings either parts per million (ppm) or milligrams per liter And Some Animals. (mg/L). These units are used interchangeably by most people. Concentrations of some contaminants are Fecal Coliform To Fecal Streptococci Animal (FC:FS) Ratio even expressed in quantities as small as parts per billion (ppb). Concentrations greater than 10,000 mil- Chicken 0.40 ligrams per liter are commonly expressed in percent- Cow 0.20 ages by weight. Duck 0.60 While one part per billion is very small (like 1 Human Being 4.40 teaspoonful in two Olympic-sized swimming pools or Pig 0.04 one aspirin in 96,000 gallons of water), it may take Sheep 0.40 only a small amount of some contaminants to cause Turkey 0.10 adverse health effects. The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has determined the Maximum Con- Source: Mara 1974. taminant Level (MCL) of health-affecting minerals and chemicals. Most of these levels are based on mil- Chemical And Mineral Tests ligrams per liter (parts per million) or micrograms per Many synthetic chemicals can contaminate a liter (parts per billion.) The EPA also regulates nui- water supply, impair ARCHIVEits usability, and create a health sance contaminants. These are also measured in mil- hazard. Examples include petroleum products, agri- ligrams per liter or parts per million. cultural pesticides, and industrial chemicals. A typical mineral analysis will give the content in Unless a specific chemical or type of chemical is parts per million of mineral elements such as calcium, suspected to be in the water, special chemical tests are magnesium, manganese, iron, copper, and zinc. It will not routinely performed. Fees are relatively expensive also determine the acidity or pH of the water and the for chemical analyses particularly if the lab is asked hardness, expressed in parts per million or grains per

2.2.5-2 gallon (usually as calcium carbonate equivalent). It If there is a problem with your water or if you are may also give the concentration of nitrate, sulfate, confused about the test results, consult a water quality and other chemical compounds. treatment expert. If a drinking water standard is It is good practice to have a mineral analysis to exceeded, notify your local health department or the determine the quality of a new water supply and to Alabama Department of Environmental Management retest after 6 months of use. After that, repeated test- (ADEM). These agencies as well as private water ing may be unnecessary unless there is an obvious treatment companies can be contacted for specific change in the color, taste, odor, or staining potential treatment recommendations. of the water. Finally, have your water retested to be certain that Water hardness (total dissolved solids, com- you really do have a problem. The second test should monly referred to as TDS) is often reported as a con- be done by a different laboratory to conﬁrm results. centration (mg/L) of calcium carbonate equivalent. References Hardness may also be expressed as grains per gallon Haman, Dorota Z., and Del B. Bottcher. 1986. (gpg). Soft water has 0 to 75 mg/L of calcium carbon- Home Water Quality And Safety. Circular 703. Flori- ate (0 to 5 gpg); very hard water, more than 300 mg/L da Cooperative Extension Service. University of (more than 18 gpg). One grain per gallon is approxi- Florida. Gainesville, FL. mately equivalent to 17.1 mg/L. Langston, John. 1989. Improving Home Water When hardness exceeds 180 mg/L, it generally Quality. MP292. Arkansas Cooperative Extension causes problems, and a water softener should be con- Service. University of Arkansas. Fayetteville, AR. sidered. Water softened to zero hardness is corrosive. A blend of non-softened water and extremely soft Mara, D. D. 1974. Bacteriology For Sanitary water is desirable. Engineers. Churchill Livingston, Edinburgh, Scot- land. Acidity of water is expressed in pH units. This is Shelton, Theodore B. 1989. Interpreting Drinking a numerical expression that indicates the degree to Water Quality Analysis: What Do The Numbers which water is acidic or basic. The pH can range Mean? E127. New Jersey Cooperative Extension Ser- from 0 to 14, but most potable water will range from vice. Rutgers University. New Brunswick, NJ. 6.5 to 8.5. Any solution with a pH below 7 is acidic; any solution with a pH above 7 is basic or alkaline. Tyson, Anthony, and Kerry Harrison. 1989. Water Quality For Private Water Systems. Bulletin 939. High pH levels are undesirable since they may Georgia Cooperative Extension Service. The Univer- impart a bitter taste, cause buildup of mineral de- sity of Georgia. Athens, GA. posits on water pipes and appliances, and decrease the effectiveness of chlorination. The following articles in the Water Quality series may be helpful: Summary If you have your water tested, do not be surprised Drinking Water Standards if many substances are found and reported. Before Protecting Your Health: Primary Standards becoming concerned, compare results with Primary Regulating Nuisance Contaminants: Secondary and Secondary Drinking Water Standards. Standards

2.2.5-3 Agriculture and Natural Resources WATER QUALITY: Managing Drinking Water Quality

ALABAMA A&M AND AUBURN UNIVERSITIES

Typical Contaminants And Problems Bacterial Contaminants ANR-790-2.3.1

he most common type of health-threatening con- Treatment Of Bacterial Contaminants Ttamination of water is biological. Through improved treatment and supply systems, public water When To Treat. The main indicator of the sanitary systems have virtually eliminated the transmission of quality of drinking water is the coliform bacteria bacterial-caused illness in drinking water. For those count. The presence of coliform bacteria, which can be people with public water, mineral and chemical prob- found in the feces of human beings and animals, indi- lems are usually a more frequent concern than bacte- cates a high probability of other pathogenic organisms ria. But most private water supplies receive no disin- (disease germs) being present. Public water systems fection treatment; therefore, biological contamination should not detect total coliform bacteria in more than still presents the greatest health risk to these supplies. one sample each month to meet the Maximum Con- taminant Level for coliform bacteria. Some common waterborne diseases include gas- troenteritis, typhoid, dysentery, hepatitis, giardiasis, When water is contaminated with surface and cryptosporidiosis. The organism which causes drainage, noncoliform bacteria may also be present in giardiasis is now the most commonly identified large numbers. This type of contamination may not organism associated with waterborne disease in this be harmful since there is only a small probability that country. The disease giardiasis involves diarrhea, nau- drainage water contains pathogenic organisms. How- sea, and severe dehydration. The organism that causes ever, if the count of noncoliform bacteria is more than cryptosporidiosis was unknown 10 years ago. It is a 200 per 100 ml, water is also considered to be poor protozoan similar to the one that causes giardiasis. quality. Cryptosporidiosis produces symptoms similar to giar- How To Treat. Coliform bacteria can be controlled diasis, but much more serious. So far, outbreaks of through waste treatment and disposal methods that the disease have been rare. reduce bacterial survival. Bacteria can also be controlled through urban and rural stormwater manage- Sources Of Bacterial Contaminants ment systems which reduce runoff rates and volumes The many sources of bacterial pollution include and maximize natural filtering processes. If all waste septic tanks, sewage plants, and runoff from wood- and runoff were controlled and returned to the land in lands, pastures, and feedlots. the proper manner, bacterial contamination of surface Almost all surface waters contain some bacteria. water and groundwater would be significantly Most coliform bacteria enter streams through runoff reduced. from areas with high concentrations of animals or In municipal sewage plants, bacteria in wastewa- human beings. Groundwater is generally free of bac- ter are controlled through chemical or ultraviolet teria unless it is directly contaminated by a waste treatment. In private water systems, bacterial contam- source or an improperly constructed water well. ination can be controlled by properly siting wells and Private water suppliesARCHIVE (wells) can be contaminated septic systems. Proper siting prevents bacteria from by bacteria from many sources. Bacterial problems are entering the water system and allows bacteria to be most common in shallow wells and areas with coarse filtered in the soil. textured soils and fractured bedrock or limestone. The If bacteria are contaminating an established water major source of contamination is septic tanks or sewage system, locate the source of contamination and elimi- lines located too close to the well. Runoff or leaching nate the problem there. The most common source of from livestock operations can also contaminate wells. bacterial contamination is surface water entering the There is a chance of bacterial contamination any time a well. This problem can usually be eliminated by pump is removed from a well and replaced. extending the well casing above ground level and ANR-790 Water Quality 2.3.1 Visit our Web site at: www.aces.edu sealing around it with tight clay or concrete. The top References of the casing should also be sealed. All surface water Bodie, Herbert L. 1989. Coliform Bacteria—A should be diverted away from the well area. Measure Of Water Pollution. Water Resources 17. Once you have located the source of contamina- Maryland Cooperative Extension Service. The Uni- tion and eliminated it, shock chlorinate the well and versity of Maryland. College Park, MD. distribution system to kill the remaining bacteria. Haman, Dorota Z., and Del B. Bottcher. 1986. Shock chlorinate by introducing a strong chlorine Home Water Quality And Safety. Circular 703. Flori- solution directly into the well and washing down the da Cooperative Extension Service. University of inside of the well if possible. Then circulate the chlo- Florida. Gainesville, FL. rinated water throughout the plumbing and allow it to Shaw, Byron H., and James O. Peterson. 1990. stand overnight. Finally, flush the lines until the chlo- Improving Your Drinking Water Quality. G3378. rine odor is no longer evident. Wisconsin Cooperative Extension Service. University If you cannot eliminate the source of contamina- of Wisconsin. Madison, WI. tion, consider alternate sources of water. If this option Tyson, Anthony, and Kerry Harrison. 1990. Water is not available, you may have to resort to continuous Quality For Private Water Systems. Bulletin 939. disinfection of the water supply. Georgia Cooperative Extension Service. The Univer- Various household water disinfection methods sity of Georgia. Athens, GA. include continuous chlorination (by a chemical feed U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1990. pump), ultraviolet radiation, and distillation. Chlorine Environmental Pollution Control Alternatives: Drink- may react with organic matter (dead bacteria) in the ing Water Treatment For Small Communities. U.S. water to form hazardous chlorinated hydrocarbons. Government Printing Office. Washington, DC. An activated carbon filter can be used to remove free chlorine and chlorination by-products. The following articles in the Water Quality Bacterial Contaminants At A Glance series may be helpful: Symptoms: Intestinal illnesses; changes in water Possible Treatments color, taste, or odor; tests showing bacterial contami- Chemical Feed Pumps nation. Causes Of The Problem: Bacteria from surface Water Supply Wells water or wastes seeping into groundwater, wells, or Disinfecting Well Water By Chlorination plumbing. Suggested Treatments: Chlorination (chemical feed pump) followed by activated carbon filter; distillation or ultraviolet radiation. Prevention: Properly install well and check it for leaks. Chlorinate the well and household plumbing.

2.3.1-2 Agriculture and Natural Resources WATER QUALITY: Managing Drinking Water Quality

ALABAMA A&M AND AUBURN UNIVERSITIES

Typical Contaminants And Problems Water Hardness ANR-790-2.3.2

n a recent survey, water hardness was ranked as one dissolved solids in the water are from chloride salts, Iof the most frequently occurring home water quality the water condition is called permanent hardness problems in Alabama. Hardness minerals in water because these salts are difficult to remove. have a wide impact on households. Water hardness is reported as either milligrams Hard water interferes with almost every cleaning per liter (parts per million) of calcium carbonate or task from laundering and dishwashing to bathing and grains per gallon. Four levels of water hardness are personal grooming. Clothes laundered in hard water given in Table 1. may look dingy and feel harsh and scratchy. Dishes and glasses may be spotted when dry. Hair washed in Table 1. Water Hardness. hard water may feel sticky and look dull. Hard water may cause a film on glass shower doors, shower Classification Grains Per Gallon Parts Per Million (ppm) walls, and bathtubs. In hard water, true soaps com- Soft 0 to 3.5 0 to 60 bine with hardness minerals to form soap curds or Moderate 3.5 to 7 61 to 120 soap scum. Hard 7 to 10.5 121 to 180 Cooking with hard water can also be difficult. Hard water can produce scale on pots. Some vegeta- Very Hard More than 10.5 More than 180 bles cooked in hard water lose color and flavor. Beans Source: Tyson and Harrison 1990. and peas become tough and shriveled. Hard water also may affect the performance of household appliances. When hard water is heated, a Water in Alabama ranges from soft to very hard. hard scale is formed that can plug pipes and coat See Figure 1. heating elements. Scale is also a poor heat conductor. Treatment Of Water Hardness With increased deposits on the unit, heat is not transmitted to the water fast enough and overheating of the When To Treat. There is no well-defined maximum metal causes failure. Buildups of deposits will also allowable amount of hardness. However, at 30 grains reduce the efficiency of the heating unit increasing per gallon (about 500 ppm), water is so hard that it the cost of fuel. has an objectionable taste and may have a laxative effect if the hardness is magnesium sulfate. At that Causes Of Water Hardness level, soap consumption is very high and pipe and The cause of hard water is dissolved minerals. water heater scaling is severe. Treatment is not rec- These minerals are usually calcium or magnesium ommended unless hardness exceeds 3 grains per gal- that dissolve in rainwater as it passes through soil and lon which is 51 parts per million. (One grain per gal- rock formations. Other minerals, such as iron, may lon equals approximately 17 parts per million.) contribute to hardnessARCHIVE of water, but in natural water Small amounts of dissolved minerals cause no they are generally present in insignificant quantities. problems and improve the taste of water. They also Hardness is generally defined as the concentra- coat pipes and fixtures to help insulate them from cor- tions of calcium and magnesium expressed in terms rosion. Mineral-free water can cause rapid corrosion of calcium carbonate. There are two types of hard- of pipes and fixtures even though the pH may be near ness: temporary hardness and permanent hardness. If neutral. the dissolved solids in water are carbonates or bicar- Whether to soften household water supplies or bonates, the water condition is called temporary hard- not is not a decision to be made lightly. Among fac- ness because carbonates can be easily removed. If the tors to consider are family composition, stage in the ANR-790 Water Quality 2.3.2 Visit our Web site at: www.aces.edu not to install softeners. Persons with heart or circula- Florence tory problems should discuss the question with a Huntsville physician. In addition to sodium, are there any other ways in which softened water may affect health? Water contains trace elements or vital minerals Gadsden found only in minute quantities in the human body. These tiny amounts have a profound effect on human health. Researchers have found that the mineral con-

Birmingham tent of water directly affects the risk of cardiovascular disease. The risk is lowest where the drinking water

Tuscaloosa contains lots of minerals and highest where the water is soft. Consumers using water softening equipment may want to consider installing a bypass to the kitchen water supply for cooking and drinking purposes. Is softened water harmful to plants, lawns, and Montgomery gardens? Softened water is not recommended for watering plants, lawns, and gardens because of its sodium content. Water used in recharging a water softener should be disposed of through a storm drain or sewer because of its damaging effects.

Dothan Should softened water be used in a steam iron? The best water for steam irons is distilled water, Mobile Soft (0-60 ppm) particularly for use over a long period of time. Soft- ened water is not free of minerals, which may clog Moderately hard (61-120 ppm) steam irons. Hard (121-180 ppm) Should softened water be used in operating an Very hard (> 180 ppm) evaporative cooler? Source: Powell and Duncan. 1965. The sodium in softened water will accumulate on Figure 1. Mineral hardness in Alabama groundwater. evaporative cooler pads. The pads should be cleaned monthly by hosing them with hard water to remove the sodium buildup. Softened water may also be family life cycle, lifestyle, health, maintenance of the harmful to metal parts in coolers causing excessive equipment, and cost. accumulation of rust. Bypassing the cooler with a How To Treat. You can reduce water hardness by separate water line for hard water is possible, but using a mechanical water softening tank connected to installation and maintenance costs must be consid- your water supply line. Home water softening equip- ered. ment operates on the cation exchange principle to Water Hardness At A Glance remove hardness minerals from water. Reverse osmosis and distillation can also remove dissolved miner- Symptoms: Scale on utensils, in hot water pipes, and als, which cause hardness. water heaters; poor cleaning action of soaps and detergents; a film forming on skin, clothing, glass- Questions About Softened Water ware, and ﬁxtures after cleaning. Should everyone use softened water? Causes Of The Problem: Dissolved minerals, pri- Because of the highARCHIVE sodium content of softened marily calcium and magnesium salts. water, individuals who have heart or circulatory prob- Suggested Treatments: Cation exchange (water soft- lems or who are on low-sodium diets may be advised ener), reverse osmosis, or distillation.

2.3.2-2 References Haman, Dorota Z., and Del B. Bottcher. 1986. Home Water Quality And Safety. Circular 703. Flori- da Cooperative Extension Service. University of Florida. Gainesville, FL. Langston, John. 1989. Improving Home Water Quality. MP292. Arkansas Cooperative Extension Service. University of Arkansas. Little Rock, AR. Powell, J. W., and A. C. Duncan. 1965. Water Level Fluctuations And Chemical Quality Of Ground Water In Alabama. Special Map 29. Geological Sur- vey of Alabama. Tuscaloosa, AL. Shaw, Byron H., and James O. Peterson. 1990. Improving Your Drinking Water Quality. G3378. Wisconsin Cooperative Extension Service. University of Wisconsin. Madison, WI. Tucker, Mary E. 1987. Hard Water: To Soften Or Not To Soften. MPH-848. Kansas Cooperative Extension Service. Kansas State University. Manhat- tan, KS. Tyson, Anthony, and Kerry Harrison. 1990. Water Quality For Private Water Systems. Georgia Cooperative Extension Service. The University of Georgia. Athens, GA.

2.3.2-3 Agriculture and Natural Resources WATER QUALITY: Managing Drinking Water Quality

ALABAMA A&M AND AUBURN UNIVERSITIES

Typical Contaminants And Problems Iron And Manganese ANR-790-2.3.3

ron is one of the most troublesome elements in in iron and manganese has a metallic or medicinal Iwater supplies throughout the United States. In a taste. Water that is high in iron causes most of the recent survey in Alabama, iron was ranked as the staining problems so familiar to many areas. These number one naturally occurring water quality prob- brown-yellow-red stains appear around toilet bowls lem. Iron contamination of Alabama water is wide- or on fixtures where water stands or drips. They also spread. See Figure 1. appear on laundry, particularly if chlorine bleach is Neither iron nor manganese pose any health risks. used. Tea or green leafy vegetables may become very In fact, small concentrations are essential to human dark when prepared with water that is high in man- health. But iron water is a nuisance. Water that is high ganese. Iron bacteria in the system produces an oily film on water and a gelatinous growth in water tanks or toilets. Florence Huntsville Sources Of Iron And Manganese Since iron is present in varying quantities in most soils and rocks, it is also found in most surface water and groundwater. Iron and manganese occur naturally Gadsden in groundwater, but some iron can be added from corroded water pipes. The more corrosive the water (the lower the pH) the more iron and other minerals will Birmingham be dissolved from metallic surfaces the water contacts. Tuscaloosa The four forms of iron commonly found in drinking water are ferrous (Fe2+), ferric (Fe3+), organic, and iron bacteria. Water contaminated with ferrous iron appears clear when first drawn at the cold water Montgomery faucet because the iron is completely dissolved. When ferrous iron is exposed to air, it turns into ferric iron, which forms a precipitate. Water contaminated with ferric iron turns cloudy and contains particles of a reddish-brown substance which settle to the bottom. Organic iron may give the water color but does not precipitate or settle out. Dothan Iron bacteria are living organisms that feed on ARCHIVEiron in the water and on iron in pumps, pipes, well casings, tanks, and fixtures. They also form slime in toilet tanks and water heaters and clog pipes and Mobile Low iron pumps. High iron Manganese acts in a manner similar to iron but Source: Powell and Duncan 1965. forms a brownish-black precipitate. Manganese is rarely found alone in a water source but is generally Figure 1. Iron content of Alabama groundwater. found with dissolved iron.

ANR-790 Water Quality 2.3.3 Visit our Web site at: www.aces.edu Table 1. Summary Of Treatment Options For Iron In Drinking Water. Iron Form Concentration Treatment Method Ferrous (Fe2+) Up to 1 mg/L Chemical feed pump; cation exchange (dissolved) 2 to 10 mg/L Oxidizing filter; reverse osmosis; distillation Ferric (Fe3+) 2 to 10 mg/L Mechanical filter; reverse osmosis; distillation (precipitated) Ferrous More than 10 mg/L Superchlorination or aeration followed by filtration; may Ferric require pH adjustment Organic Iron bacteria

Source: Plowman 1989.

Treatment Of Iron And Manganese Iron or manganese bacteria should be treated only When To Treat. A chemical analysis of water should by shock chlorination or continuous chlorination (by be obtained which will show the type and concentra- chemical feed pump) followed by filtration. tion of iron and manganese present. Dissolved iron If you suspect that you have an iron problem, concentrations as high as 60 parts per million (ppm) have your water tested. The test will show the kind have been known to exist, but usually no more than 5 and the amount of iron in the water. Then get profes- ppm are present. Unfortunately as little as 0.3 ppm sional help to select the treatment method that will (the current drinking water standard) can create seri- best eliminate the problem. ous difficulties in the home. Iron And Manganese At A Glance High levels of manganese (levels greater than the Symptoms: Reddish-brown stains on laundry, sinks, current drinking water standards of 0.05 mg/L) may and other objects touched by water. cause brown or black stains on porcelain fixtures and Causes Of The Problem: Iron: Acidic water where laundry. Manganese at this concentration should be pH is less than 6.5.; iron-bearing geologic formations; treated. groundwater that lacks oxygen; iron bacteria which How To Treat. Several methods may be used to treat attacks the well casing or plumbing; corroded pipes. iron and manganese in home water supplies. These Manganese: Water that is acidic and low in oxygen; include polyphosphate chemical feed pumps, cation landfills or other waste disposal which acidifies the exchange (water softeners), oxidizing filters, chlori- groundwater or reduces the oxygen content. nation, reverse osmosis, and distillation. A summary Suggested Treatments: Chemical feed pump, cation of treatment options appears in Table 1. exchange, oxidizing filter, reverse osmosis, or distilla- Many of the water treatment processes for iron tion. Choose a method of treatment based on the con- are pH dependent. Iron can easily be removed when centration and the form of iron. the pH is 7.5 or higher, but manganese is very difficult to remove at pH values below 8.5. References Polyphosphate chemical feeders do not remove Christenbury, Joyce H. 1990. Iron And Man- iron or manganese from water. The iron and manganese. WQL 9. South Carolina Cooperative Exten- ganese are held in solution so the troublesome precip- sion Service. Clemson University. Clemson, SC. itate is not formed. The mineral taste will remain. Haman, Dorota Z., and Del B. Bottcher. 1986. This process will not work for iron bacteria or iron Home Water Quality And Safety. Circular 703. Flori- that has already oxidizedARCHIVE to its insoluble form. da Cooperative Extension Service. University of Cation exchange and oxidizing filters vary in Florida. Gainesville, FL. design and in the amount of metallic minerals they Langston, John. 1989. Improving Home Water will effectively remove. Most work best for small Quality. MP292. Arkansas Cooperative Extension concentrations of iron and manganese, in the range of Service. University of Arkansas. Little Rock, AK. 2 ppm or less. However, some manufacturers adver- Machmeier, Roger E. 1990. Iron In Drinking tise high capacity units claimed to handle larger Water. AG-FO-1318. Minnesota Cooperative Exten- amounts. sion Service. University of Minnesota. St. Paul, MN.

2.3.3-2 Plowman, Faye T. 1989. Iron And Manganese. Water Quality Fact Sheet 5. New Hampshire Cooper- ative Extension Service. University of New Hamp- shire. Durham, NH. Powell, J. W., and A. C. Duncan. 1965. Water Level Fluctuations And Chemical Quality Of Ground Water In Alabama. Special Map 29. Geological Sur- vey of Alabama. Tuscaloosa, AL. Shaw, Byron H., and James O. Peterson. 1990. Improving Your Drinking Water Quality. G3378. Wisconsin Cooperative Extension Service. University of Wisconsin. Madison, WI. Tyson, Anthony, and Kerry Harrison. 1990. Water Quality For Private Water Systems. Georgia Coopera- tive Extension Service. The University of Georgia. Athens, GA.

The following articles in the Water Quality series may be helpful: Possible Treatments Filters Reverse Osmosis Distillers Ion Exchange Units: Cation Exchange (Softeners) And Anion Exchange Chemical Feed Pumps

2.3.3-3 Agriculture and Natural Resources WATER QUALITY: Managing Drinking Water Quality

ALABAMA A&M AND AUBURN UNIVERSITIES

Typical Contaminants And Problems Turbidity (Cloudy Water) ANR-790-2.3.4

ater drinkers find turbidity objectionable pri- How To Treat: Activated carbon filters or mechani- Wmarily because the physical appearance of dirty cal filters remove turbidity. Two different types of water is less appealing than clear sparkling water. mechanical filters may be used individually or in Turbidity caused by inorganic minerals is undesirable combination. One is the sand filter and the other is the because its abrasiveness can erode a plumbing sys- cartridge filter. tem’s pipes and fittings and score its valve seats and A sand filter is best for removing heavy loads of washers. Turbidity caused by suspended organic mat- suspended particles while a cartridge filter may be ter is objectionable because it can stain sinks and fix- used as secondary filtration at the point of use to tures and discolor laundered fabrics. Suspended mat- remove very fine particles not removed by the sand ter can also carry pathogens. filter. If the turbidity concentration is relatively low, a The main problem turbidity causes is interference cartridge filter may be all that is needed. with disinfection processes. Bacteria, which are usu- Public water systems using surface sources pro- ally present in turbid water, can be protected from vide full treatment, including filtration. Many systems chlorine and other disinfectant techniques. with turbid groundwater also provide filtration. Causes Of Turbidity Reverse osmosis and distillation also successfully treat turbidity. Cloudy or muddy water is caused by the presence of fine suspended particles of clay, silt, algae, or Turbidity At A Glance organic matter. Solid particles suspended in water Symptoms: Cloudy or gritty water; water pipes, fil- absorb or reflect light and cause the water to appear ters, and water heater plugged. cloudy. These particles are picked up as water moves over or under the ground. Since the surface of the Causes Of The Problem: Fine sand, silt, and clay earth acts as an excellent filter, the water from deep passing through well screen; suspended particles of wells is usually clear without significant amounts of organic matter; precipitates forming in water from turbidity. Turbidity is more common in the water temperature or pressure changes. from surface supplies. Suggested Treatments: Activated carbon filter, In fractured bedrock aquifers, cloudy or gritty mechanical filter (sand or cartridge), reverse osmosis, water may occur as a result of blasting, construction or distillation. activities, or surface water intrusion. Prevention: Make sure well is sealed from direct sur- If cloudy water routinely occurs after rainfall and face contamination. Repair or replace well screen. snow melt, either your well has a leaky casing or rock Soften the water to prevent precipitation of scale. fractures are allowing rapid movement of surface water into the well. References ARCHIVEHermanson, Ronald E. 1991. Turbidity, Color, Treatment Of Turbidity Odor, And Taste In Domestic Water. EB0994. Wash- When To Treat: Turbidity in excess of 5 NTU is ington Cooperative Extension Service. Washington usually objectionable for esthetic reasons. If the State University. Pullman, WA. amount exceeds 10 NTU, the water may contain bac- Haman, Dorota Z., and Del B. Bottcher. 1986. terial contaminants and may not be safe to drink. Home Water Quality And Safety. Circular 703. Flori-

ANR-790 Water Quality 2.3.4 Visit our Web site at: www.aces.edu da Cooperative Extension Service. University of Florida. Gainesville, FL. Shaw, Byron H., and James O. Peterson. 1990. Improving Your Drinking Water Quality. G3378. Wisconsin Cooperative Extension Service. University of Wisconsin. Madison, WI. Tyson, Anthony, and Kerry Harrison. 1990. Water Quality For Private Water Systems. Georgia Coopera- tive Extension Service. The University of Georgia. Athens, GA.

2.3.4-2 Agriculture and Natural Resources WATER QUALITY: Managing Drinking Water Quality

ALABAMA A&M AND AUBURN UNIVERSITIES

Typical Contaminants And Problems Color, Odor, And Taste Problems ANR-790-2.3.5

rom the clouds to the tap, water contacts and car- amount of contaminants. When a small quantity of Fries many substances, including gases, minerals, contaminant is present, other methods are sufficient. and organic matter. Many of these are impurities that Faucet aerators can improve taste and help interfere with water use by humans. Some of these remove obnoxious gases. They work by putting oxy- impurities are completely dissolved; others are solid gen in water. suspended particles in the water that cause objection- When only small amounts of hydrogen sulfide are able color, odor, and taste. involved, an oxidizing filter or a carbon filter will Color makes water unpleasant for drinking and remove the sulfur satisfactorily. If concentrations are cooking and causes staining. A rotten egg odor or higher, the hydrogen sulfide can be removed by chlo- taste in water means hydrogen sulfide is present. rination followed by filtration through a mechanical Even a very low concentration will result in strong, obnoxious odors. Highly mineralized water tastes (sand) filter. The chlorine will oxidize the sulfur salty or metallic, and the taste can easily be detected changing it to an insoluble form, and the filter will in foods and beverages. For a pleasant taste, water remove the suspended yellow particles. The chlorine should have some dissolved minerals. Water without will also kill sulfur bacteria if they are present. minerals tastes bland. At A Glance Causes Of Color, Odor, And Taste Problems The color in water is most often caused by dis- Color solved matter from decaying organic materials. Some Symptoms: Red, yellow, blue, or black tinge to water. color is almost always present in surface water and can Causes Of The Problem: Suspended organic matter; occur in well water also. Organic matter often contributes to the tastes and odors in water giving it a various dissolved minerals; iron (red or yellow color), musty odor and unpleasant taste. A major cause of copper (blue color), manganese (black color); sulfate- taste and odor problems is metabolites produced by reducing bacteria (black color). algae or other microorganisms, but a distinctive “rotten Suggested Treatments: Chlorination followed by egg” odor indicates the presence of hydrogen sulfide. activated carbon filter (for organic matter); oxidizing Hydrogen sulfide can cause more than a taste and filters; reverse osmosis. odor problem. It is very corrosive, and it can combine with other minerals to cause black water and black Rotten Egg Odor And Taste stains. Iron sulfide is quite common when iron and Symptoms: Corrosion of iron, steel, and copper hydrogen sulfide are both present. Iron sulfide forms plumbing and pumps; black water (if both iron and a black precipitate that causes severe staining and sulfur are in the water); blackened silverware. laundry problems. SulfurARCHIVE reducing bacteria can also Causes Of The Problem: Hydrogen sulfide; sulfate- cause problems by developing black slime materials reducing bacteria; sulfur bacteria. in pipes, fixtures, and toilet flush tanks. Suggested Treatments: Chlorination followed by Treatment Of Color, Odor, And Taste Problems mechanical (sand) filter (for hydrogen sulfide up to 5 Chlorination and activated carbon filters will ppm); chlorination followed by activated carbon filter remove colors, odors, and tastes from water with any (for any amount of contaminant); oxidizing filters.

ANR-790 Water Quality 2.3.5 Visit our Web site at: www.aces.edu Prevention: Replace or clean clogged and corroded References plumbing. Haman, Dorota Z., and Del B. Bottcher. 1986. Other Off Flavors Home Water Quality And Safety. Circular 703. Flori- Symptoms: Bitter, brackish, oily, salty, or chlorine da Cooperative Extension Service. University of odor or taste. Florida. Gainesville, FL. Causes Of The Problem: Extreme mineral content; Hermanson, Ronald E. 1991. Turbidity, Color, organic matter; excess chlorine; travel through oily or Odor, And Taste In Domestic Water. EB0994. Wash- salty water. ington Cooperative Extension Service. Washington State University. Pullman, WA. Suggested Treatments: Chlorination followed by activated carbon ﬁlter (to remove organic matter and Langston, John. 1989. Improving Home Water iron and to eliminate metallic taste); reverse osmosis Quality. MP292. Arkansas Cooperative Extension (to remove salty taste); activated carbon filter (to Service. University of Arkansas. Little Rock, AR. remove chlorine odor or taste). Shaw, Byron H., and James O. Peterson. 1990. Improving Your Drinking Water Quality. G3378. Wisconsin Cooperative Extension Service. University of Wisconsin. Madison, WI. Tyson, Anthony, and Kerry Harrison. 1990. Water Quality For Private Water Systems. Georgia Coopera- tive Extension Service. The University of Georgia. Athens, GA.

2.3.5-2 Agriculture and Natural Resources WATER QUALITY: Managing Drinking Water Quality

ALABAMA A&M AND AUBURN UNIVERSITIES

Typical Contaminants And Problems Corrosion ANR-790-2.3.6

orrosion is a chemical process that eats away Water temperature. Corrosion is faster at higher Cmetals commonly used in plumbing, making temperatures. Above 140¡F the rate of steel corrosion them fail. One type of corrosion attacks and gradually doubles with every 20¡ increase in temperature. thins the entire metal surface, often causing red water Acidity. The acidic or or basic condition of water is in iron or steel water systems or blue-green stains in measured on a scale known as the pH. The pH can copper or brass systems. Lead from solder is the vary from 0 to 14 with a pH of 7 being neutral. If the greatest health risk from this type of corrosion. pH is below 7, the water is acidic; above 7, it is basic. Another type of corrosion attacks small areas, and Alkalinity is often confused with basic pH of deep pits develop and penetrate pipe or tank walls. This type of corrosion usually does not add iron or water, but they are not the same. Total alkalinity of copper to the water, but even a single hole in a pipe water is a measure of capacity of all its combined length or a tank can destroy its usefulness. chemical components to neutralize acid. It is measured as the calcium carbonate equivalent for neutral- Causes Of Corrosion izing acid, but includes bicarbonate, carbonate, and Corrosion is a natural process of chemical/electri- even some phosphates and silicates. For ideal corro- cal degradation that occurs when metals are in con- sion control, water should have moderate alkalinity tact with water. All water is corrosive to some degree. (30 to 70 mg/L) and a pH from 7.9 to 8.2. Values of The rate of corrosion depends on the water’s electri- pH below 6.5 indicate corrosive water, especially cal conductivity, oxygen concentration, temperature, with low alkalinity. Surface water in Alabama is natu- and acidity. rally corrosive because pH is usually slightly acidic to Electrical conductivity. Electrical conductivity does neutral and alkalinity is low. Values of pH above 7.5 not cause corrosion problems where mineral concen- are also corrosive when alkalinity is low. trations are low; corrosion is a problem where miner- In surface water common causes for acidity are al concentrations are high. Water that has few dis- runoff from mining spoils, decomposition of plant solved minerals is a poor conductor, but water materials, and acid rainfall caused by atmospheric containing high mineral concentrations is a relatively carbon dioxide and other airborne pollutants, espe- good conductor. Water containing sodium salts is cially oxide gases of sulfur and nitrogen. more corrosive than water containing calcium salts. In groundwater the cause of acidity is usually dis- Hard water usually coats the inside of pipes and solved carbon dioxide, decaying organic matter, or reduces corrosion. acid rainfall. In some cases, especially in mining Two different metals in contact with each other areas, water may contain free mineral acid— and a solution that conducts electricity create a gal- hydrochloric, sulfuric, or nitric. vanic cell. This cell generates electricity and one metal dissolves or corrodesARCHIVE in proportion to the elec- Treatment Of Corrosion tricity generated. This galvanic corrosion occurs very When the prime cause of corrosion is a high con- close to the joint between the metals. It is common centration of dissolved minerals, there is no feasible, where copper and galvanized iron pipes are joined economical method of removing the minerals from together. small water systems. However, their corrosiveness Oxygen concentration. Oxygen dissolved in water can be controlled by feeding polyphosphate com- will also enhance the process of corrosion. Deep well pounds with a chemical feed pump. Feeding water is usually free of dissolved oxygen, but oxygen polyphosphate forms a protective film in the water is present in surface water. system. ANR-790 Water Quality 2.3.6 Visit our Web site at: www.aces.edu When the corrosion is caused by acid water, the References most obvious solution is to neutralize the acidity. One Haman, Dorota Z., and Del B. Bottcher. 1986. of the simplest ways to do this is to install a neutraliz- Home Water Quality And Safety. Circular 703. Flori- ing filter. Most of these filters contain marble chips or da Cooperative Extension Service. University of some other slowly dissolved liming agent. Neutraliz- Florida. Gainesville, FL. ing filters must be backwashed periodically because Hermanson, Ronald E. 1991. Corrosion From they serve as mechanical filters to remove solid parti- Domestic Water. EB1581. Washington Cooperative cles from the water. Extension Service. Washington State University. Pull- Another method of neutralizing acid water is to man, WA. feed a soda ash solution, or sodium carbonate, to the Shaw, Byron H., and James O. Peterson. 1990. water supply through a chemical feed pump. This Improving Your Drinking Water Quality. G3378. pump can operate with a well pump to produce an Wisconsin Cooperative Extension Service. University adequate amount of soda ash in the water flow. Feed- of Wisconsin. Madison, WI. ing a soda ash solution ahead of the pressure tank produces the best results. Because neutralizing acid Tyson, Anthony, and Kerry Harrison. 1990. Water water with soda ash produces water high in sodium, Quality For Water Systems. Georgia Cooperative an alternative drinking water supply would be advis- Extension Service. The University of Georgia. able for those people on a low sodium diet. Athens, GA. Corrosion in household water systems is control- lable. The best treatment method results from careful consideration of factors such as economics, water quality characteristics, water temperature variance, and the inherent limitations of the available treatment technology. Corrosion At A Glance Symptoms: Green residues or stains on faucets, pots, and sinks; leaks in pipes. Causes Of The Problem: Acidic water, electrical conductivity, oxygen concentration, water hardness, and high temperature. Suggested Treatments: For Acidity: Mechanical (neutralizing) filter or chemical feed pump (feeding soda ash or polyphosphate). Prevention: Set water heaters no higher than 140¡F. Use similar metals where possible in plumbing systems. Use plastic plumbing.

2.3.6-2 Agriculture and Natural Resources WATER QUALITY: Managing Drinking Water Quality

ALABAMA A&M AND AUBURN UNIVERSITIES

Typical Contaminants And Problems Metal Contaminants ANR-790-2.3.7

t is extremely rare for concentrations of metals in less than the maximum contaminant level of these IAlabama water to exceed EPA Primary Standards and other potentially toxic metals. for drinking water. Not all of these metals would cause a change in Drinking water containing some metals in very water taste before dangerous levels are reached. Indi- small quantities may actually reduce the possibility of viduals should not be overly concerned about toxic deficiencies of trace elements in the diet. Several met- levels of metals in drinking water, however, unless als such as sodium, potassium, magnesium, and calci- there is suspected industrial contamination. um are essential to sustain biological life. At least six How To Treat. Methods for the removal of trace additional metals, referred to as trace elements, are amounts of toxic metals include distillation and also essential for optimal growth, development, and reverse osmosis. Ion-exchange may be used if the reproduction. These are manganese, iron, cobalt, cop- resins are selected very carefully with regard to the per, zinc, and molybdenum. metals needing removal and the other metals present Amounts of trace elements or other metals in the in the water, which may interact with the process. water supply should be kept to minimum levels Activated alumina is effective only for certain metals. because of possible chronic or acute poisoning effects. In addition to the metals essential for human life, Metal Contaminants At A Glance drinking water may include metals which can cause Symptoms: A change in water taste. chronic or acute poisoning. These metals should be eliminated from drinking water if possible. Causes Of The Problem: Industrial contamination; household water pipes leaching copper and lead. Sources Of Metal Contaminants Suggested Treatments: Distillation, reverse osmosis, Industrial contamination is the most likely source ion-exchange, or activated alumina filter. Choose a of metal contaminants. Junkyards and landfills may method based on which metal you wish to remove. also contaminate ground and surface water. However, Special adsorption filters for specific metals are cur- water pipes may contribute to elevated levels of some rently being studied for their effectiveness. elements such as copper and lead. References Treatment Of Metal Contaminants Haman, Dorota Z., and Del B. Bottcher. 1986. When To Treat. Arsenic, barium, cadmium, chromium, lead, mercury, and selenium have been regulated Home Water Quality And Safety. Circular 703. Flori- by the Environmental Protection Agency’s Primary da Cooperative Extension Service. University of Drinking Water Standards for some time. Four addi- Florida. Gainesville, FL. tional metals—antimony, beryllium, nickel, and thal- Shaw, Byron H., and James O. Peterson. 1990. lium were added to the list in November 1992. This Improving Your Drinking Water Quality. G3378. means that if your waterARCHIVE supply is from a public sys- Wisconsin Cooperative Extension Service. University tem, officials there make sure your water contains of Wisconsin. Madison, WI.

ANR-790 Water Quality 2.3.7 Visit our Web site at: www.aces.edu This publication, supported in part by a grant from the Alabama Department of Environmental Management and the Tennessee Valley Authority, was prepared by James E. Hairston, Extension Water Quality Scientist, assisted by Leigh Strib- ARCHIVEling, Technical Writer. For more information, call your county Extension ofﬁce. Look in your telephone directory under your county’s name to ﬁnd the number.

2.3.7-2 Agriculture and Natural Resources WATER QUALITY: Managing Drinking Water Quality

ALABAMA A&M AND AUBURN UNIVERSITIES

Typical Contaminants And Problems Lead ANR-790-2.3.8

he elevated lead level in some drinking water is a reduced. The threshold for some of lead’s health Tnew public concern. In 1970 a child’s blood lead effects may be close to 0, which is what EPA has now level that measured below 60 parts per billion (ppb) listed as a maximum contaminant level goal (MCLG). or 0.06 milligrams per liter (mg/L) was considered If the plumbing contains lead, higher levels will safe. Now the Centers for Disease Control suggest be detectable in the morning after water has been that a child’s blood lead level should not be more than standing in pipes throughout the night. To evaluate 10 ppb or 0.010 mg/L. the highest levels of lead exposure, a sample should Lead has no beneficial effect on humans or ani- be taken from the tap after water has been held in the mals. Chronic exposure occurring over an extended pipes for several hours or overnight. A second sample period of time to even low levels of lead can have obtained after the water has flowed for 3 to 5 minutes severe effects since lead is accumulated and stored in will demonstrate if flushing the line decreases lead the bone. When the concentration is so high that stor- content substantially. age in the bone is saturated, blood lead levels begin to How To Treat. Treatments for removing high or per- affect nerve tissue. sistent lead levels in water entering the household are Excessive levels of lead in the blood contribute to reverse osmosis, distillation, or activated alumina fil- a variety of health problems including reduced mental ter. Some activated carbon filter systems remove lead and skeletal development, interference with kidney but not as effectively as other methods. and neurological functions, and hearing loss in chil- Distillation units remove lead by boiling the dren. The immature central nervous system of chil- water and then collecting and condensing the steam. dren is more sensitive to lead toxicity. If drinking Distillation removes approximately 99 percent of the water is found to contain lead levels exceeding 0.015 lead from water, but the drinking water produced mg/L, a physician may recommend a blood test to tastes rather bland. determine lead levels. Prevention Of Lead Contamination Sources Of Lead Reduce Exposure. Lead levels seem to be highest The natural lead content of surface water and after water has been held in the pipes for 6 hours or groundwater in Alabama is negligible. Most lead in more. Before using water for drinking or cooking, household water usually comes from the distribution flush the faucet by allowing the water to run 3 to 5 systems or the plumbing in the house, not from the minutes. Do not use hot tap water for cooking or local water supply. The highest concentrations of lead preparing baby formula since it seems to dissolve occur in new plumbing installations; leaching is lead more easily and quickly than does cold water. noticeably lower in those 5 years old or older. Soft, Use Alternative Plumbing Materials. To reduce acidic, or low pH water can dissolve lead from the lead contamination of drinking water, alternative pipes or solder of householdARCHIVE water systems. Leaching products must be used in plumbing systems of new of lead is dependent upon water corrosiveness and homes. Tin-antimony (95/5 percent) or tin-silver temperature as well as the time the water remains in (96/4 percent) are considered better quality but more contact with the lead source. expensive than tin-lead (50/50 percent) solder. Both alternative materials provide a better seal than tin- Treatment Of Lead lead solder although the high melting point of silver When To Treat. If lead in the drinking water exceeds and antimony make these solders slightly more diffi- the primary drinking water standard of 0.015 mg/L, cult to use. Tin-antimony solder is not recommended the potential risk of excessive lead intake must be on brass fittings since brass becomes brittle. A study ANR-790 Water Quality 2.3.8 Visit our Web site at: www.aces.edu of tin-antimony and tin-silver solders showed both References metals to be more resistant to corrosive-water leach- Graham, Frances C. 1990. Lead In Drinking ing than lead solder. Since 1989, Federal law has Water. Information Sheet 1420. Mississippi Coopera- required that lead solder not be used in new homes. tive Extension Service. Mississippi State University. Lead At A Glance Mississippi State, MS. Symptoms: Lead poisoning. Haman, Dorota Z., and Del B. Bottcher. 1986. Home Water Quality And Safety. Circular 703. Flori- Short-term exposure: abdominal pains, decreased da Cooperative Extension Service. University of appetite, constipation, fatigue, sleep disturbance, and Florida. Gainesville, FL. decreased physical fitness. Plowman, Faye T. 1989. Lead. Water Quality Long-term exposure: kidney damage, anemia, and Fact Sheet 6. New Hampshire Cooperative Extension nerve damage including brain damage and finally Service. University of New Hampshire. Durham, NH. death. Wagenet, Linda, and Ann Lemley. 1987. Lead In Causes Of The Problem: Industrial contamination; Drinking Water. Fact Sheet 2. New York Cooperative leaching from lead solder and lead pipes in some Extension Service. Cornell University. Ithaca, NY. water systems. Suggested Treatments: Reverse osmosis, distillation, or activated alumina filter.

2.3.8-2 Agriculture and Natural Resources WATER QUALITY: Managing Drinking Water Quality

ALABAMA A&M AND AUBURN UNIVERSITIES

Typical Contaminants And Problems Nitrate ANR-790-2.3.9

major public health concern across the United nitrate water. A recommended safe level for animals AStates today is groundwater contamination by is 100 milligrams per liter. nitrates. There is some validity to this concern since 98 There is also some concern that in human beings percent of our fresh water supply is groundwater and 50 nitrites may interact with other nitrogen compounds percent of our population drinks groundwater. As high to form nitrosoamines, which some scientists believe as 95 to 98 percent of rural residents in some areas get are carcinogenic. Current studies have not yet conclu- all of their drinking water from groundwater supplies. sively related exposure to high levels of nitrate and In Alabama, nitrate contamination of groundwa- nitrite to increased incidence of stomach and esopha- ter does not appear to be a widespread problem geal cancer, but research continues in this area. although there is concern for some areas. Levels of 2 Sources Of Nitrate to 3 mg/L of nitrate are common in many Alabama wells, but these levels appear to be holding steady Nitrate may come from several kinds of natural with no major increase or decrease and nothing pre- and human activity-related sources. Principal natural sent to indicate a specific source. Recent well-water sources are soil nitrogen, nitrogen-rich geologic monitoring in the Sand Mountain area of the Cumber- deposits, and atmospheric deposition. The most land Plateau, however, suggests that nitrate levels important human activity-related sources include fertilizers, crop residues, septic tank drainage, animal may be increasing. More than 30 percent of selected wastes from livestock and poultry enterprises, land rural wells monitored in certain counties in 1987-88 disposal of municipal and industrial wastes, and had nitrates above the 10 mg/L maximum contami- excess soil leaching as a result of irrigation. nant level set for public drinking water supplies. Both human and animal wastes are believed to be the prob- Organic nitrogen is everywhere around us because lem in this area. More surveys will be conducted in it is common in plant residues and animal wastes the near future. including human wastes. Much organic matter is inad- vertently or purposely applied to the land. Organic Nitrate is not a problem for adults but can be a nitrogen in this material is then converted by bacteria problem for babies less than 6 months of age. Babies in the soil to ammonia, and other bacteria convert the are more susceptible because of their small size and ammonia to nitrate. Nitrate, however, is very soluble their totally liquid diet. During the first few months of in water. If more nitrate is present in the soil than life a certain bacteria can live in an infant’s digestive plants can use, it can be leached to groundwater. system that can convert nitrate, which is not poi- While over application of fertilizer may be a sonous, to something that is, called nitrite. source of nitrate pollution, fertilizer spills at mixing If nitrite is absorbed into the blood, it combines and loading areas of fertilizer dealerships and fertiliz- with hemoglobin, the chemical that carries oxygen, to er use at greenhouses, nurseries, golf courses, and form methemoglobin,ARCHIVE a chemical that cannot carry residences may also cause problems. Stormwater oxygen. Called methemoglobinemia, this condition runoff from all these areas may move fertilizer nitro- causes a baby to turn blue because of oxygen starva- gen to permeable zones where it infiltrates into shal- tion and may result in death if not treated. low wells and groundwater supplies. Young animals are affected by nitrates in the same manner as babies, and nitrate is a problem for Treatment Of Nitrate ruminant animals of all ages. Some livestock have When To Treat. The drinking water standard for been known to abort fetuses because of drinking high infants under 6 months is 10 mg/L of nitrate-nitrogen. ANR-790 Water Quality 2.3.9 Visit our Web site at: www.aces.edu Concentration above 3 mg/L may indicate that other Causes Of The Problem: Nitrate and nitrite from more harmful materials are leaching from the same fertilizers, manure, septic systems, or the breakdown source. of organic wastes. How To Treat. If you find your well water supply is Suggested Treatments: Anion exchange, reverse contaminated with nitrate, take steps to locate the osmosis, or distillation. source of contamination. Make sure the well is a minimum of 100 feet away from sources of contamina- References tion such as septic tanks and field lines. Check to see Haman, Dorota Z., and Del B. Bottcher. 1986. that the well is properly cased and that surface water Home Water Quality And Safety. Circular 703. Flori- is diverted around the well. da Cooperative Extension Service. University of There are several methods of reducing or remov- Florida. Gainesville, FL. ing nitrates from water: distillation, reverse osmosis, Langston, John. 1989. Improving Home Water and anion exchange. Distillation and reverse osmosis Quality. MP292. Arkansas Cooperative Extension are expensive and consequently they are usually Service. University of Arkansas. Little Rock, AR. employed to treat drinking water only. Water for other National Governor’s Association. 1991. The household uses should be left untreated. Health Effects Of Nitrate in Ground Water. Ground- Nitrates can be removed by certain anion ex- water Bulletin. Vol 2(3):3-4,6. change processes. However, the equipment must be Shaw, Byron H., and James O. Peterson. 1990. extremely reliable, particularly in households with Improving Your Drinking Water Quality. G3378. infants. Undetected equipment failure can be fatal. Wisconsin Cooperative Extension Service. University Because of this possibility and the high probability of of Wisconsin. Madison, WI. pollution in high nitrate waters, nitrate removal for Tyson, Anthony, and Kerry Harrison. 1990. Water home consumption is not recommended. Instead, the Quality For Private Water Systems. Georgia Coopera- cause of the nitrate contamination should be found tive Extension Service. The University of Georgia. and eliminated. Athens, GA. Nitrate At A Glance Symptoms: Methemoglobinemia (Blue Baby Syn- drone); tests showing levels of nitrate greater than 10 mg/L or levels of nitrite greater than 1 mg/L.

2.3.9-2 Agriculture and Natural Resources WATER QUALITY: Managing Drinking Water Quality

ALABAMA A&M AND AUBURN UNIVERSITIES

Typical Contaminants And Problems Sodium Chloride ANR-790-2.3.10 nowing how much sodium is in your water Kmay be important to your health. Sodium, a mineral found naturally in most drinking water, is added to water when it is softened. The level of sodium in water is particularly important to people who have to watch their sodium intake for health reasons. The fact that some patients with heart disease have difficulty in excreting sodium and are put on a low sodium diet has led to the idea that sodium is bad for the heart. However, studies show no direct correlation between sodium concentration and cardiovascular disease mortality. This does not contradict the fact that in some individuals the lowering of sodium in a diet is effective in lowering the blood pressure. Depending on age, general health, and sex, sodium may present a problem in drinking water. If the sodium in water exceeds 20 mg/L, it is advisable to contact the family physician for an opinion. Chlorides are normally associated with salty water. Sodium chloride is common table salt and also is the primary salt found in seawater. Seawater generally contains about 19,000 mg/L of chloride and 10,500 mg/L of sodium. These two elements make up over 85 percent of the minerals dissolved in seawater. High chloride levels cause corrosion and shorten the life of pipes, pumps, hot water heaters, and fixtures. High chloride levels can cause human illness and also can affect plant growth at levels in excess of 1000 mg/L. See figure 1 for chloride levels in Alabama groundwater.

Sources Of Sodium Chloride Treatment Of Sodium Chloride Sodium chloride isARCHIVE a very common substance When To Treat. The EPA suggests 20 mg/L as found virtually everywhere. It can enter drinking the amount of sodium to strive for in drinking water through both natural and artiﬁcial sources, water. The natural sodium content of fresh water, including leaching of underground salt deposits, however, varies from near 0 to more than 500 backwash from water softeners, spray from the mg/L, averaging 17 mg/L. Taste threshold is about ocean, and from salt used on roads in winter. In 250 mg/L for most people. Chloride concentration Alabama, treatment plants do not soften water and greater than background levels may indicate possi- highway crews generally use sand instead of salt ble pollution from sewage sources or toxic chemi- on icy roads. cals. ANR-790 Water Quality 2.3.10 Visit our Web site at: www.aces.edu When it is necessary to know the precise Sodium Chloride At A Glance amount of sodium present in a water supply, call Symptoms: Salty taste; corrosion of plumbing; your water system or, if you have a private well, blackening and pitting of stainless steel. get a laboratory analysis. Water that has been softened by the ion exchange method will contain an Causes Of The Problem: Storage or use of increased amount of sodium. Softened water road salt; water leached from waste disposal areas; should be analyzed for sodium when a precise fertilizers; septic systems; and landﬁlls. record of individual sodium intake is recommend- Suggested Treatments: Reverse osmosis, dis- ed. tillation, or anion exchange. If chloride is present in a well at concentrations above the secondary maximum contaminant level References (250 mg/L), the water quality of the well should be Butkus, Sue N. 1989. Sodium Content Of Your evaluated every 6 months to determine if any up- Drinking Water. EB 1525. Washington Cooperative ward trend exits. If concentrations are increasing, Extension Service. Washington State University. the source of contamination should be found and Pullman, WA. eliminated. If the source of contamination cannot Haman, Dorota Z., and Del B. Bottcher. 1986. be located and removed, the well owner can use Home Water Quality And Safety. Circular 703. bottled water for infants. A new well may be the Florida Cooperative Extension Service. University of best solution, but drilling a new well will be expen- Florida. Gainesville, FL. sive. Plowman, Faye T. 1989. Sodium Chloride. How To Treat. Treatment methods include re- Water Quality Fact Sheet 11. New Hampshire verse osmosis and distillation. If your water supply Cooperative Extension Service. University of New is moderately high in sodium (more than 100 Hampshire. Durham, NH. mg/L), small treatment units are available which will produce 3 to 10 gallons of water per day, Powell, J. W., and A. C. Duncan. 1965. Water enough for the usual drinking and cooking needs. Level Fluctuations And Chemical Quality Of Ground Water In Alabama. Special Map 29. Some anion exchange units are effective in Geological Survey of Alabama. Tuscaloosa, AL. chloride removal. Shaw, Byron H., and James O. Peterson. 1990. In most areas water processed by mineral- Improving Your Drinking Water Quality. G3378. removal methods is available in bottles. However, Wisconsin Cooperative Extension Service. bottled spring or mineral water may contain high University of Wisconsin. Madison, WI. sodium concentrations.

Issued in furtherance of Cooperative Extension work in agriculture and home economics, Acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914, and other related acts, in cooperation with the U.S. Department of Agriculture. The Alabama Cooperative Extension System (Alabama A&M University and Auburn University) offers educational programs, materials, and equal opportunity employment to all people without regard to race, color, national origin, religion, sex, age, veteran status, or disability. ANR-790-2.3.10 UPS, New June 1995, Water Quality 2.3.10 Agriculture and Natural Resources WATER QUALITY: Managing Drinking Water Quality

ALABAMA A&M AND AUBURN UNIVERSITIES

Typical Contaminants And Problems Fluoride ANR-790-2.3.11

atural fluoride in drinking water was not consid- tana. The highest levels of fluoride in groundwater Nered a health concern until just recently. In fact, occur where the rock is found in nature. widespread fluoridation of drinking water has been Another natural source of fluoride is seawater, practiced since the discovery that abnormally high which contains about 1.3 mg/L. This is very low in concentrations of natural fluoride in the water sup- comparison to chloride (19,000 mg/L) and sodium plies of certain cities in the western United States (10,500 mg/L). However, fluoride salts may be left in reduced the incidence of tooth decay. Many water areas where seawater was once trapped. This is the systems now add small amounts of fluoride to bring case in Alabama. Excessive levels of fluoride in the fluoride concentration up to about 1.0 mg/L groundwater are rare in Alabama, but it has been because of its benefit in reducing tooth decay, espe- found in wells of a few western and southwestern cially in small children. The EPA has recommended a counties such as Marengo where the water has other secondary standard of 2.0 mg/L. A primary standard problems with high levels of sodium and chloride. of 4.0 mg/L has been set for fluoride levels in public Fluoride is also used in many industries and may drinking water supplies. be a contaminant in industrial discharges to surface Much research is currently underway dealing water supplies. with the toxicity of fluorides. Some people believe that it is a long-term carcinogen which increases the Treatment Of Fluoride incidence of bone cancer and oral (mouth) tumor When To Treat. The optimum level of fluorides in growth. Laboratory studies have failed to confirm water for reducing dental cavities is about 1 mg/L. these hypotheses thus far especially when fluoride is Higher levels could cause mottling of the teeth. used at rates equivalent to those used for fluoridation. How To Treat. Small, disposable cartridge units of While low levels of fluoride are known to be ben- activated alumina are the most cost effective way to eficial, excessive amounts can be harmful. Excessive remove fluoride from water in the home. Alumina is a fluorides in drinking water supplies may produce form of aluminum oxide that has been heat treated to fluorosis (mottling of teeth), which increases as the make it absorb fluoride very efficiently. The alumina optimum level of fluoride is exceeded. Because fluo- removes other inorganic chemicals as well. Conse- ride is removed from the body principally by the kid- quently, if other inorganic chemicals are present in neys, people with reduced kidney function retain large amounts, they can reduce the efficiency of fluo- more fluoride and so have a greater risk of developing ride removal. The cleaner the water, the better the toxic effects. alumina will work. Compact under-the-sink reverse osmosis drinking Sources Of Fluoride water systems and newly designed home distillation The most common source of fluoride in nature is units can also furnish an adequate supply of defluori- the mineral fluorapatiteARCHIVE which contains from 3 to 4 dated drinking and cooking water for the home. Some percent fluoride by weight. This fluorinated calcium anion exchange units are effective in fluoride phosphate rock is very valuable because it is mined as removal. the primary source of phosphate fertilizer. The states with the biggest reserves of this mineral are Florida Fluoride At A Glance and North Carolina, but other states where it is mined Symptoms: Yellowish, mottled teeth; tests showing include Tennessee, Idaho, Utah, Wyoming, and Mon- your water has more than 2.0 mg/L fluoride.

ANR-790 Water Quality 2.3.11 Visit our Web site at: www.aces.edu Causes Of The Problem: Fluorides leaching from natural mineral sources or industrial wastes. Suggested Treatments: Activated alumina ﬁlter, distillation, reverse osmosis, or anion exchange. References Haman, Dorota Z., and Del B. Bottcher. 1986. Home Water Quality And Safety. Circular 703. Flori- da Cooperative Extension Service. University of Florida. Gainesville, FL. Plowman, Faye T. 1989. Fluoride. Water Quality Fact Sheet 3. New Hampshire Cooperative Extension Service. University of New Hampshire. Durham, NH. Shaw, Byron H., and James O. Peterson. 1990. Improving Your Drinking Water Quality. G3378. Wisconsin Cooperative Extension Service. University of Wisconsin. Madison, WI.

2.3.11-2 Agriculture and Natural Resources WATER QUALITY: Managing Drinking Water Quality

ALABAMA A&M AND AUBURN UNIVERSITIES

Typical Contaminants and Problems Pesticides and Organic Contaminants ANR-790-2.3.12

s contaminants in our water, synthetic organic Sources Of Pesticides And Acompounds are relatively new. They are products Organic Contaminants of the explosive growth, manufacture, and use of The contamination of groundwater by organics chemicals in industry, agriculture, and the home. has become a widely recognized environmental haz- Organics have given us lawns without weeds, throw- ard. Some of the major sources of groundwater pollu- away containers for our coffee and hamburgers, tion are industrial disposal (accidental or intentional); medicines, nonwrinkle clothes, fire retardants, plas- leaching from waste dumps and landfills; leaching of tics, electronic gadgets, special solvents and cleaning pesticides from farms, gardens, and lawns; leaking agents, wood preservatives, and abundant food culti- underground storage tanks; and stormwater runoff vated with pesticides and fertilizers. But all of these from urban areas. Instances of water pollution have conveniences of modern life have come with a also been traced to sewage or wastewater sources price—pollution of the environment by organics. containing synthetic detergents. Organic compounds include a wide variety of substances all of which contain carbon. Many thou- Treatment Of Pesticides And sands of organic chemcials can be detected in water. Organic Contaminants Of the 2,100 different contaminants that have been When To Treat. If pesticides are used or handled found in public water systems, 1,565 were organic near your water supply and if you suspect your water chemicals. At least 117 of the organics have known supply is contaminated, have your water tested for the health effects but most occur at concentrations that suspected contaminant. Testing for pesticides in pose little risk. The common types of industrial drinking water is expensive but may be necessary to organic substances found in water are petroleum determine which organics are present and which products, solvents, pesticides, and halomethanes. treatment systems are needed. Persons on private Organics in water can enter the body by ingestion wells are at a greater risk since their water is not rou- and through skin absorption. Volatile organics can tinely tested. evaporate from water in a shower or bath and from Public water supply standards for contaminants other routine operations where water is exposed to the that pose a health threat are set by the Environmental air. These organics can then be inhaled. Protection Agency. Presently the EPA is in the pro- For the most part we know very little about the cess of updating standards related to organics in effects on human health of long-term exposure to low drinking water. They are investigating the possibility doses of pesticides or organics, both naturally occur- of regulating certain nonvolatile organics and re-eval- ing and synthetics. Research on the toxicity of pesti- uating all pesticides registered before 1972 to bring them up to modern health standards. The EPA also cides and organics has been conducted primarily on requires testing of new pesticide products before they laboratory animals, although some information has ARCHIVEare marketed. been acquired from industrial and accidental human exposures. Most toxicological information is based How To Treat. Activated carbon filtration is the recon high-dose or acute exposures. Most pesticides and ommended treatment for organics. Activated carbon organics, especially the synthetic compounds, have filters will absorb limited amounts of pesticides. been found to be toxic, acutely at high concentrations Reverse osmosis and distillation can also be used and chronically at very low concentrations. High con- to remove some pesticides and organics. However, centration symptoms include nausea, dizziness, they are not capable of removing all types of chemi- tremors, and blindness. cal compounds that can be found in water.

ANR-790 Water Quality 2.3.12 Visit our Web site at: www.aces.edu Check the specification of the treatment equip- References ment you are purchasing to assure that the contami- Haman, Dorota Z., and Del B. Bottcher. 1986. nant which you wish to treat can be removed. Treated Home Water Quality And Safety. Circular 703. Flori- water should be closely monitored to determine if the da Cooperative Extension Service. University of treatment is effective as claimed. Florida. Gainesville, FL. Pesticides And Organic Knott, Diana. 1992. Four Years After Drinking Contaminants At A Glance Water Survey: More Awareness But Resistance Prob- lems Remain. On Tap 1(May) 1992. National Drink- Symptoms: Little effect on odor or taste at low lev- ing Water Clearinghouse. West Virginia University. els; light reflecting film on water; positive test for Morgantown, WV. synthetic organics or volatile organics Plowman, Faye T. 1989. Pesticides And Organ- Causes Of The Problem: Leaching or stormwater ics. Water Quality Fact Sheet 8. New Hampshire runoff of pesticides and organics from places where Cooperative Extension Service. University of New they have been used, spilled, stored, or disposed of. Hampshire. Durham, NH. Suggested Treatments: Activated carbon ﬁlter, dis- Shaw, Byron H., and James O. Peterson. 1990. tillation, or reverse osmosis. Improving Your Drinking Water Quality. G3378. Wisconsin Cooperative Extension Service. University of Wisconsin. Madison, WI.

This publication, supported in part by a grant from the Alabama Department of Environmental Management and the Tennessee Valley Authority, was prepared by James E. Hairston, Extension Water Quality Scientist, Professor, Agronomy and ARCHIVESoils, assisted by Leigh Stribling, Technical Writer, both at Auburn University. For more information, call your county Extension ofﬁce. Look in your telephone directory under your county’s name to ﬁnd the number.

Issued in furtherance of Cooperative Extension work in agriculture and home economics, Acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914, and other related acts, in cooperation with the U.S. Department of Agriculture. The Alabama Cooperative Extension System (Alabama A&M University and Auburn University) offers educational programs, materials, and equal opportunity employment to all people without regard to race, color, national origin, religion, sex, age, veteran status, or disability. ANR-790-2.3.12 ECP, Reprinted Nov 1999, Water Quality 2.3.12

2.3.12-2 Agriculture and Natural Resources WATER QUALITY: Managing Drinking Water Quality

ALABAMA A&M AND AUBURN UNIVERSITIES

Typical Contaminants And Problems Radionuclides (Radon) ANR-790-2.3.13

adionuclides in well water are not believed to premise that 1 pCi/L of radon is released to the air for Rcause a significant health risk from ingestion. 10,000 pCi/L of radon in water. However, in some homes radon levels in the air are At least two tests are needed to determine the high enough to pose significant health risks. Exces- overall presence of radioactivity in water. A screening sive levels can cause lung cancer. The presence of technique, gross alpha particle analysis, is used to radium in drinking water is not of great concern make a preliminary evaluation for the presence of because it is not retained in the body. mineral radionuclides. A test specifically for radon gas in water must also be conducted. The testing Sources Of Radon should be done by a reliable laboratory and could cost Radon, a naturally occuring invisible radioactive more than $50. gas, seeps out of the ground and is found in most How To Treat: Aeration is very effective for remov- groundwater. It is produced by a radioactive decay ing radon from drinking water. Radon in the water is process that starts with uranium that has been present removed by degassing and venting to the atmosphere in the crust of the earth since its formation. Radon above the roof line. If iron, manganese, or hydrogen levels in Alabama are greatest in water from granite sulfide is present in the water, the aerator devices containing the micas, muscovite, and biotite. Other should be cleaned periodically to remove particulate sources include quartz, monzonite, granite, high- and accumulation. Home aeration units (diffused bubble low-grade metamorphic rocks, and diorite. and spray) do not appear to accumulate radioactivity; Radionuclide problems are more frequent and however, bacterial growth may be a problem. Activat- severe in low-yield private groundwater supplies than ed carbon filters are also effective in removing radon. in community supplies. The highest observed radon Disposal of these filters may require special handling. levels have been associated with formations of urani- Radon At A Glance um-bearing granite. Symptoms: No effects on odor and taste of water; Testing For Radon special tests showing radon levels of 10,000 pCi/L or Well owners who have elevated indoor radon lev- greater. els should have their wells tested for radon. Radon in Causes Of The Problem: Natural radon and radium your water supply can increase your indoor radon in some granite and sandstone aquifers. level; however, in most cases, the source of radon in Suggested Treatments: Activated carbon filter or your home is more likely to be the soil than the water. aeration. For More Information: Call the Safe Drinking Water Treatment Of Radon Hotline at 1-800-426-4791 or state radon contact at 1- EPA has been tryingARCHIVE to set a maximum contami- 800-582-1866. In Montgomery call 334-242-5313. nant level for radon in public water supplies since July of 1991. Suggested levels for regulation have References ranged from a low of 25 pCi/L to a high of 20,000 Haman, Dorota Z., and Del B. Bottcher. 1986. pCi/L. Home Water Quality And Safety. Circular 703, Flori- When To Treat: Removal of radon from private da Cooperative Extension Service. University of water is recommended when the concentration is Florida, Gainseville, FL. 10,000 pCi/L or greater. The abbreviation pCi stands Plowman, Faye T. 1989. Radon In Water. Water for picocuries. This recommendation is based on the Quality Fact Sheet 10. New Hampshire Cooperative ANR-790 Water Quality 2.3.13 Visit our Web site at: www.aces.edu Extension Service. University of New Hampshire. Durham, NH. Shaw, Byron H., and James O. Peterson. 1990. Improving Your Drinking Water Quality. G3378. Wisconsin Cooperative Extension Service. University of Wisconsin. Madison, WI. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1992. Consumer’s Guide To Radon Reduction: How To Reduce Radon Levels In Your Home. 402-K92-003. USEPA Office of Air and Radiation, Washington, DC.

2.3.13-2 Agriculture and Natural Resources

ALABAMA A&M AND AUBURN UNIVERSITIES

ANR-790-2.4.1

ntil recently the water treatment industry focused Table 1. Common Problems. primarily on improving the appearance of house- U Possible Contaminants Problem And Symptoms hold water. Now this industry is being called on to Or Confirmation Tests eliminate health-threatening contaminants in household water. Stained fixtures and clothes: A variety of companies and many products red or brown...... Iron promise to render the consumer’s drinking water safe black...... Manganese and contaminant-free. These products are not tested green or blue...... Copper or regulated by the government. Potential buyers must sort through advertising claims and technical Reddish-brown slime ...... Iron bacteria data to select the appropriate treatment method. Off-color appearance to water: One source that can help consumers in selecting cloudy...... Turbidity water treatment equipment is NSF International. NSF black...... Hydrogen sulfide, International is an independent, nonprofit organiza- manganese tion that develops standards and then tests and evalu- brown or yellow ...... Iron, tannic acid ates products and materials to those standards. NSF International certifies plumbing products, drinking Unusual taste and odor: water additives, and drinking water treatment systems rotten egg...... Hydrogen sulfide and devices. Accredited by the American National metallic...... pH, corrosive index, Standards Institute (ANSI), NSF International is the iron, zinc, copper, lead former National Sanitation Foundation. The organiza- septic, musty, earthy...... Total coliform tion still uses the circled NSF approval stamp for cer- bacteria, methane tified approval that products conform to specified alkali...... pH, total dissolved standards. solids The following steps can also help consumers to gasoline or oil...... Hydrocarbon scan determine if a problem exists and to select a treatment soapy ...... Surfactants system for that problem. • Inspect household water for visible problems Corrosion of pipes or plumbing...... pH, lead, iron, like unusual color, taste, or odor. manganese, copper • Contact appropriate sources for information. Source: Mancl 1988. • Test household water. • Choose appropriate water treatment equipment. the physical or aesthetic quality of your water—that is, its color, taste, or odor. Inspect Your WaterARCHIVE Inspect your water and the effect it has on your Contact Appropriate Sources For Information clothes, dishes, and fixtures. Refer to Table 1 for Before purchasing any water treatment equip- common problems and possible contaminants or tests. ment, you should find out all you can about your If any of these problems occur, you may want to water. Much information about your water may test your water to confirm the problem. Then you already be available if you know which sources to may want to install a water treatment unit to improve contact.

ANR-790 Water Quality 2.4.1 www.aces.edu If your water comes from a public system, you Not all contaminants can be evaluated by in- should contact your municipal supplier. If your water home water testing. For example, organics, which comes from a community well or a private well, you have been associated with serious health problems, can contact your local health department. must be analyzed in a laboratory with sophisticated Public Water Systems. If your water source is pub- equipment. Be wary of home analysis claiming to lic, contact your city water utilities department and determine more than basic water quality constituents ask them to send you a copy of the Muncipal Drink- such as hardness, pH, iron, chlorine, and sulfur. ing Water Contaminant Analysis Report. What To Test. Testing for all possible contaminants When you contact your city water utilities is possible but very expensive and not necessary. If department, emphasize that you are considering sup- your water source is private, you should test regularly plemental treatment. Your water treatment profes- for contaminants which can cause adverse health sionals are justifiably proud of the quality of the effects. If your water supply is public, you may only water they produce. Public water supplies must meet need to test if someone in your family becomes ill or the Primary Standards for drinking water established if the taste, odor, or color of your water changes. by the Environmental Protection Agency, and the util- How To Test. When you receive the materials from ity may also measure other contaminants. However, the test lab, read the instructions very carefully. Carry there may be contaminant levels you would like to out the instructions exactly as stated when collecting reduce further using supplemental treatment. and sending in the water samples. Sampling is the Review the report for any contaminants that may most important part of water testing. A carelessly col- be present in your water. Compare identified contami- lected or an inaccurate sample may cause misleading nants with the Environmental Protection Agency’s results. Primary Standards for drinking water. When the lab sends you a report, review it for any If you suspect potential problem contaminants, contaminants that may be present in your water. contact a laboratory certified to conduct drinking water analysis. Request that the necessary sampling Choose Treatment Equipment information be sent to you. If no physical problems exist and there are no Private Water Supplies. If your water source is pri- excessive contaminants, your water does not need vate, contact your local Extension Service and ask treatment. for assistance in obtaining information about typical However, if you discover an excessive level of a contaminants of local well water and the names of contaminant or a visible problem, you may want to analytical laboratories certified to conduct drinking treat your water. Refer to Table 2 for water treatment water analysis. equipment options. Contact a certified laboratory to get your drinking For a complete listing of all the drinking water water tested, requesting that the necessary sample treatment units that are certified by NSF Internation- bottles and instructions be sent to you. al, write to NSF International, 3475 Plymouth Road, Ann Arbor, MI 48105 (1-800-673-6275). Their regional Test Your Water office nearest Alabama is in Atlanta, GA. After contacting official sources and receiving their information, you may want to have your water References tested. Mancl, Karen. 1988. Water Testing. AEX-314. Ohio Cooperative Extension Service. The Ohio State Many treatment companies offer free in-home University. Columbus, OH. testing of drinking water. Unfortunately, some unscru- pulous dealers use this as an opportunity to frighten NSF International. 1991. Determining The Quali- customers into purchasing equipment that may not be ty Of Your Drinking Water: A Step By Step Guide. needed. The salesperson might add chemicals to the NSF International. Ann Arbor, MI. water that cause particlesARCHIVE to form or color changes to Vogel, Michael P., James W. Bauder, and Jeffrey occur. These demonstrations prove nothing about the S. Jacobsen. Groundwater: Household Water Treat- safety of the water for drinking. Some states are con- ment. Montana Cooperative Extension Service. Mon- sidering legislation to ban in-home testing. tana State University. Bozeman, MT.

2.4.1-2 Table 2. Index Of Water Problems And Water Treatment Equipment. Filter Equipment Options Other Equipment Options Problem Activated Pollutant Activated Mechanical Oxidizing Alumina Reverse Distillation Cation Anion Chemical Carbon Cartridge Osmosis Exchange Exchange Feed Aluminum Arsenic Asbestos Barium Cadmium Chloride Chlorinea Chromium Coliform bacteria Color Copper Corrosion Endrin Fluoride Giardia cysts Hardness Iron (Fe2+) Iron (Fe3+) Leadb Lindane Manganese Mercury Methoxychlor Nitrate Particulates Pesticides, Herbicides, PCBs Radium Radon Selenium Silver Sulfate Tannic acids Taste and odor TDSc TTHMsd Toxaphene Turbidity VOCse ARCHIVE Zinc 2,4-D 2,4,5-TP Silvex aNot all reverse osmosis units are effective for chlorine reduction. Ask for proof of performance. bNot all activated carbon ﬁlters are effective for lead reduction. Ask for proof of performance. cTDS=Total Dissolved Solids dTTHMs=Total Trihalomethanes eVOCs=Volatile Organic Compounds Source: NSF International 1991. 2.4.1-3 The following articles in the Water Quality series may be helpful: Drinking Water Standards Safe Drinking Water: Who’s In Charge? Drinking Water Standards: How Are They Set? Protecting Your Health: Primary Standards Regulating Nuisance Contaminants: Secondary Standards What Happens At A Water Treatment Plant? Water Testing Should You Have Your Water Tested? Where Can You Have Your Water Tested? How Should You Collect Water Samples? Which Tests Should You Request? What Do The Numbers Mean? Interpreting Water Tests Typical Contaminants And Problems Bacterial Contaminants Water Hardness Iron And Manganese Turbidity (Cloudy Water) Color, Odor, And Taste Problems Corrosion Metal Contaminants Lead Nitrate Sodium Chloride Fluoride Pesticides And Organic Contaminants Radionuclides (Radon)

2.4.1-4 Agriculture and Natural Resources WATER QUALITY: Managing Drinking Water Quality

ALABAMA A&M AND AUBURN UNIVERSITIES

Possible Treatments Questions To Ask When Shopping For Water Treatment Equipment ANR-790-2.4.2

n response to recent public concern about water Before you buy, be certain that enough treated Iquality, the home water treatment industry now water will be produced for everyday use. The maxi- offers consumers a wide variety of products. When mum flow rate should be sufficient for the peak home faced with so many choices, consumers often wonder use rate. what, if any, water treatment system they need. Is there sufficient water supply for the treatment Consider using the following questions as a guide unit to work properly? when shopping for home water treatment devices: What maintenance is required? What exactly does my water test show? Are health Devices such as activated carbon units, reverse hazards indicated? Should more testing be done? osmosis units, and oxidizing (iron) filters need rou- Many water treatment companies include in their tine maintenance. The homeowner should be fully services free in-home testing of water. But not all informed of maintenance requirements. contaminants can be evaluated this way. For example, organics, which have been associated with serious How would I know if the unit is not working prop- health problems, must be analyzed in a laboratory erly? Is there an alarm or indicator light on the with sophisticated equipment. device to alert me to a malfunction? The consumer must be wary of home analyses Many units have backup systems or shutoff func- claiming to determine more than basic water quality tions to prevent consumption of untreated water. constituents such as hardness, pH, iron, and sulfur. What is the expected lifetime of the product? Does the water quality problem require whole- What is the length of the warranty period, and house treatment or will a single-tap device be ade- what does the warranty cover? quate? The warranty may cover only certain parts of a Although less than 1 percent of tap water is used device, so the consumer should be aware of the war- for drinking and cooking, some contaminants are as ranty conditions. hazardous when inhaled or absorbed through the skin What is the total cost? Does it include purchase as when ingested. Treatment of all the water used in price, installation, maintenance, and operation the household may be required. Reverse osmosis and costs? distillation units are usually connected to a single tap; activated carbon devices can be installed on a single The consumer must watch for hidden costs such tap or where water enters the house. The device select- as separate installation fees, monthly maintenance ed depends upon the type of contaminant in question. fees, or equipment rental fees. Additionally, the disposal of waste materials such as reject water, spent Will the system I am considering adequately cartridges from activated carbon units, and used fil- address the specific ARCHIVEwater quality problem? Was ters can add to the cost of water treatment and should the product tested for the specific contaminant in be figured into the purchase price. Some devices can question, over the advertised life of the treatment be installed by the homeowner. device, under household conditions (tap water, actual flow rates, and pressures)? Will the manufacturer include in the purchase price a retesting of the water after a month or two? How many gallons of treated water does the unit Testing the water a month after the device is produce per day? Is the amount sufficient for my installed will assure the homeowner that the unit is family’s needs? accomplishing the intended treatment. ANR-790 Water Quality 2.4.2 Visit our Web site at: www.aces.edu If I rent the equipment, does my agreement Reference include an option-to-buy provision? Wagenet, Linda, and Ann Lemley. 1988. Ques- Have the product and the manufacturer been tions To Ask When Purchasing Water Treatment rated by NSF International or other third party Equipment. New York Cooperative Extension Ser- organizations? vice. Cornell University. Ithaca, NY. NSF International, whose function is similar to Underwriter’s Laboratory, sets performance standards for water treatment devices. Because companies can make unsubstantiated statements regarding product effectiveness, the consumer must evaluate test results of the device to determine if claims are realistic. How long has the company been in business and is there a list of referrals?

2.4.2-2 Agriculture and Natural Resources WATER QUALITY: Managing Drinking Water Quality

ALABAMA A&M AND AUBURN UNIVERSITIES

Possible Treatments Filters

ANR-790-2.4.2

irt, sediment, and odors can be removed from chlorides, nitrates, and fluorides. They will remove Dwater by using either adsorption or mechanical only a small portion of hydrogen sulfide and are not filters. Carbon filters are the most common adsorption effective against bacteria. In fact, they may promote filters. Fiber filters are the most common mechanical bacterial growth especially when not used for several filters. Two other types of frequently used filters days or when not changed at proper intervals. include oxidizing filters for removing iron and hydro- Some manufacturers claim that silver-impregnat- gen sulfide and activated alumina filters for removing ed carbon units reduce bacterial growth. However, some inorganic chemicals. EPA-sponsored tests of more than 30 carbon filter devices have shown that those with silver were statis- Activated Carbon Filters tically no better than those without. No known inde- Activated charcoal or carbon filters are the most pendent tests have verified the benefit of small widely marketed home water treatment device. amounts of silver in filters as a bactericide. Allowing How Carbon Filters Work. Activated carbon acts the water to run through the filter for at least 30 sec- like a sponge to remove offensive tastes and odors, onds is a good practice to flush out bacteria that may colors, chlorine, and organics. The solid material used have grown in the filter. in an activated carbon filter is typically carbon from Factors To Consider Before Buying A Carbon Fil- petroleum coke, bituminous coal, lignite, wood prod- ter. Consider the following factors before buying car- ucts, or peanut shells. The partially burned material is bon filters. activated by being heated and steamed without oxy- Types Of Carbon Filters. Activated carbon filters gen. The result is a carbon substance with many small may be grouped into four general categories: pour- pores. This substance is then crushed to yield a gran- through, specialty, faucet-attached, and in-line. ular or powdered product. The pour-through, similar in design to a drip cof- Sometimes a synthetic resin is substituted for the fee maker, is the simplest type of activated carbon fil- carbon. Although activated carbon is efficient in ter. Pour-through filters are generally small and removing a variety of organic chemicals, a specially portable. Some work merely on gravity and tend to be formulated synthetic resin may be a better absorber slow whereas others contain a pump. for a specifc contaminant. Specialty filters are intended to treat water for What Carbon Filters Remove. Carbon filters are appliances such as icemakers and water coolers. most effective in removing chlorine and potentially Some models can even be attached to the line serving dangerous and carcinogenic organic compounds. recreational vehicles. These may be present in a water system as by-prod- Faucet-attached filters, as the name implies, are ucts of chlorination or from industrial pollution. attached directly to the faucet where treated water is These filters may be effective in treating turbidity, desired. The entire unit may be attached to the faucet, radon, and some color,ARCHIVE taste, and odor problems. Car- or the filter may be placed on the countertop and con- bon filters will absorb limited amounts of pesticides. nected to the faucet with a hose. Some carbon filters will remove lead but not as effec- In-line filters are the largest units and are con- tively as other methods. nected directly into the house plumbing. This fre- Activated carbon filters do not correct some water quently requires the services of a plumber. The filter problems. These filters will not remove calcium or unit may be located under the sink, in a utility area, in magnesium from hard water nor will they remove dis- the basement, or wherever it is convenient and there solved metals such as iron, manganese, and copper or is sufficient space. If the unit is to be located where ANR-790 Water Quality 2.4.3 Visit our Web site at: www.aces.edu space is limited, check to make sure there is adequate resin bed, the iron and manganese are oxidized and room. Under-sink spaces are frequently cluttered with changed from their soluble to an insoluble form. drain pipes, water pipes, garbage disposal, and hoses These minerals then become trapped as rust particles to other appliances. You need room not only to install within the greensand filter bed. The greensand media the unit but also to service it afterwards. Spills and will also act as a filter and catch iron and manganese leaks are likely during servicing. precipitates that have been oxidized before reaching Maintenance. Carbon filters must be replaced regu- the filter. larly to avoid build up of deposits. Cartridge replace- If iron and manganese are very high (more than 1 ment frequency depends on the quantity of water used mg/L) or if water is acidic (pH below 7), a strong oxi- and the amount of carbon. If you are considering an dizing substance must be applied prior to filtration. activated carbon filter, look carefully at the cost and Super chlorination is the process most commonly the ease of installing replacement filters and compare used to oxidize iron and manganese and to adjust the the average length of use per cartridge. pH. At a pH of 7 or above, iron changes more readily from its soluble to its insoluble form, which can then Mechanical Filters be removed by filtration. This process will also kill These filters are often called particulate or turbid- any iron bacteria, but the excess chlorine may not be ity filters. filtered out. How Mechanical Filters Work. Mechanical filters What Oxidizing Filters Remove. Some of these leave the water clearer and aesthetically more pleas- units are effective for iron and manganese removal in ing by straining it. Sand, filter paper, spun cellulose, combined concentrations up to 10 mg/L. Greensand rayon, or compressed glass wool serve as a fine sieve. can also be effective in removing sulfur compounds Line pressure forces water through the fibers. Parti- (primarily hydrogen sulfide) in concentrations up to cles are trapped in the filter material and removed about 5 mg/L. from the water. Marble chips or a slowly dissolved Factors To Consider Before Buying An Oxidizing liming agent can neutralize acid water when it is Filter. Because oxidation occurs as water flows forced through the filter. through the filter bed, much of the precipitate is fil- What Mechanical Filters Remove. These devices tered out near the discharge side of the greensand remove dirt, sediment, and loose scale from incoming bed. If backwashing is not thorough, the precipitated water. Mechanical filters may also be effective in iron and manganese can be expelled from the filter in removing asbestos and giardia cysts and in treating large masses and cause a disgusting discharge from a color, taste, and odor problems associated with solid faucet or ruin a washer load of clothes. This type of organic residues. Mechanical filters can neutralize filter will not tolerate iron bacteria because the slimy acid water when the filter contains a slowly dissolved material that is produced coats the greensand and liming agent. fouls it. Mechanical filters do not purify or soften water Oxidizing filters must be regenerated with a new and have little effect on chemical contaminants dis- solution of potassium permanganate when the oxygen solved in the water. They will not remove nitrates, is depleted. The condition of the water, the size of the heavy metals, pesticides, bacteria, or trihalomethane unit, and the amount of water consumed will all affect (THM) compounds. how quickly the oxygen is depleted. Factors To Consider Before Buying A Mechanical Activated Alumina Filters Filter. Maintenance and replacement considerations Activated alumina is a granulated form of alu- are similar to carbon filters. Some fiber filters can be minum oxide that has been heat treated to make it backwashed to remove trapped particles. Fiber filters absorb inorganic chemicals very efficiently. can be used in conjunction with carbon filters. How Activated Alumina Works. In the filtration Oxidizing Filters process, water containing the contaminant is passed These filters are oftenARCHIVE referred to as iron filters or through a cartridge or canister of activated alumina. red water filters. Oxidizing filters are most effective in The alumina absorbs the contaminant and fresh water water with a pH of 7 or above. If water is acidic (pH continues to the service faucet. below 7), a chemical feed pump may also be needed. What Activated Alumina Removes. Passing drink- How Oxidizing Filters Work. Oxidizing filters use a ing water through activated alumina filtration sub- “greensand” resin bed to oxidize iron and manganese stantially reduces arsenic, fluoride, lead, and seleni- that are in solution. As the water flows through the um. Activated alumina devices will accumulate

2.4.3-2 bacteria, so at times treated water may have higher Maintenance: Carbon, Mechanical, Activated Alu- bacteria counts than raw water. mina Filters: Replace regularly when ﬁlter is saturated. Factors To Consider Before Buying An Activated Oxidizing Filters: Backwash to remove precipitate. Alumina Filter. The cartridge of activated alumina Regenerate when resin is depleted. has to be replaced periodically. It is important to determine by testing when the contaminant removal References capability of the device is exhausted. Once the alumi- Langston, John. 1989. Improving Home Water na has absorbed the maximum amount of contami- Quality. MP292. Arkansas Cooperative Extension Service. University of Arkansas. Little Rock, AR. nant, the ﬁlter may release contaminant to the water Plowman, Faye T. 1989a. Activated Carbon. rather than removing it. Water Quality Fact Sheet 20. New Hampshire Coop- Filters At A Glance erative Extension Service. University of New Hamp- shire. Durham, NH. How Filters Work: Absorb contaminants like a Plowman. Faye T. 1989b. Arsenic. Water Quality sponge or strain contaminants like a sieve. Fact Sheet 1. New Hampshire Cooperative Extension Pros/Cons: Improve taste and odor. Remove certain Service. University of New Hampshire. Durham, NH. organic and inorganic compounds. Can promote bac- Powell, G. Morgan, and Richard D. Black. 1989. terial growth. Activated Carbon Filters. MF-883. Kansas Coopera-

2.4.3-3 Agriculture and Natural Resources WATER QUALITY: Managing Drinking Water Quality

ALABAMA A&M AND AUBURN UNIVERSITIES

Possible Treatments Reverse Osmosis

ANR-790-2.4.4

everse osmosis (RO) is a relatively new water fully treats water with dissolved minerals such as alu- Rtreatment process available to the householder. minum, arsenic, barium, cadmium, chloride, chromi- Although the technique is not new, the systems have um, copper, fluoride, magnesium, iron, lead, man- become widely available only in the past few years. ganese, mercury, nitrate, selenium, silver, sulfate, and zinc. RO is also effective with asbestos, some taste, How Reverse Osmosis Works color and odor-producing chemicals, particulates, In RO systems, water is forced through a small- total dissolved solids, turbidity, and radium. pore membrane. Only water and other extremely Reverse osmosis is not, however, an effective small molecules fit through the holes in the mem- treatment for dissolved gases and certain organic brane. Contaminants are caught on the face of the chemicals, including some pesticides and solvents. It membrane. will not remove chloroform. RO is recommended for The simplest home RO system consists of a bacteriologically safe water only. membrane, a storage container for the treated water, and a flow regulator for the reject water. The mem- Factors To Consider Before branes must be chemical and bacteria resistant and Buying A Reverse Osmosis System are usually made of cellulose acetate or nylon. The Maintenance. Because the membrane must be pressure for RO is usually supplied by the line pres- flushed frequently to dispose of removed contami- sure of the water system in the home. Some RO sys- nants, some RO systems waste a lot of water. Some tems use a pump to force water through at high pres- RO systems require as much as 12 gallons of input sure. These systems are usually more effective than and flush water for each gallon of treated water. Also systems which use only the line pressure of the water pre-treatment filters and membranes require periodic system in the home. replacement. Since membranes are subject to degrading by Cost. The cost of the RO system is high and needs to chlorine, iron, manganese, and hydrogen sulfide and be weighed against the type and the quantity of con- to bacterial attack, a sediment prefilter and an activat- taminants in the water, the concern for safety, and the ed carbon prefilter or postfilter might be included. cost of other alternatives such as bottled water. The prefilter removes sand, silt, and sediments while Water Produced. Reverse osmosis is quite slow. the activated carbon removes the organic materials Usually only 5 to 15 gallons of water per day can be and dissolved gases not treated by the RO membrane. processed. It is not practical to treat all water entering Water softeners are used in advance of the RO system a residence with RO since small devices do not pro- when household water is excessively hard. duce enough water to meet household needs. Home RO units are often small, cylindrical devices approximately 5 inches in diameter and 10- to Reverse Osmosis At A Glance 25-inches long, excludingARCHIVE any pre- or post-filtration How RO Works: Pressure forces water through apparatus. Often, the unit is placed beneath the membrane extracting impurities. kitchen sink to treat water used for cooking and Pros/Cons: Varies in removal of nitrates and bacteria. drinking. Water with iron and manganese plugs membrane. Takes at least 2 gallons to produce 1 gallon of puri- Contaminants That Reverse Osmosis Treats fied water. Needs at least 40 pounds per square inch Unlike other filtration methods, RO can reduce of water pressure. the concentrations of most of the major classes of Maintenance: Replace pre-treatment filters and common contaminants found in water. RO success- membrane regularly. ANR-790 Water Quality 2.4.4 Visit our Web site at: www.aces.edu References Plowman, Faye T. 1989. Reverse Osmosis. Water Quality Fact Sheet 24. New Hampshire Cooperative Extension Service. University of New Hampshire. Durham, NH. Vogel, Michael P., James W. Bauder, and Jeffrey S. Jacobsen. 1989. Groundwater: Household Water Treatment. Montana Cooperative Extension Service. Montana State University. Bozeman, MT.

2.4.4-2 Agriculture and Natural Resources WATER QUALITY: Managing Drinking Water Quality

ALABAMA A&M AND AUBURN UNIVERSITIES

Possible Treatments Distillers

ANR-790-2.4.5

istillers produce almost pure water. They normal- Because distilled water is mineral free, it is very Dly remove 99.9 percent of the dissolved minerals soft and corrosive toward metals. Thus distilled water in the water. Since minerals add taste to water, dis- may cause problems with the metal parts of a plumb- tilled—or mineral-free—water has no taste. Aeration ing system. can improve the taste somewhat. Cost. The cost of producing distilled water depends How Distillers Work on the appliance and the local electric rate. The electrical costs for distillation may result in maintenance Distillers kill bacteria and viruses by heating tap or operating costs higher than alternative treatment water to boiling in a tank. The steam produced rises systems. The level of water quality desired, the con- and leaves impurities behind. The steam enters contamination of the water supply, the costs, and the densing coils where it is cooled by air or water and available alternatives (bottled water) need to be evalu- converted back to water. Distilled water then drains ated before a distiller is purchased. into outside storage or is dispensed from an interior Water Produced. Distillation is slow. Typically, 2 storage tank through a faucet. Storage containers may gallons of input water yield about 1 gallon of distilled be glass, metal, or plastic. Each type of storage con- water after 4 to 6 hours. Large counter top distillers tainer is satisfactory when cared for as the manufac- 1 can distill about ⁄2 gallon of water per hour. Small turer directs. units produce less than 1 quart of water per hour. Contaminants That Distillers Remove Health Effects. Drinking only distilled water may Distillers are capable of removing aluminum, lead to excess nutrient removal from your body. arsenic, barium, cadmium, chloride, chromium, copper, ﬂuoride, magnesium, iron, lead, manganese, mer- Distillers At A Glance cury, nitrate, selenium, silver, sulfate, and zinc. Dis- How Distillers Work: Boil water, collect vapor, and tillers are also effective in removing bacteria, giardia recondense it to remove impurities. and cryptosporidium cysts, particulates, total dis- Pros/Cons: Slow in producing treated water. Vapor- solved solids, and turbidity. izes and does not remove volatile chemicals with a Some volatile organic chemicals, such as some boiling point close to water. pesticides, can vaporize with the heated water, recon- Maintenance: Use acid cleaner periodically to pre- dense, and end up in the processed water. vent mineral buildup. Factors To Consider Before Buying A Distiller References Maintenance. Although the distiller has no parts to Tyson, Anthony, and Kerry Harrison. 1989. Water replace, it is not maintenance-free. Frequency of Quality For Private Systems. Bulletin 939. Georgia cleaning the distiller varies with the quantity of impu- Cooperative Extension Service. The University of rities in the water andARCHIVE the amount of water distilled. Georgia. Athens, GA. Hard water (high in calcium and magnesium) can Vogel, Michael P., James W. Bauder, and Jeffrey quickly clog the unit. Scale must be removed from S. Jacobsen. 1989. Groundwater: Household Water the boiling tank. White vinegar or a manufacturer’s Treatment. Montana Cooperative Extension Service. cleaner is used for cleaning. Montana State University. Bozeman, MT.

ANR-790 Water Quality 2.4.5 Visit our Web site at: www.aces.edu This publication, supported in part by a grant from the Alabama Department of Environmental Management and the Tennessee Valley Authority, was prepared by James E. Hairston, Extension Water Quality Scientist, assisted by Leigh Strib- ARCHIVEling, Technical Writer. For more information, call your county Extension ofﬁce. Look in your telephone directory under your county’s name to ﬁnd the number.

2.4.5-2 Agriculture and Natural Resources WATER QUALITY: Managing Drinking Water Quality

ALABAMA A&M AND AUBURN UNIVERSITIES

Possible Treatments Ion Exchange Units: Cation Exchange (Softeners) And Anion Exchange ANR-790-2.4.6

on exchange units are known primarily as water ions from the resin are added to the water. This pro- Isofteners. But they can also remove nitrates, sul- cess makes the water “soft.” fates, and various toxic metals from water. Under- The calcium and magnesium, which cause hard- standing how ion exchange works and what contami- ness, are reported as grains per gallon (gpg), mil- nants different units will remove can help you make ligrams per liter (mg/L), or parts per million (ppm). informed decisions about water treatment by ion Approximately 20 mg of sodium are added per gallon exchange. for each grain of hardness reduced. How Ion Exchange Works Eventually a point is reached when very few sodi- Ions are atoms, small particles that are the build- um ions remain on the resin; thus, no more calcium or ing blocks for molecules. Ions have a weak electrical magnesium ions can be removed from the incoming charge. The charge may be positive (for cations) or water. The resin at this point is said to be “exhausted” negative (for anions). This positive and negative or “spent” and cannot accomplish further water treat- charge is similar to the north or south pole of a mag- ment until it is “recharged” or “regenerated.” This can net or the positive or negative terminal of a car bat- be done by backwashing with a sodium carbonate tery. solution. Positively charged sodium ions are commonly Most water in Alabama does not contain enough used to coat cation exchange resins. Negatively minerals to require softening. charged chloride or hydroxide ions are commonly What Cation Exchange Removes. Water softeners used to coat anion exchange resins. Mixed bed resins exchange calcium and magnesium with sodium. This combine both positive and negative ions. exchange occurs as the hard water passes through a Ion exchange units actually exchange ions from resin bed which attracts and holds calcium and mag- the resins with those in the water. When water to be nesium in exchange for sodium. Calcium and magne- treated passes through the ion exchange unit, ions in sium cause hard water, and high levels can scale the water are attracted by either a positive or a nega- pipes, water heaters, boilers, and appliances, reducing tive charge to the ions in the resin bed. Since the ions water ﬂow and efﬁciency. from the water are usually held more tightly by the Cation exchange resins also remove barium, cad- resins than they were held in the water, they are, in mium, copper, iron, manganese, radium, zinc, and effect, removed from the water in the exchange pro- other metallic, positively-charged ions. cess. Factors To Consider Before Buying A Water Sof- Cation Exchange Units (Softeners) tener. Consider the following factors before buying a water softener. How Cation Exchange Works. Cation exchange resins are usually coatedARCHIVE with positively charged sodi- Types Of Water Softeners. Softeners are either manu- um ions. When water containing dissolved cations al, semi-automatic, or automatic. contacts the resin, the cations are “exchanged” for or A manual water softener can be as simple as a trade places with the loosely held sodium ions on the tank to hold the exchange resin and appropriate pip- resin. ing for raw (inlet) and treated (outlet) water. Tanks In this way the calcium and magnesium ions must be constructed of corrosion-resistant material responsible for hardness are removed from the water because of the concentrated salt solutions that are and placed on the exchange resin, and the sodium used.

ANR-790 Water Quality 2.4.6 Visit our Web site at: www.aces.edu More sophisticated systems may include a sepa- However, people on restricted salt diets should con- rate tank for mixing and containing the brine solution sult their physicians before using softened water from used for regenerating the resin, additional valves for ion exchange units for drinking and cooking. backwashing the exchange resin, and switches for automatic or semi-automatic operation. Anion Exchange For semi-automatic operation, the homeowner How Anion Exchange Works. Anion exchange units sets the system switches when recharging is neces- have a resin that exchanges chloride or hydroxide for sary. The system completes the process without need the anions (the negatively charged atoms) that they for further attention. remove. Most use chloride, which increases the chloride content of water and may cause a salty taste. For automatic operation, all steps of the recharging process are controlled by a timing mechanism What Anion Exchange Removes. Anion exchange that the homeowner sets based upon water usage. units can remove nitrate, sulfate, and other negatively Some models can measure water usage or remaining charged atoms called anions. Researchers are devel- softening capacity and recharge themselves only oping resins to selectively remove nitrate more efﬁ- when needed. ciently than can now be done. Maintenance. Maintenance of cation exchange units Factors To Consider Before Buying An Anion is largely confined to restocking the salt supply for Exchange Unit. Frequent monitoring is suggested if the brine solution. With manual and semiautomatic you use anion exchange for nitrate removal. As the models, the consumer will also have to start the anion exchange resin becomes “spent,” the nitrate regeneration cycle. trapped in the resin may be exchanged with sulfate in the water if the water contains sulfate concentrations An exchange resin lasts many years. However, if that are moderate to high. Under these circumstances, it is not regenerated on a regular basis, it may become nitrate concentrations at times can be higher after contaminated with slime or impurities from the raw water passes through the device than in the original water and become unusable. If this happens, the resin water. must be replaced with new material. Resins can also become clogged with tiny parti- Mixed Bed Ion Exchange cles of iron if the raw water contains much dissolved Often called demineralizers, mixed bed ion iron. Backwashing or reversing the normal flow of exchange units combine resins for removal of both water through the treatment unit may be required to positive and negative ions. They do not remove remove the iron. Special additives may be included in organic chemicals and they produce water similar to the brine regenerating solution to help minimize this distilled water. condition. Mixed bed units for industrial use are renewed Softened water is more corrosive than harder with hydrogen ions from an acidic solution for cation water, and the waste brines may be a disposal prob- exchange and with hydroxyl ions from an alkaline lem. Softening only the hot water tank lines or leav- solution for anion exchange. These acidic and alka- ing the major cold water line for drinking water line solutions are too dangerous for home use. unsoftened can help overcome this problem. Water Mixed bed units for homes are usually not for outdoor taps does not need to be softened. rechargeable. They must be discarded after a certain Cost. The cost of a water softener can be balanced volume of water has passed through them. Therefore, against the savings of soft water. Softening hard they are expensive. water can reduce the quantity of cleaning products needed by as much as 50 percent. The life of the Water Softeners At A Glance home’s plumbing system and water-using appliances How Water Softeners Work: Remove minerals can be extended. Other benefits include the time which cause hardness and replace them with sodium saved in cleaning and removing scale and better through cation exchange. results in laundry, dishwashing,ARCHIVE and personal groom- Pros/Cons: Can pay for itself in savings in soap, hot ing. water. Not recommended for drinking water for indi- Health Effects. The major disadvantage of water viduals on a salt-free diet. Must buy salt regularly. softeners is that they remove beneﬁcial calcium and Must dispose of brine solution. magnesium and substitute sodium. The sodium added Maintenance: Restock salt supply for brine solution to softened water is normally a relatively small frac- used to regenerate the resin. Start regeneration cycle tion of the sodium intake from other dietary sources for manual and semi-automatic models. Backwash to and is probably not a problem for healthy people. remove iron or other particles that may clog system.

2.4.6-2 References Magette, William L. 1988. Using Ion Exchange Units To Soften Your Well Water. Water Resources 19. Maryland Cooperative Extension Service. The University of Maryland. College Park, MD. Shaw, Byron H., and James O. Peterson. 1990. Improving Your Drinking Water Quality. G3378. Wisconsin Cooperative Extension Service. University of Wisconsin. Madison, WI. Vogel, Michael P., James W. Bauder, and Jeffrey S. Jacobsen. 1989. Groundwater: Household Water Treatment. Montana Cooperative Extension Service. Montana State University. Bozeman, MT.

2.4.6-3 Agriculture and Natural Resources WATER QUALITY: Managing Drinking Water Quality

ALABAMA A&M AND AUBURN UNIVERSITIES

Possible Treatments Chemical Feed Pumps

ANR-790-2.4.7

chemical feeder or a chemical feed pump feeds very thin film on interior metal surfaces to minimize Achemical compounds, either as dry, soluble crys- the water-to-metal contact. The film redissolves slow- tals or as a solution, into water. This method can be ly, so the amount of polyphosphate or silicate materi- used to treat several water quality problems. Acidity al that is fed should be controlled carefully to main- (corrosiveness), bacterial contamination, and high tain the protective film. Initially, old corrosion iron content can all be treated with chemical feed deposits often loosen and flush through the system. pumps. They appear to make a “red water” problem worse. A higher feed rate cleans the system and reestablishes How Chemical Feed Pumps Work the film. The chemical feeder consists of a tank filled with Another method of neutralizing acid water and, a chemical compound. The tank is installed so that thus, controlling corrosion is to feed a soda ash solu- water passes through it and picks up the chemical. tion, or sodium carbonate, to the water supply The rate at which the water picks up the chemical is through a chemical feed pump. This pump can oper- controlled by either (1) how fast the chemical dis- ate with a well pump to produce an adequate amount solves or (2) how fast the water flows through the of soda ash in the water flow. Soda ash solution added tank. (Some feeders use both methods.) ahead of the pressure tank produces the best results. A chemical feed pump has a tank filled with a The rate of the feed pump should produce a treated chemical compound. The pump can be set to inject a water pH of 7.5 to 8.0. specific amount of the compound in liquid solution Bacterial Contamination. Continuous chlorination from the chemical feeder tank into the water at regu- to disinfect a private water source and control bacteri- lar intervals. If the chemical feed pump is wired to al contamination is also accomplished with the chem- operate with a well pump of the same voltage or ical feed pump. The pump is used to inject a chlorine through a transformer, then the solution is accurately solution into the water line between the well pump proportioned to the water flow. The chemical solution and the pressure tank. A chlorine solution may be and water are then mixed in the pressure tank. All prepared from household hypochlorite bleach, strong chemical feeders must be refilled with the chemical hypochlorite solutions used by commercial laundries, compound periodically. or from dry powder or tablet forms of calcium hypo- How fast water flows through the tank can be reg- chlorite. These materials are available in most areas. ulated in several ways. Some chemical feeders incor- An activated carbon filter in the water line placed porate pressure differential devices, precision orifices, after the pressure tank removes any precipitated mat- or both within the feeder. Other feeders are used with ter, any chlorinated by-products, and the bad tastes a valve in the main water line to create slight resis- and odors of high chlorine concentrations. A small tance to flow and force some water flow through the sampling valve in a tee ahead of the filter makes feeder tank. SometimesARCHIVE this valve is incorporated checking chlorine concentration convenient. directly into the feeder design. High Iron Content. When both high iron content and bacterial contamination are a problem, hypochlorite What Chemical Feed Pumps Treat bleach and soda ash may be mixed in a single solu- Acidity (Corrosiveness). Corrosion caused by a high tion and fed into the water system with the same concentration of dissolved minerals in slightly acid pump. Precipitated iron must then be filtered out water can be controlled by either food-grade poly- before water goes to a storage tank. An activated car- phosphate or silicate compounds. These compounds bon filter should be placed after the storage tank to can be fed into the water system where they deposit a remove excess chlorine and potential by-products. ANR-790 Water Quality 2.4.7 Visit our Web site at: www.aces.edu An alternative treatment for high iron is stabiliza- Chemical Feed Pumps At A Glance tion with polyphosphates. Food-grade polyphosphate How Chemical Feed Pumps Work: Feed com- compounds are fed into the water by a chemical feed- pounds either as dry soluble crystals or as a solution. er or a chemical feed pump. These polyphosphate Pros/Cons: Chlorine: Most effective in removing compounds react chemically with the dissolved iron high iron. Combines with organics or with inorganics to keep it in solution and thus prevent problems such as ammonia to produce chlorinated organic caused by staining and deposits in pipes and water- chemicals. Test to assure proper chlorine levels. using equipment. The feeder is connected ahead of Polyphosphates: May stimulate bacterial growth and the pressure tank because the iron must still be in pollute water. solution for the polyphosphate to work. Once the iron-laden water has been exposed to air in the pres- Maintenance: Refill periodically with the chemical sure tank, rust particles form and the polyphosphate is compound. ineffective. Polyphosphate feeders handle up to 2 References mg/L of dissolved iron. These units are ineffective if Hermanson, Ronald E. 1991. Corrosion From the iron is oxidized and already settled out as rust Domestic Water. EB1581. Washington Cooperative particles, or if iron bacteria are present. Extension Service. Washington State University. Pull- Treatment with polyphosphate has its drawbacks. man, WA. Heat will convert the polyphosphates to orthophos- Hermanson, Ronald E. 1991. Drinking Water: phate which no longer keeps the iron in solution. Bacteriological Safety And Treatment. EB0995. Most polyphosphates are sodium salts like sodium Washington Cooperative Extension Service. Wash- hexametaphosphate and, thus, add sodium to the ington State University. Pullman, WA. water. Finally, the use of polyphosphates can stimulate bacterial growth and cause water pollution. For these reasons chlorination followed by filtration is considered a better alternative for treatment of iron.

2.4.7-2 Agriculture and Natural Resources WATER QUALITY: Managing Drinking Water Quality

ALABAMA A&M AND AUBURN UNIVERSITIES

Possible Treatments Ultraviolet Radiation, Ozone Treatment, And Aeration ANR-790-2.4.8

n addition to the common household water treat- Ozone Treatment For Disinfection Iment systems—filters, reverse osmosis, distillers, Ozone is a chemical form of pure oxygen that is softeners, and chemical feeders—many other treat- extremely reactive. It is the product smelled near an ment methods exist. A few of the more important of electric spark or lightning strike. For many years, these include ultraviolet radiation, ozone treatment, municipal systems in Europe have used ozone treat- and aeration. ment to disinfect water, but only recently has the Ultraviolet Radiation For Disinfection technology been applied to public systems in the United States. Now small units are available for the How Ultraviolet Radiation Works. Ultraviolet (UV) householder. systems expose the water to light from a special lamp. The light is at a specific wavelength, which is capable How Ozone Treatment Works. The home devices of killing common bacteria. The system adds nothing are a “black box” approach to water treatment. They to the water, produces no tastes or odors, and usually are installed in the plumbing system and connected to requires only a few seconds of exposure to be effective. an electrical power supply. Raw water enters one What Ultraviolet Radiation Treats. Ultraviolet radi- opening and treated water emerges from another. ation is very effective on pathogens but not on proto- Inside, ozone is produced by an electrical corona dis- zoan cysts such as those responsible for giardiasis. charge or ultraviolet irradiation of dry air or oxygen. UV systems, however, have no action beyond the (At present all home systems use dry air to produce point of application because the light penetration of the ozone.) The ozone is mixed with the water when- water is shallow (usually only 2 to 3 inches) and sus- ever the water pump is running. A system to clean pended solid particles of inorganic or organic matter and remove the humidity from the air must be includ- can shield organisms against the light. Because of the ed, and such a system requires routine maintenance. possible presence of protozoan cysts, microfiltration What Ozone Treats. Ozone, like chlorine, is a strong must be added to ensure that the system is completely oxidizing agent and is used in much the same manner. disinfected. It is an excellent virucide, is effective against most Factors To Consider Before Buying An Ultraviolet amoebic cysts, and destroys bacteria and phenols. Radiation System. The major problems with such a Ozone may not kill large cysts and some other large system are cost, fouling of the chamber, collection of organisms, so these should be eliminated by filtration sediment, and growth of algae. In the latest ultraviolet or other procedures prior to treatment. radiation systems, Teflon tubes are used instead of Ozone is also effective in eliminating or control- quartz tubes and seem to decrease these problems. ling color, taste, and odor problems not amenable to Holding UV-treated water outside of the water other methods. It oxidizes and permits removal of system causes some increase in the risk of contamina- iron and manganese and aids in turbidity removal. tion from reintroductionARCHIVE of bacteria. Storing water in Factors To Consider Before Buying An Ozone the refrigerator for a cold drink or reconstituted Treatment System. The major benefit of ozone treat- drinks that normally are refrigerated are the common ment is that ozone is extremely active as a disinfectant. problems. Water for such uses might best be boiled or In contrast to chlorine, ozone is active over a wide pH treated with a disinfectant if UV is the primary treat- and temperature range. The required contact time is so ment process. short that it is not a consideration in the system design. Additionally, the ultraviolet lamp must be cleaned Another benefit of ozone treatment is the lack of frequently to ensure proper exposure of the water to potentially harmful by-products like trihalomethanes the light. (THMs), which chlorination can produce.

ANR-790 Water Quality 2.4.8 Visit our Web site at: www.aces.edu Like chlorine, ozone is a toxic gas, but its greatest References drawback is its lack of residual time. Ozone has an Haman, Dorota Z., and Del B. Bottcher. 1986. active residual measured in minutes while the residu- Home Water Quality And Safety. Circular 703. Flori- al for chlorine is measured in hours. Test equipment da Cooperative Extension Service. University of for residual ozone is now available and should be pur- Florida. Gainesville, FL. chased with the unit. The only way to know if the unit Plowman, Faye T. 1989. Bacteria (Private Water is working is to test for ozone residual or have bacte- Supply Disinfection). Water Quality Fact Sheet 2. rial tests conducted on the treated water. Ozonation New Hampshire Cooperative Extension Service. Uni- equipment is expensive, and chlorination may still be versity of New Hampshire. Durham, NH. desirable because of low residual time for ozone. Powell, G. Morgan. 1989. Disinfection Of Private Aeration For Removal Of Dissolved Gases Water Supplies. MF-886. Kansas Cooperative Exten- Simple aerators on the end of faucets sometimes sion Service. Kansas State University. Manhattan, have a signiﬁcant effect on improving taste. Aeration KS. and oxidation usually remove odors and improve tastes only if volatile substances are removed. Carbon dioxide, methane, and hydrogen sulfide are the most common gases that are removed by aeration. Radon gas may also be treated with aeration. Aeration can be used for the precipitation and removal of iron and manganese. Aeration should not be used if water is subjected to airborne contamination.

2.4.8-2 Agriculture and Natural Resources WATER QUALITY: Managing Drinking Water Quality

ALABAMA A&M AND AUBURN UNIVERSITIES

Possible Treatments Bottled Water: Is It Really Better?

ANR-790-2.4.9

ith reports of increased chemical and bacterial from. The following is a description of the basic types Wcontamination of water resources, many health- of bottled water and their source. conscious consumers are beginning to question the Distilled Or Demineralized Water. This is water safety of our drinking water supplies. However, most which has been treated to remove nearly all of the public water utilities are now providing safer water minerals that occur naturally. Through distillation or than ever before. A greater number of regulations and deionization the water contains only 10 parts per mil- laws have increased the monitoring and testing of all lion (ppm) or less of total dissolved solids. The public water supplies. More people now have access resulting water is of the highest purity but has very to public water and, therefore, are drinking safer little taste and is often considered bland. water than ever before. Drinking Water. This type of water may come from Most problems with contaminated water are asso- municipal water systems, wells, or springs. It is gen- ciated with private water supplies. Although public erally treated to remove some chemicals and bacteria water supplies are closely regulated, the numerous but still contains some dissolved solids. Certain min- private water supplies throughout the country are not erals are often added to the water to give it an regulated or inspected. Householders are solely improved taste. responsible for the safety and monitoring of their private water supplies. Natural water. Natural water means just that. It is bottled without much treatment. It is generally free of With this increased concern about the safety of the trace minerals which are added in most public drinking water, many consumers, even those on pub- water supplies but contains many minerals found nat- lic systems, are now turning to bottled water as a way urally in water. Because of the wide range of minerals of getting a safer, tastier drink. In 1990, consumers in water from a groundwater source, natural water is spent more than $1.5 billion for approximately 1.25 generally quite flavorful. An undesirable trait of natu- billion gallons of bottled water. With this increased ral water is the possibility of contamination by syn- consumer demand, the bottled water industry has thetic organic chemicals, including industrial sol- responded with a growing number of products—now vents, petroleum products, and pesticides. This risk more than 600—for consumers. has now been reduced because of the FDA ruling in Who Regulates Bottled Water? 1994. While public water supplies are regulated by the Mineral Water. This type of water is generally Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), bottled obtained from a natural spring or underground water falls under the jurisdiction of the Food and source, and the mineral content is not modified by the Drug Administration (FDA). On December 1, 1994, manufacturer. Mineral water may contain from 1,000 the FDA published a final rule requiring bottled water to 3,000 ppm total dissolved solids. This water may suppliers to meet waterARCHIVE quality standards identical to also be contaminated by synthetic organics. In fact, those established by US EPA’s Phase II regulations routine testing of water samples in a North Carolina for drinking water suppliers. The FDA rule becomes laboratory in 1992 resulted in the discovery of ben- effective May 30, 1995. zene in Perrier, one of the most popular of bottled mineral waters. Benzene levels were more than three Types Of Bottled Water times the drinking water standard set by EPA. Ironi- Many consumers are unaware of the various cally, the lab was using Perrier as an organic-free types of bottled waters and where they actually come standard at the time.

ANR-790 Water Quality 2.4.9 Visit our Web site at: www.aces.edu As of May 30, 1995, water classiﬁed as natural Reference water or mineral water must meet standards identical Graham, Frances C. 1990. Bottled Water. Infor- to those set by EPA. mation Sheet 1418. Mississippi Cooperative Exten- Is Bottled Water Worth The Cost? sion Service. Mississippi State University. Mississip- pi State, MS. This is a question that each individual must answer. Although many bottled waters come from the tap and are no better than public water supplies, they are safer than water from a private well which is contaminated. However, with the high price tag that bottled water carries—almost $1 a gallon or more—for most people it should be considered a short-term alternative and not a long-term solution to a contaminated water supply. Although bottled water may be of comparable quality to regulated public water supplies, it is no better or safer in most cases. Is bottled water better? It is your decision. You must judge.

2.4.9-2 Agriculture and Natural Resources WATER QUALITY: Managing Drinking Water Quality

ALABAMA A&M AND AUBURN UNIVERSITIES

Water Supply Wells Constructing A Well

ANR-790-2.5.1

re you planning a new home on a site that is not The construction cost of a well usually covers Aserved by a community water system? Or are you only the work and materials required for the well. It thinking of replacing your water well with a new does not include the pumping system, plumbing and well? If so, you can protect both your family’s health electrical work, and materials necessary to get the and the market value of your home by thoughtfully water from the well to the point of use. The well con- planning the installation of a new well. tractor probably is qualified to perform this service. If Before beginning construction, you must choose so, the contract should specify the materials and total a well contractor, determine your family’s water cost for completing the water system. This work may requirements, and select a safe location for the well. cost as much or more than the well itself. However, Constructing the well—the best methods and the when you purchase the well and the complete pump appropriate components—can be determined by local installation from the well contractor, you give him or or state laws and the contractor. After construction, her full responsibility for adequate water service. you must make sure that the well is developed, tested, A Checklist For Well Construction and disinfected. When contracting to install a well, be sure to find Choosing A Well Contractor answers to these questions: Well construction is a specialized trade. Most What is the water yield that will be sought? well drillers want to do a proper job because they What is the minimum yield that will be accepted know that a good well is their best advertisement. The if difficulties are encountered? State of Alabama has specific requirements that well What is the maximum depth to drill if satisfactory drillers and pump installers must meet yearly to be amounts of water are not encountered? licensed. A list of water well drillers licensed in Does the written estimate cover costs of the fol- Alabama is included in the appendixes. lowing: Local well contractors are listed in the classified ¥ Drilling (per foot). telephone directory. You also can ask your county ¥ Well casing materials (per foot). Extension agent, health officer, bank representatives, ¥ Surface sanitary sealing. pump dealers, and neighbors to recommend a local ¥ Sealing material (such as grout). well contractor. Check on the contractor’s reliability, ¥ Excavations for piping from well to house. reputation, length of establishment, and satisfied cus- ¥ Submersible or other type of pump, piping into tomers. house, and all other required equipment. A well contractor should be willing to provide a ¥ Pressure tank inside the house. standard contract specifying the materials to be used, ¥ “Dry” holes. how the well is to be finished, and the diameter of the ¥ Well drilling permit. well. The contract must specify that the well is to pro- ARCHIVEWhen will the work start? vide potable water at an adequate rate for your use. Most contractors drill wells at a flat rate of so How long is construction likely to take? much per foot because of the uncertainty of depth to Is the contractor responsible for guaranteeing a water. Often a minimum fee equivalent to 75 to 100 certain quantity or quality of water? feet of well is required. In this case a well of lesser What is the contractor’s right of access onto the depth would cost the minimum fee. A well of greater site? depth would cost the minimum fee plus the flat rate Will there be any necessary disruption to existing for additional depth. land and vegetation? ANR-790 Water Quality 2.5.1 Visit our Web site at: www.aces.edu How will the debris from the drilling operation be Table 2. Demand Flow For Various Fixtures. disposed? Fixture Gallons Per Minute Is the contractor free of liability for injuries not caused by the contractor’s negligence? Automatic clothes washer 5 Basin faucet 3 Does the contractor provide future maintenance Bathtub or shower 5 services? If not, who will? Kitchen sink 5 Will the contractor furnish a well log when the Toilet flush tank 4 work is completed? (Such a log will include details of Garden hose, 1/2-inch 3 the well’s construction and the pumping, pressure, Lawn sprinkler 3 to 5 and drawdown testing if required.) Source: Woodling 1988. Determining Water Requirements The average amount of water used for farm and domestic supplies is 65 to 75 gallons per person per ground is a crucial safety factor. Locating a well in a day, but a more accurate estimate should consider safe place takes careful planning and consideration of your household’s size and lifestyle. Table 1 may several factors. assist you in determining water requirements. First, the well must be located within your property lines. The exact distance that it must be from Table 1. Planning Guide For Water Consumption. property lines may be governed by local codes. Homes, Farms, Urban Areas Gallons Per Day Next, it is important to locate a well where it can be easily maintained and serviced. A permanent Livestock, per head structure built over a well can interfere with servic- dairy cow 35 ing, and power or phone lines can interfere with a beef or steer cow 12 heifer 12 well drill-rig mast. If you must drill next to a build- hog 4 ing, locate the well at least 2 feet beyond the drip line horse or pony 12 of the roof eve. sheep or goat 2 Finally, the most important factor in your well’s Poultry, per 100 safety is the location of the well in relation to possi- chickens 5 to 10 ble sources of pollution. Both the direction of water turkeys 10 to 18 flow and the distance from sources of contamination should be considered. Dwellings, per person single family home 50 to 75 Direction Of Water Flow. The direction water flows seasonal cottage 50 and carries pollutants can affect the safety of your institution 75 to 125 well. Contaminants may flow around or down the Country Clubs, per member 25 outside of the well to groundwater. To protect groundwater, direct surface drainage away from the Service Station, per vehicle 10 well. Swimming Pool 10 Once a contaminant enters groundwater, the Source: Woodling 1988. direction that it flows may not be indicated by surface slope. While groundwater flow in a shallow aquifer is often in the same direction as surface water flow, a Your well must be able to supply enough water to deeper aquifer may have a different slope and a dif- meet the needs of your family during periods of ferent direction of flow than is indicated by the land intensive use when people are bathing, washing laun- surface. To find out the direction groundwater flows dry, watering the lawn, or filling a pool. The well’s in your area, contact a well driller, an engineering ability to supply waterARCHIVE during peak periods largely firm, or the Water Resources Division of the Geologi- depends on the rate at which water flows to the well, cal Survey of Alabama in Tuscaloosa (205-349- which is usually measured in gallons per minute. The 2852). amount of water normally expected from a domestic well is 4 to 10 gallons per minute. The demand flow Ideally, the well should be located on the side of for various fixtures is given in Table 2. the contaminant source opposite the direction of groundwater flow and on the highest ground avail- Locating The Well able. For example, if you know groundwater flows to Whether a well taps water just below the ground the south, place the well as far north of the contami- or hundreds of feet down, its location on top of the nant source as possible. This will help prevent con-

2.5.1-2 taminated runoff water and other materials from screen through the soil. This process requires porous, entering your well. relatively loose soil containing no rock. Distance From Sources Of Contamination. The Drilled wells are installed when greater volume, distance that your well must be from sources of con- depth, or diameter are required. Two methods of tamination will vary with the soil type. Some general drilling are the hydraulic rotary method and the guidelines for setback distances from common cable-tool method. sources of contamination are given in Table 3. These The hydraulic rotary method of drilling uses a bit setback distances apply to clay and loam textured attached to the lower end of a vertical shaft which soils; they should be increased for more permeable consists of sections of drill pipe that are screwed soils. For example, these distances should be doubled together. As the drill pipe is rotated and lowered, the for highly permeable, coarse-textured soils such as bit cuts its way through the earth. At the same time a loamy sand. water and mud mixture is pumped down through the center of the pipe and the bore hole. This mud fluid carries bore material away from the bit and keeps the Table 3. Recommended Minimum Setback Dis- hole from caving in. The well casing is placed in the tances For Common Sources Of Contamination. bore hole after the well has been drilled. The com- Source Of Contaminationa Setback Distanceb plete casing pipe is placed in one operation and then grouted into place. Lake, pond, or stream; cistern; sump, pit, drywell, or nonpotable 25 feet In cable-tool drilling a heavy steel bit is suspend- well. ed on a cable and alternately dropped and picked up to pulverize the earth below it. Water and earth form a Animal or poultry yard; sewage sludge which is bailed out from the hole as necessary holding tank; buried sewer; septic 50 feet with a tool called a bailer. The steel pipe casing is tank. placed as the well drilling progresses. The casing fits Cesspool; below-grade manure tightly and is driven from time to time to sink in as storage; petroleum tank and prod- required. The earth hugs the pipe tightly and grouting ucts; septic absorption field; pesti- 100 feet generally is not required. cide and fertilizer storage tank; chemical or fertilizer preparation Parts Of A Well area. Long-term sanitary protection for a well begins Liquid waste disposal system; with the casing. See Figure 1. Casing prevents sur- manure stack and manure storage 250 feet face runoff and shallow groundwater from entering structure. the well and contaminating the desirable water that is aFor sources of contamination not addressed, use a mini- generally found in deeper soil formations. mum of 50 feet separation. bThese are recommended distances for private wells. State and local ordinances may require different separation dis- sanitary well cover tances, especially for public water supply wells. Sources: Minnesota Department of Health, Alabama Department of Public Health, 1988 and Alliance for a Clean Rural Environ- ground surface ment, 1991. casing pitless adapter (not required in Methods Of Well Construction Alabama) Wells generally are classified according to the check valve method of construction. Wells can be driven or grout drilled. Older types ofARCHIVE wells such as dug wells are limited in depth and are subject to contamination from surface water seepage. Shallow wells are no longer allowed by many state health departments. submersible pump Driven wells are the quickest and least expensive method of acquiring groundwater. They are most well screen practical where the well depth does not exceed 50 to 60 feet. Driven wells are constructed by forcing an assembled length of pipe fitted with a well point and Figure 1. Parts of a well (not to scale).

2.5.1-3 Steel pipe is most often used for casing drilled, The well pump may be either mounted directly small-diameter wells because it must withstand stress over the well, offset from the well, offset from the during installation, pressure from surrounding earth casing with pipes buried below the soil surface, or materials, and corrosive soil and water. In some parts submerged in the well above the well screen. Where of the country, thermoplastic casing is becoming pop- the pump is mounted directly over the well, a sanitary ular. Under extremely corrosive conditions, stainless well seal should be used. If the pump is offset from steel casing may be necessary. For bored large-diame- the well, the seal should consist of a water-tight, ter wells, concrete and fiberglass casings are also expanding-type seal that fits into the casing and at the used. same time seals the drop pipes, cables, and airline. If The depth of casing required for a well depends the pump is offset from the casing with pipes buried on the nature of the subsurface geologic materials, below the soil surface or if the pump is submerged in groundwater levels, and code requirements. The well the well, a sealing device termed a pitless adapter is casing should extend at least 50 feet below the water used. In this case the top of the casing still projects table of the aquifer supplying your well. This ensures above the soil level and is fitted with a protective cap. that surface water is filtered through soil and geologic Pitless adapters are commonly used in cold climates materials before entering the well. Meeting well code to keep pipes below the winter freeze depth. This is minimums does not, however, guarantee a safe water not necessary in Alabama. supply. Since most contamination comes from the Antibacksiphoning (check) valves should be surface, casing the well deeper can provide greater installed between the well and the water pipes. If protection. For help, call the Alabama Department of water pressure is lost even momentarily, these devices Environmental Management, Water Division, Water prevent siphoning contaminants into the well. Supply Branch, Non-Community Section. The bottom of the casing must be fitted with a After Construction well screen which allows water to enter the well Once the drilling has been completed and the cas- freely but prevents the entrance of coarse sand. ing and screen have been placed, the well should be Screens must be of sufficient strength to maintain the “developed.” A well is developed to clean the water shape of the well bottom. The material should be intake spaces and to allow the maximum rate of water resistant to the chemical action of the groundwater. entry to the well. This process involves pumping to Stainless steel, bronze, or brass are used most com- remove all sediment leftover from the drilling pro- monly in well screens. The selection of the screen cess. The well is then surged using compressed air or material usually is based on the cost of the material washed with a water jet to cause water to move in and the chemical character of the water. Recently, both directions through the water-bearing strata at the there has been concern about lead leaching from well intake. brass screens. The well is then tested for yield. For residential The upper part of the well casing must be sealed wells, testing usually is done by bailing or with com- artificially where clay, hardpan, shale, or other stable pressed air. This type of test usually is included in the material overlays waterbearing sand or gravel. Seal- cost of the well. An actual pumping test for capacity ing is usually done with grout, which can be con- in gallons per minute with measurement of water crete or a special type of clay called bentonite level decline or “drawdown” requires additional cost depending on the geologic materials encountered. but is justified for irrigation or other wells where reli- Both grout and casing prevent pollutants from seep- able high yield is necessary. ing into the well. Finally, the well and pumping equipment should The upper end of the casing pipe can terminate be disinfected before being placed into service. The on a pump house floor, a platform, or the soil surface. well should be thoroughly cleaned of all foreign sub- The casing should extend at least 6 inches above this stances. Disinfect with a chlorine solution poured into surface. The casing must extend at least 2 feet above the well at a rate dependent on the well size and water any maximum knownARCHIVE flood water elevation to prevent storage capacity. After 8 hours or more, the water is surface water run-in. The entrance of any pump pipes, then pumped until the amount of chlorine has been cable, airlines, or other device into the well casing reduced sufficiently. This water might burn shrubs must be effectively sealed. A sanitary well cover and grasses and should be disposed of where damage should help keep the well sanitized. will be minimal.

2.5.1-4 References Alabama Department of Public Health. 1988. Rules of State Board of Health: General Sanitation Branch. Chapter 420-3-1-.22 (Location of Onsite Sewage Disposal Systems). Montgomery, AL. Bodie, Herbert L. 1989. What You Should Know About Water Wells. Water Resources 14. Maryland Cooperative Extension Service. The University of Maryland. College Park, MD. Choosing The Best Spot For Your Well. 1991. Fact Sheet. Alliance For A Clean Rural Environment. Washington, DC. Jones, Susan. 1991. Improving Drinking Water Well Condition. AG-FO-5673-S, AG-PC-5696-S. Minnesota Cooperative Extension Service. University of Minnesota. St. Paul, MN. Korab, Holly. 1990. Planning Your Well: Guide- lines For Safe, Dependable Drinking Water. Land And Water Number 14. Illinois Cooperative Exten- sion Service. University of Illinois at Urbana. Cham- paign, IL. Minnesota Department of Health. Water Well Construction Code. Chapter 4725. Minneapolis, MN. Wagenet, Linda, and Ann Lemley. 1991. Private Household Water Supplies. Fact Sheet 8. New York Cooperative Extension Service. Cornell University. Ithaca, NY. Woodling, N. Henry. 1988. Planning Guide for Water Consumption. SW-1. Pennsylvania Coopera- tive Extension Service. The Pennsylvania State Uni- versity. University Park, PA.

2.5.1-5 Agriculture and Natural Resources WATER QUALITY: Managing Drinking Water Quality

ALABAMA A&M AND AUBURN UNIVERSITIES

Water Supply Wells Protecting The Well Site

ANR-790-2.5.2

e once thought water was filtered and cleansed Check Your Septic System Wof all contaminants as it percolated through the Most rural and many suburban dwellings have a soil. Unfortunately, tests for contaminants in wells in septic tank and absorption field. Older homes may Alabama and across the nation have shown this not to have cesspools. Cesspools are illegal because they be true. Activities on the surface of the earth can discharge raw sewage directly into the ground. affect the groundwater below. Rainwater and snow Replace cesspools with a septic system. melt can carry contaminants toward the well from A septic system settles and treats household roofs, livestock lots, or chemical handling areas. wastes such as soapy water from the laundry and the Other sources of contaminated runoff and seepage are bath, food scraps, and body wastes. The solids settle malfunctioning septic drain fields and chemically to the bottom of the tank where bacteria change some treated farm fields, lawns, and gardens. organic matter into gases. The clarified liquid flows You can protect the market value of your home into the absorption field where it seeps into the soil. and your family’s health by following these steps to Soil microorganisms and filtration remove most of protect your well site: the impurities in the liquid wastes. A properly ¥ Check construction of existing wells. designed, operated, and maintained septic system ¥ Check your septic system. protects groundwater as satisfactorily as a city sewer. ¥ Inspect underground fuel storage tanks. Maintain Your Septic System. Avoid placing the ¥ Evaluate your pesticide management. following materials in the septic tank: paper towels, ¥ Check livestock waste handling. disposable diapers, rags, sanitary napkins, tampons, cat litter, or other nonsewage materials. These items ¥ Seal abandoned wells. may plug your plumbing, fill your tank, or even cause Check Construction Of Existing Wells the early failure of your absorption field. Proper well construction protects groundwater Do not put chemicals that could contaminate from contaminants that flow down or around the out- groundwater into a septic system. Septic tanks do not side of the well to groundwater. remove nitrate or many other chemicals. Make Sure An Existing Well Is Properly Sealed. Do not use a garbage disposal unless the tank was Bacteria often contaminate improperly sealed wells. designed and sized to handle one. The extra solids fill All wells should have a cap or seal at the top of the the tank too rapidly. Dispose of this waste in a com- casing to keep contaminated surface water from get- post pile with yard waste. ting into a well. Have The Septic Tank Pumped Regularly. Pump Inspect The Condition Of Your Well Casing. Using out the tank every 3 to 5 years or whenever it gets a light, look for holes or cracks at the surface or down more than one-quarter full of sludge. The rate of the inside of the casing. Try to move the casing sludge buildup depends on the tank size and the vol- ARCHIVEume of solids in the sewage. Septic tank cleaners are around by pushing against it. If it moves it may need to be resealed with grout to keep out contaminants. not recommended and do not replace pumping. Listen for water running down into the well when the Inspect Your Absorption Field For Leaks. Indica- well pump is not running. If you do hear water, there tors of a failed absorption field are wet spots, could be a crack or hole in the casing, or your well is unpleasant odor, or lush growth of water-loving vege- not cased down to the water level in the well. tation. These surface flows are offensive nuisances

ANR-790 Water Quality 2.5.2 Visit our Web site at: www.aces.edu and can be a health hazard particularly to children Spilling a concentrated formulation is more serious and pets. They may contain organisms that cause than applying diluted material on a field where the typhoid fever, dysentery, and other diseases. Ponded pesticide is designed for use. Build storage areas with sewage provides an excellent breeding place for concrete floors and no drain so spilled concentrates mosquitoes and other disease-carrying insects. If a can be cleaned up and disposed of without soil or septic system is no longer treating wastes as water contamination. designed, groundwater and drinking water from near- Mixing And Loading. Pesticides can be spilled on by wells may also be contaminated. Have your city or the ground during mixing and loading. Repeated county health department investigate your septic sys- spills increase pesticide concentrations in the soil, tem to determine corrective measures. which may be unable to absorb or degrade the pesti- Inspect Underground Fuel Storage Tanks cide. Spills increase the possibility of pesticides leaching down to groundwater. Once contaminated, Surveys in several states have shown that under- the groundwater may remain unusable for years. ground fuel tank leaks and fuel spills contribute sig- Cleaning a well is prohibitively expensive. nificantly to groundwater contamination. Petroleum To protect groundwater supplies, load spray fuels contain toxic compounds including benzene, equipment and mix pesticides in the field if possible. toluene, and xylene. Fuels may also contain additives If you fill sprayer tanks directly from the well, use an such as ethylene dibromide and organic lead com- antibacksiphoning valve. If you do not have one of pounds. Even small amounts of these substances can these valves, keep the hose end out of the tank to pre- cause big problems. One part per million of vent siphoning the pesticide into the well if the pres- petroleum renders the taste and odor of water unac- sure drops. Never leave the tank unattended while it ceptable for drinking. In addition, lifetime exposures is filling. Clean the sprayer (inside and out) while in to extremely small amounts (parts per billion) of the field. Spray the rinse water out in the field. these substances may lead to increased cancer rates. Container Disposal. A pesticide container is never Check Your Tank For Leaks. An underground stor- completely empty. The concentrated leftovers are age tank has a maximum life span of 15 to 25 years, troublesome sources of contamination. Rinse the con- and the chance of a tank leaking increases with age. tainers three or more times or pressure rinse with a Consider having your fuel tank tested for tightness special nozzle. Add the rinse water back into the yearly. spray tank solution for field spraying. Puncture empty If a leak is detected, immediately empty the tank containers to prevent reuse. Dispose of used contain- to stop the flow of fuel into the ground. Repair the ers in a sanitary landfill or return recyclable contain- empty tank if it is otherwise sound, or replace it. ers to your pesticide dealer or a recycling center. Have the repairs done by qualified service personnel because fumes in a supposedly empty tank can be Check Livestock Waste Handling highly explosive. Evaluate Your Sanitation Program. A clean livestock area protects your groundwater from bacteria, Evaluate Your Pesticide Management viruses, and nitrates. Cleanliness around grain storage In evaluating your pesticide managment, you and handling areas and prompt, proper disposal of should look for ways to reduce pesticide impacts on garbage discourages rodents. groundwater. Several areas to consider are pesticide Locate confined feeding areas away from wells, selection, storage, mixing and loading, and container streams, and ponds. Locate livestock and pet pens or disposal. corrals away from all wells. Selection. One way to reduce pesticide impacts on Practice Routine Waste Disposal. Promptly remove groundwater is to use all available nonchemical dead animals. Do not stockpile manure near any options for pest management. These include pest water source. Keep stockpiles covered to reduce resistant crop varieties, biological pest control, and leaching. Divert runoff away from wells. crop rotations. When a pesticide is necessary, select A good practice is to use the fertilizer value of the least environmentallyARCHIVE sensitive pesticide that will animal wastes by spreading them on production control the pest. Look for less leachable and less per- fields. If you can not use the manure, perhaps garden- sistent pesticides if available. Always read and fol- ers or other farmers can. low all label instructions and precautions, especially groundwater warnings. Never apply more pesticide Seal Abandoned Wells than the rate recommended on the label. Old well pits, uncapped wells, and abandoned Storage. Carefully survey your storage areas. Spills wells are direct conduits to groundwater. They also are nearly inevitable where containers are handled. pose safety hazards for children.

2.5.2-2 Do Not Use These Areas As Dump Sites. These Other procedures are used to seal wells which are may look like convenient places to dump trash, ani- large diameter, if special geologic conditions exist, or mal carcasses, used engine oil, and empty chemical if special techniques were used in constructing the containers. But disposing of these materials in old well. wells or sinkholes can pollute your water supply. Be You should call your municipal, county, or state sure to remove any trash already in abandoned wells health officials, water quality agency, or water man- or sinkholes on your property. agement authority for any specific regulations regard- Do Not Locate A Septic System, Feedlot, Or Ani- ing well abandonment in your area. mal Waste Lagoon Near Known Or Suspected Sinkholes. You may also want to call your local Soil References and Water Conservation District, county Extension Adams, Edward B. 1991. Protect Your Ground- agent, or Department of Public Health representative water: Survey Your Homestead Environment. for additional advice. EB1631. Washington Cooperative Extension Service. Sealing abandoned wells begins by removing any Washington State University. Pullman, WA. pumping equipment and clearing any obstacles and Alabama Department Of Environmental Manage- debris that have entered the well. When obstructions ment (ADEM). 1992. Groundwater Sources And have been cleared, the well can be sealed by filling Treatment. ADEM Admin. Code R. 335-7-5 and 335- with concrete from the bottom of the well to within 2 7-6. Montgomery, AL. feet of the surface. The well casing should be cut off The Importance of Sealing an Abandoned Well. below plow depth, or at least 2 feet below the surface, 1991. Fact Sheet. Alliance for A Clean Rural Envi- and the hole filled with soil. ronment.Washington, DC. When sealing a well, it is important to fill it with Mechenich, Chris, George Gibson, Jim Peterson, a material that is less permeable to water than the Byron Shaw, and Gary Jackson. Maintaining Your native soil and rock. Otherwise, water can migrate Home Well Water System. G3399. Wisconsin Coop- between waterbearing layers and possibly degrade erative Extension Service. University of Wisconsin. high-quality water with lower-quality water. When Madison, WI. concrete is not practical because of volume and Sinkhole Management Protects Groundwater expense, clay or a mixture of sand and bentonite Quality. 1991. Fact Sheet. Alliance For A Clean might be used to fill the hole and restore natural con- Rural Environment. Washington, DC. ditions as closely as possible.

2.5.2-3 Agriculture and Natural Resources WATER QUALITY: Managing Drinking Water Quality

ALABAMA A&M AND AUBURN UNIVERSITIES

Water Supply Wells How To Seal An Abandoned Well

ANR-790-2.5.3

nused or abandoned wells are common through- Locating Old Wells Uout Alabama. These wells pose a potential threat Unused or abandoned wells can be found almost to groundwater, which supplies at least half of Alaba- anywhere. In cities and towns, many homes still have ma’s population with drinking water. old wells that were used before city water was Abandoned wells threaten groundwater in several installed. These may be dug, bored, drilled, or sand- ways. First, abandoned wells provide a direct path for point wells, but most of them are no longer in use. contaminants into the groundwater supply. Common In rural Alabama, dug and bored wells were once contaminants include farm wastes, pesticides, fuel and the most common types of wells. Some of these can other chemicals from leaking storage tanks, septic still be found around homesites that have long since system wastes, and stormwater run-off. In addition, been abandoned. The more affluent farms had several people can accidentally pour pollutants or hazardous wells. Some were equipped with windmills or hand- materials such as used motor oil into abandoned powered piston-pumps for lifting the water, but most wells, or use abandoned wells as a garbage dump had buckets on ropes attached to hand cranks. without realizing the potential hazard. Whether con- As electric power was extended to rural areas, tamination is unintentional or purposeful, it can seep pumps and piping replaced the windmill and human- through abandoned wells, bypassing the normal filtra- powered systems and drilled wells became the norm. tion that occurs through soil, and pollute the water for Many farmstead wells of all types are still in use and new wells. When groundwater becomes contaminat- located near septic systems, barnyards, gasoline stored, cleaning it up can be very difficult and expensive. age tanks, and chemical storage areas. This location Abandoning wells properly eliminates a possible increases the danger of contamination to groundwa- source of groundwater contamination. ter. All unused wells and those wells that pose a spe- Larger diameter, open, unused wells also present cial threat to groundwater or present other hazards a physical hazard for small animals and children. should be properly abandoned and sealed. Even adults have fallen into open, unused wells. Finally, abandoned wells are becoming a liability in Proper Steps For Well Abandonment resale of land. Many buyers now want environmental There are a number of steps that should be fol- audits, especially for commercial properties with lowed to properly abandon and seal an unused well. abandoned wells, before they are willing to finalize Different types of wells require different abandon- transactions. ment techniques, materials, and equipment. For these reasons, abandoned wells should be In some cases, the owner may qualify for cost- properly sealed. The seven steps to proper well aban- sharing aid. (See Cost Share Assistance.) donment are: Determine The Type Of Well. Different techniques, ¥ Determine type of well. materials, and equipment will be required to properly ¥ Check on cost-shareARCHIVE assistance. abandon a well, depending on its diameter, depth, and type of construction. There are at least four general ¥ Determine well dimensions. types of wells found in Alabama: dug wells, bored ¥ Remove debris and piping. wells, driven (sand-point or jetted) wells, and drilled ¥ Check for contaminants. wells. ¥ Select and stockpile appropriate fill and seal In colder climates, a drilled or driven well may be materials. located in the bottom of a pit. This is called a pit well. ¥ Fill and seal the well. These pits may be 6 to 8 feet in diameter, greater than

ANR-790 Water Quality 2.5.3 Visit our Web site at: www.aces.edu 5 feet deep, and house the plumbing to protect it from tural Stabilization and Conservation Service (ASCS), freezing. The top of the well is located in the bottom now under the new Consolidated Farm Service Agen- of the pit. The pit is usually lined with stone and mor- cy (CFSA) of USDA, issued Notice AC-313 on Octo- tar or cement. In the spring the pit is usually filled ber 21, 1993, entitled WP8, Plugging Abandoned with water. This well design is not very common in Water Wells. Alabama. Reimbursement for plugging the well is 75 per- Dug Wells. Dug wells are usually large diameter cent of the total cost not to exceed $1,000 per well. wells that extend down below the water table. These The plugged well shall be maintained for a minimum wells were dug by hand and commonly have a diame- of 10 years after the calendar year that the well is ter ranging from 3 to 5 feet, although some may have plugged. a diameter greater than 10 feet. They may extend The USDA Natural Resources Conservation Ser- down into bedrock that was blasted or chipped out to vice (NRCS, formerly the Soil Conservation Service) reach the aquifer. The sides of most dug wells are has developed an interim standard, titled Decommis- cased with tile, stone, brick, or concrete walls, com- sioning Abandoned Water Wells. The practice is monly called “curbing,” to hold the soil back. Some authorized under Technical Code 997. The Alabama of the larger diameter wells, however, may have no NRCS has developed Interim Standard 197. This casing at all. Dug wells usually range from 15 to 50 interim standard is in compliance with regulations of feet in depth. the Water Supply Branch, Water Division, Alabama Bored Wells. Bored wells get their name from the Department of Environmental Management (ADEM). fact the hole is made with an earth auger. Like dug The following policies apply to WP8, Plugging wells, these wells extend down below the water table Abandoned Water Wells: and are seldom deeper than 100 feet. Older wells dug ¥ Abandoned water wells must be plugged with hand augers are usually not more than 8 to 14 according to federal, state, and local health and envi- inches in diameter, but power augers are widely used ronmental standards. now. Wells dug with power equipment may be as ¥ Priority shall be given to wells that are contami- large as 3 feet in diameter. These wells are usually nating aquifers used for drinking water. lined with drain tile as the holes are bored. ¥ This practice is only authorized for drilled or Driven Wells. Driven wells are common in sandy hand dug abandoned water wells. areas and often called driven-point or sand-point ¥ This practice is not authorized for water wells wells. These wells usually have small diameter steel drilled at an oil or gas drilling site to supply water for pipe, 1.25 to 2.5 inches in diameter, with a perforated drilling activities. screen and steel point at the bottom. They are pound- ¥ Newly abandoned wells where state laws ed down into the ground to the depth of the aquifer, require that such wells be plugged are ineligible for usually a shallow water table aquifer. Driven wells cost-share assistance. are limited to areas where water-bearing sand or grav- The participant must: el lies within 25 to 100 feet of the surface and where ¥ Agree to allow USDA agents access to the site there are no rocks or boulders to interfere with driv- to review and evaluate the practice. ing the pipe. If the water table is below 25 feet, the ¥ Secure all necessary permits, if required, with- well must be large enough for a submersible pump. out cost-share assistance before starting construction If a water jet is used in the driving process, the of the practice. well may be called a washed or jetted well. These ¥ Provide a copy of any forms, logs, or reports wells may be as large as 14 inches in diameter. required by federal, state, or local well-plugging laws Drilled Wells. Drilled wells usually have a steel to the designated USDA technician as part of the pipe (casing) from 4 to 20 inches in diameter, de- practice completion certiﬁcation. pending on what they are used for. A few may be ¥ Ensure that the surface area disturbed during larger than 20 inches butARCHIVE most range from 4 to 8 inch- practice establishment is seeded to vegetative cover es in diameter. These wells are installed with either a without cost-share assistance. percussion or rotary drilling rig and are usually quite Authorized Costs. The following are authorized deep, sometimes passing through several layers of costs: gravel and rock to reach an adequate supply of clean ¥ Labor costs to remove pumps, associated pip- water. Common depths may range from 30 to 40 feet ing, ungrouted liner pipe, and other obstacles that to more than 1,000 feet. must be removed before the well is plugged. (Note: Check On Cost-Sharing Assistance. The well may All debris must be disposed of according to State and qualify for cost-share assistance. The former Agricul- local laws and regulations.)

2.5.3-2 ¥ Chlorine used for disinfecting. If contamination is found, pumping and removal ¥ Fill material needed to fill the well such as grav- of contaminants now may prevent future widespread el, sand, or clay. groundwater contamination problems. Contact ¥ Sodium bentonite or other grouting material to ADEM for the name of contractors approved for groundwater remediation in Alabama. seal the well cavity. Select And Stockpile Appropriate Fill And Sealing ¥ Cement or other material used to cap the well. Materials. Several substances can be used in filling ¥ Costs to back fill the well with surface materials and sealing abandoned wells. Appropriate fill materi- or similar materials to the surface. al depends on the type of well and may include ¥ Necessary labor costs to plug the well. crushed stone, gravel, sand, silt, clay, native soil or Unauthorized Costs. Cost sharing is not autho- even agricultural lime, gypsum, or aluminum powder rized for the following: in some situations. Bentonite, a natural clay material ¥ Plugging test or exploratory wells or holes. mined in several areas of the United States, is the (Note: These are considered the responsibility of the most common type of clay material used as both a fill landowner and should have been properly plugged and sealing material in certain types of wells. Unhy- immediately after completion of all testing, sampling, drated bentonite chips have the capacity to absorb or other operations for which the well or hole was water and swell up to twelve or thirteen times their normal volume. There are different sizes of bentonite originally intended.) chips which are suited for different situations. Fifty- ¥ Plugging driven (punched) water wells. (Note: pound bags of bentonite cost $4 to $5. Other sealing These are wells in which the screen section of the materials may include concrete, cement grout, neat casing is driven into the water formation.) cement, or neat cement with additives such as gyp- ¥ Plugging oil or gas wells. sum or aluminum powder. ¥ Fees charged for water quality testing. Mixed cement grout, grout, or cement grout are Determine Well Dimensions. It is important to names used for a mixture of pure Portland cement check well dimensions so that the appropriate amount and water that is mixed at a ratio of 6 gallons of water and type of fill material is on hand once the sealing to one 94-pound bag of cement. Depending on the process begins. This is especially true for driven well, the cement product may be poured directly into wells, drilled wells, and any other wells that are filled the well or pumped through a special conduit called a from the bottom up. For best results, the filling pro- trimie pipe, filling the well from the bottom up. Since cess should be completed in a single operation. This filling a deep well may require special equipment, it may require the assistance of a professional well con- is advisable to seek the help of a certified well driller. tractor or pump installer. Filling And Sealing The Well. Each well is unique, It is important to measure the exact depth and vol- and special attention should be given to filling and ume of drilled wells because they can vary so much in sealing it properly so that it does not cause any future problems or additional expense. After filling, any dis- depth. Many of these wells have drilling histories and turbed surface area around the well should be exact specifications with the state geological survey, smoothed or graded so that adapted vegetation can be because they were most likely drilled by licensed established to prevent erosion. water well drillers. Current measurements should cor- respond closely with recorded specifications. For Dug Wells. For dug wells larger than 30 inches in diameter, clean native soil, silt, or clay may be used information on drilled wells in Alabama, contact the as the fill material. Dug wells less than 30 inches in Water Resources Division of the Geological Survey of diameter should be filled with bentonite chips or a Alabama in Tuscaloosa at 205-349-2852. mixed cement grout pumped to the bottom through a Remove Debris And Piping. All debris, pumps, and trimie pipe. Professional help may be needed. If a dug piping should be removed from a well before filling. well of any size extends down into the bedrock, the Check For Contaminants.ARCHIVEIf the well has been aban- rock portion of the well should be filled with cement doned for an unknown period of time and the history grout through a trimie pipe. The top 3 to 5 feet of of the well is not known, the well should be checked curbing should be removed after the well is filled to for contaminants. Waste oil is a common product within 3 to 5 feet of the surface. If it can be broken found in narrow diameter driven wells and some with a sledge hammer it can be used as part of the fill bored and drilled wells. Garbage is a common prod- material. This top 3 to 5 feet should be filled with uct in larger diameter bored and dug wells. Special native soil material. equipment may be needed to sample and remove con- Bored Wells. Bored wells should be handled the taminants from these wells. same as dug wells less than 30 inches in diameter.

2.5.3-3 Driven Wells. Driven wells 2.5 inches or less in cement grout and bentonite chips may be used. The diameter should be filled with cement grout poured Alabama Department of Environmental Management through an appropriately sized funnel. Water will be must approve the use of other materials to seal aban- forced out the top as the well is filled. If the well is doned public water supply wells. The next most suit- less than 25 feet deep, the pipe and point can usually able material would be soil material at least as fine in be removed and the hole alone filled with cement texture as the surrounding soil. Regardless of the grout. Special equipment may be needed to remove filler used, at least the top 5 feet must be filled with the pipe. If the pipe has a concrete floor around it, this bentonite chips, concrete, or cement grout to create a should be broken up with a jackhammer or sledge and solid closure. Both USDA and ADEM recommend removed so the pipe can be pulled out. In driven-pit that the casing of drilled wells be cut off at least 3 wells, the pipe and point should be left in place and feet below the normal ground surface prior to final filled with cement grout. The concrete in and around sealing at the top. the pit should be broken up with a backhoe and the area filled with native soil material that is less perme- Other Wells. For special wells that do not fit into able to infiltration than the surrounding sandy soil. the categories mentioned above, contact a licensed Drilled Wells. Proper abandonment of drilled well driller or pump installer for advice. They will wells depends on the diameter and depth of the well. have the equipment and expertise to take care of any Technical assistance is often required when dealing problems you have. with a drilled well. The Alabama Department of Your local NRCS, county Extension, or depart- Environmental Management recommends removal of ment of public health offices may provide special the casing when possible, but the sealing of a drilled information or assistance in contacting a well con- well will not generally require removal of the casing. tractor. You may also contact the Water Supply Drilled wells 4 inches or more in diameter can be Branch, Water Division, of the Alabama Department properly filled and sealed with bentonite chips or of Environmental Management in Montgomery for cement grout. A trimie pipe will be needed to deliver information at 334-271-7773. cement grout to the bottom of the well. If the well is filled with bentonite chips, the chips should be poured Conclusion on a downward slope across a coarse mesh screen Alabama does not have regulations dealing with directly into the well. The filling rate should be about residential or irrigation well abandonment. There are 3 minutes per 50 pound bag. regulations which require abandonment of public If a screen is not used or the pouring rate is too water supply wells and monitoring wells. It is still a rapid, “bridging,” or the formation of a gap between good idea, however, to properly fill and seal unused the sealed area and non-sealed area, may occur. Ben- and abandoned wells on your property. They could tonite dust material can sometimes float on the water, lead to contamination of your own water supply. They instantly harden, and cause bridging, or pouring too can also be a legal liability in resale of land, or if a quickly can result in partial filling, which also causes groundwater contamination problem is traced to a bridging. The volume of the well determines the well on your property you may be held legally liable amount of chips to be used. Calculating this number for the damages. exactly can serve as a safeguard. If a large amount of bentonite chips is left over, then bridging has occurred References and will have to be broken by drilling or pounding. Henderson, G. E., Elmer E. Jones, and George W. Large diameter drilled wells are easy to fill but Smith. 1973. Planning For An Individual Water Sys- require a large amount of material. Because of the tem. American Association for Vocational Instruction large volume of these wells, materials cheaper than Materials, Engineering Center, Athens, GA.

This publication, supported in part by a grant from the Alabama Department of ARCHIVEEnvironmental Management and the Tennessee Valley Authority, was prepared by James E. Hairston, Extension Water Quality Scientist, assisted by Leigh Strib- ling, Technical Writer. For more information, call your county Extension ofﬁce. Look in your telephone directory under your county’s name to ﬁnd the number.

Issued in furtherance of Cooperative Extension work in agriculture and home economics, Acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914, and other related acts, in cooperation with the U.S. Department of Agriculture. The Alabama Cooperative Extension System (Alabama A&M University and Auburn University) offers educational programs, materials, and equal opportunity employment to all people without regard to race, color, national origin, religion, sex, age, veteran status, or disability. ANR-790-2.5.3 UPS, New June 1995, Water Quality 2.5.3 2.5.3-4 Agriculture and Natural Resources WATER QUALITY: Managing Drinking Water Quality

ALABAMA A&M AND AUBURN UNIVERSITIES

Water Supply Wells Testing Well Water

ANR-790-2.5.4

ore than 720,000 people in Alabama depend on cooking unless it is boiled for at least 1 minute or dis- Mtheir own well, spring, or cistern for drinking infected by other means. water. Individual water supplies of this sort are con- Nitrate testing is also important and relatively sidered private, and the owner is responsible for inexpensive but generally is not necessary annually assuring the water source is safe. For this reason, rou- unless initial testing finds nitrates from home or farm tine testing for a few of the most common contami- sources. Nitrates in concentrations above health stan- nants is highly recommended. dards (more than 10 mg/L) are associated with health Which Tests? problems in infants and young farm animals. Annual testing for pH and total dissolved solids Annual tests for household water supplies should is generally optional since they usually change very include tests for total coliform bacteria, nitrate, pH, little over time and add little information about the and total dissolved solids (TDS). Routine testing of immediate safety of water samples. However, a sud- livestock and poultry water supplies should include den change in either pH or TDS could be an indica- tests for pH, total dissolved solids, sulfate, fluoride, tion of below-ground corrosion or other damage to calcium, magnesium, iron, copper, arsenic, cadmium, your well. If neither have been tested, testing will tell lead, nitrate, barium, total coliform bacteria, and fecal you much about the corrosive potential of your water. coliform bacteria. Corrosion is a health concern because of lead solder A common problem with Alabama well waters is in copper plumbing. A safe pH may range from 6.5 to bacterial contamination. Annual testing for coliform 8.5 depending on other conditions. TDS should not bacteria is relatively inexpensive and a good idea. exceed 500 mg/L. Bacteria of this type are most commonly found in Radon and pesticide testing can be important older, shallow wells in porous soils near faulty septic also, depending on where you live. Both tests can be systems or animal feedlots. Coliform bacteria concen- expensive and may require special sampling proce- trations in excess of one colony per 100 ml of water dures. The decision to conduct these tests will proba- indicate a possible source of animal waste contamina- bly depend on your level of concern or indications that tion and possible presence of pathogenic (disease- a problem may be developing. An elevated level of causing) organisms which can cause intestinal infec- nitrate in your well water samples is a good indication tion, dysentery, typhoid, and hepatitis. that your well is contaminated from surface activities; Bacteriological testing is important when any of therefore, you may want to test for pesticides, too. the following conditions occur: You will need to weigh the possible risks of their ¥ Any noticeable change in color, odor, or taste of undetected presence against the cost of testing. water. When To Test? ¥ Any person or animal becomes sick from a sus- Water tests are especially important if the supply pected waterborne disease.ARCHIVE is threatened by nearby activities. Good records prior ¥ Flooding has occurred near the well. to contamination will be needed to prove that the sup- ¥ The water supply system has been disassembled ply was damaged. Listed below are situations that for repairs to components such as well, pump, tank, may affect a water supply and useful laboratory tests. or lines. If your well is in an area of intensive agricul- Any well water that shows the presence of col- tural use: iform bacteria is considered contaminated. The con- Test for pesticides commonly used in the area, taminated water should not be used for drinking or coliform bacteria, nitrate, and pH. ANR-790 Water Quality 2.5.4 Visit our Web site at: www.aces.edu If your water smells like gasoline or fuel oil mine the tests you need and may make some of the and your well is located near an operational or analyses. Be sure to choose a lab that is currently cer- abandoned gas station or buried fuel storage tified for the test you want. tanks: The health department in each county will pro- Test for fuel components or volatile organic com- vide packets at a cost for bacteriological testing. The pounds. samples are analyzed at state health labs or at certain private laboratories under contract with the county If your well is near a dump, junkyard, landfill, health department. Upon special request and indicat- factory, or dry cleaning operation: ed need, the Alabama Department of Public Health Test for volatile organic chemicals (such as gaso- or the Alabama Department of Environmental line components and cleaning solvents), pH, chloride, Management (ADEM) can run additional tests. If a sulfate, and metals. homeowner is simply curious or has personal con- If your well is near seawater, a road salt stor- cern, private testing sources will have to be used. This age site, or a heavily salted roadway and you testing can become quite expensive. notice the water tastes salty or signs of corrosion If your county health department cannot sample appear on pipes: your water for biological testing, they can tell you Test for chloride and sodium. how to collect samples for testing by other labs. You may also wish to contact your county Extension If there has been a chemical spill or leak with- office, the Alabama Department of Environmental in 500 feet of your well: Management, or your regional EPA office for the Test for chemical contamination. names of certified laboratories. How Frequently To Test? How To Collect Water Samples? An annual test for bacteria is recommended. For the most accurate results, water samples More frequent tests may be needed in areas heavily should always be collected using proper sample col- concentrated with wells and septic tanks. However, if lection procedures. Samples should be tested by a the soil thickness is more than 10 feet, the depth of laboratory that uses methods approved by the Envi- water is more than 50 feet, the well is properly pro- ronmental Protection Agency. tected, and several previous samples were negative, Sampling is the most important part of water test- you may consider extending this testing interval. ing. A carelessly collected or an inaccurate sample If you are expecting a baby in your home, you will lead to misleading results, and false results can should test for nitrate at the beginning of the pregnan- be costly to both your family’s health and finances. cy. Depending on the test result, you may wish to test again before bringing the baby home and during the What To Do About The Test Results? baby’s first 6 months. If the test results exceed water quality standards, If you have an old or shallow well, it is especially your water is contaminated. The Department of Pub- important to test your water regularly. Older methods lic Health may then recommend that you disinfect of well construction and the well’s location in relation your well and water supply system again and submit to septic or livestock facilities on many farms make another water sample. older and shallow wells prone to contamination. Whatever the results, these tests provide a starting The testing frequencies listed here are general point. They establish a record of water quality. This guidelines. Test more often if you suspect there is a record helps to identify changes in the supply, con- problem with the quality of your drinking water. tamination of the water source, or deterioration of the water system. Be sure to keep records from the water Where To Test? tests to document the history of water quality from Many places in Alabama can test your water. your well. Good records of water quality are impor- Local colleges and universities, private laboratories, tant if you need to prove that your water has been and water treatment companiesARCHIVE can even help deter- contaminated by some outside activity.

2.5.4-2 References Mancl, Karen. 1988. Where To Have Your Water Tested. AEX-314. Ohio Cooperative Extension Ser- vice. The Ohio State University. Columbus, OH. Mengel, David B., and Cheri L. Janssen. 1990. Why Test Your Water? WQ 4. Indiana Cooperative Extension Service. Purdue University. West Lafayette, IN. Population Served By Public Water Systems. 1991. Alabama Rural Water Association. Mont- gomery, AL. Stewart, Judith C., Ann T. Lemley, Sharon I. Hogan, and Richard A. Weismiller. 1990. Home Water Testing. Water Quality Fact Sheet 4. USDA Extension Service. Washington, DC. Testing Well Water For Contamination. 1991. Fact Sheet. Alliance For A Clean Rural Environment. Washington, DC.

The following articles in the Water Quality series may be helpful: Water Testing Should You Have Your Water Tested? Where Can You Have Your Water Tested? How Should You Collect Water Samples? Which Tests Should You Request? What Do The Numbers Mean? Interpreting Water Tests

2.5.4-3 Agriculture and Natural Resources WATER QUALITY: Managing Drinking Water Quality

ALABAMA A&M AND AUBURN UNIVERSITIES

Water Supply Wells Disinfecting Well Water By Chlorination

ANR-790-2.5.5

hlorination is the oldest method of disinfection Methods Of Chlorination Cfor water supplies. Chlorination has been studied Two basic methods are used to apply chlorine. extensively and is the standard by which other disin- Chlorine may either be added to a known volume of fection procedures are judged. water as shock treatment procedure or injected into Chlorine is a strong oxidizing agent. It is cheap, the water supply stream for continuous disinfection. reliable, easy to use and to monitor, and it is safe. A The amount of chlorine consumed in oxidation dose of chlorine large enough to be harmful smells reactions is known as the “chlorine demand” of a too bad to drink and will cause the eyes to burn or water supply. The amount of chlorine remaining in water. Chlorine is also easy to remove. Exposure to the water after the chlorine demand is satisfied is the atmosphere, heating, or ﬁltering through activated known as the “free chlorine residual.” Only if a chlo- carbon will remove chlorine from water. rine residual is found in the water after adequate con- Chlorine does have some drawbacks. It requires tact time can you be sure that disinfection has been time to react, and organisms vary in their resistance to completed. chlorine. Most bacteria are relatively easy to kill. Shock Chlorination. Shock chlorination is recom- Viruses as a rule are more difﬁcult to kill, and many mended when a new system is put into operation or cysts and worms are relatively unaffected. Chlorine when an existing system has been exposed to contam- also attacks reduced forms of iron and manganese ination. Shock chlorination requires a strong chlorine and organic matter which is common in many water solution, 200 to 400 parts per million (ppm). This is supplies. If the chlorine is consumed in reacting with equivalent to 200 to 400 milligrams of chlorine per these elements, it is not available to attack the liter of water (mg/L). pathogens for which it was intended. In addition, the reaction of chlorine with organic matter may produce Adequate shock chlorination involves the follow- trihalomethanes (THMs), which are known carcino- ing steps. gens. Finally, many people do not like the taste or 1. Pump and clean the water supply or well thor- smell of chlorine, and a few react to even very low oughly. Remove any debris or other foreign matter. If levels of chlorine in the water. the water is stored in a cistern or other reservoir be Many forms of chlorine are available. Ordinary sure to scrub the interior surfaces to remove sedi- laundry bleach normally contains 5.25-percent avail- ments or deposits. able chlorine, but the label should be checked for the 2. Calculate the depth of water in the well or the percentage of chlorine and to determine if cleaning amount in the storage reservoir. Determine the agents have been added. Bleach with cleaning agents amount of chlorine required from Table 1. Any com- should not be used for disinfecting water supplies. mon household liquid bleach that contains approxi- Stronger solutions that contain 12- to 17-percent mately 5-percent “active” ingredient, usually sodium chlorine are also available.ARCHIVE Normally used for swim- hypochlorite, is the most convenient chemical to use. ming pool disinfection, they are also suitable for 3. Add and thoroughly mix the required amount water treatment. Finally, there are powders and of chlorine into the water supply. tablets. Dry chlorine sources range from 25- to 75- The best way to add chlorine to a drilled well is percent available chlorine. Dry chlorine sources are to pump well water into a tank or other container that usually put into solution prior to use, but tablets may holds more water than the amount stored inside the be used directly for some applications. well diameter. Mix the chlorine with the water in the

ANR-790 Water Quality 2.5.5 Visit our Web site at: www.aces.edu Table 1. Volume of 5.25-Percent Bleach Solution water softner and all filters (except carbon filters) Required To Disinfect Wells.a with chlorinated water. Well Diameter Water Depth Of Well (feet) 5. Once the chlorine adequately reaches all points (inches) of the distribution system, allow the chlorinated water 20 30 40 50 100 200 to stand in the well and the distribution system for at 4 to 6 4 ozb 6 oz 8 oz 10 oz 20 oz 40 oz least 2 hours. If possible, allow the chlorine solution 6 to 12 16 oz 24 oz 32 oz 40 oz 2.5 qt 4 qt to stay in the system overnight. 12 to 24 2 qt 3 qt 4 qt 6. Thoroughly pump the water supply source and 24 to 48 2 gal 3 gal 4 gal flush the system until all of the residual chlorine has aDisinfection strength should be approximately 50 parts been diluted to an acceptable level for use. Pump the per million. wastewater through a hose to a roadside ditch or bLiquid ounces. Note: 32 ounces = 1 quart. A standard some other bare area. measuring cup = 8 ounces. Do not irrigate a garden or lawn with this waste- Source: Faust 1975. water and do not let more than 100 gallons of the strongly chlorinated water flow into drains which ulti- tank and allow the chlorinated water to flow back into mately discharge into a septic tank. the well. Attach a hose to a nearby faucet or hydrant; In addition to these steps, two additional steps are then start the pump to recirculate that chlorinated suggested if iron bacteria or other nuisance organisms water out of the well and back into it. Wash down the are in the system. well casing and delivery pipe with the hose as the First, dislodge and remove bacterial masses from water is returned to the well. The returning water the piping system by using compressed air or gas to must have a strong chlorine odor. If it does not, add create water surges or to induce a waterhammer more chlorine to the well. In the case of shallow dug effect. Take care not to create excessive pressures wells, the chlorine solution can be added directly to which may rupture pipelines. Second, shock chlori- the water by simply raising the cover. nate the water source and the water distribution sys- Wells that are more than 75 feet deep may require tem again within 24 to 48 hours. special methods to get chlorine to the bottom. 7. To ensure the water is safe for drinking, test it One method uses a short pipe filled with high-test for coliform bacteria. Allow at least 24 hours before hypochlorite powder. Cap both ends of the pipe and taking the sample. This will ensure that all water in drill small holes through each cap or through the the well has been replaced with fresh water from sides of the pipe. Fasten an eye to one of the caps and underground sources. attach a line. The disinfecting agent will be distribut- If coliform organisms are still present, the ed throughout the well as you raise and lower the groundwater is continuously contaminated. In this pipe. case, you should abandon the well or water source Another method is to use extra chlorine in tablet and develop a new one. If new construction is not form to reach the bottom of a deep well. When the possible or feasible, your water supply should be dis- tablets settle to the bottom, they will dissolve slowly. infected continuously by a chlorinator installed in the After adding the solution, make sure that the well water system. seal or cover is properly replaced. Continuous Chlorination. If tests show the presence 4. Fill the distribution system with chlorinated of coliform bacteria even after the well has been dis- water. Before disinfecting the distribution system, infected and if wells and septic tanks are crowded temporarily remove or bypass any carbon filter used together, then the groundwater is continuously con- in the system. taminated. In these situations, the water may be per- Open each faucet and hydrant in the distribution manently disinfected by a home chlorinator that feeds system one at a time and run the water until a strong chlorine continuously into the water. Continuous chlorine odor is present.ARCHIVE When you smell chlorine, chlorination should always be used on surface water turn the faucet off and open the next one. Add more supplies, such as ponds, springs, lakes, or cisterns. chlorine to the water in the well if the chlorine odor Some chlorinators feed just enough bleach, becomes weak at any faucet. approximately 1 to 2 parts per million (ppm), to ade- Drain and refill the water heater and other water quately disinfect the water and leave a small residual, system accessories with chlorinated water. Release 0.2 to 0.5 ppm, of chlorine as a safety factor. This is the air from the pressure tank (except for those tanks called simple chlorination. with a permanent air cushion) so the tank can fill Other units feed the bleach at higher dosages in completely with chlorinated water. Backwash the the range of 5 to 10 ppm and leave a high residual of

2.5.5-2 chlorine. This method of chlorination is called super chlorination. Pump Delivery Line In this case, the high residual chlorine imparts a strong chlorine odor and taste to the water. This strong chlorine odor and taste can Pump-Type Pressure be removed with an activated car- Chlorinator Tank bon filter. Removing chlorine is called dechlorination. Chlorine There are many types of com- Suction Line mercially available home chlorinators, but most of them work on the principle of feeding a chlorine solution into the water. These units Chlorine Solution are usually located on the dis- Container charge side of the well pump and Water Pump before the pressure storage tank. Some home chlorinators feed Figure 1. Pump-type diaphragm chlorinator. chlorine directly into the well. Feeding chlorine directly into the well has several potential benefits. If iron bacteria are References present in the well, they can be treated at the source. Faust, Samuel D., and John Wilford. 1975. If the water contains iron or manganese, the minerals Potable Water: Directions For Disinfecting A Well. may be precipitated from solution by chlorination. Circular 598. New Jersey Agricultural Experiment After precipitation by chlorination, they may be Station. Cook College. New Brunswick, NJ. removed by filtration. Machmeier, Roger E. 1989. Chlorination Of Pri- Two common methods of feeding chlorine are vate Water Supplies. AG-FO-1319. Minnesota Coop- pumps and aspirators. A chlorine pump is a positive erative Extension Service. University of Minnesota. displacement or chemical-feed device which adds a Minneapolis, MN. small amount of chlorine to the water. The dose is Plowman, Faye T. 1989. Bacteria (Private Water either fixed or varies with water flow rates. The chlo- Supply Disinfection). Water Quality Fact Sheet 2. rine is drawn into the device and then pumped to the New Hampshire Cooperative Extension Service. Uni- water delivery line. See Figure 1. Corrosion of the versity of New Hampshire. Durham, NH. chlorination device can be a problem. Powell, G. Morgan, and Richard D. Black. 1989. An aspirator is a simple, inexpensive mechanism Disinfection Of Private Water Supplies. MF-886. in which a vacuum created by water flowing through Kansas Cooperative Extension Service. Kansas State a tube draws chlorine into a tank where it mixes with University. Manhattan, KA. untreated water. The treated solution is then fed into the water system. The chlorine doses are not consis- tently accurate. Although other methods of disinfection are available, chlorination is one of the least expensive and most reliable techniques used.

2.5.5-3 Agriculture and Natural Resources WATER QUALITY: Managing Drinking Water Quality

ALABAMA A&M AND AUBURN UNIVERSITIES

Water Supply Wells Maintaining Well Records

ANR-790-2.5.6

omplete well records document water quality. They help to identify changes in the supply, contamination of Cthe source, or deterioration of the water system. Good records of water quality are also important if you need to prove that your water has been contaminated by some outside activity. By maintaining a record and ﬁnding out if your well meets standards, you may be able to prevent future problems. If your well is newly constructed, your well contractor should be able to provide you with the well log: a record that was kept by your well driller. If neither you nor the well driller has the well log, you may be able to obtain one from the Geological Survey of Alabama. If you are unable to locate the ofﬁcial well log, you may want to complete a personal well record. A sample sheet is provided below.

Well Records Well Driller Name: ______Address: ______Phone: ______Well Construction Report When installed ______Diameter of casing ______Well depth ______Depth of casing ______

Depth to water ______Type of screen ______Type of well ______Length of screen ______Pump type ______Model ______Capacity ______ARCHIVE Setting ______Soil And Geologic Information Depth ______Type of materials encountered______

ANR-790 Water Quality 2.5.6 Visit our Web site at: www.aces.edu Well Site Sketch the location of your home and other structures on your lot in relation to your well. Include distances to your own or your neighbor’s septic system, dry wells, barnyards, kennels, abandoned wells, and gasoline or fuel oil tanks. Indicate the location of and distance to local landfills or dumps, or industrial, commercial, or agricultural activities. Note any significant differences in elevation on your lot, and the general pattern of surface drainage. Draw in the groundwater flow direction. If a groundwater contour map is available from your county, use it. If one isn’t available, estimate the direction, remembering that groundwater flow often follows surface topography. Consult this record when considering any landscaping or construction or when interpreting well water quality results.

ARCHIVE

2.5.6-2 Well And Plumbing Maintenance Record Also include here information on any water treatment devices installed in your home.

Date Work Done Company

Reference Mechenich, Chris, George Gibson, Jim Peterson, Byron Shaw, and Gary Jackson. Maintaining Your Home Well Water System. G3399. Wisconsin Coop- erative Extension Service. University of Wisconsin. Madison, WI.

2.5.6-3 Agriculture and Natural Resources WATER QUALITY: Managing Drinking Water Quality

ALABAMA A&M AND AUBURN UNIVERSITIES

Drinking Water For Livestock And Poultry

ANR-790-2.6

safe water supply is essential for healthy live- iform organisms into a water supply are near the Astock and poultry. Contaminated water can affect immediate area of the well or into the water storage growth, reproduction, and productivity of animals as container. well as safety of animal products for human con- It is not a sound practice to use chlorine to consumption. Contaminated water supplies for livestock trol a continuing supply of pathogens in a contami- and poultry can also contaminate human drinking nated well. Any failure of the chlorination equipment water. For these reasons, farm water supplies should will immediately expose the livestock and poultry to be protected against contamination from bacteria, the pathogens. If the source of contamination in a nitrates, sulfates, and pesticides. well cannot be eliminated, the only recourse may be The Environmental Protection Agency has set to drill a new well. drinking water standards for human consumption, but Troughs should be sited and elevated so that con- no set of standards exists for drinking water for live- tamination from fecal material is virtually impossible. stock or poultry. The National Academy of Science, The nipple-type waterer helps to eliminate a source of however, has recommended maximum levels for water contamination between animals. some contaminants. Proper cleaning of poultry waterers on a daily Coliform Bacteria basis is an important part of flock management. A recommended procedure is to scrub water pans or Coliform bacteria are organisms found in the gas- troughs thoroughly with a brush, empty, and then trointestinal tract of livestock, humans, and birds. rinse with a disinfectant. Poor practice in cleaning While these bacteria may not be harmful, their pres- waterers can result in subjecting birds to water con- ence often indicates that other disease-causing bacte- taining millions of bacteria per milliliter. ria may also be present. Sources. The main source of coliform bacteria is ani- Blue-Green Algae mal waste. Where large numbers of animals are con- Toxic blue-green algae can contaminate surface centrated near shallow or poorly protected wells, bac- drinking water supplies. In livestock, blue-green terial contamination can occur during heavy rainfall. algae poisoning causes muscle tremors, diarrhea, lack In some cases, old wells have been carelessly used for of coordination, collapse, labored breathing, liver sewage or waste disposal allowing contaminants to damage, and death. Effects can occur within a few enter directly into the groundwater. Also, bacteria and minutes to a day, and animals that recover often shed other organisms can develop rapidly in the waterers large sections of the unpigmented (white) areas of used for turkeys and chickens raised under both ﬂoor their hides. and range production systems. Sources. Algae grow and multiply because of favor- Limits. There are no legal limits for bacteria in water able nutrient and temperature conditions. Water with used for livestock production except where the farm a high level of algal nutrients will experience algal is a dairy operation. ARCHIVEIn this case, the water must be blooms with lower water temperatures than less nutri- from a supply which has been microbiologically test- tious water. ed safe by an approved water testing laboratory Treatments. Algae can be controlled with copper sul- before milk can be sold from that farm. fate in concentrations of about 1.0 ppm. This is Treatments. If water test results indicate the presence equivalent to 3 pounds of copper sulfate per acre-foot of coliform organisms, the water supply system of water. To keep algae under control during the sum- should be checked to determine possible sources of mer, several applications may be needed. Livestock entry. The most common sources for entry of col- should not drink directly from the treated water.

ANR-790 Water Quality 2.6 Visit our Web site at: www.aces.edu If your animal water supply is also a food fish leached nitrates. While deep wells are usually nitrate pond, special care should be taken in using copper free in Alabama, an improperly located or improperly sulfate. The rate to kill algae is only slightly less than constructed deep well can be polluted with surface the rate to kill fish. However, the rate for fish disease water or groundwater. control is similar to that for excessive algae control. Limits. The National Academy of Science has found Contact an aquacultural specialist for exact rates in that livestock and poultry studied under controlled reference to pond alkalinity. experimental conditions can tolerate the continued Algal blooms can also occur in stock tanks if ingestion of waters containing up to 300 ppm of nutrients and temperature conditions are favorable. nitrates or 100 ppm of nitrites. However, they recom- Periodically cleaning the stock tank to remove the mend that “in order to provide a reasonable margin of nutrient source is the best way of preventing algal safety to allow for unusual situations . . . nitrates blooms there. should be limited to 100 ppm or less and nitrite con- Animals must be denied access to the algae-content also be limited to 10 ppm or less.” taminated water and provided with a supply of suit- Treatments. Water unsuitable for farm animals able water. because of its high nitrate content should be replaced Nitrates by an uncontaminated source. A deeper well may provide water which is low in nitrates. Well drilling tech- Nitrates by themselves are not very toxic. Howev- niques have been improved considerably since many er, in the rumen of cows or sheep, microorganisms of the older and shallower wells were constructed. change nitrates to nitrites, which are quite toxic. Nitrites are further acted upon by microorganisms and Small ponds can be used for a farm water supply converted into protein. In cows or sheep that consume where a controlled watershed is available. If protec- large amounts of nitrates in short periods of time, tive measures are taken and the watershed is con- however, nitrites accumulate faster than they can be trolled, a farm pond can deliver low nitrate water for built into protein. These excess nitrites are absorbed livestock. into the bloodstream. There the nitrites react with the Nitrates can be removed or reduced in concentra- hemoglobin (the red oxygen-carrying pigment of the tion by some ion exchange resins, reverse osmosis, or blood) to form methemoglobin, which prevents the distillation. The cost of these practices may make blood from carrying oxygen. If a large portion of the them impractical for treating the volume of water hemoglobin has been converted to methemoglobin, required for livestock. the animal shows symptoms of asphyxiation including Nitrates are not removed by filters, water soften- labored breathing, a blue muzzle, a bluish tint to the ers, or additive softening compounds, and they are whites of the eyes, trembling, a lack of coordination, not destroyed by chlorination, standing, or boiling. inability to stand, and often death. In the simple-stomached animals such as swine Total Dissolved Solids And Sulfates and poultry, there is no fermentation vat similar to the The term Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) includes rumen to aid in the digestion of roughage and to all the minerals which have been dissolved as change nitrate to nitrite. Most of the nitrates or recharge water percolates downward through soil and nitrites pass unchanged from the intestines into the rock formations. Sulfates are among the common dis- blood and then are eliminated by the kidneys. solved solids found in Alabama water but not usually Horses are also simple-stomached, but they have in an excessive amount. a large cecum (appendix) and this acts much like the Excessive concentrations of sulfates cause a laxa- rumen in digesting roughage. Since nitrite formation tive effect in animals, which is more pronounced in can take place in the cecum, horses are susceptible to young than in mature animals. In young animals, sul- nitrate poisoning. fate concentrations in excess of 350 to 600 ppm may Sources. Some sources of nitrates in groundwaters be associated with severe chronic diarrhea and elec- include nitrogen fertilizers,ARCHIVE animal manure or wastes, trolyte imbalance. crop residues, human wastes, and industrial wastes. Sources. Sulfates appear in water when they are dis- Since nitrates are soluble and move with percolating solved as water moves down through soil and rock water, groundwater pumped from a well may contain formations. Human activities have little effect on the nitrates even if their source is a considerable distance concentration of sulfates or other dissolved minerals from the well. in groundwater supplies. Water from shallow wells normally contains more Limits. Most domestic animals can tolerate a total nitrates than water from deeper wells because the dissolved solid concentration in the range of 15,000 shallow groundwater table is easily polluted with to 17,000 ppm. However, these concentrations will

2.6-2 likely affect production. The National Academy of Limits. The National Academy of Science recom- Science recommends a limit of 3,000 ppm. mends that “the maximum levels for public water Treatments. Animals tend to become acclimated to supplies for individual pesticides should also apply to the sulfates in water. If newly purchased animals are farm animal water supplies.” affected, consider diluting the high sulfate water with Treatments. It is difficult and expensive to test for water containing no sulfate. A dilution of 3 or 4 to 1 unknown pesticides or suspected chemicals in water. may be necessary. Gradually increase the amount of If the chemical can be identiﬁed, a test can be con- high sulfate water in the mixture. This same procedure ducted to determine if that chemical is present in the may be effective with young pigs at weaning time. water supply. If the animals do not become acclimated to the The best solution is to prevent the problem from high sulfate water, the sulfates will need to be occurring. Locate the well on high ground where surface runoff will not reach it. Be sure that there is ade- removed from all water used by the livestock. Tech- quate drainage around any water supply well. niques such as distillation, reverse osmosis, and dem- ineralization are all available but require relatively If a surface water supply such as an excavated high levels of management and may not be economi- pond or impoundment is used, the design should include waterways which prevent uncontrolled sur- cally feasible for the livestock producer. face runoff from entering the water supply. Pesticides Saline Water There have been no reported cases of domestic The damage of high saline water depends more livestock deaths resulting from pesticides contained on the total amount of minerals present rather than on in livestock drinking water. Many pesticides are read- any speciﬁc one. The ions most commonly involved ily broken down and eliminated by livestock with no in high saline waters are calcium, magnesium, sodi- obvious ill effects, but there is a possibility that some um, bicarbonate, chloride, and sulfate. Usually chlo- could be excreted in milk or accumulate in meat. Fish rides are less harmful than sulfates. Magnesium chlo- are more sensitive to pesticides than are livestock or ride appears to be more injurious than calcium or poultry. sodium salts. Sources. Pesticides can enter a surface water or Sources. High saline waters can be located near the groundwater supply from runoff, drift, rainfall, direct coast or other areas where there is saline intrusion in application, accidental spills, faulty storage facilities, the water. and faulty waste disposal techniques. Of the pesti- Limits. Table 1 gives the National Resources Council cides currently in use, the organophosphates are the recommendations on saline waters for horses and most dangerous for livestock. other animals.

Table 1. Saline Water For Livestock. Total Soluble Salts Comments Content Of Waters

Less than 1,000 These waters have a relatively low level of salinity and should present no serious burden to any class of livestock. 1,000 to 2,999 These waters should be satisfactory for all classes of livestock; they may cause temporary and mild diarrhea in livestock not accustomed to them, but they should not affect their health or performance. 3,000 to 4,999 These waters should be satisfactory for livestock; they may cause temporary diarrhea or be refused at ﬁrst by livestock not accustomed to them. 5,000 to 6,999 These waters can be used with reasonable safety for dairy and beef cattle, sheep, swine, and horses; waterARCHIVE approaching the upper levels of these limits should be avoided for pregnant or lactating animals. 7,000 to 10,000 These waters are probably unﬁt for swine; considerable risk may exist in using them for pregnant or lactating cows, horses, sheep, the young of these species, or for any animal subjected to heavy heat stress or water loss. In general, their use should be avoided, although older ruminants, horses, and even swine may subsist on them for long periods of time under conditions of low stress. More than 10,000 The risks with these highly saline waters are so great that they cannot be recommended for use under any conditions.

Source: Cunha 1989.

2.6-3 Treatment. Where possible it is best to use water Water Quality Guidelines For with a low saline content. Alternate sources may be Beef And Dairy Cattle the best treatment. Table 1 can serve as a guide on Water is the nutrient required in the largest quan- saline water use for horses and other livestock. Ani- tity for beef and dairy cattle. A beef cow can drink up mals prefer water which is low in dissolved salts, but to 5 percent of its body weight in water per day; a they will adapt to saline water after a short period of high-producing dairy cow, up to 20 percent. A lack of time. water will have a rapid and dramatic effect on animal health and productivity. Iron The guidelines given in Table 2 are based on lim- There is no evidence to show that iron will cause ited research and field observations and are not stan- any problems with livestock or poultry. dards. They are presented as an aid in evaluating According to Report Number 26 of the Council water quality tests and troubleshooting water intake for Agricultural Science and Technology, “Under problems on farms. usual conditions, water supplies only a small percent- Water quality recommendations in this article age of the iron available to animals. Because iron pertain only to livestock and poultry, not to human from natural sources is absorbed with efficiency less drinking water. that 10 percent, the iron in water should not pose a hazard to animals. Under these circumstances, a ‘no Table 2. Water Quality Guidlines For Cattle. limit’ recommendation is reasonable. High doses of Water Quality Element Acceptable Level the more available forms of iron, however, are toxic.” Bacteria (coliform) 50 to 100/ml Water Testing Bacteria (total) 1,000/ml When water is suspected of causing health prob- Hardness Generally no problem lems in livestock, an accurate diagnosis is crucial. A Metals:a laboratory exam of both the animals and the water Arsenic 0.20 mg/Lb supply may be necessary to adequately diagnose the Cadmium 0.05 mg/L problem. A veterinarian may need to determine the Chromium 1.00 mg/L actual disease. Since water is often blamed for prob- Cobalt 1.00 mg/L lems caused by production or disease, temporarily Copper 0.50 mg/L changing to a known safe water supply is a useful test Lead 0.10 mg/L to determine if the water supply is causing the health Mercury 0.01 mg/L Nickel 1.00 mg/L problems. Vanadium 0.10 mg/L Tests should be made by laboratories that have Zinc 25.00 mg/L been certified by the Alabama Department of Public Non-metals: Health or the Alabama Department of Environmental Fluoride 2.00 mg/L Management. Nitrate nitrogen 100.00 mg/L Contact your community or county health ser- Nitrite nitrogen 10.00 mg/L vice, county Extension agent, or veterinarian for pH 6.0 to 8.0 information about where water samples can be exam- Sulphate 500.00 mg/L ined and what tests may be required. Total dissolved solids 3,000 mg/L Obtaining A New Water Source aThe National Resources Council has published a list of the If testing shows that an existing water supply is recommended upper limits for these potentially toxic sub- contaminated, a new well may have to be drilled. The stances in the drinking water of livestock and poultry. well should be drilled by a professional water well bMg/L = milligrams per liter = parts per million. contractor, preferably one licensed by the Alabama Sources: Bergsrud and Linn 1990, and National Resources Coun- ARCHIVEcil 1989. Department of Environmental Management.

2.6-4 References Bergsrud, Fred, and James Linn. 1990. Water Quality For Livestock And Poultry. AG-FO-1864-D. Minnesota Cooperative Extension Service. University of Minnesota. St. Paul, MN. Cunha, Tony J. 1989. Animal Feeding Nutrition: A Series Of Monographs. Academic Press, Inc. New York, NY. National Resources Council. 1989. Nutrient Requirements For Horses. 5th ed. National Academic Press. Washington, DC. Quality Of Water For Livestock. 1974. Report No. 26. Council for Agricultural Science and Tech- nology. Ames, IA. Additional Sources Of Information The following faculty* at Auburn University may be contacted through your county Extension office for additional information: VETERINARY MEDICINE: Dr. James Floyd, jfloyd, 844-1501 DAIRY CATTLE: Dr. B. R. (Pete) Moss, bmoss, 844-1513 BEEF CATTLE: Dr. B. G. Ruffin, bruffin, 844-1559 POULTRY: Dr. Joseph Hess, jhess, 844-2611 SWINE: Dr. Norwood J. VanDyke, jvandyke, 844-1564 Dr. Frank Owsley, wowsley, 844-1505 Auburn Swine Unit 844-1574 HORSES: Dr. Cynthia McCall, cmccall, 844-1556 *Bold letters are ACENET user I.D.s.

2.6-5 Agriculture and Natural Resources WATER QUALITY: Managing Wastewater

ALABAMA A&M AND AUBURN UNIVERSITIES Municipal Wastewater Treatment ANR-790-3.1.1 Wastewater Collection And Treatment Processes

ollection of stormwater and drainage dates from logic cycle. It drains from your bathroom or kitchen C ancient times, but collection of wastewater can be sink into the community’s sanitary sewer system, un- traced only to the early 1800s. Treatment of wastewa- less you have a private septic tank, and is on its way ter began in Europe in the late 1800s after the science to the public treatment plant. Here it is joined by mil- of bacteriology developed and doctors began to sup- lions of gallons of wastewater coming from other port the germ theory of polluted water causing dis- homes, businesses, industries, and institutions and is eases. treated by a variety of processes that remove pollu- Treatment of wastewater in the United States tants. received little attention until the early 1900s because At a typical wastewater treatment plant, several of the vast land and water resources available for million gallons of wastewater flow through each dumping wastes and wastewater. By this time nui- day—50 to 100 gallons for every person using the sance problems and health conditions associated with system. There are no holidays for wastewater treat- land and water disposal of waste and wastewater were ment, and most plants operate 24 hours per day every causing real problems especially in the larger cities. day of the week. Cities were having trouble obtaining areas for dispos- The amount of wastewater handled by the treat- al, and this led to more intensive methods of treatment plant may vary with the time of day and the sea- ment. son of the year. Some communities do not have sepa- Today wastewater collection and treatment ser- rate sewer systems for wastewater and runoff from vices are largely taken for granted; however, they rainfall; therefore, flow during heavy rains or snow play a major role in maintaining the quality of our melts can be much higher than normal. nation’s waters and the quality of life as we know it In most cases, wastewater is not just “sewage” in the United States. but also includes commercial and industrial sources Wastewater is about 99 percent water by weight as well as stormwater runoff and even ground water and is generally referred to as influent at the treat- seepage where sewer lines are cracked or leaking. ment plant. The other 1 percent is made up primarily Sanitary sewers carry only domestic and industrial wastewater while combined sewers carry wastewater of organic solids that are suspended or dissolved in and stormwater runoff. Most cities in Alabama have the water. Most of the organics found in wastewater separate sewer systems for stormwater discharges. can be decomposed by natural biological processes. After being treated, the cleansed wastewater is All sewage treatment processes are designed to usually released to a lake or stream where it flows remove pollutants which would otherwise harm our toward the ocean. It will generally be used again and waters. A number of physical, chemical, and biologi- again along the way for irrigation, by industry, and as cal principles are applied in wastewater treatment. drinking water, or it will evaporate into the atmo- Wastewater Collection sphere and return again as rain in some other part of Homes, businesses, industries, and institutions the world. Wastewater treatment plants operate at a ARCHIVEcritical point in the water cycle to help nature defend are connected to a network of below-ground pipes water from excessive pollution. which transport wastewater to treatment plants before it is released to the environment. The modern sewer Wastewater Treatment Processes system is an engineering marvel. Treatment plants appear very complex with all Ultimately, water flows through the supply sys- their machines, pumps, pipelines, tanks, and towers. tem and into a home where you may use it to wash However, they are really designed to do only two your dishes or to brush your teeth. At this point the basic things: speed up the natural purification pro- water begins its return trip to nature and the hydro- cesses that occur in lakes and streams and reduce

ANR-790 Water Quality 3.1.1 Visit our Web site at: www.aces.edu toxic contaminants that might otherwise interfere of the most difficult and expensive problems of with the natural processes. wastewater treatment. Wastewater treatment usually consists of two The goal of sludge treatment is to destroy harm- major steps—primary treatment and secondary treat- ful organisms and remove water. The end product of ment—along with a process to dispose of solids the sludge handling process is a relatively dry materi- (sludge) removed during the two steps. In some areas al known as “cake.” It can be applied to agricultural where receiving waters are more sensitive to pollution land as a soil conditioner, placed in landfills, or clean- or where specific pollutants have not been removed ly burned. At some plants, sludge serves as a fuel to by secondary treatment, a third step called advanced produce energy. For land application, sludge is often waste treatment (also called tertiary treatment) may kept in a liquid slurry form for ease of handling and be required. Some plants use prechlorination for for subsurface injection into soils with special equip- hydrogen sulfide and odor control prior to beginning ment. any treatment processes. Wastewater Treatment Methods Primary Treatment. In primary treatment, the objec- Primary treatment (the mechanical removal of tive is to physically remove sand, grit, and larger floating, settleable, or suspended solids) and sec- solids from the wastewater by screening, settling, or ondary treatment (the biological removal of dissolved floating. Screens, settling tanks, and skimming organic material) can be accomplished by several dif- devices are most commonly used for the separation. ferent methods including ponds, lagoons, filters, and Primary treatment removes 45 to 50 percent of the land application. pollutants. Stabilization Ponds. Stabilization ponds are large, After primary treatment, wastewater still contains shallow ponds that collect sewage and hold it for a solid materials either floating on the surface, dis- certain time. Solids settle out and decomposition solved in the water, or both. Under natural conditions, occurs with the help of sun, wind, algae, bacteria, and these substances would provide food for such organ- air. There are two kinds of ponds: controlled dis- isms as fungi, algae, and bacteria that live in streams charge, where sewage stays 6 to 12 months in the or lakes. pond before being released, and flow-through, where sewage flows out continuously but at a slow rate. Secondary Treatment. The goal of secondary treat- The advantages of stabilization ponds are low ment is to biologically remove contaminants that are energy use, low construction and maintenance costs, dissolved in wastewater. In secondary treatment air is and ease of operation. Maintenance requires control- supplied to accelerate the growth of bacteria and ling weed growth and removing sludge about once other organisms which consume most of the waste every 10 years. materials. The wastewater is then separated from the organisms and solids, disinfected by chlorine or ultra- The disadvantage can be relatively large land use violet light to kill any remaining harmful bacteria, (85 acres for a 1 million gallon per day flow), trouble meeting requirements for suspended solids because of and released to a nearby lake, river, or stream. At this the algae, and odor problems if oxygen is low. Putting point 85 to 90 percent of the pollutants have been the pond water through a sand filter before discharge removed. to improve water quality is a problem, but this is now The treated wastewater may be dechlorinated done on a limited basis because wetland areas and with sodium bisulfite or sulfur dioxide where low aquatic plants can be used to reduce suspended solids. level chlorine residuals could be toxic to aquatic organisms in receiving waters. This treated wastewa- Lagoons. Lagoons account for about 25 percent of ter discharge is now referred to as effluent. the municipal wastewater treatment facilities in the United States. Lagoons are relatively shallow and rely Tertiary Treatment. Any additional processing after on a biological interaction of sunlight, algae, and secondary treatment is called tertiary treatment. Ter- oxygen to clean the water. They are most effective in tiary treatment can removeARCHIVE more suspended solids, breaking down low concentrations of organic matter. organic matter, nitrogen, phosphorus, heavy metals, An aerated lagoon is essentially a stabilization or bacteria. This treatment relies on the addition of pond where oxygen is added by low-speed mechani- chemicals or on filter beds of rock, sand, or other cal aerators or compressors. This system provides materials. more effective secondary treatment than stabilization Treatment Of Sludge. The solid material that is ponds. An aerated lagoon has mechanical parts that removed from wastewater, called sludge, requires require energy and maintenance, but it treats sewage proper treatment and disposal and can often be faster and better than a stabilization pond and reused. The ultimate disposal of this material is one requires up to 75 percent less land. Usually there are

3.1.1-2 several small lagoons rather than a single large tering capacity of the soil, by various chemical pro- lagoon. Aerated lagoons have the advantage of processes, and by biological processes such as microor- ducing a minimum of sludge. ganisms decomposing organic material and plants Plants that do not de-water their sludge common- taking up nutrients. ly pump it to sludge disposal lagoons, which are earth Land treatment requires a centralized sewage col- basins about 4 to 5 feet deep. There the organic solids lection system and some pretreatment of the sewage. are stabilized by aerobic and anaerobic decomposi- A storage system is required since wastewater cannot tion. This practice is used primarily in remote loca- usually be applied to growing plants or soil on a year- tions because the decomposition may cause objec- round basis. tionable odors. At some time these lagoons will Methods of surface application include spreading become full of solids that have stabilized and settled by farm tractors, tank wagons, special applicator to the bottom. Usually these solids are then applied to vehicles, or tank trucks and irrigation by either port- nearby land resources because disposal regulations able or fixed irrigation systems or by flooding. for landfilling are becoming increasingly stringent. Meadow/Marsh/Pond System. The meadow/marsh/- Aeration. Conventional activated sludge plants use pond system is used by Disney World in Florida to this method to de-water their sludge. Sewage is held achieve complete treatment of its sewage by using the in an aeration tank for 6 to 8 hours. Submerged tur- natural cleansing properties of wetland areas. Sewage bine units provide high oxygen-transfer rates for ade- is first treated to remove the solids, then aerated in a quate aeration. Aeration requires a considerable holding pond, and pumped to a meadow. Seepage investment of energy and maintenance. from the meadow enters surrounding marshes and An extended aeration plant is very similar to a from there flows to a stabilization pond. Effluent from conventional activated sludge plant except that it the stabilization pond is either channeled into holds sewage in the aeration tank for a much longer recharge basins or applied to a wooded area where it period of time—24 hours rather than 6 to 8 hours. seeps into the ground. The vegetation that grows in Sewage usually flows directly into the aeration tank this system can be harvested. No sludge is produced. with minimum primary treatment. Because the sewage is held longer, there is a higher level of treatment, Monitoring And Permits and the sludge decomposes more, leaving less for dis- In a typical wastewater treatment plant, there may posal. be as many as ten sampling points and more than thir- Oxidation canals or ditches are used in some ty laboratory tests to determine the quality of the plants to provide extended aeration. Aeration takes water coming in (influent) and the quality of the place in specially designed narrow continuous ditches water going out of the plant (effluent). Some of the or oval shaped channels where paddle wheel mecha- laboratory tests performed are as complicated as any nisms circulate the sewage. In most plants secondary used by the medical profession, and analytical instru- settling tanks follow the extended aeration cycle. ments used in comprehensive monitoring programs can detect traces of substances down to one part of Trickling Filter. In a trickling filter plant, wastewater pollutant per million parts of water or even lower. is given primary treatment and then applied to beds of Since 1972, every wastewater treatment plant and stone 3 to 20 feet deep where microorganisms attach- every industrial or commercial facility that discharges ed to the stones decompose the organic material in directly to a body of water must have a special permit the water. The water is collected at the bottom of the issued by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency filter and put into sedimentation basins. The water is (EPA) or approved state agency. In Alabama this then chlorinated and discharged. agency is the Alabama Department of Environmental Trickling filters cost more to build than activated Management (ADEM). sludge plants but are simpler to operate and use less energy. They are not as effective in removing pollu- Monitoring requirements and pollutant discharge tants as activated sludge plants and also require more requirements are spelled out in a treatment plant’s ARCHIVEdischarge permit. With the synthesis of organic chem- land area. icals that are harder to degrade and with greater Land Application Or Land Treatment. Treating restrictions on discharge concentrations, many waste- wastewater by land application has regained populari- water treatment plants are finding it more difficult to ty. Land treatment has the advantage of recycling the meet discharge standards. wastewater and its valuable nutrients. It can provide secondary sewage treatment as well as the equivalent Future Treatment Needs And Costs of any advanced waste treatment process (tertiary Effective wastewater treatment in the future will treatment). Pollutants are removed by the physical fil- depend on the participation and support of all sectors

3.1.1-3 of the American public, from legislators and regulato- References ry ofﬁcials to the individual citizen. The costs for col- Marek, Linda G. 1984. Water And Sewage Treat- lection, treatment, and ultimate disposal of wastewa- ment For Small Communities. BR. 1347. Vermont ter in a manner that is safe and legally acceptable will Cooperative Extension Service. University of Ver- likely increase in the foreseeable future. Many local mont. Burlington, VT. governments that now have sufficient revenue to Metcalf and Eddy, Inc. 1991. Wastewater Engi- operate and maintain their existing wastewater treat- neering: Treatment, Disposal, And Reuse. 3rd ed. ment plants may have difﬁculty as standards change. McGraw-Hill, Inc. New York, NY. If current trends continue, many treatment plants will have to be upgraded, or newer and more complex plants will have to be constructed. These plants will be much more expensive to construct and operate. Conclusion Public health and water quality are protected better today than ever before. But with the waste stream changing rapidly, greater efforts must be made to keep waste from the stream, or greater costs will be required to monitor and remove pollutants.

This publication, supported in part by grants from the Alabama Department of Environ- mental Management, by funds from the Tennessee Valley Authority, and Smith-Lever Act Section 3(d) provided by USDA/CSREES, was revised by James E. Hairston, ARCHIVEExtension Water Quality Scientist, Professor, Agronomy and Soils, assisted by Leigh Stribling, Technical Writer, both at Auburn University. For more information, call your county Extension ofﬁce. Look in your telephone directory under your county’s name to ﬁnd the number.

3.1.1-4 Agriculture and Natural Resources WATER QUALITY: Managing Wastewater

ALABAMA A&M AND AUBURN UNIVERSITIES

Municipal Wastewater Treatment Land Application Of Municipal ANR-790-3.1.2 Wastewater

pplying wastewater to agricultural land from tion, wastewater quickly moves through the soil until Amunicipal treatment plants, agricultural process- it becomes part of the groundwater. In overland flow ing plants, and industrial sources is not new. This the wastewater is applied to sloping land. The water application has been practiced in foreign countries runs downhill to a collection ditch. The crop of vege- and in the United States for many years. It offers tation is not always harvested. potential benefits to both the agency or industry, Other land application techniques include subsur- which has wastewater to treat and discharge, and to face adsorption beds, deep-well injection, and evapo- agriculture, which can use some of the water and ration ponds. Such techniques are limited in their nutrients for crop production. When wastewater is applicability. applied to the soil-plant environment, suspended solids and nutrients are filtered out, and the water is What Nutrients And Other Components either used by crops or percolates to the groundwater. Does Wastewater Contain? Wastewater contains beneficial crop nutrients as Why Is There Increased Interest In well as suspended organic materials, microorganisms, Land Application Of Wastewater? and in some cases, heavy metals. Wastewater contains In 1972, Congress passed amendments to the many nutrients needed for plant growth including Federal Water Pollution Control Act which estab- nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, zinc, and copper. lished a goal for “zero discharge” of pollutants into The amounts of nutrients in wastewater vary from navigable water by 1985. This law required the EPA source to source based on treatment process, origin, to encourage water treatment management, which types, and quantities of wastewaters treated. Howev- results in the recycling of potential sewage pollutants. er, 1 inch of wastewater from a municipal treatment As a result of this law, many communities have been plant having secondary treatment might supply 1 acre upgrading their wastewater treatment plants. Land with about 5 pounds of nitrogen, 2 pounds of phos- application of wastewater is one of the treatment phorus, and 4 pounds of potassium. alternatives which provides for recycling and is economically attractive to small rural communities. What Are The Public Health And Energy costs, a continuing awareness of environ- Environmental Concerns With mental protection, and a growing recognition among Land Application Of Wastewater? farmers of the moisture and nutrients in wastewater Disease-Causing Organisms. Wastewater contains are also responsible for the increased interest. varying levels of pathogenic, disease-causing organisms based on the degree of treatment provided. How Can Wastewater Be Applied? Municipal wastewater generally undergoes the equiv- Land application techniques consist of three cate- alent of secondary treatment prior to land application. gories: slow-rate irrigation,ARCHIVE overland flow, and rapid Secondary treatment provides for stabilization of infiltration. Wastewater is usually applied by spray- organic materials and partial destruction of disease- ing, flooding, or running between ridges and furrows. causing organisms. Lagoon treatment and storage Municipal wastewater, usually treated to some extent, systems are frequently used for this purpose. is applied to land mainly by the irrigation and rapid- Only treated wastewater with few or no disease- infiltration methods. causing organisms can be applied to land. Land appli- Irrigation is the most widely used type of land cation exposes the organisms to sunlight, soil con- application. As many as 3,000 communities in the ditions, and drastic temperature changes which United States practice this approach. In rapid infiltra- destroy any remaining pathogens. ANR-790 Water Quality 3.1.2 Visit our Web site at: www.aces.edu Insects And Odors. Wastewater treatment greatly (crop removal) is impractical, and metal additions to reduces odors. The term stabilization is used to soils should be controlled. describe the controlled decomposition of organic There is special concern for cadmium because it material in wastewater. In most cases, stabilization of has a tendency to enter the food chain where high the wastewater will be necessary before application in concentrations can be harmful. Over many years order to avoid odor and insect problems. high levels of cadmium in the diet has been shown to Water Quality. Excess nitrogen and potassium cause kidney failure in human beings. Table 1 pre- applied as plant nutrients have a tendency to seep into sents health effects of potential contaminants in groundwater, and excess phosphorus may flow into wastewaters. surface water supplies with eroded sediment. To prevent surface water and groundwater pollution, What Can Be Done To Protect wastewater nitrogen should be applied in amounts Our Soil And Crops While Utilizing that will be utilized by actively growing plants. To The Benefits Of Wastewater? prevent surface water pollution, conservation prac- In order to prevent buildup of heavy metals in the tices should be used to reduce erosion of soil particles soil to unhealthy levels, the EPA and the USDA have and nutrients into nearby ponds, streams, or lakes. conducted extensive research and have set safe maxi- Heavy Metals. Because high rates of wastewater are mum limits on trace metal concentrations. Unless often applied to the land, there is concern about the heavy metal concentrations in wastewater are ex- presence of high levels of certain trace elements tremely high, occasional, limited application of called “heavy metals.” This group of elements wastewater should not be of major concern. includes cadmium, zinc, nickel, copper, chromium, Since trace metals cannot be effectively removed lead, mercury, and others. These components usually from the soil, each application of wastewater results occur in small amounts not harmful to plants. Some in an overall increase in their concentration in the heavy metals, including zinc and copper, are soil. The total amount applied to a particular soil is micronutrients which are necessary for plant growth. referred to as the “loading rate.” Depending on Excessive amounts of some heavy metals (zinc, cop- amount and frequency of wastewater application, per, nickel) can be damaging to plants, resulting in over a period of years, these elements could reach reduced yield or even plant death. regulatory loading rate restrictions, after which no Heavy metals are not very mobile and tend to further application is allowed. accumulate in surface soils. They are nearly impossi- Alternative regulations have been proposed as to ble to remove once applied to the land. Plant uptake the maximum amounts of wastewater that can be of heavy metals is very low and generally the only applied to agricultural land. Information from years method of removal. Thus, the removal of metals from of experimental data on plant uptake of metals from a heavily contaminated soil by years of cropping the soil suggests that many current limiting regula-

Table 1. Potential Contaminants In Wastewater. Contaminant Concern Pathogens (bacteria and virus diseases) Human health. Nitrates Application in excess of plant needs; excess application entering groundwater. Organics (chlorinated Health hazard if directly ingested by animals. hydrocarbon pesticides), polychlorinated biphennyls (PCBs) Heavy metals: Copper, zinc, and nickelARCHIVEAccumulation in topsoil; toxic to plants at high levels. Cadmium Accumulation in topsoil; taken up by plant and accumulates in leafy material; accumulates in animal organs; human health. Lead Accumulation in topsoil; potentially harmful if excessive amounts are ingested with soil particles by animals. Mercury, chromium, selenium, Little concern unless present in extremely high amounts. arsenic, and antimony Source: Muse, Mitchell, and Mulens 1991.

3.1.2-2 tions are highly unrealistic. EPA is currently considering revising present regulations so that larger levels of metals may be applied to land in wastewaters and sludges. References Almy, Albert A., et al. 1977. Land Application Of Municipal Wastewater: What Is It And What Are Its Potentials? Extension Bulletin E-1138. Michigan Cooperative Extension Service. Michigan State Uni- versity. East Lansing, MI. Long, David A. 1980. Land Treatment. Working For Clean Water: An Information Program For Advi- sory Groups. Institute Of State And Regional Affairs. The Pennsylvania State University. Middletown, PA. Muse, J. K., C. C. Mitchell, and G. L. Mullens. 1991. Land Application Of Sludge. Circular ANR- 607. Alabama Cooperative Extension System. Auburn University. Auburn, AL. Rubin, A. R., L. M. Safley, and J. P. Zublena. 1990. Land Application Of Municipal Sludge— Advantages And Concerns. AG-439-3. North Caroli- na Cooperative Extension Service. North Carolina State University. Raleigh, NC.

3.1.2-3 Agriculture and Natural Resources WATER QUALITY: Managing Wastewater

ALABAMA A&M AND AUBURN UNIVERSITIES

Municipal Wastewater Treatment Constructed Wetlands: A New Concept ANR-790-3.1.3 In Treating Wastewater

uring the past few years a new technology for Constructed wetlands have a shallow water depth Dtreating municipal and industrial wastewater has (usually 4 to 24 inches) and may cover a relatively emerged. This technology involves the construction large area. This improves dissolved oxygen content of “artificial wetlands,” which use the physical, and thus enhances decomposition of organic matter chemical, and biological processes in nature to treat and oxidation of dissolved metals. wastewater. These specially built wetlands are also The decomposition process in constructed wet- referred to as “constructed wetlands” or “created lands is similar to the decomposition occurring in wetlands.” most conventional water treatment plants except for Constructed wetlands can be designed for whole the scale of the treatment area and the composition of communities, subdivisions, private developments, microbial populations, which are likely to be differ- and even for individual homes suffering from failing ent. In both cases, an optimal environment is created on-site septic systems. Interest has steadily increased and maintained for microorganisms to conduct desir- because of their low cost (one-tenth to one-half that able biochemical transformations of water pollutants. of conventional treatment), efficiency, and near non- Subsurface flow systems can be designed for sec- existent maintenance. ondary or even advanced treatment of pretreated What Is A Constructed Wetland? wastewaters. These systems consist of channels or trenches with relatively impermeable bottoms filled A constructed wetland is an engineered, marsh- with sand or rock media to support emergent vegeta- like area where specially established organisms and plants feed on the organics and nutrients that are in tion. the wastewater. Pollutants are transformed into basic What Are The Advantages Of elements, plant biomass, and compost. Constructed Wetlands? How Do Constructed Wetlands Work? Advantages of constructed wetlands include rela- Constructed wetlands offer all the treatment tively low construction costs (essentially grading, capabilities of natural wetlands but without con- dike construction, and vegetation planting) and low straints associated with discharging to a natural operating costs (monitoring water level and plant ecosystem. Like natural wetlands constructed wet- vitality and collecting samples). Properly designed lands accomplish water improvement through a vari- and constructed systems do not require chemical ety of physical, chemical, and biological processes. additions or other procedures used in conventional Constructed wetlands are established with spe- treatment systems. cial vegetation including cattails, bulrushes, reeds, Typically, construction costs range from one- sedges, and certain mosses and algae. They may also tenth to one-half of those for conventional treatment contain a variety of submerged plants. systems. For example, a TVA-designed system for The specially established vegetation obstructs the treatment of municipal wastewater at Benton, Ken- ARCHIVEtucky cost $260,000 in 1986 compared to a 1972 esti- flow and reduces the velocity of the wastewater. When wastewater is slowed, suspended and dissolved mate of $2.5 million for a comparable conventional material can settle out. The vegetation also provides treatment system involving chemical additives. Two surfaces for the attachment of bacteria films, aids in other systems designed for secondary and tertiary filtration and adsorption of wastewater constituents, treatment of municipal wastewaters for communities transfers oxygen into the water column, and controls of 500 (Hardin, Tennessee) and 1000 users (Pen- the growth of most algae by restricting penetration of broke, Tennessee) varied from $212,000 to $366,000. sunlight. Operating costs for these systems are less than ANR-790 Water Quality 3.1.3 Visit our Web site at: www.aces.edu $10,000 per year. A TVA wetland controlling acid removal efficiencies of constructed wetlands are mine drainage cost $28,000 for construction and plant dependent upon vegetation growth and establishment, establishment, about the same as the annual cost of design efficiencies are not likely to be attained until chemicals alone to provide comparable conventional after two or perhaps three growing seasons. treatment. Operating costs for these municipal sys- Long-term effectiveness is poorly documented tems other than monitoring, sample collection, and since no system has been in operation for more than analysis have been less than $500 per year. 10 years. Some research indicates that these wetlands The efficiency of these constructed wetlands sys- may have problems with removing ammonium-nitro- tems for wastewater treatment has been very good, gen. Nevertheless, because these systems simulate especially in terms of biological oxygen demand, natural wetland ecosystems that have functioned to total suspended solids, and fecal coliform bacteria. purify water for thousands of years, system efficiency With proper design and adequate treatment area, is not likely to be detrimentally impacted by age. removal of nitrogen compounds and phosphorus are Artificial constraints, however, may require modifica- readily accomplished. Metallic ion removal even tions of these systems or restarting them after some from strongly acidic waters is excellent. Slight period of time. Accumulation of deposits from acid increases in pH are common when influent seep water mine drainage may need to be recycled or mined, for is moderately acidic. example, and litter accumulations in municipal systems or agricultural systems may need to be cleared What Are The Disadvantages Of or purified. Constructed Wetlands? Constructed wetlands require relatively level Conclusion landscapes and much more land area than do conven- Public concern during the past 20 years has tional treatment plants. Where land costs are high strengthened state and federal legislation regulating (large cities, rugged terrain), artificial wetlands are wastewater discharges and resulted in substantial more expensive to construct than conventional sys- progress in treating point sources of water pollution, tems although lower operating costs for a 20- or 30- especially for large cities and major industries. year plant lifetime must be factored into the decision Widespread implementation of the “constructed wet- process. Current design recommendations specify 15 land” treatment technology may accomplish similar to 50 acres of treatment area per million gallons of objectives for small communities, small industries, influent per day depending upon the level of pretreat- and livestock operations. This technology seems ment and the desired discharge limits. However, pre- amenable to a substantial range of hydraulic and pol- sent design, construction, and operating criteria are lutant loading levels and may fill the pressing need imprecise because wetland systems either natural or for low cost technology systems acceptable to indus- constructed are complex, dynamic systems about try, farmers, developers, and communities. which we have only limited understanding. Although constructed wetlands may be an impor- Although constructed wetlands of the size to tant alternative method of wastewater treatment, their replace many conventional wastewater treatment effluent discharge to a water source must be permitted facilities are generally cheaper to build and operate, as with any other point source of pollution. Efficiency the initial cost of on-site systems for individual and capability of constructed wetlands for various homes, depending on conditions, may be more than types of wastewater treatment is not yet well under- double that of a septic tank system. However, the stood, especially under variable climatic conditions. wetland systems work best in wet and poorly drained Stabilization ponds below the wetland may be needed soils where septic tank absorption systems are most in some cases to meet discharge requirement or to likely to fail. allow for recycling of discharge water if that is a Another disadvantage of artificial wetlands is design feature. This would substantially increase land their delayed operationalARCHIVE status. Because peak requirements.

3.1.3-2 Constructed Wetlands Cell 2 8

ARCHIVE 16 13

12 Cell 1 15 11 8 10

5 9 3.1.3-3 3 14 7

Wastewater enters the constructed wetland (1) where it is distributed evenly 1 2 across the width of the first cell by a series of 4 plastic valves or PVC tees (2). The first cell contains gravel (3). A waterproof liner is used on the sides and the bottom of the fist cell to conserve water and provide more effective treatment (4). Cattails and bulrushes are usually planted in the first cell (5). The roots of these marsh plants form a dense mat among the gravel (6). Here chemical, biological, and physical processes take place that purify the water. Water from the first cell passes into the second cell through a perfo- 6 rated pipe embedded in large stone (7). The water level within each cell is regulated by swivel standpipes located in concrete tanks at the end of each cell (8). Wastewater in the second cell is distributed evenly across this cell through another perforated pipe (9). Cell 2 has a layer of gravel (10) covered with topsoil (11) and then mulch (12). This cell is planted with a variety of ornamental wetland plants such as iris, elephant ear, and arrowhead (13). The water in cell 2 eventually seeps into the soil below (14) or passes into another perforated pipe (15) where it is released into a drainfield similar to those used with conventional septic tanks (16). Source: Steiner, Watson, and Choate 1991. References Karathanasis, A. D., and K. L. Wells. 1991. A New Concept In Treating Wastewaters—Constructed Wetlands. Dept. of Agronomy, Soil Science News and Views. 12(3). Kentucky Cooperative Extension Ser- vice. University of Kentucky. Lexington, KY. Metcalf and Eddy, Inc. 1991. Wastewater Engi- neering: Treatment, Disposal, And Reuse. 3rd ed. McGraw-Hill, Inc. New York, NY. Steiner, Gerald R., James T. Watson, and Kimber- ly Choate. 1991. General Design, Construction And Operation Guidelines: Constructed Wetlands Waste- water Treatment Systems For Small Users Including Individual Residences. TVA/WR/WQ—91/2. Ten- nessee Valley Authority. Chattanooga, TN. Tennessee Valley Authority. Wastewater Treat- ment By Constructed Wetlands. Water Quality Branch. Chattanooga, TN.

To obtain additional information on constructed wetlands of any scale or use contact the Tennessee Valley Authority, Water Quality Branch, 270 Handley Building, 311 Broad Street, Chattanooga, TN 37402- 2801. To obtain additional information on the use of constructed wetlands as an alternative to treat household sewage, contact the Alabama Department of Public Health, Division of Community Environmen- tal Protection, On-Site Sewage Branch, 434 Monroe Street, Montgomery, AL 36130-1701 (334-613- 5373).

3.1.3-4 Agriculture and Natural Resources WATER QUALITY: Managing Wastewater

ALABAMA A&M AND AUBURN UNIVERSITIES

On-Site Sewage Treatment Planning For A Septic System

ANR-790-3.2.1

he most common home sewage treatment system Is the land next to a stream or river that could Tfor farm and country homes is a septic tank and flood? absorption field. In fact, about 36 percent of all American homes have such systems, and almost 50 Does the land seem wet and swampy? percent of all Alabamians use a septic tank system to Are there gullies, ravines, excessively steep slopes, safely dispose of household sewage. or other topographic problems that would make it If you are planning to purchase a building lot for difficult to install a system? a new home, investigate before you invest. Check to see if the property is served by a city or central sewer Determine Soil Characteristics Of The Site system. If it is not, you need to know if the property If you do not observe any obvious site problems, has a suitable site for a septic system. you may wish to determine the soil characteristics of The following steps can help you screen lots and the site. determine their suitability before you purchase land: Most counties have soil survey reports available ¥ Investigate the site. at local Cooperative Extension Service or Soil Con- ¥ Determine soil characteristics of the site. servation Service offices. You can use this report to ¥ Seek professional help for on-site soil evalua- help screen land parcels and focus your efforts upon tions. those lots that have the most desirable soil and site characteristics. The county soil survey report shows ¥ Know state regulations. soil characteristics such as soil permeability, depth of Investigate The Site seasonal high water table or bedrock, and slope. Before you buy a lot, know exactly where the Soil Permeability. The rate of movement of water boundaries are. Walk over each lot and look for indi- and air through a soil is called soil permeability and cations of soil problems or site limitations that could is an important factor in determining how well an cause construction and drainage problems. Use the absorption system will function. Soil permeability following questions for guidance: should be moderate to rapid. Is there enough space on the building lot for the The amount of sand, silt, and clay in the soil home, the septic system, and a water supply well if influences soil permeability. Water moves faster needed? through sandy soils than through clay soils. However, One acre of land with suitable soils and suitable locating an absorption field in a sandy or gravelly soil topography is usually the minimum sufficient area. is not recommended. If the sandy soil is too thin, the However, much larger lots are frequently needed wastewater will not be adequately filtered before it where soil and site conditions are not as good. There enters the groundwater. Similarly, locating an absorp- must be enough land so that your well and all neigh- tion field in a soil having a high clay content is not bors’ wells can be 100ARCHIVE feet or further from the septic recommended because of the slow permeability. If the system. There must also be enough land for a “repair clay soil is too tight, the wastewater will not be area” that can be used if the system needs expansion absorbed and will be forced to the surface. or repair in the future. Depth Of Seasonal High Water Table. The groundwater table, bedrock, or impervious soil layer should Are parts of the land rocky? be at least 4 feet below the absorption trenches. At Bedrock would interfere with the installation and least 4 feet of permeable soil is needed for adequate operation of a septic system. filtration and purification. In sandy or gravelly soils,

ANR-790 Water Quality 3.2.1 Visit our Web site at: www.aces.edu additional depth to the water table will help prevent test results as prior saturation. For this reason, follow contamination. procedures 2 and 3 below explicitly. An area subject to flooding should never be used 2. Fill the holes with clear water and continue to for soil absorption fields. Occasional flooding reduces add water until the soil becomes saturated. The mini- the efficiency of the system while frequent flooding mum saturation time is 4 hours, but overnight is could destroy its effectiveness as well as contaminate preferable. In soils having high clay content, the test surface water. can be expedited by routinely filling all test holes Slope. The soil slope should be less than 15 percent. with water the night before the tests are made to Where slope exceeds 5 to 6 percent, absorption allow ample time for soil swelling and saturation. trenches can be placed on the contour. Setting up automatic siphons for refilling the holes The soil survey report provides very useful plan- may be beneficial. In sandy soils with a low amount ning information; however, it does not provide of clay, the saturation procedure is not necessary and enough detail to make a decision on land suitability the test can be made after the water from two fillings for septic systems. Do not substitute it for an on-site has seeped away. evaluation of soil and site conditions. 3. After the holes are saturated, measure the rate at which the water surface drops. This can be done by Seek Professional Help For first placing a board horizontally across the hole. Be On-Site Evaluations careful to anchor it in a firm position. Next, add water If the soil survey report indicates that most of the to a maximum depth of 6 inches over the sand or soils on your lot are probably suited to the use of sep- gravel. Then slide a pointed stick or similar measur- tic systems, then a comprehensive on-site investiga- ing tool straight down until it just touches the water tion must be conducted. For help in evaluating the surface. Immediately read the exact time on your soil suitability for a building site and septic system, watch and draw a horizontal line on the measuring contact your local office of the Soil Conservation Ser- stick using the horizontal board as a guide and refer- vice or the local health department. Professionals ence point. may make soil borings or conduct percolation tests at Repeat the test at 5-minute intervals if the water the proposed sites for the house and the septic system drops quickly and at 30-minute intervals if the water to confirm the suitability of the site. drops slowly. When at least three spaces between the Soil Borings. Evidence of a high seasonal water table pencil markings on the measuring stick become rela- in the soil can show up in soil borings. In the spring, tively equal, which may require as long as 3 or 4 the water table can be observed in the boring holes. In hours, the test is completed. the fall, the only evidence of a high seasonal water 4. With the aid of a ruler, measure the space table may be mottled (spotted or streaked) soil that is between the equal markings and calculate the time colored several shades of red and grey. required for the water level to drop 1 inch. For exam- 3 Percolation Tests. Percolation, or perk, tests are the ple, if the water level fell ⁄8 inch in 5 minutes, the most common tests of soil suitablilty for septic sys- time required for the water level to drop 1 inch 3 tems. Percolation tests measure the rate of water would be 13.3 minutes (5 minutes ÷ ⁄8 inch = 13.3 movement into soils and are generally regarded by minutes/inch). An average percolation rate for the many health agencies as the best test available. entire absorption field can then be determined from Although professionals are required to make the the percolation rate of each test hole. test in order to obtain a permit to install a septic sys- If the percolation rate is 60 minutes or more per tem, you may find it useful to know how perk tests inch (24 minutes/cm) or if the groundwater table is are conducted. close to the surface, the soil should be considered Procedure: unacceptable for a subsurface absorption field. A 1. Using a post-hole digger, dig a minimum of six mound, lagoon, aerator, or other alternative system holes along the proposedARCHIVE absorption trench. The holes should be considered in either of these situations. should be 24 to 42 inches deep and from 8 to 12 inch- What are the characteristics of a good site for es in diameter. Roughen or scratch the inside of the conventional septic systems? Gently sloping, thick, holes to provide a natural surface free of smooth or permeable soils with deep water tables make the best compacted areas. Remove all loose material and place sites. The soil should be a uniform brown, yellow, or about 2 inches of coarse sand or fine gravel in the bright red, and it should not have spots of gray, which holes to prevent bottom scouring. often indicate that it is excessively wet. The soil tex- Engineering studies have shown that the shape of ture should be neither too sandy nor too clayey, and it the percolation rate test hole is not as important to the should have good aggregation or structure. (That

3.2.1-2 means a handful of the soil should easily break apart Conclusion into small aggregates.) Areas that have rock close to Don’t buy land until you’ve investigated the site, the surface, very sticky clays, or soil layers that re- determined soil characteristics, and made on-site eva- strict the downward flow of water should be avoided. lutaions. Just because adjacent land is apparently suit- Know State Regulations able for an on-site sewage disposal system does not necessarily mean yours will be. Soils can change State law requires a comprehensive soil and site within a short distance, and many sites are not suit- evaluation by the local health department to deter- able for on-site sewage disposal systems. It’s cheaper mine the suitability of the soils and topography of the to check before you buy. lot. State law also requires that an improvement permit be obtained from the local health department References: before construction begins on the home or the septic Alabama Department of Public Health. 1989. system. Selecting A Homesite: What You Should Know A subdivision developer must obtain approval for About On-site Sewage Disposal. ADPH-P-CEP-2. using septic systems before an area can be opened for Division of Community Environmental Protection. housing development. Therefore, when you purchase Onsite Sewage Branch. Montgomery, AL. a lot in a subdivision that does not have sewers, you Alabama Department of Public Health. 1990. can usually be assured that septic tank systems will Owner’s Guide For The Home Septic Tank And Soil be permitted there. However, you should verify that Absorption System. ADPH-P-CEP-1. Division of permission has been obtained for sewage disposal, Community Environmental Protection. Onsite water supply, and solid waste disposal by checking Sewage Branch. Montgomery, AL. with the local health department. Harlan, Phillip W., and Elbert C. Dickey. 1980. If you are looking at property that is not in a sub- Soils, Absorption Fields, And Percolation Tests For division, then check with the local health department. Home Sewage Treatment. G80-154. Nebraska Coop- They may have a percolation test and soil boring for erative Extension Service. University of Nebraska. the property on file already. If they do not have valid Lincoln, NB. records, then a professional consultant with experi- Hoover, Michael T. 1990. Soil Facts: Investigate ence in soils evaluation can help you narrow your Before You Invest. AG-439-12. North Carolina Coop- decision so that you can have perk tests made on erative Extension Service. North Carolina State Uni- those lots that show the greatest potential. versity. Raleigh, NC. Once you buy property, you must submit an Machmeier, Roger E. 1990. Get To Know Your Application For A Permit To Install An On-site Sew- Septic Tank. AG-MI-0639-A. Minnesota Cooperative age Disposal System to your local health department. Extension Service. University of Minnesota. St. Paul, If the local health department does not have a valid MN. percolation test and soil boring on file for your lot, you will be required to have the soil tests performed. The soil tests must be performed and signed by an To obtain the state sewage code or the Environ- engineer, land surveyor, or soil classifier. These tests mental Protection Agency publication, “On-Site will show whether the soil is able to properly filter Treatment And Disposal Systems” (EPA 625/2-81- and dispose of household wastes. If the application is 013), write to the following: Alabama Department of complete and the test results are acceptable, you will Public Health, Division of Community Environmen- receive an approved Permit To Install. Upon receipt tal Protection, Onsite Sewage Branch, State Office of this permit your contractor or installer can then Building, 434 Monroe Street, Montgomery, AL install your septic system. 36130-1701 or U.S. Environmental Protection Agen- cy, Center for Environmental Research Information, The septic system installation must be approved Cincinnati, OH 45268. by the health department before electrical service can be permanently connectedARCHIVE to the home and the septic system put into use. If your septic system malfunc- tions you must obtain a permit from the local health department prior to doing any repair work or addition to the septic system.

3.2.1-3 This publication, supported in part by a grant from the Alabama Department of Environmental Management and the Tennessee Valley Authority, was prepared by James E. Hairston, Extension Water Quality Scientist, assisted by Leigh Strib- ARCHIVEling, Technical Writer. For more information, call your county Extension ofﬁce. Look in your telephone directory under your county’s name to ﬁnd the number.

3.2.1-4 Agriculture and Natural Resources WATER QUALITY: Managing Wastewater

ALABAMA A&M AND AUBURN UNIVERSITIES

On-Site Sewage Treatment Understanding Septic System Design And Construction ANR-790-3.2.2

ears of experience have shown that properly de- home generated in the bathroom, kitchen, and laun- Ysigned, constructed, and maintained septic sys- dry. The septic tank retains the wastewater for ap- tems pose no undue stress on the environment. All proximately 24 hours, allowing the solids to separate three tasks—design, construction, and maintenance— and settle out and allowing bacteria to partially de- are crucial if the system is to operate properly. compose and liquify the solids. Typically, the homeowner does not become in- There are three layers in the septic tank. (See Fig- volved in the design details of a septic system. State ure 1.) and local regulations and design standards have been ¥ Sludge, consisting of heavy, partially decom- established to ensure properly designed systems. Sim- posed solids that will not float. ilarly, if homeowners are careful in selecting a rep- ¥ Liquid, containing dissolved materials such as utable construction contractor, they usually can be as- detergents and small amounts of suspended solids. sured that the system will be installed properly. ¥ Scum, consisting of fats and oils and other But understanding septic system design and con- light-weight solids that float on the surface of the struction will enable homeowners to interact knowl- wastewater. edgeably with local inspectors and contractors. Solids and scum in the tanks are digested or de- Conventional Septic System Design composed by anaerobic bacteria (bacteria active in Conventional septic systems have two key com- the absence of oxygen). This decomposition liquifies ponents: a septic tank and a soil absorption system. up to 50 percent of the solids and scum. The liquid is Each must function properly for the entire system to carried out into the absorption field, and the undi- perform satisfactorily. gestible solids remain in the tank as sludge. The Septic Tank. The septic tank is simply a con- Each time raw sewage enters the tank, an equal tainer usually prefabricated from concrete according amount of fluid is forced out of the tank. Tees or baf- to standard designs. It receives wastewater from the fles at the inlet and outlet of the tank slow the veloci-

Inspection ports manhole Inlet: Sewage distribution box enters from house baffle (effluent) drain lines (influent) scum

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ARCHIVEliquid Tee outlet @@@@ÀÀÀÀyyyy

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soil layers purification sludge

Figure 1. Conventional on-site wastewater treatment and disposal in the soil. ANR-790 Water Quality 3.2.2 Visit our Web site at: www.aces.edu ty of incoming wastewater and prevent flow directly can fit within the front yard or the backyard of a typi- to the outlet of the tank. The tees also help prevent cal 1-acre homesite. The precise area requirements sludge from leaving the tank through outlet lines. The will depend upon the kinds of soils at the homesite, fluid leaving the tank is called effluent and can con- the size of the house (the number of bedrooms), and tain disease organisms. Small amounts of suspended the topography of the lot. Adequate land area must be and dissolved matter in the effluent not completely available to install a replacement system in case it is stabilized or digested also move out of the tank to the ever needed. This replacement area must meet the absorption field. same soil and site requirements as the original sys- While typically designed to hold 1,000 gallons of tem. liquid, the size of the septic tank varies, depending on Conventional Septic System Location the number of bedrooms in the home. Regulations require that septic tanks be a certain size based on the Unlike a sewer system, which discharges treated expected daily flow rate of wastewater. Proper sizing wastewater into a body of water, the septic system de- is important to allow adequate time for settling and pends on the soil around the home to treat and dis- flotation so that the soil absorption system is not pose of sewage effluent. For this reason, a septic sys- clogged with sludge and scum. tem should be installed only in soils that will adequately absorb and purify the effluent. In addition, The Soil Absorption System. The soil absorption the septic system must be located a specified distance system consists of a distribution box and up to 300 from wells, surface waters, and easements. feet or more of tile or plastic drain lines buried in the soil. The soil absorption system receives wastewater To insure that your septic system is located prop- from the septic tank. The partially treated liquid, erly, keep the following tips in mind: called effluent, flows out of the septic tank to the dis- ¥ The septic system should be installed where the tribution box, where it is evenly distributed through- soil tests were performed. out the absorption field. The effluent is allowed to ¥ The location of individual septic system compo- trickle into the soil through perforated pipes placed at nents should meet certain setback requirements. If a a certain depth throughout the absorption field. septic system is located too close to wells, streams, or As effluent moves through the soil, impurities and lakes, wastewater may not be properly filtered and pathogens are removed. The soil provides filtering may contaminate surface water supplies. Generally and treatment to remove pathogenic microorganisms, accepted safe distances are shown in Table 1. organics, and nutrients from the wastewater. Just as ¥ When the septic system is being installed, the septic tank requires a certain amount of time to record the location of your septic tank, absorption allow solids to settle and light materials to float, so field, and repair area. Measure and record distances the soil requires a certain amount of time to remove from the septic tank, septic tank cleanout, and soil ab- harmful materials from the wastewater leaving the sorption system to aboveground features such as tank. buildings, fence corners, or large trees. Then after the The size of an absorption area is based on the area has grassed over, you can still find the system. volume of wastewater generated in the home and the A sample sheet for recording information is pro- permeability of the soil. Usually, the absorption field vided on the opposite page.

Table 1. Recommended Horizontal Separation Distances For On-Site Sewage Disposal System Components.a Water Supply Water Supply Part Of System Lake Or Stream Dwelling Property Line (well or suction line) (pressure line) feet Septic tank 50 30 50 10 10 Distribution boxARCHIVE 50 30 50 20 10 Absorption ﬁeld 100 30 50 20 10 aDistances may vary from state to state. Contact your local health department for speciﬁc guidelines.

Source: Lundstrom 1986, and Alabama Department of Public Health 1988 .

3.2.2-2 Septic System Installation Record

Date installed: ______

Building permit number:______

Name and address of licensed installer:

______

Size of septic tank: ______gal

Amount of ﬁeld lines: ______ft

Depth of trenches or bed: ______ft

Sketch the layout of your septic system. (Include the distances from the tank and the absorption ﬁeld to buildings and wells):

ARCHIVE

3.2.2-3 Conventional Septic System Construction table. Another option is to raise the level of the soil While the construction of a septic system is a surface with layers of fill soil. matter for professionals, homeowners can ensure When it is not practical to modify the site, con- proper construction by keeping the following tips in sider an alternative system. The mound system and mind. the aeration system are alternatives that may be used ¥ Keep heavy equipment off the soil absorption in areas with high water tables or slowly permeable system area both before and after construction. Soil soils. compaction can result in premature failure of the sys- With the mound system, the absorption field is tem. During construction of the house, fence off the built above the natural ground level. A distribution area designated for the soil absorption system as well network supplies effluent to the mound, and the efflu- as the required replacement area and the area directly ent is treated as it passes through the fill sand and nat- downhill. ural soil. ¥ Avoid installing the septic tank and soil absorp- The aeration system consists of a chamber that tion system when the soil is wet. Construction in wet mechanically aerates (mixes air with) the effluent and soil can cause puddling and smearing and increase decomposes the solids. Effluent is discharged to an soil compaction. This can greatly reduce soil perme- absorption field or, after chlorination, to surface water ability and shorten the life of a system. or an evaporation pond. ¥ Make sure the perforated pipes of the absorption Other alternatives include sand filters, lagoons, system are level to provide even distribution of the constructed wetlands, electro-osmosis systems, drop- septic tank effluent. If settling and frost action cause box distribution systems, serial distribution systems, shifting, part of the soil absorption system may be pressure-dosed distribution systems, and leaching overloaded. chambers. ¥ Divert rainwater from building roofs and paved In general, alternative systems are more costly to areas away from the soil absorption system. This sur- install and operate than conventional septic tank and face water will increase the amount of water the soil soil absorption systems and may require additional has to absorb and cause premature failure. maintenance. ¥ Keep water from footing drains and water soft- Conclusion ener discharges out of the septic system. Water from Improperly designed and constructed septic sys- footing drains can overload the capacity of the ab- tems are doomed from the start. These systems usual- sorption field, reducing its ability to accept effluent. ly fail in a few months because they are inadequately Water softener discharges contain high concentrations sized, installed in impermeable soils, or not properly of sodium, which react with the soil to reduce perme- constructed. ability. Remember, the system was designed and When on-site sewage disposal systems are in- sized to handle only the wastewater from plumbing stalled on the proper site and are properly designed, fixtures and washing machines. constructed, and maintained, they provide a safe, ¥ Do not plant trees and bushes near the septic cost-effective alternative to municipal and community tank or absorption field because their roots can enter sanitary sewage treatment. the system and cause extensive clogging problems. Do not cover the absorption field with a driveway, References patio, or other paving that would prevent the release Alabama Department Of Public Health. 1988. of water vapor. Location of On-Site Sewage Disposal Systems. Rules ¥ Allow accessibility for a pumper truck or back- of State Board of Health. Chapter 420-3-1-.22. Divi- hoe to service your system. Septic tanks require rou- sion of Community Environmental Protection. Onsite tine pumping and periodic maintenance, so keep ac- Sewage Branch. Montgomery, AL. cess to the area easy. ARCHIVEBicki, Thomas J. 1989. Septic Systems: Opera- tion And Maintenance Of On-Site Sewage Disposal Alternative On-Site Sewage Treatment Systems Systems. Land And Water Number 15. Illinois Coop- In locations where a conventional septic tank and erative Extension Service. University of Illinois at Ur- soil absorption system is unsuitable (such as areas bana-Champaign, IL. with high water tables or slowly permeable soils), Graham, Frances C. 1990. Correct Use Of Your you may be able to modify site conditions. For exam- Septic Tank. Information Sheet 1419. Mississippi Co- ple, in areas with high water tables one option is to operative Extension Service. Mississippi State Uni- use underdrains or curtain drains to lower the water versity. Mississippi State, MS.

3.2.2-4 Lundstrom, Darnell. 1986. Individual Home Sewage Treatment Systems. AE-892. North Dakota Cooperative Extension Service. North Dakota State University. Fargo, ND. Magette, William L., and Richard A. Weismiller. 1990. Septic Tank-Soil Absorption Systems. Water Resources 24. Maryland Cooperative Extension Ser- vice. The University of Maryland. College Park, MD. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1980. Design Manual: Onsite Wastewater Disposal Sys- tems. EPA 625/1-80-012. Office Of Water Program Operations. Washington, DC.

3.2.2-5 Agriculture and Natural Resources WATER QUALITY: Managing Wastewater

ALABAMA A&M AND AUBURN UNIVERSITIES

On-Site Sewage Treatment Maintaining A Septic System

ANR-790-3.2.3

s more people move to rural and suburban areas and with chemicals. Since your family will determine Anot served by municipal or community sanitary which materials enter the system, you should estab- sewers, homeowners must turn to on-site sewage dis- lish rules for water use and waste disposal. posal for the treatment and disposal of household waste. Proper operation and maintenance of an on- Tips For Water Use site sewage disposal system will increase the sys- Conserve water going into the system. Each gal- tem’s longevity and protect surface water and lon of water that flows into the drain must be treated groundwater quality. and disposed of by the soil absorption system. Typi- As a homeowner, you can have a significant im- cal water use is about 50 to 70 gallons per day for pact on how well your septic system works by the each person in the family. A number of water-saving way you maintain it. Both the septic tank and the soil devices and just plain water conservation techniques absorption system must be properly maintained. may double the life of your system. Many septic system failures can be traced to improp- ¥ Reducing toilet wastes is the single most effec- er operation and maintenance on the part of the tive way to reduce sewage flows. The flush toilet homeowner. accounts for about 40 percent of sewage wastes from Failure often appears as a clogged absorption an average home. Many flush toilets use 4 to 6 gal- system. The soil pores through which wastewater lons of water per flush. Flush toilets that use less than must pass are relatively small and are easily blocked 3 gallons per flush are available. by solids and by heavy bacterial growths. Failures ¥ Routinely check the toilet float valve to be sure can result in pollution of wells, lakes, and streams. it is not sticking, making the water run continuously. A failing system has several noticeable symp- ¥ Determine how much water your automatic toms: Damp mushy ground or standing water above washer uses per cycle. Front-loading washers and the absorption field. Dark green and slimy or oily suds-savers typically use less water than top-loading film on the surface near or above the absorption field. machines. If your sewage system is approaching its Noticeable odor, fly, or mosquito problems around maximum capacity, try to spread the washing out dur- the absorption field. Household plumbing fixtures ing the week to avoid overloading the sewage system that back up or do not drain properly. on a single day. Septic system failures can be avoided by follow- ¥ Baths and showers can use large amounts of ing these maintenance tips: water. Showerheads that limit the flow rate to 2 gal- ¥ Avoid overloading the system. lons of water per minute are available. Filling the tub ¥ Pump the system regularly. not quite so full and limiting the length of showers ¥ Keep records of maintenance. could result in appreciable water savings. ¥ Prevent physicalARCHIVE damage to the system. ¥ Repair all leaky plumbing fixtures. ¥ Take proper corrective action when needed. ¥ Keep a container of drinking water in the refrigerator so you won’t have to run the faucet for cold Avoid Overloading The System drinking water. Because the system only has a certain capacity for volume and for time and speed of decomposition, Tips For Waste Disposal it can be overloaded in a number of ways. It can be ¥ Restrict the use of your garbage disposal if you overloaded with water, with solids, with materials have a septic tank system. Garbage disposers can that degrade slowly, with materials that do not settle, overload the system with solids which may spill over ANR-790 Water Quality 3.2.3 Visit our Web site at: www.aces.edu into the absorption lines and clog the soil. If you want the materials deposited into the tank and will thrive to install a disposer, the size of the septic tank must under the growth conditions present. be increased one and one-half to two times the nor- ¥ Too much sodium in water softener recharge mal tank volume. That way, the tank will be better wastewater may harm septic tank action, and the able to handle the increased level of solids. additional water must be treated and disposed of by If you already have a disposer, make sure to grind the soil absorption system. If the softener wastewater waste into fine particles and have your system creates an overload to the septic system, the wastewa- inspected and pumped more frequently, every year or ter can be discharged to the ground surface since it even more often. It is better to compost, incinerate, or contains no pathogens. The wastewater should be dis- throw out garbage with the trash. charged in a location where it does not cause a nui- ¥ Do not deposit coffee grounds, wet-strength sance or damage valuable vegetation. towels, disposable diapers, facial tissues, feminine hygiene products, cigarette butts, and similar nonde- Pump The System Regularly composable materials into the house sewer. None of If a septic tank is not pumped out regularly, solids these materials will decompose, and they will cause a build up until they are carried along with the waste- rapid accumulation of solids in the septic tank. These water into the absorption field where they clog soil things should be disposed of with your solid waste pores. When this happens, the system fails and a new household garbage. absorption field must be built. ¥ Use a good quality toilet tissue that breaks up easily when wet. To determine suitable quality toilet When To Pump tissue, place a portion in a glass jar half full of water. With ordinary use and care, a septic tank usually Shake the jar. If the tissue breaks up easily, the prod- requires pumping out every 3 to 5 years. Table 1 sug- uct is suitable. High wet-strength toilet tissues are gests average pumping frequencies given the size of less desirable. The color of the toilet tissue has no the tank and the number of persons living in the effect on the septic system. household. These figures were calculated assuming ¥ Avoid pouring liquid fats, grease, or oils down there was no garbage disposal unit hooked up to the the kitchen sink drain. Fats and greases solidify and system. The use of a garbage disposal will increase can block parts of the system. Keep a separate con- the amount of solids in the holding tank by as much tainer for waste grease and throw it out with the trash. as 50 percent. ¥ Be especially careful with chemicals that you Table 1. Estimated Septic Tank Pumping Frequen- put down your drain. They can kill the bacteria that cies In Years. help break down the solids in the septic tank and may Tank Size People Using The System also enter groundwater. Most septic tanks can handle normal amounts of detergent, but some drain clean- (Gallons) 1 2468 ers, bleaches, organic solvents, oven cleaners, paints, Years paint thinners, pesticides, and a variety of other 900 115211 petroleum products may be harmful. These chemicals 1,000 12 6321 should be disposed of in other ways. Use only those 1,250 16 8321 drain cleaners that are labeled as safe for septic tanks. 1,500 19 9432 ¥ Some detergents can cause problems with septic systems. Be wary of inexpensive washing products. Source: Hoover 1990. They may contain excessive fillers, some of which You can ask a local septic tank pumper to mea- can harm the septic system. The best solution is to sure the solids level and the scum layer and to pump use liquid laundry detergents. They are less likely to out the septic tank when it is needed. The local health have fillers that are harmful to the system. department can supply you with a list of approved ¥ Do not use septicARCHIVE tank additives since they are septic tank pumpers. of no benefit and some can do harm. Additives such You can measure these levels yourself by follow- as hydrogen peroxide, acids, and solvents are some- ing the procedure explained below. times put into the distribution system to unclog a fail- Measuring Sludge Depth. Measure both sludge and ing absorption system. In many instances, however, scum depths at the outlet side of the tank at least once they have been shown to have little or no benefit and a year starting with the third or fourth year after a can result in groundwater contamination. cleaning. In a two-compartment tank, measure at the ¥ A “starter” is not needed for bacterial action to outlet of the first compartment to the second compart- begin in a septic tank. Many bacteria are present in ment if possible.

3.2.3-2 Wrap a long measuring stick with terry cloth How To Pump And What To Check towel to a height of about 4 feet. Remove the obser- Never go down into a septic tank. The gasses pre- vation hole cover nearest the discharge end of the sent may poison or asphyxiate you. Only trained pro- tank and look at the outlet baffle. If it is a tee-type or fessionals should enter a septic tank. a flat, vertical plate with an opening at the top, run the Hire a reputable septic service company or other- measuring stick down through the baffle opening to wise experienced operator with appropriate equip- the tank bottom. If the baffle is an elbow type with no ment to clean your septic tank. Their service usually top opening, make a hole in the scum mat near the includes pumping, inspection of tank openings and baffle with another stick, and then lower the measur- baffles, and disposal of the sludge in an approved ing stick through the hole. manner. Pump the tank as empty as possible to Next, press down and slowly rotate the measuring remove most solids and restore tank capacity. stick a couple of times to make sure it reaches the Be sure that when the tank is pumped out the bottom. Finally, slowly remove the stick. Black parti- contractor uses the large manhole usually located in cles clinging to the towel distinguish the sludge layer the center of the tank. Using one of the inspection from the liquid depth. Measure the depth of this black ports could damage the baffles inside the tank. Dam- age to the baffles could result in wastewater flowing portion to determine sludge depth. directly into the absorption field without the opportu- Measuring Scum Depth. Use a 3-inch square piece nity for the solids to settle out. of wood attached at the end of a long stick. Push the When the tank is being pumped, check the condi- measuring device through the scum layer into the liq- tion of the baffles located at both the inlet and outlet. uid layer. As you move the stick carefully up and The inlet baffle prevents short-circuiting of the down, a change in resistance on the wood indicates sewage, and the outlet baffle prevents the floatable the bottom of the scum layer. When you find the bot- scum from moving out into the soil absorption field. tom, mark the stick at a convenient reference point, In time, these baffles can deteriorate and drop off into such as the top of the tank opening. the tank. Replace those in poor condition. Fit septic With the same device, locate the bottom of the tanks with concrete or fiberglass risers over the obser- outlet baffle. Use the same reference point to re-mark vation hole, so that the tank can be located and the stick. The distance between the marks equals the inspected without digging up your lawn. Make sure distance between the scum layer bottom and the out- the risers have secure covers to prevent accidents or let baffle bottom. mischief. Have the septic tank pumped when the top of the Keep Records Of Maintenance sludge is within 12 inches of the outlet baffle bottom Plan to keep a record of the maintenance per- or when the bottom of the scum layer is within 3 formed on your septic system. A sample sheet is pro- inches of the baffle bottom. vided below. Septic System Inspection And Maintenance Record Date Of Service Type Of Service Contractor: Name, Address, Phone ______ARCHIVE ______

3.2.3-3 Prevent Physical Damage To The System Repair Physical Damage. Leveling the distribution To prevent physical damage to the system, box or repairing crushed or broken drain lines may be observe the following precautions. necessary to restore the system. Tree roots may be ¥ Keep surface waters away from the septic tank interfering with the operation of the soil absorption and absorption field. Precipitation draining from field and must be removed. roofs, driveways, and roads onto the soil absorption Improve Surface And Subsurface Drainage. Divert field area can also put an extra load on the system. If all surface water and groundwater away from the soil the soil is saturated with water, even seasonally, it absorption field. The soil must absorb all the waste- cannot accept any more water. The untreated wastew- water from the house; surface water and groundwater ater will either surface or backup. will only add to the load. ¥ Keep automobiles and heavy equipment off the Conclusion system. Do not plan any building additions, pools, You are a key factor in how well your septic sys- driveways, or other construction work near the septic tem functions. The old adage “out of sight, out of system or the repair area. mind” is not applicable to these treatment systems. ¥ Driving, paving, or building on top of a septic Any time and money you spend to properly maintain system can damage the soil absorption field. Pipes your system will be returned in the long run as you can shift or be crushed and the soil can be compact- avoid the headaches and expenses associated with ed. Damage of this sort makes it difficult to locate the trying to remedy a failing system. septic tank and prevents access for regular pumping. When on-site sewage disposal systems are prop- ¥ Maintain adequate vegetative cover over the erly designed, constructed, operated, and maintained, absorption field. Tree roots can clog the soil absorp- they provide a safe, cost-effective alternative to tion field. Plant grass, not trees or shrubs, in the area. municipal and community sanitary sewage treatment. Take Proper Corrective Action When Needed References If you have problems with your septic system, Alabama Department Of Public Health. 1990. inspect the absorption field and downslope areas for Owner’s Guide For The Home Septic Tank And Soil seepage or surface flow. Wet spots, unpleasant odor, Absorption System. ADPH-P-CEP-1. Division Of or lush growth of water-loving vegetation indicate a Community Environmental Protection. Onsite system failure. Sewage Branch. Montgomery, AL. Quick fixes do not work for failing septic sys- Bicki, Thomas J. 1989. Septic Systems: Opera- tems. Never place more soil over a surfacing soil tion And Maintenance Of On-Site Sewage Disposal absorption field. This does not fix the system, and Systems. Land And Water Number 15. Illinois Coop- wet areas will soon appear again. Do not just pipe the erative Extension Service. University of Illinois at sewage to a road ditch, storm sewer, stream, or a farm Urbana-Champaign, IL. drain tile; this pollutes surface water and creates a Graham, Frances C. 1990. Correct Use Of Your health hazard. Do not run the sewage into a sink hole, Septic Tank. Information Sheet 1419. Mississippi drainage well, or abandoned water well; this pollutes Cooperative Extension Service. Mississippi State groundwater. University. Mississippi State, MS. Any repair or new installation of a septic system Hermanson, Ronald E. 1991. The Care And requires a permit from and approval by the local Feeding Of Septic Tanks. EB0707. Washington health department. Your health department can help Cooperative Extension Service. Washington State you determine which corrective measures are appro- University. Pullman, WA. priate for your system. These may include some of Hoover, Michael T. 1990. Septic Systems And the following. Their Maintenance. AG-439-13. The North Carolina Add Drain Lines. Install additional drain lines to Cooperative Extension Service. North Carolina State increase the size and ARCHIVEthe capacity of the soil absorp- University. Raleigh, NC. tion system. A larger system will be able to accept Machmeier, Roger E. 1990. Get To Know Your more wastewater. Septic Tank. AG-MI-0639-A. Minnesota Cooperative Install An Alternate Soil Absorption Field. This Extension Service. University of Minnesota. St. Paul, involves constructing a second soil absorption system MN. and diverting all wastewater to it for at least 1 year to Magette, William L., and Richard A. Weismiller. rest the original field. The fields can then be alternat- 1990. Septic Tank-Soil Absorption Systems. Water ed. Resting allows drying and digestion of the scum Resources 24. Maryland Cooperative Extension Ser- layer which clogs the soil pores. vice. The University of Maryland. College Park, MD.

3.2.3-4 Mancl, Karen, and John M. Sweeten. 1990. Why Do Septic Systems Fail? Waste 5. Texas Cooperative Extension Service. Texas A&M University. College Station, TX.

3.2.3-5 Agriculture and Natural Resources WATER QUALITY: Controlling Nonpoint Source (NPS) Pollution

ALABAMA A&M AND AUBURN UNIVERSITIES

Nonpoint Source (NPS) Pollution Of Alabama Waters

ANR-790-4.1

f you live in Alabama, the beautiful and abundant ¥ It is not easily monitored at the point of origin Iwaters of this state touch your life whether you and the contaminants may not be traceable to their enjoy fishing, boating, or just relaxing on the shore of exact source. a tranquil lake. If you farm, you depend on plentiful ¥ It flows intermittently. rainfall and sometimes supplemental irrigation to pro- ¥ Its magnitude is related to certain uncontrollable duce your crops. Whatever you do, you rely on clean climatic events. water for drinking and for household use. Most water supplies in Alabama are of good What Factors Influence NPS Pollution? quality, but some have natural problems and some are Water quality may be affected by all upslope land polluted. This pollution may come from point dis- use activities in a watershed. A watershed includes all charges or from what is commonly referred to as non- land in a drainage system that contributes surface point source (NPS) pollution. runoff to a given point, usually the lowest elevation What Is Nonpoint Source Pollution? outlet. All activities within a watershed may impact the quality of water flowing from this outlet. When you think of water pollution, do you envi- sion a vile, foul-smelling liquid which oozes from the Water does not recognize political boundaries. end of a pipe into a body of water? This type of efflu- Thus, the physical boundary of a watershed, rather ent is called point source pollution because it comes than arbitrary political boundaries, is commonly used from a specific spot, such as an industrial or munici- for analyzing water quality problems. pal sewage treatment plant pipe. Point source pollu- The amount of NPS pollution in an individual tion is relatively easy to locate and control. In fact, watershed is extremely variable and depends on sev- guidelines for controlling this type of discharge have eral factors: rainfall, vegetation, soil erodibility, to- been implemented by federal law since 1972. pography, and human alteration of physical features. What may not come to mind but which cause Rainfall. The intensity and duration of rainfall is a equal harm to our waters are the contaminants from major factor influencing runoff and NPS pollution in nonpoint sources which seep quietly into surface a watershed. A typical 30-minute thunderstorm in Al- water and groundwater without fanfare or warning. abama can dump more than 100 tons of water on an Unlike point source pollution, this pollution is not acre of land. Each raindrop strikes the ground at near- easy to pinpoint and control. Natural processes, ly 20 miles per hour. Surface runoff results when the which human activities have speeded up or modified, rainfall rate exceeds the soil’s capacity to absorb it. cause much of this type of pollution. Vegetation. Plant cover shields the ground surface An exact and concise definition of nonpoint pol- from the full impact of falling rain and thus helps re- lution is nearly impossible. However, most of it is duce erosion. When a raindrop falls on a leaf, the leaf generally associated with stormwater runoff, which absorbs the raindrop’s energy. If the same drop falls carries sediment, nutrients,ARCHIVE toxins, and organic mate- directly on bare soil, it dislodges soil particles. Stems, rial into receiving waters. Under some circumstances, leaves, and other plant litter also provide surface stor- groundwater can become contaminated by water per- age and slow overland flow. This allows more time colating down through the soil. for water to evaporate and infiltrate. Plant stems also Nonpoint source pollution can be further de- allow more water to infiltrate into the soil by breaking scribed by the following: the soil’s crust. Plant roots improve internal soil ¥ It occurs over an extensive area, usually travel- structure, hold soil in place, and actively absorb ing overland before entering water. water. ANR-790 Water Quality 4.1 Visit our Web site at: www.aces.edu Soil Erodibility. The size, shape, and arrangement of

soil particles as well as the organic matter content de- Lauderdale Limestone Jackson termine the soil’s ability to absorb water and resist Madison Colbert erosion. Coarse-textured sandy soils are loose and Franklin Lawrence DeKalb Morgan Marshall permeable and allow large volumes of water to move

through them. Percolation is generally slower in ﬁne- Marion Winston Cullman Cherokee Etowah textured silty and clayey soils. Medium- to ﬁne-tex- Blount

tured soils, especially those lacking organic matter Lamar Walker Calhoun Fayette and good structure, are usually more subject to ero- St. Clair Jefferson Cleburne sion.

Soil scientists have now determined a numerical Pickens Tuscaloosa Shelby Talladega Clay Randolph value of erodibility for every soil mapped in the Unit- Bibb Coosa ed States. Soil Conservation Service personnel use Greene Tallapoosa Chilton Chambers these values in calculating erosion rates under a vari- Hale Perry Elmore Lee ety of cropping systems and land-use patterns. Sumter Autauga Macon

Topography. Topographic features such as drainage Dallas Russell Marengo density, slope steepness, and slope length affect Lowndes Bullock Montgomery runoff and soil losses from erosion. Choctaw Wilcox Barbour The drainage density of a watershed refers to the ButlerPike Clarke number of water channels present per unit of land Monroe Crenshaw Henry area. Regions with steep terrain, such as northern Al- Washington Conecuh Coffee Dale

abama, often have high drainage densities. In these Covington Escambia Geneva Houston areas, it is more likely that land-use activities will in-

ﬂuence the quality of adjacent waterways. Mobile Exceeds 150 Water will run down a steep slope faster than Baldwin 100 to 150 down a lower gradient slope of the same length. As water flows down longer slopes it accumulates and 50 to 100 gathers more energy for dislodging and transporting soil particles. Because of their steep terrain, northern Less than 50

Alabama counties have the highest soil loss potential. Source: ADEM Nonpoint Source Management Program, 1989. Actual soil loss can vary greatly depending on the land management practices employed. The largest Figure 1. Density of cropland in Alabama in acres of erosion rates and the greatest sediment yields general- crops per square mile. ly occur in watersheds that have the highest density of disturbed or bare soils. These watersheds are usu- Land in transition between different uses is espe- ally those with the most cropland. See Figure 1. cially susceptible to stormwater runoff. Transitions Human Alteration Of Physical Features. Modern occur in both urban and rural settings. The plowing of technology has increased our ability to alter the land- ﬁelds leaves soil, its accompanying nutrients, and or- scape. Earth moving for construction, strip mining, ganic matter vulnerable to the process of erosion. In and agriculture exposes millions of acres of soil to harvesting mineral resources and raw materials such erosion. An individual watershed may include both as timber, we disrupt the land—sometimes perma- urban and agricultural land uses. These different land nently. Rain washes nutrients and sediment off barren uses may destroy vegetation, remove topsoil, or trans- hills and deposits them in nearby rivers and lakes. form terrain features that are often undertaken with Land may be left unprotected for several years while little consideration for how they affect water quality. subdivisions are being developed. Erosion rates on Nonpoint sourceARCHIVE pollution often occurs when such areas may be two hundred times greater than land is disturbed without taking protective measures. those on either rural lands or established residential The potential for such disturbance is extensive. In Al- areas. abama, there are approximately 4.5 million acres of In summary, surface runoff water is the primary cropland, and much of this land is tilled each year. At means of transporting nonpoint source pollutants. The least one-third of this cropland is susceptible to high greater the volume of rushing water, the more pollu- erosion rates. Nationally, approximately 4,000 acres tants it will contain. The contaminating materials can per day of rural land are transformed by development either be dissolved in the water or suspended as to urban areas. solids. One heavy rainstorm can sometimes do as

4.1-2 much damage in a matter of hours as an entire year of To control aquatic plant growth, pollution abate- moderate rains will do. ment efforts often focus on reducing the amount of phosphorus from both point and nonpoint sources en- What Are The Pollutants From tering surface waters. Phosphorus is the plant nutrient Nonpoint Sources? which is usually least abundant naturally in fresh wa- Various kinds of contaminants are carried into ters and often is the most significant factor limiting our water supply from urban and agricultural areas, plant growth. When excessive phosphorus enters disrupted forests, mining and construction sites, land- water, it can trigger the rapid growth of algae and fills, and septic tanks. Some NPS pollutants are more aquatic weeds. harmful than others. Some are potential public health Nitrogen, occurring as nitrate, is a public health hazards. Others are harmful primarily to fish and concern in groundwater supplies used for drinking. other aquatic organisms. Nitrate may come from nonpoint sources such as ni- Major NPS pollutants include sediment, nutri- trogen-containing fertilizers used in rural and urban ents, toxic materials, and organic materials. settings, decomposing plant and animal wastes, and Sediment. A by-product of erosion, sediment is the leaching of human waste products from failing or nation’s largest single water pollutant by weight or overloaded septic systems. volume. The process of sedimentation fills streams, Higher than normal nitrate levels have been lakes, and harbors. found in some shallow wells in Alabama. This condi- Sediment reduces water’s capacity to sustain life. tion appears to be most prevalent when nitrogen lev- It clouds the water, reducing light penetration and, in els exceed plant or microbial needs and where soils turn, photosynthesis. More importantly, it alters bot- and geologic conditions promote rapid infiltration and tom conditions, sometimes covering up suitable percolation of water from the surface. spawning sites and suffocating fish eggs and aquatic Toxic Materials. Pesticides, industrial solvents, in- insects. dustrial chemical wastes, petroleum products, and heavy metals are washed into our waters daily. We do Soil particles are also the main carrier of other not know the long-term effects of low dosages of pollutants. Nutrients, organic matter, and potentially many of these substances. We do know, however, that hazardous chemicals attach to sediment particles and high concentrations are very dangerous. are transported to surface waters. Pesticides, for example, can be transported by Because sediment is Alabama’s single largest wind, rain, surface runoff, or groundwater leaching to water quality contaminant, areas with a high density lakes and streams. After entering water, pesticides of cropland have great potential to cause sediment may decompose to toxic or non-toxic substances or damage to water quality. Alabama cropland density is they may persist in their original forms. Aquatic or- given in Figure 1. Those areas with a larger percent- ganisms often concentrate these chemicals in their age of land in crops have a high erosion potential. bodies well above the average concentration in the Other land features—such as topography, soil type, water. This is called bioaccumulation. and land use—also influence erosion potential. The original concern about pesticides was based Nutrients. Although nutrients such as nitrogen and on evidence which clearly showed that some chlori- phosphorus are essential for aquatic plant growth, nated hydrocarbon chemicals persisted in the environ- they cause problems when overly abundant in lakes ment for more than 20 years. This gave them much and streams. The enrichment of lakes, and to a lesser more time to bioaccumulate in some organisms. This extent streams, by plant nutrients is called eutrophi- was the case with DDT. Although most of the so- cation. Over a long period of time most lakes become called “hard” insecticides are no longer in use, some choked with algae or weeds and evolve into bogs or continue to affect water quality because of their per- marshes and ultimately become dry land. Human ac- sistence. tivities often increase the amount of nutrients reach- The danger of contamination from organic sol- ing bodies of water andARCHIVE thereby speed up this aging vents, petroleum products, toxic metals, and industri- process. Rapid aquatic plant growth and noxious al waste products has increased in waters adjacent to algae blooms result from accelerated eutrophication. urban areas. Accidental spills and leaks from storage Water clogged with weeds is undesirable for most tanks and pipelines as well as leaching from disposal recreational uses, such as swimming and boating. In sites can cause severe water contamination problems. addition when these weeds die and decompose, they Metals of most concern in urban stormwater are lead, consume oxygen in the water. Severe oxygen short- zinc, copper, chromium, cadmium, nickel, and mer- ages may result in fish kills. Decaying algae and lake cury. Lead, zinc, and copper are the metals found weeds also cause taste and odor problems. most often.

4.1-3 Toxicity of metals to higher animals and humans Lauderdale is variable. For example, zinc, iron, and copper are Limestone Jackson Madison considered to be the least toxic to humans. Mercury Colbert

and cadmium, on the other hand, in very small doses Franklin Lawrence DeKalb Morgan may accumulate in people and cause liver damage or Marshall Marion Winston Cullman Cherokee other problems. Lead, once a common paint pigment Etowah and component of several insecticides, affects human Blount nervous, endocrine, reproductive, renal, and pul- Lamar Walker Calhoun

Fayette St. Clair monary systems. High levels of lead intake cause Jefferson Cleburne sterility, stillbirths, and abortions. In fact, there is so

Pickens Tuscaloosa TalladegaClay Randolph much concern for lead in drinking water today that Shelby

the safety level was lowered in 1991. Concerns are Bibb Coosa increasing for rare industrial metals such as antimony, Greene Tallapoosa

Chilton Chambers Hale beryllium, and thallium. Perry Elmore Lee The presence of various metals also affects por- Sumter Autauga Macon tions of the aquatic system. Marine brown algae, mol- Dallas Russell Marengo lusks, crustaceans, mussels, and fishes accumulate Lowndes Bullock Montgomery various metals in their tissues. When these plants and Choctaw Wilcox animals are consumed, toxins can be passed along the Barbour Butler Pike food web and concentrated. Clarke Monroe Crenshaw Henry Organic Materials. Plant debris and animal wastes Washington Conecuh Coffee Dale contribute nutrient and oxygen-demanding materials Covington to our waters. Bacteria decompose organic materials Escambia Geneva Houston and consume oxygen in the process. If the supply of organic materials is excessive, the oxygen supply Mobile Exceeds 2.0 may become seriously depleted. In general, the less Baldwin 1.0 to 2.0 dissolved oxygen in a lake or stream, the less capable the water is of supporting a variety of ﬁsh and aquatic 0.5 to 1.0 life. Less than 0.5

Potential disease-causing organisms may be de- Source: ADEM Nonpoint Source Management Program, 1989. livered to surface water in runoff containing sewer overflows, septic tank wastes, and animal wastes. Figure 2. Animal waste production in Alabama in tons These organisms live in the intestines of humans and per acre per year of cropland and pastureland. animals and some are bound to enter lakes and streams in runoff. unit of cropland and pastureland is shown in Figure 2. High bacterial levels have been traced to non- Those areas with the highest ratio of animal wastes to point pollution from both rural and urban sources. In available land resources are more likely to have ex- some areas organic wastes in runoff are a more seri- cessive land application and subsequent water quality ous problem than wastes from municipal sewage problems. treatment plants. Scientists now estimate that more than half of the organic matter entering the nation’s What Can We Do About These Pollutants? surface waters comes from sources other than sewage The complex nature of nonpoint pollution means treatment plants. Untreated human and animal waste that control programs will not be easy to establish or contributes to this condition. maintain. Controlling these contaminants will require Animal waste is a high priority nonpoint source solutions as diverse as the pollutants themselves. pollutant in Alabama. The Alabama Department of Pollutants that create public health hazards are of Environmental ManagementARCHIVE (ADEM) receives more prime importance. Pesticides, nitrates, and pathogen- water quality complaints associated with animal containing wastes which fall into this category must waste than any other agriculturally related nonpoint be used or managed so as not to contaminate water source pollutant. Although most animal waste is tem- supplies in the future. porarily stored, in many cases it is ultimately applied Eutrophication, or accelerated nutrient enrich- to land resources. Areas with a high density of ani- ment, from nonpoint source runoff is a problem of na- mals but low density of cropland and pastureland tional scope. Additional phosphorus in surface waters have the greatest potential for water quality problems. can be reduced by restricting the use of phosphate de- Alabama’s livestock and poultry waste production per tergents, by properly managing fertilizer and animal

4.1-4 waste materials, and by controlling soil erosion and References sedimentation. Alabama Department Of Environmental Manage- In urban areas, solvents, petroleum products, ment. 1989. Alabama Nonpoint Source Management heavy metals, or other toxic substances can concen- Program. Montgomery, AL. trate in runoff waters. In many cases, sources of these Daniel, T. C., and D. R. Keeney. 1978. Nonpoint contaminants and their precise impact on human Pollution: Causes And Consequences. G2956. Wis- health and the environment are not well understood. consin Cooperative Extension Service. University of Communities may have to tackle nonpoint sources of Wisconsin. Madison, WI. pollution on a case-by-case basis and give some Daniel, T. C., and Mary Forrest. 1978. Nonpoint harmful pollutants priority over others. Pollution: What Does It Mean For Wisconsin’s Wa- Certain substances are more of a regional prob- ters? G2962. Wisconsin Cooperative Extension Ser- lem; thus, strategies will have to take regional differ- vice. University of Wisconsin. Madison, WI. ences and needs into consideration. Control pro- Weinberg, Anne, Steve Berkowitz, and Fred grams, however, may have to be designed to correct Madison. 1979. Nonpoint Source Pollution: Land Use the speciﬁc needs of individual cities. And Water Quality. G3025. Wisconsin Cooperative Efforts like these should result in the signiﬁcant Extension Service. University of Wisconsin. Madi- improvement of rivers and some lakes and slow the son, WI. degradation of others.

This publication, supported in part by a grant from the Alabama Department of Environmental Management and the Tennessee Valley Authority, was prepared by James E. Hairston, Extension Water Quality Scientist, assisted by Leigh Strib- ling, Technical Writer. For more information, call your county Extension ofﬁce. Look in your telephone ARCHIVEdirectory under your county’s name to ﬁnd the number. Issued in furtherance of Cooperative Extension work in agriculture and home economics, Acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914, and other related acts, in cooperation with the U.S. Department of Agriculture. The Alabama Cooperative Extension System (Al- abama A&M University and Auburn University) offers educational programs, materials, and equal opportunity employment to all people without regard to race, color, national origin, religion, sex, age, veteran status, or disability. ANR-790-4.1 UPS, New June 1995, Water Quality 4.1

4.1-5 Agriculture and Natural Resources WATER QUALITY: Controlling Nonpoint Source (NPS) Pollution

ALABAMA A&M AND AUBURN UNIVERSITIES

The Rural Environment And NPS Pollution Understanding Agricultural Erosion, ANR-790-4.2.1 Sedimentation, And NPS Pollution

n rural environments, land-disturbing activities that In Alabama, high-intensity rainfall causes most Idestroy natural vegetation, remove topsoil, or trans- of the soil erosion. These intense rains and the resul- form terrain features contribute significantly to non- tant erosion normally occur in the spring or summer. point source (NPS) pollution. Disturbed land is vul- Erosion caused by rainfall starts when soil parti- nerable to the beating action of raindrops and the cles are detached by the impact of raindrops striking energy of flowing water, which do the real damage. the soil surface. The weight of water falling in 30 Raindrops dislodge most of the solid particles that are minutes of a moderate thunderstorm may exceed eroded from disturbed lands while stormwater runoff 200,000 pounds (100 tons) per acre. (Water has a erodes channels and transports pollutant-laden sedi- density of 62.4 pounds per cubic foot. One inch of ment to lakes, streams, and waterways. water per square foot weighs 5.2 pounds [62.4 According to estimates by the U.S. Environmen- pounds divided by 12]. Therefore, 1 inch of rain on tal Protection Agency, agricultural runoff is responsi- an acre would weigh 226,512 pounds [5.2 pounds per ble for 50 to 70 percent of the nonpoint source pollu- square foot-inch times 43,560 square feet per acre].) tion that impairs water quality nationwide. Urban When raindrops strike bare soil at high velocity, runoff, the next largest source, contributes only 5 to they shatter soil granules and clods and detach parti- 15 percent. In Alabama, agriculture causes about 40 percent of the surface NPS problems, resource extrac- cles from the soil mass. As the precipitation rate be- tion (mining) causes 19 percent, and urban runoff gins to exceed the intake capacity of the soil, runoff causes 7 percent. occurs, and soil particles may be transported. Most sediment is eroded when the soil is bare. Larger, heavier particles such as gravel and sand Soils are protected naturally by vegetation and vegeta- settle out sooner than smaller, lighter particles such as tion residues, but under many crop production sys- clay. Clay may stay in suspension for very long peri- tems, farmers must remove or bury much of this pro- ods, travel long distances, and thereby contribute sig- tective cover. Once the cover is gone, bare soil is nificantly to surface water turbidity. exposed to the erosive forces of wind, rain, and runoff. Types Of Erosion Sediment is by far the greatest NPS pollutant in rural environments. Sediment impairs water quality The erosion that occurs under natural environ- and transports other pollutants. mental conditions of climate and vegetation, undisturbed by people, is called geological, natural, or What Is The Erosion-Sedimentation Process? normal erosion. These rates are relatively low and Erosion is the detachment and transport of soil usually average less than one-half ton per acre per particles by water or wind. Sedimentation occurs year in most of the United States. when water carrying ARCHIVEeroded soil particles slows long The more rapid erosion that occurs when people enough to allow soil particles to settle out. clear the natural vegetation is called accelerated ero- The erosion-sedimentation process consists of sion. Accelerated erosion may be hundreds or thou- (1) detachment of soil particles; (2) transport of soil sands of times as great as geological erosion. Soil particles; and (3) sedimentation or settling out of soil erosion on cropland can range from less than 1 to particles. These three steps may occur several times more than 100 tons per acre per year, depending on between the original detachment and when the parti- the crop system, management practices, rainfall, soil cle actually reaches a stream or lake. characteristics, and topographic features.

ANR-790 Water Quality 4.2.1 Visit our Web site at: www.aces.edu Rates Of Sedimentation Effects Of Agricultural Sediment concentrations in rivers of the United Runoff On Water Quality States range from 200 to 50,000 parts per million As the largest single land-disturbing activity and (ppm), with occasional concentrations as high as the greatest producer of animal wastes, agricultural 600,000 ppm. The amount of sediment moved by production is the greatest source of nonpoint pollu- flowing water has been reported to average at least 4 tion to the nation’s waters. Stormwater runoff from billion tons a year, with about 1 billion tons reaching cropland may contain soil, crop nutrients, pesticides, major streams. Estimates attribute about 30 percent of animal wastes, and other organic matter. Two pollu- this sediment to natural geologic erosion and about tants of primary importance to surface water quality 50 percent to erosion from agricultural lands. are sediment and phosphorus. Sediment produced by accelerated erosion comes Sediment As A Pollutant. The major pollutant of sur- from many sources both urban and rural. But agricul- face water is sediment, the soil material eroded from tural cropland produces more sediment than any other land surfaces and transported to streams and lakes by single source because of the large area involved. runoff waters. On a total mass basis, cropland is the chief source of sediment. Nationally, agriculture is Types Of Cropland Erosion credited with half or more of the sediment deposited Four major types of cropland erosion which in inland waters. For Alabama, with about 15 percent occur in Alabama are: sheet, rill, gully, and wind. of the land in cropland, this value is around 40 per- Sheet erosion removes a thin, rather uniform cent. Of course some counties have a much higher layer of surface soil. This soil movement is also percentage of cropland and, thus, a much greater po- called interrill erosion. Sheet erosion may go unno- tential for sediment damage. See Figure 1. ticed until much of the productive topsoil has been re- Sediment affects the use of water in many ways. moved. Six tons of dry soil over an acre of land is Suspended solids reduce the amount of sunlight avail- about the same thickness as ten sheets of standard able to aquatic plants and cover fish spawning areas grade typing paper (approximately 0.04 inch). Ten and food supplies. This reduces fish, shellfish, and tons would be less than one-tenth of an inch (0.067 plant populations and decreases the overall productiv- inch). Under such conditions, visual perception of ity of lakes and streams. soil losses from sheet erosion in the range of even 5 to 10 tons per acre per year would likely go unnoticed Sediment fills drainage ditches, road ditches, cul- for many years unless a stable reference point was verts, and stream channels and shortens the economic readily available for comparison. (These numerical life of reservoirs and farm ponds. It can clog water values are based on the assumptions that 1 cubic foot filters, erode power turbines, and damage pumping of dry soil weighs approximately 83 pounds and that equipment. 1 inch of soil covering 1 acre of land [43,560 square Sediment not only impairs the quality of water re- feet] would contain approximately 150 tons.) sources in which it resides but often degrades the lo- In rill erosion, numerous small channels are cation where it is deposited. It may carry animal or formed by water flowing over the soil surface. Water industrial wastes, nutrients, heavy metals, and toxic moving down a slope follows the path of least resis- chemicals adsorbed to the soil particles. tance and concentrates in tillage marks, eroded flow Because sediment is Alabama’s single largest channels, and other depressions in the natural land water quality contaminant and because the processes surface, where it gains in depth and velocity. Rill ero- related to its generation and transport are associated sion increases rapidly on steeper or longer slopes as with those of other pollutants, reducing the sediment runoff depth and turbulence increases. Most people loss to surface waters should help abate agricultural do not realize that erosion is occurring until rills at nonpoint pollution problems. least 1 inch deep become apparent. Tillage can easily Fertilizers As Pollutants. Dramatic improve- remove rills up to 4 inches deep. ments in erosion control and reduced sedimentation Gully erosion occursARCHIVE when water accumulates in can often be achieved through proper use of fertiliz- narrow channels and removes soil in these narrow ers. Vigorous crops protect the soil much more effec- channels to depths of 1 to 2 feet or more. Gully ero- tively than poor crops, and vigorous crops require a sion can produce huge volumes of sediment but can high level of soil fertility. usually be prevented on cropland. When agricultural soils are not adequately pro- Wind erosion is the detachment and transport of tected from erosion, however, plant nutrients—princi- soil by wind. This problem is related to extensive pally nitrogen and phosphorus—may be transported drought periods, which seldom occur in the South- off fields by sediments in surface runoff. Nitrogen east. and phosphorus are found in fertilizers, but other

4.2.1-2 and animal manure. Because phosphorus is concen-

Lauderdale trated in the top few inches of soil, it is very suscepti- Limestone Jackson Madison

ble to erosion and likely to be present in sediment. Colbert

Franklin Lawrence DeKalb Nitrogen may also contribute to nutrient enrich- Morgan Marshall ment of surface waters, but it is more of a public Marion Winston Cullman Cherokee Etowah health concern when it ﬁnds its way into groundwater Blount in the nitrate form. Nitrate contamination of ground- Lamar Walker Calhoun Fayette water will be covered in more detail in other articles St. Clair Jefferson Cleburne in the water quality series. Pesticides As Pollutants. Pesticides, which are Pickens Tuscaloosa Talladega Clay Randolph Shelby widely used in crop production, can be a source of Bibb Coosa pollution when transported to water bodies by runoff, Greene Tallapoosa Chilton Chambers Hale percolation, seepage, or careless application proce- Perry Elmore Lee dures. The impact of pesticides on water quality de- Sumter Autauga Macon pends on persistence and formulation, rate and

Dallas Russell Marengo method of application, and mobility. Lowndes Bullock Montgomery Pesticides may be dissolved in water (solution), Choctaw Wilcox Barbour suspended in water in solid or liquid phases (suspen- Butler Pike Clarke

sion or emulsion), or adsorbed to clay particles which Monroe Crenshaw Henry are suspended in water. Water transport of pesticides Washington Conecuh Coffee Dale Covington from agricultural land includes their movement in the

Escambia Geneva Houston solution phase through surface runoff and subsurface ﬂow and in the solid or adsorbed phases as suspen- Mobile Exceeds 50 percent sions in surface runoff.

Baldwin 25 to 50 percent Studies have shown that except when heavy rain-

fall occurs shortly after treatment, the total amount of 10 to 25 percent pesticides that runs off the land is less that 5 percent Less than 10 of that applied. However, some chemicals are highly

Source: ADEM Nonpoint Source Management Program, 1989. toxic to fish and other aquatic life and persist in the aquatic environment for a long time. Even very low Figure 1. Percentage of cropland in Alabama. levels of these pesticides in runoff or subsurface flow may be of environmental concern. sources include animal wastes, human wastes, plant The varying chemical properties of pesticides— residues, and some detergents. for example their solubility and chemical breakdown Pollution from nutrients is of concern because rate—help determine the damage they inflict on water some nutrients are potentially toxic to humans and quality. The toxicity of a pesticide does not necessari- animals and because they play a major role in accel- ly decrease because of its adsorption to sediment, but erating eutrophication of lakes and streams. A natural its association with sediment will normally cause process, eutrophication is the nutrient enrichment of much of it to settle out in the receiving water. waters and the ensuing growth of aquatic life. When Other Agricultural Pollutants. Pathogens, the process is accelerated, excessive algae blooms found in animal wastes, may make receiving water and rapid growth of aquatic weeds occur. This exces- unsuitable for domestic uses, for contact recreation sive growth may lower dissolved oxygen content of purposes, or as a habitat for game and shellfish. the water as algae and weeds decompose. It may interfere with recreationalARCHIVE use of the water, alter fish Decomposing organic material from animal populations, clog water intake filters, and impair wastes and plant residues can reduce the oxygen level drinking water quality. of water below that required for fish and other aquatic The most troublesome nutrient element in surface life. water is phosphorus. It stimulates the production of In sufficient quantities, heavy metals such as cad- algae blooms that can choke out beneficial plants and mium, copper, chromium, lead, nickel, and mercury smother aquatic animals. Excessive phosphorus may can be directly or indirectly harmful to human and come from such sources as fertilizers, organic matter, animal health.

4.2.1-3 References Alabama Department of Environmental Manage- ment. 1988. Alabama Nonpoint Source Assessment Report. Montgomery, AL. Bradford, R. R. 1974. Nitrogen And Phosphorus Losses From Agronomy Plots In North Alabama. EPA-660/2-74-033. U.S. Government Printing Ofﬁce. Washington, DC. Lal, R., ed. 1988. Soil Erosion Research Meth- ods. Soil And Water Conservation Society. Ankeny, IA. Mackenthun, K. M. 1965. Nitrogen And Phos- phorus In Water. U.S. Department Of Health, Educa- tion, And Welfare. Washington, DC. Stewart, B. A., D. A. Woolhiser, W. H. Wis- chmeier, J. H. Caro, and M. H. Frere. 1976. Control Of Water Pollution From Cropland. Vol II. EPA- 600/2-75-026b or ARS-H-5-2. U. S. Department of Agriculture. Washington, DC. Troeh, F. R., J. A. Hobbs, and R. L. Donahue. 1980. Soil And Water Conservation For Productivity And Environmental Protection. Prentice Hall, Inc. Englewood Cliffs, NJ. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1973. Methods For Identifying And Evaluating The Nature And Extent Of Nonpoint Source Pollutants. EPA- 430/9-73-014. Office Of Water Programs. Washing- ton, DC.

This publication, supported in part by a grant from the Alabama Department of Environmental Management and the Tennessee Valley Authority, was prepared by James E. Hairston, Extension Water Quality Scientist, assisted by Leigh Strib- ling, Technical Writer. For more information, call your county Extension ofﬁce. Look in your telephone ARCHIVEdirectory under your county’s name to ﬁnd the number. Issued in furtherance of Cooperative Extension work in agriculture and home economics, Acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914, and other related acts, in cooperation with the U.S. Department of Agriculture. The Alabama Cooperative Extension System (Al- abama A&M University and Auburn University) offers educational programs, materials, and equal opportunity employment to all people without regard to race, color, national origin, religion, sex, age, veteran status, or disability. ANR-790-4.2.1 UPS, New June 1995, Water Quality 4.2.1

4.2.1-4 Agriculture and Natural Resources WATER QUALITY: Controlling Nonpoint Source (NPS) Pollution

ALABAMA A&M AND AUBURN UNIVERSITIES

The Rural Environment And NPS Pollution Regulating Agricultural NPS Pollution ANR-790-4.2.2

fforts at the federal and state levels are underway to protect and restore coastal waters. Sensitive areas Eto protect the quality of surface water and will be identified and recommended management groundwater from agricultural contaminants. This ar- practices will be installed. ticle summarizes current programs and legislation. The Coastal Nonpoint Source Pollution Control Program will be coordinated with Section 319 of the Federal Water Quality Legislation Clean Water Act to reinforce land-use control and The Clean Water Act. Congress passed the Clean land-use management measures to control nonpoint Water Act in 1972 “to restore and maintain the chem- source pollution. The program will also be coordinat- ical, physical, and biological integrity of the nation’s ed with the recent stormwater permit program enact- water.” Agricultural related nonpoint source (NPS) ed by Congress under Section 402(p) of the Clean pollution was addressed under Section 208(b)(2)(F) Water Act of 1987. All stormwater discharges with of the 1972 act. This section called for identifying all National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System nonpoint sources of water pollution and setting forth (NPDES) permits will be excluded from the coastal procedures and methods to control them. nonpoint pollution control program. However, activi- States developed management plans that were ties that are exempt from NPDES permits that cause non-regulatory in nature and called for agricultural significant pollution due to stormwater discharges are producers to voluntarily adopt the best available tech- covered under the coastal nonpoint pollution control nology in the form of “best management practices program. (BMPs).” Common activities that are exempt from NPDES Enacted as part of the 1987 amendments to the permit requirements and, thus, covered under the Clean Water Act, the nonpoint source program in coastal nonpoint program include the following: Section 319 required each state to submit to the Envi- storm sewer system discharges from cities of fewer ronmental Protection Agency (EPA) an assessment than 100,000 people; construction activities on fewer report identifying (1) state waters that were not ex- than 5 acres; discharges from wholesale, retail, ser- pected to meet water quality standards because of vice, or commercial activities, including gas stations nonpoint source pollution and (2) the types and the that are not covered under NPDES permits; and on- sources of nonpoint pollutants. site disposal systems not covered by the stormwater States also were required to submit to EPA man- permit program. agement programs for controlling nonpoint pollution. The assessment report and the management program Federal Programs: U.S. Environmental were submitted to EPA by the Alabama Department Protection Agency (EPA) of Environmental Management (ADEM) in 1988 and The EPA is the primary federal agency responsi- 1989, respectively. ble for protecting the nation’s water resources from The Coastal Zone ManagementARCHIVE Act (CZMA). The pollution. The EPA implements several major regula- original Coastal Zone Management Act legislation tory and nonregulatory programs, which address agri- was passed in 1972, amended in 1980, and reautho- cultural sources. These programs are described below. rized in 1990. Recent amendments to the CZMA Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, And Rodenticide (Section 6217) require states to develop a Coastal Act (FIFRA) Programs. This statute authorizes EPA Nonpoint Source Pollution Control Program. These to register pesticides prior to their sale or use in the programs must be approved by EPA and National United States and to remove unreasonably hazardous Oceanic And Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) pesticides from the marketplace. Under FIFRA, EPA ANR-790 Water Quality 4.2.2 Visit our Web site at: www.aces.edu can register a pesticide only if it determines that the ing NPDES permits include operations with (1) more pesticide will perform its intended function without than 1,000 animal units that discharge indirectly to causing “any unreasonable risk to people or the envi- U.S. waters, (2) more than 300 animal units that dis- ronment, taking into account the economic, social, charge into navigable waters or directly through a and environmental costs and benefits of the use of conveyance to any U.S. waters, and (3) fewer than [the] pesticide.” Thus, FIFRA focuses on balancing 1,000 animal units that cause significant water quality the inherent risks and benefits of pesticide use. impairment. (See Glossary, animal units.) Groundwater Protection Programs. EPA has a num- The NPDES requires participating farmers to de- ber of programs to control nonpoint source pollution velop a pollution prevention plan. Final regulations of groundwater. Since 1984 EPA has provided techni- were released in February 1993, but EPA Region VI cal and financial assistance to states for the develop- is the only region that presently has a permit program ment of state groundwater strategies and, more recent- underway that can readily adopt the new standards for ly, Groundwater Protection Programs. Under the 1976 animal waste management. Safe Drinking Water Act, EPA designated sole source Superfund. Superfund, or the Comprehensive Envi- drinking water aquifers for special protection. Amend- ronmental Response, Compensation, and Liability ments to the Safe Drinking Water Act in 1986 estab- Act (CERCLA), is an important tool in the EPA’s re- lished a Wellhead Protection program. This program sponse to the nations’s hazardous waste problem. Su- was created to protect water supply wells and well- perfund was created in 1980. Since then, approxi- fields that contribute to public drinking water supply mately thirty-one thousand hazardous waste sites systems. This program could impact agricultural activ- have been identified. Some sites are in rural areas. ities in active groundwater recharge areas. Some of these sites have contaminated surface water Under the Safe Drinking Water Act’s Public and groundwater because of improper disposal of ei- Water System Program (PWSP), the EPA originally ther septic tank wastes; sludge containing hazardous regulated six pesticides and nitrate/nitrite in addition substances such as PCBs, benzene, and toluene; or to other chemicals and biological contaminants. wastes from pesticide and fertilizer manufacturers. Under EPA drinking water regulations announced in Toxic Substances Control Act (TSCA). The EPA January 1991, states must adopt new drinking water has broad authority under Section 6 of the TSCA to standards for thirty-three potential drinking water control manufacturing, processing, distribution in contaminants including eighteen pesticides. The regu- commerce, use, or disposal of a chemical substance lations became effective in July 1992. The EPA also or mixture if it “presents or will present an unreason- has developed Health Advisories for about seventy able risk of injury to health or the environment.” The pesticides that are actual or potential groundwater EPA has been working with chemical companies, contaminants. The EPA and U.S. Department of Agri- trade associations, and other interested constituencies culture (USDA) are also cooperating under a program to encourage safer handling of chemical substances to assess private drinking water wells on farmsteads. and mixtures throughout their life cycle. These wells are not covered under the Safe Drinking Research Programs. The EPA is involved in several Water Act. research programs or initiatives that support its efforts Wetlands Protection Program. EPA has a Wetlands to protect water quality from agricultural contami- Division which has undertaken a number of projects nants, primarily agricultural chemicals. to protect and restore the quality of wetlands impacted by nonpoint sources of pollution. The EPA devel- Federal Programs: U.S. Department Of oped guidelines in 1990 to encourage coordination of Agriculture (USDA) nonpoint source programs with wetlands programs. In USDA has recently added water quality protec- addition, EPA has released guidelines on maintaining tion to its traditional responsibilities. The USDA has water quality standards of wetlands through effective several agencies that are responsible for water quality management of floodplains, riparian, and estuarine protection, including the Natural Resources Conser- areas. EPA has initiatedARCHIVE pilot projects with USDA to vation Service (NRCS), Cooperative State Research, encourage landowner participation in USDA’s Wet- Education, and Extension Service (CSREES), and land Reserve Program. others. Some of its major water quality protection ac- National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System tivities and programs are outlined below. (NPDES). Under authority of the Clean Water Act, President’s Water Quality Initiative. In 1989 then NPDES deals with stormwater runoff from manure President George Bush launched a Water Quality Ini- and wastewater accumulated in feeding, stocking, and tiative, which called for a vigorous effort to protect storage areas for livestock operations of a certain cat- surface water and groundwater from contamination egory. The categories of livestock operations requir- by agricultural chemicals, commercial fertilizers, and

4.2.2-2 wastes, especially pesticides and nutrients. USDA implementing soil and water conservation and water currently has sixteen demonstration projects and sev- quality improvement practices. enty-four hydrologic unit area projects underway to ¥ Rural Clean Water Program (RCWP) provides promote adoption of improved water quality produc- cost-sharing and technical assistance to farmers vol- tion practices. Two of these hydrologic unit area pro- untarily implementing BMPs to improve water quali- jects are in Alabama. The aim of these projects is to ty in selected program areas. speed the adoption of improved practices by farmers ¥ Cooperative State Research, Education, and Ex- in these areas through more intensive educational ef- tension Service (CSREES) conducts research, forts and greater financial and technical assistance. demonstrates new technology, and provides informa- The initiative also promotes USDA cooperation with tion and recommendations on soil and water quality other federal agencies including EPA, NOAA, and practices to landowners and operators through state U.S. Geological Survey (USGS). Extension services. Farm Bill Programs. ¥ Consolidated Farm Service Agency (CFSA) ad- ¥ Conservation Reserve Program (CRP) autho- ministers agricultural stabilization programs and crop rizes USDA to make annual rental payments for vol- insurance programs, and provides loans to farmers untary retirement of highly erodible cropland and and associations of farmers for soil and water conser- other environmentally critical lands. The land must be vation, pollution abatement, and building or improv- out of production for 10 years. This program is de- ing water systems that serve several farms. signed to protect and maintain productive land and ¥ Resource Conservation And Development Pro- water resources for future generations. gram (RC&D) assists multicounty areas in carrying ¥ Conservation Compliance Plan requires that out conservation, water quality, wildlife habitat, conservation plans for highly erodible cropland be recreation, and rural development efforts. implemented by January 1, 1995. Erosion on these ¥ Great Plains Conservation Program (GPCP) lands must be kept below certain levels for producers provides technical and financial assistance in the to qualify for special program benefits such as low-in- Great Plains states to farmers and ranchers who im- terest loans and cost-share assistance. plement total conservation treatment of their entire ¥ Sodbuster Provision requires an approved con- operation. servation plan for highly erodible land that is convert- ¥ Small Watershed Program (P.L. 83-566), admin- ed from a sod cover to crop production. istered by NRCS, provides technical and financial as- ¥ Swampbuster Provision prevents farmers who sistance to local organizations for flood prevention, convert wetlands to crop production from collecting watershed protection, and water management. farm program benefits. ¥ Water Bank Program provides annual payments ¥ Wetlands Reserve Program (WRP) will enroll for preserving wetlands in important migratory water- up to 1,000,000 acres of wetlands into 30-year or per- fowl nesting, breeding, or feeding areas. manent easements out of the total CRP acreage. ¥ National Agriculture Library (NAL) collects Under the WRP, the USDA will pay landowners for and distributes information on all aspects of U.S. the acreage covered by the easement and up to 75 agriculture and has received special funding to devel- percent of the costs to restore wetlands. op a new information program on agriculture and ¥ Water Quality Incentive Program (WQIP) pro- water quality. vides incentive payments (up to $3,500 per year, per Research Programs. The Cooperative State Re- farm for up to 5 years) to farmers for adoption of search, Education, and Extension Service (CSREES) BMPs to protect water quality. and other USDA units conduct basic and applied re- ¥ Conservation Environment Easement Program search on agriculture and water quality. (CEEP) provides for permanent easements on lands Federal Programs: U. S. Geological that pose a significantARCHIVE environmental threat. Survey (USGS) Technical And Financial Assistance Programs. The USGS is a scientific and technical agency ¥ Agricultural Conservation Program (ACP) pro- within the Department of Interior that has no regula- vides cost-share funds to farmers for implementing tory responsibilities. It monitors surface water and approved soil and water conservation and pollution groundwater, conducts water quality assessments, and abatement practices. investigates trends in water quality as well as the rela- ¥ Conservation Technical Assistance (CTA) pro- tion of land uses to water quality. In carrying out vides technical assistance through Soil And Water these responsibilities, USGS supports efforts to pro- Conservation Districts to farmers for planning and tect water quality from agricultural sources by help-

4.2.2-3 ing to determine the location and extent of contami- tection programs, drinking water programs, and non- nation and then mapping and disseminating its find- point source programs. Public education and dissemi- ings. The USGS agreed to cooperate and collaborate nation of information are important components of with EPA on water quality monitoring and assess- such programs. Alabama is one of the first states in ment activities nationwide. Discussion of specific the nation and the first state in EPA Region IV to de- programs follows. velop a pilot CSGWPP. National Water Quality Assessment (NAWQA) Wellhead Protection Programs. The Safe Drinking Program. The NAWQA is a major national assess- Water Act requires each state to prepare a Wellhead ment designed to describe the status and trends of Protection (WHP) Program to protect public water U.S. waters and to identify the factors that affect supply wells from all potential sources of contamina- water quality. tion. Mid-Continent Herbicide Initiative (MCHI). This Nonpoint Source Programs. Under Section 319 of program is a 5- to 10-year research effort to deter- the 1987 Clean Water Act, states are required to pre- mine the impact of the agricultural herbicide atrazine pare assessments of their nonpoint source impaired on surface water and groundwater. and threatened water bodies and develop nonpoint Federal-State Cooperative Program. This program source management programs to address their highest is a partnership for water-resources investigations in- priority problems. volving fifty-fifty cost sharing between the USGS and more than one thousand cooperating state or local State coastal zone management agencies desig- government agencies. nated under Section 306 of the Coastal Zone Manage- State Water Resources Research Institutes Pro- ment Act must develop a Coastal Nonpoint Source gram. Under this program, the USGS provides grants Control Program to enhance state and local efforts to to fifty-four state and U.S. territory Water Research manage land-use activities that degrade coastal waters Institutes at land-grant colleges or universities. The and coastal habitats. Guidelines are set forth in Sec- Water Resources Research Institute in Alabama is lotion 6217 of the Coastal Zone Act Reauthorization cated on the campus at Auburn University. The Insti- Amendments (CZARA) of 1990, which were final- tute funds selected high priority water-related re- ized in February 1993. search efforts in the state. Drinking Water Program Implementation. The Information Dissemination Programs. Through its Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA) directs the EPA to annual National Water Summary report, the USGS establish minimum national drinking water standards, provides water quality and quantity information on a which set legally enforceable limits on the amounts state-by-state and national basis to aid policymakers of potentially harmful substances, including some in the analysis and development of water policies, pesticides and nitrate in drinking water. The standards legislation, and management actions. apply to public water supplies only, although they are also being used as guidelines to assess contamination State-Implemented EPA Programs of private wells. The U.S. EPA has the authority under some fed- Pesticide Management Plans. Because of site-spe- eral statutes to delegate the development and/or im- cific differences in groundwater sensitivity and pesti- plementation of several major water protection pro- cides usage, the EPA believes that states are in the grams to states that have demonstrated the capacity to carry them out. Under such an approach the EPA gen- best position to tailor preventive pesticide manage- erally provides technical and financial support to ment measures to local conditions. Under the EPA states to assist them in building their capacity to de- Pesticide and Ground Water Strategy released in velop and implement the programs, and EPA exercis- 1991, states would implement Pesticide Management es its authority to review, approve, and oversee them. Plans with EPA providing funding and guidance. Comprehensive State Ground Water Protection Underground Injection Control (UIC) Program. A Programs (CSGWPPs).ARCHIVEThe CSGWPPs provide provision of the Safe Drinking Water Act mandates technical and financial assistance to states developing the development of an EPA-approved underground groundwater protection strategies and programs. Pro- injection control (UIC) program for each state, U.S. grams to protect groundwater from agricultural con- possession, or territory. The purpose of the program taminants involve state pesticide control programs, is to prevent contamination of underground sources of state pesticide management programs, wellhead pro- drinking water by injection wells. Injection wells in-

4.2.2-4 clude agricultural drainage wells, which may pose a high potential for groundwater contamination. References Council For Agricultural Science And Technolo- gy. 1992. Water Quality: Agriculture’s Role. Task Force Report No 120. Ames, IA. Soil And Water Conservation Society. 1993. WRP Pilot Program Underway. Conservogram (February/March). Ankeny, IA. U.S. Department Of Commerce, National Ocean- ic And Atmospheric Administration, and U. S. Envi- ronmental Protection Agency. 1993. Coastal Non- point Pollution Control Programs: Program Development And Approval Guidance. Washington, DC.

This publication, supported in part by a grant from the Alabama Department of Environmental Management and the Tennessee Valley Authority, was prepared by James E. Hairston, Extension Water Quality Scientist, assisted by Leigh Strib- ling, Technical Writer. ARCHIVEFor more information, call your county Extension ofﬁce. Look in your telephone directory under your county’s name to ﬁnd the number. Issued in furtherance of Cooperative Extension work in agriculture and home economics, Acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914, and other related acts, in cooperation with the U.S. Department of Agriculture. The Alabama Cooperative Extension System (Al- abama A&M University and Auburn University) offers educational programs, materials, and equal opportunity employment to all people without regard to race, color, national origin, religion, sex, age, veteran status, or disability. ANR-790-4.2.2 UPS, New June 1995, Water Quality 4.2.2

4.2.2-5 Agriculture and Natural Resources WATER QUALITY: Controlling Nonpoint Source (NPS) Pollution

ALABAMA A&M AND AUBURN UNIVERSITIES

The Rural Environment And NPS Pollution Controlling Agricultural NPS Pollution ANR-790-4.2.3 Through Best Management Practices

est Management Practices (BMPs) are structural of water below that required for fish and other aquatic Bor other practices that can be used to reduce non- life. point source (NPS) pollution of surface water and Where are the pollutants being transported? groundwater. The major goals of agricultural BMPs are to preserve soil and water quality, to maintain op- Surface water sources such as streams, rivers, or timum food production for human use, and to provide lakes are more likely to receive pollutants transported adequate economic returns for the producer. Together in storm water runoff. On the other hand, groundwa- these goals are known as sustainable agriculture. ter is more likely to be affected by pollutants that leach and percolate downward through the soil. Selecting BMPs How are the pollutants delivered from local agri- By following a systematic approach to BMP se- cultural land? lection, you are more likely to select a practice that There are three stages to the pollutant delivery solves your water quality problem and meets the process: availability, detachment, and transport. Each needs of your farm operation. Answer the following can be affected by local factors including soils, geolo- questions to select BMPs. gy, climate, water conservation practices, cropping What pollutants are contributing to the problem? practices, and tillage practices. Sediment is by far the greatest NPS pollutant in Availability is a measure of how much of a sub- rural environments. Sediment impairs water quality stance in the environment can become a pollutant. and transports other pollutants. Once a substance has been released it is available; The most troublesome nutrient element in surface however, it must be detached from the target site be- water is phosphorus. It stimulates the production of fore it can become a pollutant. Pollutants can either algae blooms that can choke out beneficial plants and be detached as individual particles or they can be dis- smother aquatic animals. Phosphorus commonly solved into water. Transport is the final link in the moves with sediment. However, recent studies indi- pollutant delivery chain. Pollutants can be transported cate that some phosphorus may move in the liquid to surface water and groundwater by surface runoff or phase where excessive rates have been applied in ani- infiltration. mal wastes. What practices can be used on your land to cor- Nitrogen may also contribute to nutrient enrich- rect water quality problems? ment of surface waters, but it is more of a public The most effective BMPs will reduce agricul- health concern when it finds its way into groundwater ture’s impact on water quality while optimizing eco- in the nitrate form. nomic yield. Consider the following when deciding Pesticides, widely used in crop production, can which practices to select as part of a system to correct be a source of pollutionARCHIVE in both surface water and a water quality problem: groundwater. ¥ Most plans consist of several BMPs combined Bacteria, found in animal wastes, may make re- into a farm conservation system. In some cases ceiving water unsuitable for domestic uses, for con- groups of practices may be the best solution. tact recreation purposes, or as a habitat for game and ¥ Some BMPs that solve a surface water quality shellfish. problem may create a new problem or shift an old Decomposing organic material from animal problem to a new location by accelerating nutrient or wastes and plant residues can reduce the oxygen level pesticide transport to groundwater. ANR-790 Water Quality 4.2.3 Visit our Web site at: www.aces.edu ¥ If a BMP is not economically feasible and well es, which slows down the flow and turbulence of suited to a site, then you probably won’t use it. Con- water allowing suspended material to settle out. This sider effects on yields, production and machinery practice includes field borders. costs, labor, equipment, and field conditions. Grade Stabilization Structure—A natural or artificial channel that reduces the erosion effects of sharp Types Of BMPs changes in elevation or grade or provides a stable area Best Management Practices to correct water qual- where the change in elevation takes place. ity problems are of two types: structural modifica- Grassed Waterway Or Outlet—A natural or con- tions and nonstructural measures. Structural solutions structed waterway or outlet shaped and established in involve the construction of physical devices for de- vegetation to dispose of water and runoff without soil laying, blocking, or trapping pollutants such as sedi- erosion. ment. Nonstructural approaches use an array of techniques that are less physically oriented, such as work Integrated Pest Management (IPM)—Timing and schedules, zoning ordinances, and farming practices. use of specific insecticides, fungicides, herbicides, and other pesticides only when needed to control crop The following list identifies and defines Best losses because of insects, diseases, and weeds. In- Management Practices to control agricultural related cludes the following: pollution. This list will be updated, revised, and added to as research provides more information. The ¥ Scouting fields for insect or disease damage. BMPs are discussed in more detail in other articles in Using available research and thorough field investiga- the water quality series. tion including mapping to determine when pests reach a sufficient number to require pesticide treatment. Animal Waste Management—Collecting, transferring, storing, treating, and using animal wastes to pre- ¥ Monitoring economic thresholds to help deter- vent surface water and groundwater contamination. mine when pest problems are severe enough so that chemical use is profitable. Chiseling And Subsoiling—Loosening the soil to shatter compacted soil layers, to increase infiltration, ¥ Using cultural practices, such as elimination of and to reduce runoff. host sites and adjustment of planting schedules, to partly substitute for pesticides. Contour Farming—Farming sloping land so that crops are cultivated across slopes with the contours of ¥ Using trap crops or other techniques to lure in- the land instead of up and down slopes in order to re- sects to sites where they can be more easily con- duce surface runoff and erosion. This practice in- trolled. cludes contouring orchards and other fruit areas. Irrigation Water Management—Using irrigation so Critical Area Planting—Establishing permanent that erosion potential and leaching are limited. vegetation on critically eroding or highly erodible Land Applied Waste—Using agricultural or other areas. wastes on land in an acceptable manner while main- Crop Residue Management—Retaining crop taining or improving the quality of soil, water, and residue on the soil surface after harvest until land plant resources. preparation for the next crop. This reduces soil de- Land Smoothing And Leveling—Removing irregu- tachment from raindrop impact. larities on the land surface to improve surface drainage Crop Rotation—Rotating species of crops to reduce and to reduce rill and gully erosion by spreading the pests and pest control problems and to improve the flow of water over a larger drainage area. soil and protect it during periods when erosion usual- Land Use Change To Conservation Use—Changing ly occurs. Rotating field crops with sequences of the present use of the land to a less erosive use, such grasses and legumes. as cropland to pastureland or idle land to woodland. Debris Basin Or Sediment Basin—A barrier or dam Lined Waterway Or Outlet—A waterway or outlet constructed across a waterway or at other suitable lo- with an erosion-resistant lining to provide for safe cations to reduce the ARCHIVEvelocity of runoff water so that disposal of runoff without erosion. Applicable to situ- much of the sediment and associated nutrients settle ations where unlined or grassed waterways would be to the basin bottom. inadequate. Diversion—A channel with a supporting ridge on the Livestock Exclusion—Excluding livestock from an lower side constructed across the slope to divert water area to maintain the quality of soil and water re- and help control soil erosion and runoff. This practice sources. also includes hillside ditches. Livestock Water Facility—A trough or tank to pro- Filter Strip—A filter strip of lush vegetation be- vide drinking water for livestock at selected locations tween nonpoint sources of pollution and water cours- to give protection to vegetation and water resources.

4.2.3-2 Minimum Tillage (Conservation Tillage)—Includes which play important roles in the growth and devel- a variety of tillage systems where soil disturbance and opment of plants. the number of cultural operations are reduced to a Stripcropping—Growing crops in alternating strips minimum and where mulch residue from the previous of sod, forage, or closely grown crops and row crops crop is left on the soil surface to retard weed growth, to reduce water and wind erosion. conserve moisture, and control erosion. Some mini- Subsurface Drain—A pipe or tile, usually plastic, mum tillage practices include no till, ridge plant, strip installed underground to lower shallow groundwater till, sweep till, wheel-track plant, and listing. tables to take water away from erosive areas, or to Mulching—Applying plant residues or other bio- handle seepage on side slopes or in drainageways. degradable material such as hay straw, animal ma- Surface Drain—A ditch or channel constructed in nure, poultry litter, or wood shavings to the soil sur- relatively low lying areas or flat fields next to streams face in order to reduce water runoff and soil erosion. to transport surface flow through a filter strip prior to Nutrient Management—Timing, placement, and its entering a stream. rate of fertilizer application for maximum use by Temporary Vegetation—Planting close-growing plants and for minimizing leaching or movement by plants that have quick growth characteristics for surface erosion. This practice includes spring tillage short-term, seasonal soil protection. to reduce soil erosion losses and soil incorporation of Terrace—An earthen embankment, channel, or a fertilizers when possible. combination ridge and channel constructed across the Pasture Management—Maintaining or improving slope to reduce erosion and sediment content in the quality and quantity of forage to protect the soil runoff water. from erosion and reduce surface runoff. Tile Outlet—A terrace system augmented with un- Pesticide Management—Using pesticides so that derground plastic pipe or tile water outlets. runoff and leaching potential are reduced. Includes Tree Planting—Planting trees to protect watersheds the following: from soil erosion. ¥ Improving pesticide application techniques. Op- Waste Storage Structure—A fabricated structure for timizing pesticide formulation, placement, and time temporary storage of animal or other agricultural of application, and eliminating excessive treatment by wastes or an impoundment made by excavation or reducing to a minimum the amount applied and the earthfill. number of applications. This practice also includes the disposal of pesticide containers. Waste Treatment Lagoon—An impoundment made by excavation or earthfill for biological treatment of ¥ Using Alternative Pesticides. Switching the type animal or other agricultural wastes. of pesticide to another which has low toxicity, low persistence, and low leaching potential and which Wetlands Protection—Preventing nutrient and pesti- does not build up through food webs. cide runoff to wetland areas in the same way other surface waters are protected. Row Arrangement—Locating rows so that they provide drainage toward a desired outlet. Winter Cover Crops—Planting close-growing grasses, legumes, or small grains for erosion control dur- Sealing Abandoned Wells—Preventing runoff water ing the winter and early spring months. from flowing directly to groundwater and carrying fertilizer and crop protection chemicals with it. Table 1 lists BMPs and rates their effectiveness in protecting surface water and groundwater from vari- Sinkhole Protection—Using grass filter strips (on ous pollutants. level ground), building berms or diversion channels (on sloping ground), sealing with concrete or plastic Conclusion liners. To be effective, BMPs must be properly planned, Soil Fertility Management—Improving soil-fertility designed, and implemented or installed. But good so that the crop canopy will develop faster and protect management by the farm operator is most important the soil from raindropARCHIVE splash. in reducing agricultural nonpoint source pollution. Soil Testing And Plant Analysis—Examining soil samples or plant tissues for certain basic elements,

4.2.3-3 Table 1. Best Management Practice Summary Guide. Surface Water Protection Groundwater Protection Soluble Adsorbed Soluble Adsorbed Oxygen-Demanding Nitrogen Loss Pesticide Loss Sediment Bacteria Nutrient Nutrient Pesticide Pesticide Substances To Groundwater To Groundwater Management Practices Animal Waste * *** *** * * *** *** *** * Management IPM * * * *** *** * * * *** Irrigation Water ** ** ** ** ** * * ** ** Management Nutrient * *** *** * * * * *** * Management Pesticide * * * *** *** * * * *** Management Soil Fertility *** * *** * *** * * *** * Management Other Practices Land Applied ** + * * * + ** + * Waste Sealing * * * * * * * *** *** Abandoned Wells Sinkhole * * * * * * * *** *** Protection Soil Testing, ** *** *** * ** * * *** * Plant Analysis Waste Storage * *** ** * * *** *** + * Structure Waste Treatment * *** ** * * *** *** + * Lagoon Wetland *** ** *** ** *** *** ** * * Protection Vegetative Practices Contour Farming *** ** *** ** *** ** ** + + Critical Area *** ** *** ** *** ** ** * * Planting Crop Residue *** * *** * *** * * + + Management Crop Rotation *** ** *** ** *** * * ** ** Filter Strips ** * ** * ** ** ** * * Land Use Change *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** Mulching *** * *** * *** * * + + Pasture ****** * ***** * Management Row ** * ** * ** ** ** * * Arrangement ARCHIVE Stripcropping ** ** ** ** ** ** ** * * Temporary ** ** ** * ** ** ** * * Vegetation Tree Planting *** ** *** ** *** ** ** ** * Winter ** ** ** ** ** * * ** * Cover Crop

4.2.3-4 (Table 1, cont.) Surface Water Protection Groundwater Protection Soluble Adsorbed Soluble Adsorbed Oxygen-Demanding Nitrogen Loss Pesticide Loss Sediment Bacteria Nutrient Nutrient Pesticide Pesticide Substances To Groundwater To Groundwater Tillage Practices Chiseling, ****** *** * + + Subsoiling Minimum *** * *** * *** * * + + Tillage Structural Practices Debris Basin *** * *** * *** ** * + + Grade Stabiliza- ****** * * * * * tion Structure Grassed ** * ** * ** ** * * * Waterway Land ****** *** * * * Leveling Lined *** * ** * ** ** * ** * Waterway Livestock *** *** *** * * *** *** * * Exclusion Livestock *** *** *** * * *** *** * * Water Facility Subsurface ****** * * * * * Drain Surface Drain ** * ** * ** * * * * Terrace *** ** *** ** *** ** ** + + Tile Outlet *** * *** * *** ** * * * * No control to low effectiveness. ** Low to medium effectiveness. *** Medium to high effectiveness. + May increase loading in some cases. Source: Adapted from Brach, 1991.

References Degyansky, Milan E., and Edward B. Hale. Alabama Department Of Environmental Manage- 1980. Best Management Practices In Agriculture And ment. 1989. The State Of Alabama Nonpoint Source Forestry. Publication 4 WCB 1. Virginia Cooperative Management Plan. Montgomery, AL. Extension Service. Virginia Polytechnic Institute And Brach, John. 1991. Agriculture And Water Quali- State University. Blacksburg, VA. ty: Best Management Practices For Minnesota. Min- Factors In Choosing Proper BMPs. The Fertilizer nesota Pollution Control Agency, Division Of Water Institute. Washington, DC. Quality. St. Paul, MN. Protecting Water Quality With Best Management Buskirk, E. Drannon, Jr. 1980. Nonpoint Source Practices For Agriculture: A Guide For Land Users. Pollution: Agriculture, Forestry, And Mining. 326-592. 1983. The Georgia Soil And Water Conservation U.S. Government Printing Ofﬁce. Washington, DC. Committee.

This publication, supported in part by a grant from the Alabama Department of Environmental ARCHIVEManagement and the Tennessee Valley Authority, was prepared by James E. Hairston, Extension Water Quality Scientist, assisted by Leigh Stribling, Technical Writer. For more information, call your county Extension ofﬁce. Look in your telephone directory under your county’s name to ﬁnd the number. Issued in furtherance of Cooperative Extension work in agriculture and home economics, Acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914, and other related acts, in cooperation with the U.S. Department of Agriculture. The Alabama Cooperative Extension System (Alabama A&M University and Auburn University) offers educational programs, materials, and equal opportunity employment to all people without regard to race, color, national origin, religion, sex, age, veteran status, or disability. ANR-790-4.2.3 UPS, New June 1995, Water Quality 4.2.3

4.2.3-5 Agriculture and Natural Resources WATER QUALITY: Controlling Nonpoint Source (NPS) Pollution

ALABAMA A&M AND AUBURN UNIVERSITIES

Soil Management To Protect Water Quality Understanding Soils And How They ANR-790-4.3.1 Affect Water Quality

hen a soil is well managed, it is an efficient re- Silt and sand particles are not very active chemi- Wceiver of rainwater. If the soil is improperly cally; they contribute little to the ability of the soil to managed, however, rainwater may run off, carrying adsorb (bind) contaminants but have a significant im- soil particles, nutrients, and organic material with it. pact on overall soil structure and how it affects A good understanding of the soil and its proper- drainage. Most clay particles are structurally and ties is essential to good soil management that, in turn, chemically quite different from sand and silt and are will lead to maintaining good water quality. smaller. Clay is responsible for much of the chemical activity and accounts for a good portion of the water- What Is Soil? holding capacity in soils. The soil water that is avail- Soil is the upper portion of the earth’s crust. Soil able to plants depends mostly on porosity. is to the earth as a rind is to an orange, although soil A loamy soil contains a roughly balanced mixture is much less uniform in thickness and composition. of sand, silt, and clay. Loamy soils have more chemi- Soil ranges in thickness from a few inches to more cal activity than sandy soils and hold more water. than 10 feet. They offer more protection to groundwater because Each individual soil has a unique combination of water tends to infiltrate through them at a slow properties; however, some properties are common to enough rate to allow for purification and rapid enough all soils. All soils consist of solid particles arranged to prevent excessive runoff. Sandy soils drain exces- in aggregates and pores. Particles can be mineral or sively while clay or fine-textured soils promote run- organic matter. The pores are filled with air, or water, off. or both. The relationship of solids to pores changes with soil depth. Structure From a water quality standpoint, soil serves as a Individual particles of sand, silt, and clay tend to filter. As surface water seeps through the soil layers, become clustered together in soil. This clustering of impurities are removed, and eventually the purified particles into aggregates gives structure to the soil. water reaches groundwater supplies. But several fac- The granules of soil that we see hanging to grass tors affect a soil’s ability to remove impurities: tex- roots when we dig into sod is a type of soil structure. ture, structure, organic matter, permeability, and soil Structure is important because it determines the microbiology. ratio between large and small pores in a soil. In fine- Texture and organic matter content are deter- textured soils, structure is essential to movement of mined by routine soil analysis, while permeability water (infiltration) and air into the soil. and soil structure can be inferred from soil taxonomy or field observations. Organic Matter Organic matter is formed from the decomposed Soil Texture ARCHIVEremains of plants, animals, and microorganisms. Texture describes how coarse or fine a soil is and Well-decomposed organic matter is called humus. includes stones and gravel. The coarsest of the chemi- Humus gives topsoil its dark color. cally active particles is sand. Clay particles are the Organic matter plays an important role in forming finest, and silt is intermediate. Soils that contain a structure in soils by helping to bind soil particles into large amount of sand feel gritty, while silty soils feel aggregates. Organic matter also resembles clay in that smooth. Clay soils feel hard when dry, and sticky and it is chemically active. Organic matter is especially plastic (moldable) when moist. effective at binding many pesticides and plays a key ANR-790 Water Quality 4.3.1 Visit our Web site at: www.aces.edu role in keeping pesticides out of groundwater. In- Lauderdale creasing the organic matter in a soil can reduce the 1977 Limestone Madison Jackson 1953 1954 risk of pesticide leaching. Colbert 1958 Franklin Lawrence Morgan DeKalb Soil Permeability 1965 1959 1958 Marshall 1958 1959 Marion Soil permeability is the property that describes Winston Cullman Cherokee 1979 Etowah 1978 the tranfer of water and air through the soil. It is mea- 1962 Blount 1978 1980 Walker sured as the rate of flow, principally downward, at Lamar Fayette 1992 Calhoun St. Clair 1961 1965 which soil transmits water while saturated. Jefferson 1985 Cleburne1979 1982

Differences in soil permeability are caused by the Tuscaloosa Clay Pickens Shelby Talladega Randolph varying pore sizes, which are related to the soil’s tex- 1981 1984 1974 1974 1967 ture (particle size distribution) and structure (aggrega- Bibb Greene Coosa tion of soil particles). Gravels and sands are highly Chilton Tallapoosa 1959 1971 1972 Chambers Hale permeable because their large soil particles create Perry Elmore Lee large pore spaces through which water can readily Sumter Autauga 1955 1981 1977 1990 move. Clay soils are fine textured with small pores Macon Dallas Russell Marengo 1979 and low permeability. Lowndes Bullock Montgomery1960 Texture, structure, and organic matter affect Choctaw Wilcox Barbour drainage. Poorly and excessively drained soils are poor Butler Pike Clarke

ﬁlters. Poorly drained soils also increase water runoff Monroe Crenshaw Henry 1986 Conecuh Coffee Dale and the susceptibility of the soil to erode or wash away Washington

1989 1979 1960 and pollute rivers and lakes. Excessively drained soils Covington Houston Escambia 1989 do not allow drainage water to be puriﬁed. 1975 Geneva 1977 1968

Tools To Evaluate Soil Properties Mobile Modern published soil survey 1980 Direct Observation. The best way to gather site-spe- Baldwin Old published soil survey 1964 ciﬁc soils information is by directly observing soils in (mapping before 1965) the field. Observe texture, structure, organic matter, Mapping complete, awaiting publication and permeability. Soil survey in progress

Excavated Pits Or Borings. Because detailed site- Soil survey by individual request specific information is needed for septic tank system design, soils are evaluated in pits or borings before Figure 1. Status of soil surveys in Alabama (after any septic system is installed. Soils with high water USDA-SCS National Cartographic Center, 1992). tables often have gray or mottled colors in the subsurface while well-drained soils are a more uniform brown or red color. In well-drained soils, enough air Each soil survey contains maps, tables, and text generally occurs in the soil pores to keep soil mi- describing soils in the county. Soil types are called crobes supplied with oxygen. Under these conditions, series. Soils with similar properties are grouped and microbes from septic systems, some of which may mapped as one map unit. Soil survey maps show the cause diseases, are rapidly degraded and do not leach locations of each unit in the county. The most de- to groundwater. When a high water table exists, soil tailed mapping unit is phases of soil series. Each se- microbes cannot get much air. They are then much ries is divided into phases on the basis of slope, ero- less effective at removing pathogens from sewage. sion, texture, or some other property significant to the Soil Surveys Reports. These reports are used to sup- use and management of the soil. plement site-specific information and to provide broad Tables and text describe properties, use, and sug- information when it is needed over a large land area. gested management for each series. The tables and This recorded informationARCHIVE is extremely valuable in text also include information on slope, depth, making sound decisions regarding land use and man- drainage, texture, landscapes, and parent materials for agement on a regional basis. The USDA Natural Re- each soil series. In addition, the soil survey report sources Conservation Service (NRCS), formerly the gives information on the variability expected to be Soil Conservation Service (SCS), in cooperation with found in the field. state agricultural experiment stations and others pro- Soil surveys are available from NRCS offices lo- duces and publishes these reports on a county basis. cated in each county. The county offices can assist The status of published soil surveys in Alabama is you in using the soil survey to identify ways to im- shown in Figure 1. prove surface water and groundwater protection.

4.3.1-2 Table 1. Soil Hydrologic Groups. Infiltration Leaching Runoff Group Type Capacity/Permeability Potential Potential A Deep, well-drained sands High High Low and gravels B Moderately, deep to deep, Moderate Moderate Moderate moderately drained, moderately fine to moderately coarse texture C Impeding layer, or moderately Low Low High fine to fine texture D Clay soils, soils with high water Very low Very low Very high table, shallow soils over impervious layer Source: van Es, et al., 1991.

Soil Hydrologic Groups. Soils are categorized into References hydrologic groups based on how much water will in- Buol, S. W., F. D. Hole, and R. J. McCraken. filtrate when the soils are wet and without plant cover. 1989. Soil Genesis and Classification. 3rd ed. Iowa The four hydrologic groups and their potential for State University Press. Ames, IA. leaching and runoff are described in Table 1. Engle, Carl F., Craig G. Cogger, and Robert G. Stevens. 1991. Role Of Soil In Groundwater Protec- Conclusion tion. EB1633. Washington Cooperative Extension When properly managed, soil can serve as a filter Service. Washington State University. Pullman, WA. and prevent pollutants from reaching groundwater. Miller, Gerald A. 1980. Soil Information Related Except in excessively drained soils, leaching of pollu- To Nonpoint Pollution. Pm-901c. Iowa Cooperative tants through the soil is usually a very slow process. Extension Service. Iowa State University. Ames, IA. This slow movement through the soil allows microor- van Es, Harold M., Stuart D. Klausner, W. Shaw ganisms to absorb and further degrade pollutants into Reid, and Nancy M. Trautmann. 1991. Nitrogen And simple, harmless substances commonly found in na- The Environment. Information Bulletin 218. New ture. Even if soil is an excellent and efficient filter, York Cooperative Extension Service. Cornell Univer- excessive amounts of pollutants can overload the fil- sity. Ithaca, NY. ter system and still pollute the water. Proper soil and crop management is certainly the safest and least costly way to prevent pollution of our surface water and groundwater.

This publication, supported in part by a grant from the Alabama Department of Environmental Management and the Tennessee Valley Authority, was prepared by James E. Hairston, Extension Water Quality Scientist, assisted by Leigh Strib- ling, Technical Writer. ARCHIVEFor more information, call your county Extension ofﬁce. Look in your telephone directory under your county’s name to ﬁnd the number. Issued in furtherance of Cooperative Extension work in agriculture and home economics, Acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914, and other related acts, in cooperation with the U.S. Department of Agriculture. The Alabama Cooperative Extension System (Al- abama A&M University and Auburn University) offers educational programs, materials, and equal opportunity employment to all people without regard to race, color, national origin, religion, sex, age, veteran status, or disability. ANR-790-4.3.1 UPS, New June 1995, Water Quality 4.3.1

4.3.1-3 Agriculture and Natural Resources WATER QUALITY: Controlling Nonpoint Source (NPS) Pollution

ALABAMA A&M AND AUBURN UNIVERSITIES

Soil Management To Protect Water Quality Estimating Soil Erosion Losses And ANR-790-4.3.2 Sediment Delivery Ratios

t is generally assumed that if soil erosion is con- values for the various USLE factors are available Itrolled, then sediment will also be controlled. This from state and local offices of the Natural Resources is true since erosion must occur to produce sediment. Conservation Service. While the USLE has no geo- However, it is not practical nor possible to stop all graphical bounds, you must know the local values of erosion, and there are many alternatives that can be its individual factors to apply it to your location. used individually or in combination for cost-effective A new version of the USLE, called the Revised control of sediment release into the environment. The Universal Soil Loss Equation (RUSLE) is now on the first step in developing an erosion-control plan is to market. It provides more accurate estimates of crop determine the severity of erosion on your farm: How residue cover, incorporation and decomposition, crop much soil is eroded or lost from a field? How much growth, soil moisture, annual rainfall erosivity, sur- sediment is transported or delivered to a nearby face roughness, and effects of support practice fac- stream? tors. Certified software packages may be ordered Using The Universal Soil Loss from the Soil and Water Conservation Society in Ankeny, Iowa. Equation (USLE) For more than 50 years the U.S. Department of More About Erosion Factors Agriculture and state agricultural experiment stations The rainfall factor, R, accounts for the potential have researched, developed, and improved the Uni- of falling rain drops and flowing water in a particular versal Soil Loss Equation (USLE). The USLE pro- area to produce erosion. Cumulative effects of all vides a convenient framework for discussing factors yearly storms above a certain intensity and duration affecting soil erosion and its control. make up this numerical value. As the energy of a The USLE computes average annual soil loss storm increases, the potential for more soil particles from sheet and rill erosion. Major erosion factors to detach increases. Runoff also increases with inten- such as rainfall, soil erodibility, slope length, slope sity and duration of storms, thereby increasing ero- steepness, soil and crop management, and supporting sion potential. At present, little can be done to change conservation practices are assigned numerical values. the amount, distribution, and intensity of rainfall, but The USLE combines these major erosion factors to measures can be adopted to limit its effect on erosion. predict average annual soil losses. For example, vegetative soil cover can reduce the ef- The equation is A = R K L S C P. fect of raindrop impact on the soil and the velocity of In this equation, soil erosion, A, is described as a runoff. function of: The soil erodibility factor, K, considers soil prop- R = rainfall and runoff (rain erosivity) erties that influence both detachment and transport of K = soil erodibilityARCHIVEsoil materials. These include soil organic matter con- L = slope length tent, texture, structure, size, shape, and stability of aggregates, and the permeability of the soil to water. S = slope steepness Soil erodibility tends to increase with greater silt con- C = soil and crop management tent and decrease with greater sand and clay contents. P = conservation practices Organic matter binds individual particles together To estimate average annual erosion potential of thus increasing aggregate strength, hence the resis- any given field, simply multiply the appropriate nu- tance to detachment. Soil structure, in terms of its merical values developed for each factor. Numerical size, shape, and aggregate stability, influences the in- ANR-790 Water Quality 4.3.2 Visit our Web site at: www.aces.edu filtration rate. Erosion will not occur if the infiltration water courses or are separated from water courses by rate is greater than the rainfall rate. Permeability of sediment-holding areas such as woodlands, other veg- the soil to water affects erosion because rainfall must etated areas, or sediment basins. Sediment delivery enter and move through the soil if runoff is to be min- will also be reduced by larger drainage areas, coarse imal. soil texture, gentle topography, and a predominance Soil erosion by water is affected by slope length, of sheet and rill erosion as opposed to gully erosion. L, and slope steepness, S, which jointly determine the Sediment delivery ratio may range from near 100 amount and velocity of runoff. Doubling the length of percent to less than 1 percent, depending on field slope increases the erosion hazard one and one-half slope and what is between the eroded site and stream times. Doubling the steepness of slope increases the that can slow down the flow and trap eroded sediment hazard two and one-half times. prior to its reaching a flowing stream. The sediment For a given tract of land, an operator has little di- delivery ratios for many agricultural watersheds have rect control over rainfall characteristics, soil proper- been estimated at 25 percent, plus or minus 15 per- ties, topography, or slope. However, the effects these cent, depending more on size of the watershed than factors have on soil erosion can be limited by man- any other factor. agement techniques represented by factors C and P. Sediment delivery ratios vary widely for any The soil and crop management factor, C, includes given size drainage area, but limited data have shown crop sequences, residue management, soil fertility that they generally vary inversely with the size of the management, time of tillage, intensity of tillage, and drainage area. General approximations of delivery ra- row spacing of row crops. tios are given in Table 1. Factor P represents soil conservation practices that essentially slow the runoff water and thus reduce the amount of soil it can carry. The most important of Table 1. Variation In Sediment Delivery Ratios these supporting practices are contour tillage, strip With Size Of Drainage Basin. cropping, and terracing. Drainage Area Sediment Delivery Using The Sediment Delivery Ratio (Square Miles) Ratio While the USLE computes gross sheet and rill 0.5 0.33 erosion, it does not directly predict downstream sedi- 1.0 0.30 ment yield. 5.0 0.22 The amount of eroded soil that actually reaches a 10.0 0.18 stream is difficult to determine. Many scientists use 50.0 0.12 very complex computer models, which are a collec- 100.0 0.10 tion of mathematical and logic equations, to predict 200.00 0.08 detachment rates, transport rates, and deposition rates of sediment at given points in a watershed. Source: Stewart, et al., 1978. Many factors affect when and where sediments will be deposited. In a large area, the cropland contribution to sediment in stream flow is influenced by the Because erosion hazards are site specific, soil loss total amount of sediment produced on the cropland estimates and control guides can be accurately ap- (gross erosion), the density of cropland in the plied only on a field basis. drainage area, and the portion of eroded soil that ac- Erosion rates can even be quite variable within tually reaches a continuous stream system (sediment the boundaries of an individual field, which may con- delivery ratio). tain several soil types with variations in slope, tex- The sediment delivery ratio (SDR) is used to ad- ture, and permeability. just the gross sediment estimate to compensate for deposition along the pathARCHIVE traveled by the runoff water Conclusion as it moves from fields in the watershed to a continu- Once you have assessed the erosion problem, ous stream system. How much sediment is deposited there are various conservation practices and structures (sediment yield) can be estimated by computing the to choose from. All of these are designed to help you gross erosion and multiplying by the sediment deliv- manage your soil to minimize erosion and sedimenta- ery ratio if a sediment delivery ratio is known or can tion. Proper soil and crop management practices will be approximated from known parameters. increase infiltration rates, thus increasing groundwa- The sediment delivery ratio will be less in situa- ter supply, while reducing runoff and improving sur- tions where erosion sources are located distant from face water quality

4.3.2-2 References Amemiya, Min, Stewart Melvin, and J. Clayton Herman. 1980. Soil Management To Control Erosion. Pm-901e. Iowa Cooperative Extension Service. Iowa State University. Ames, IA. Humenik, Frank J., DeAnne D. Johnson, Jonathan M. Greglow, Steven A. Dressing, Richard P. Maas, Fred A. Koehler, Lee Christensen, William Snyder, James W. Meek, and Fred N. Swader. 1982. Best Management Practices For Agricultural Non- point Source Control: III Sediment. North Carolina Cooperative Extension Service. Biological and Agri- cultural Engineering Department. North Carolina State University. Raleigh, NC. Lal, R., ed. 1988. Soil Erosion Research Methods. Soil and Water Conservation Society. Ankeny, IA. Stewart, B. A., D. A. Woolhiser, J. H. Caro, and M. H. Frere. 1975. Estimating Potential Erosion. In Control Of Water Pollution From Cropland. Vol 1, 7- 25. U. S. Environmental Protection Agency Report No EPA-600/2-75-026a or USDA Report No ARS-H- 5-1. Washington, DC. Wischmeier, W. H., and D. D. Smith. 1978. Pre- dicting Rainfall Erosion Losses—A Guide To Con- servation Planning. U.S. Department Of Agriculture Handbook No. 537. Washington, DC.

This publication, supported in part by a grant from the Alabama Department of Environmental Management and the Tennessee Valley Authority, was prepared by James E. Hairston, Extension Water Quality Scientist, assisted by Leigh Strib- ling, Technical Writer. ARCHIVEFor more information, call your county Extension ofﬁce. Look in your telephone directory under your county’s name to ﬁnd the number. Issued in furtherance of Cooperative Extension work in agriculture and home economics, Acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914, and other related acts, in cooperation with the U.S. Department of Agriculture. The Alabama Cooperative Extension System (Al- abama A&M University and Auburn University) offers educational programs, materials, and equal opportunity employment to all people without regard to race, color, national origin, religion, sex, age, veteran status, or disability. ANR-790-4.3.2 UPS, New June 1995, Water Quality 4.3.2

4.3.2-3 Agriculture and Natural Resources WATER QUALITY: Controlling Nonpoint Source (NPS) Pollution

ALABAMA A&M AND AUBURN UNIVERSITIES

Soil Management To Protect Water Quality Cropping And Nonstructural Agronomic ANR-790-4.3.3 Practices For Soil Management

ropping practices and other agronomic manage- legume cover crops in no-till corn in the South. Cment practices may be used very effectively for Smaller growing legumes are being tried in cotton. erosion and sediment control. These practices are ef- Erosion is minimal during any period land has fective because they either increase ground cover dur- total vegetative cover such as that provided by perma- ing erosive periods, increase infiltration, or actually nent pasture or meadow. And even when a meadow is trap eroded sediment. Some vegetative practices that plowed under, it leaves the soil with improved infil- increase plant residues or soil organic matter also re- tration and in a less erodible condition throughout the duce soil erodibility. next year and sometimes for 2 years to come. Sod- Common cropping and agronomic management based rotations may be essential to keep some highly practices to control soil erosion include crop rotations erosive croplands in production under current USDA (including sod-based rotations), contour farming, conservation compliance programs. strip-cropping, grass filter strips or field borders, row arrangement, timing of field operations, and soil fer- Contour Farming tility management. These practices usually require no Contour farming is the practice of tilling and special machinery and often are not much more ex- planting across the slope. Because contour channels pensive than conventional cropping practices. Other run across the slope, they prevent runoff from flowing practices that could be more expensive or require ad- directly downhill and gaining the velocity to cause rill ditional equipment include change in land use, winter and gully erosion, and they increase rainfall infiltra- cover crops, temporary vegetation, critical area plant- tion. ing, mulching, and crop residue management. This practice is most effective on moderate slopes Some of the more important practices, with the from 2 to 7 percent, where it can cut in half the ero- exception of residue management, will be discussed sion that occurs with uphill and downhill farming. in some detail in the following paragraphs. Crop Contouring is often used with terraces and runoff di- residue management will be discussed in an article on versions. Contrary to popular belief, contouring can tillage in the water quality series. be made to work with large equipment. On long or steep slopes, contouring also can be Crop Rotations taken a step further with contour strip-cropping. This Used by many farmers, crop rotations minimize is when strips of sod are alternated with strips of row the number of years fields are in row crops and allow crops or small grain, all planted on the contour. An for the application of many conservation practices. ideal method of conservation farming would be to in- The key to erosion-control success with crop ro- clude crop rotations within contour strips of sod, tations is soil cover. Grasses and legumes or small small grains, and row crops. This approach to contour grains are more successful than row crops at protect- strip-cropping can be fairly simple if the strip widths ing the soil from waterARCHIVE and wind erosion. Grass cover are multiples of the preferred farming width. crops convert nitrogen from the inorganic form to the For example, consider an operator who farms in organic form and keep nitrogen from leaching. Rye 30-inch rows with six-row equipment giving a width grass is often used as a cover crop on sandy soils. of 15 feet. Assume that the combine also has a 15- Legume cover crops can provide additional erosion foot head. If the conservation plan calls for mini- protection and provide nitrogen for a subsequent mum-width buffer strips of 13 feet for every contour crop. Hairy vetch and winter peas are being used as row crop strip of 60 feet, the filter strip could be more

ANR-790 Water Quality 4.3.3 Visit our Web site at: www.aces.edu easily rotated if it were 15 feet. (Four widths of 15 resources, vegetative strips at least 30 feet wide are feet equals 60 feet.) By using strip widths that are needed. Vegetative filter strips from 66 to 99 feet multiples of the preferred farming width for all opera- wide can now be established along streams and water tions, a farm manager could fit small grain widths of bodies on Conservation Reserve Program (CRP) 15, 30, or 60 feet into the same contour strip-cropping lands. rotation sequence at a later date with no problems and Vegetative filter strips do more than just help stop have even greater erosion control benefits. Mainte- erosion. If properly maintained, these filter strips of nance is easier if buffer strips are considered some- grass, shrubs, and trees provide food and cover for a what permanent. number of wildlife species. Such strips provide at- On steep slopes or under intense rainfall, contour- tractive areas for nesting upland game birds and wa- ing without sod strips to slow runoff can actually in- terfowl. These areas also provide important escape crease the chances of gully erosion. Water stored in cover and travel lanes around the water’s edge where the rows can break through and run down slope caus- it is often most lacking. ing severe erosion. Establishing Grass Filter Strips And Field Bor- ders. The best grasses for filter strips and field borders Strip-Cropping tend to be sod-forming types such as fescue or slow- With strip-cropping, alternating strips of forage spreading rhizome grasses like bermuda. These pro- or closely grown crops slow runoff and trap sediment duce a tight mat to slow the runoff and catch sedi- from adjacent strips of row crops. The sod strips ment. serve as filters when rows break, and much of the soil Prepare the area to be seeded by grading, if need- washed from a cultivated strip drops out of the runoff ed, and by removing any brush. Apply and incorpo- as it spreads within the first several feet of the sod rate fertilizer; then firm up the seedbed. Increase the strip. normal seeding rate for fall planting by at least 50 During shallow water flow, a thick grass barrier percent to gain a quick, thick stand. Remember, fes- will collect runoff water in front of it, so a good deal cue is a cool-season grass that grows well during cool of the silt it carries actually settles out in the cropping weather while bermuda, a warm-season grass, goes area before it washes into the grass strip. A buffer dormant during cold weather. Plant grass seed 1⁄4 to 1⁄2 strip can reduce sediment transport and, thus, the loss inch deep. (Bermuda can be sprigged.) If you broad- of herbicides attached to the sediment by as much as cast, harrow lightly. Mulch the area with straw and 30 to 50 percent. anchor the mulch using a straight disk. Make only During deep water flow on steep slopes, grass one trip over the mulch. strips are ineffective. They can not stop sediment Mow strips the first year to keep the grass from moving down hills in gullies or ravines. going to seed and to encourage the grass stand to The number of contour buffer strips needed de- thicken. Fertilize as needed but try to keep crop herbi- pends on the slope of the field and the rate of water cide applications off waterways and buffer strips. In- flow across it. Strips of 13 feet are the minimum terseeded legumes also can be used to supply nitrogen. width for NRCS standards. This is the minimum Maintaining Grass Filter Strips And Field Bor- width needed for tillage and planting equipment de- ders. Try not to drive over buffer strips or waterways, signed to handle four 38- to 40-inch rows or six 24- especially during the first year. Vehicle tire tracks to 26-inch rows. As the slope increases, the number could lead to gullying. If it is necessary to travel in of strips needed increases and the distance between field borders at times, lift farm implements high them decreases. above the ground before crossing waterways or buffer strips. Be careful to maintain the width of buffer Grass Filter Strips Or Field Borders strips and waterways when tilling and planting crops In addition to being contoured among crops on near them. Mow waterways and buffer strips regular- sloping fields, buffer strips used as field borders can ly to encourage sod formation and limit weed growth. protect streams and ARCHIVEponds from sediment damage. Although not a cure-all for keeping herbicides out of Row Arrangements streams and lakes, grass waterways and buffer strips Arranging row patterns to provide drainage to- are a large part of many well-designed conservation ward a desired outlet can be very beneficial. This compliance plans. Compared to terracing, they are practice is more effective on flatter slopes for drain- usually cheaper to establish and easier to farm with ing runoff water through a grassed filter strip or and maintain. grassed waterway prior to entering a stream. On To filter sediment, nutrients, and other pollutants slopes greater than 5 percent consult with NRCS for from agricultural runoff before it enters surface water assistance in establishing a drainage gradient that will

4.3.3-2 not be erosive. Farm efficiency may even be improved Critical Area Planting. Critically eroding areas by this practice. should have permanent vegetation established on them. Timing Of Field Operations Mulching. Erosive areas that have been newly plant- The season of plowing determines how long the ed with grasses or legumes can be further protected land is bare. Delaying tillage from fall to spring can with applications of a biodegradable material, such as significantly reduce soil erosion losses. With fall hay straw, animal manure, poultry litter, or wood tillage, the soil is exposed to the erosive forces of shavings. freezing and thawing and, thus, more susceptible to erosion from early spring rain. Moreover, with fall References tillage soil porosity at planting time is generally less Amemiya, Min, Stewart Melvin, and J. Clayton than with spring tillage. The primary advantage of Herman. 1980. Soil Management To Control Erosion. fall tillage is more timely planting, especially where Pm-901e. Iowa Cooperative Extension Service. Iowa wetness is a problem in early spring. Generally, State University. Ames, IA. spring plowing, especially on steep slopes and in Grass Waterways And Buffer Strips: Soil-Saving fields close to streams, is best for reducing soil loss Tools. 1991. Fact Sheet. Alliance for a Clean Rural and sediment associated water quality problems. Environment. Washington, DC. Soil Fertility Management Humenik, Frank J., DeAnne D. Johnson, Improving soil fertility can help reduce soil ero- Jonathan M. Greglow, Steven A. Dressing, Richard P. sion. An improved soil-fertility program will help the Maas, Fred A. Koehler, Lee Christensen, William crop canopy to develop faster, and a crop canopy pro- Snyder, James W. Meek, and Fred N. Swader. 1982. tects the soil from raindrop splash. In addition, an im- Best Management Practices For Agricultural Non- proved soil-fertility program can result in crops that point Source Control: III Sediment. North Carolina leave more residue on the ground following harvest. Cooperative Extension Service. Biological and Agri- These residues are extremely important in protecting cultural Engineering Department. North Carolina against erosion. State University. Raleigh, NC. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1988. Other Practices Vegetation Filter Strips. Office of Policy Planning and Change In Land Use. Some land is simply too ero- Evaluation. Washington, DC. sive for intensive farming, even when various conser- Walker, Robert, Steve Probst, and Doug Peterson. vation practices are put to use. When a combination 1985. A Plan For The Land: Erosion-Control Alterna- of cropping practices does not do an adequate job of tives. Land and Water Number Four. Illinois Coopera- erosion control, a change in land use may be a more tive Extension Service. University of Illinois. Urbana- practical solution. Champaign, IL. Winter Cover Crops. During the winter and early Weinberg, Anne, Steve Berlpwitz, and Fred spring months, crops of close-growing grasses and Madison. 1979. Nonpoint Source Pollution: Land Use legumes can be used for erosion control. And Water Quality. G3025. Wisconsin Cooperative Temporary Vegetation. For short-term, seasonal soil Extension Service. University of Wisconsin. Madi- protection, close-growing plants with quick-growth son, WI. characteristics can be planted.

This publication, supported in part by a grant from the Alabama Department of Environmental Management and the Tennessee Valley Authority, was prepared by James E. Hairston, Extension Water Quality Scientist, assisted by Leigh Strib- ling, Technical Writer. ARCHIVEFor more information, call your county Extension ofﬁce. Look in your telephone directory under your county’s name to ﬁnd the number. Issued in furtherance of Cooperative Extension work in agriculture and home economics, Acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914, and other related acts, in cooperation with the U.S. Department of Agriculture. The Alabama Cooperative Extension System (Al- abama A&M University and Auburn University) offers educational programs, materials, and equal opportunity employment to all people without regard to race, color, national origin, religion, sex, age, veteran status, or disability. ANR-790-4.3.3 UPS, New June 1995, Water Quality 4.3.3

4.3.3-3 Agriculture and Natural Resources WATER QUALITY: Controlling Nonpoint Source (NPS) Pollution

ALABAMA A&M AND AUBURN UNIVERSITIES

Soil Management To Protect Water Quality Reduced Tillage Practices ANR-790-4.3.4 For Soil Management

illage has been defined as any mechanical, soil- Minimum Tillage: A cultivation operation whereby Tstirring action carried out for the purpose of nur- soil is disturbed as little as possible to produce a crop. turing crops. The benefits of tillage are many. In fact, Mulch residue from the previous crop is left on the some tillage is absolutely essential for certain soil soil surface which aids in retarding weed growth, amendments. Contrary to previous beliefs, much land conserving moisture, and controlling erosion. is over-tilled, and this can lead to excessive erosion. No-Till, Zero Tillage, Slot Planting: A form of min- During recent years, interest in avoiding unnecessary imum tillage where a slot is opened in the soil only tillage for labor, energy, time, moisture, and soil con- sufficiently deep and wide to properly deposit and servation benefits has increased tremendously. cover seeds. This is a once-over crop planting system The effectiveness of tillage systems in reducing where the seed is planted in a slot created with a coul- soil erosion depends on soil, climatic, and topograph- ter in an otherwise undisturbed soil surface. This sys- ic conditions. Erosion can be greatly reduced, howev- tem makes maximum use of crop residue. er, by simply adopting tillage practices which limit Slot planting can also be used to plant row crops the intensity of soil disturbance and leave more of the in sod without plowing. Where growing season and previous crop’s residues (stalks, leaves, etc.) on the soil water allow, row crops can be slot planted in a surface. cover crop, in standing small grain, or in the stubble Types Of Reduced Tillage Practices of already harvested small grain, allowing for double Reduced tillage includes a variety of tillage prac- cropping. tices that conserve soil and water and leave residue on Ridge Tillage: A method of preparing the seedbed the surface. In the list that follows, reduced tillage and planting in the same operation on a preformed systems are defined in relation to conventional tillage. ridge remaining from the previous year’s crop. The Conventional Tillage: Seedbed preparation using soil is left undisturbed before planting. Ridge tillage cultivation instruments such as harrows, moldboard differs from no-till planting in that some cultivation is plows, offset harrows, subsoilers, and rippers. Con- required during the growing season to form the ridge ventional tillage methods, involving extensive for the following year’s crop. seedbed preparation, cause the greatest soil distur- The major advantage of ridge-planting is that it bance and leave little plant residues on the surface. both reduces erosion and adapts well to poorly Chiseling And Subsoiling: Deep tillage to shatter drained soils. Because the ridges provide drainage compacted soil layers or traffic pans. Chiseling and and are not covered with residue, the soil dries quick- subsoiling permits more effective development of ly. That is why ridge-planting can work well on poor- plant roots, increases water infiltration rates, and rely drained soil. duces runoff. This practice is most effective on sandy Strip Tillage: A method of preparing the seedbed soils with traffic pans.ARCHIVEand planting on a strip 2 to 8 inches wide and 2 to 4 Conservation Tillage: Any form of minimum or re- inches deep in the row area. The soil is left undis- duced tillage, where residue, mulch, or sod is left on turbed before planting. A conventional planter may the soil surface to protect soil and conserve moisture. be used. Strip tillage differs from no-till planting in After planting, at least 30 percent of the soil surface that there is more soil disturbance in the row. In some remains covered by residue to reduce soil erosion by cases the prepared strip may be wider than 8 inches, water. but the wider the strip the greater the erosion hazard.

ANR-790 Water Quality 4.3.4 Visit our Web site at: www.aces.edu Mulch Tillage: Disturbance of the entire soil surface Table 1. Estimating Crop Residue. by tillage before planting. Tillage tools such as chis- els, field cultivators, disks, sweeps, or blades are Percent Residue Cover used. At least 30 percent of the surface must be cov- Tillage Practice Soybeans Corn ered by residue after planting to qualify as conserva- Over-winter residue decomposition 70 to 80 80 to 90 tion tillage. After harvest residues 80 to 90 90 to 95 Managing Crop Residues Plowing 0 to 2 2 to 7 With Reduced Tillage Disking (offset, deep) 5 to 15 25 to 40 Disking (tandem, shallow) 25 to 35 65 to 75 Crop residue, which protects the soil from rainfall Chiseling (twisted shanks) 10 to 20 40 to 50 and reduces the velocity of runoff, is the key to erosion control with minimum tillage. Minimum tillage Chiseling (straight shanks) 30 to 40 60 to 75 is often practiced in combination with multiple crop- Paraplowing 35 to 45 65 to 75 ping where the second crop is planted in the residue Field cultivating 55 to 65 80 to 90 of the first crop. This residue acts as a mulch to con- Anhydrous application 45 to 55 75 to 85 serve moisture and protect the soil. Planting 80 to 90 80 to 90 In addition to protecting the soil and reducing the Till-planting 40 to 50 55 to 65 velocity of runoff, crop residues also increase water Source: Protecting Surface Water By Managing Crop Residues, infiltration, thus eliminating runoff from small storms 1991. and reducing it from all storms. Crop residues provide the organic materials that through decay become the soil’s humus. This humus binds particles together, x 0.70 (disking) x 0.90 (planting) = 43 percent ex- improves structure, and increases aggregate stability pected residue cover. and water-holding capacity. A pound of humus is said Since plowing removes almost all surface to hold seven and one-half times as much total mois- residue, many farmers think giving up moldboard ture as a pound of sandy loam soil and to provide plowing will bring them into compliance. On more three and one-half times the plant-available water. erosive land, however, fall tillage of any kind will Thus, soil organic matter not only tends to hold soil make it a challenge to have enough residue after particles in place, preventing them from becoming silt planting. You will also expose soil to wind and water in waterways, it also provides for more water storage erosion over a longer period of time with fall tillage. in the soil, leaving less water to carry away precious Control your urge to do “recreational tillage” on a soil in runoff. beautiful, dry fall or early spring day. Remember, Residue is measured as a percentage of surface every time you go over a field, you’re getting a net cover. For example, “40 percent surface cover” means residue loss. that residue covers 40 percent of the ground. And, Measuring Residue. Measuring the residue on with this percentage of cover, the amount of erosion is your field is an easy way to check that your tillage roughly half of that on land with no residue cover. operations are conserving the residue amounts called Estimating Residue. As Table 1 illustrates, every for in your compliance plan. The most accurate tillage operation you perform reduces the remaining method is to measure with either a 50-foot rope, cover somewhat. The tillage practices you select cable, or tape with marks every 6 inches or a 100-foot should be such that there is at least 30 percent residue length with marks every 12 inches. cover on your fields after planting. Some conservation compliance plans require 40 to 50 percent Follow these steps: residue on the soil surface. 1. Choose part of your field that is typical of the You can use this table to figure the amount of whole field. residue cover remaining after your tillage and plant- 2. Stretch the rope or tape diagonally across the ing operations. SimplyARCHIVE multiply the percentages of crop rows so that each end of the rope or tape is over each operation you plan to use. For example, follow- a row. ing corn you plan to use three operations: anhydrous 3. Walk the rope or tape and count the number of application followed by disking (tandem and shallow) times there is a piece of crop residue directly under a and planting. To figure the final residue cover you can mark. The number of times a mark was directly over expect, start with losses without tillage. Take 0.95 a piece of residue is equal to the percentage of cover (initial cover corn) x 0.90 (over-winter losses) = 0.85 that field has. For example, if you counted forty-five (expected spring residue). Then multiply: 0.85 (ex- marks, you have about 45 percent crop residue on pected spring residue) x 0.80 (anhydrous application) your field.

4.3.4-2 4. Take measurements from three or more loca- highly variable, especially in the first few years. tions in the field and average them for your final esti- When yields are affected not at all or only slightly, re- mate. duced tillage systems are generally more profitable After a while you’ll know what a certain residue and contribute to water quality improvement. The level looks like. Of course, your compliance plan may benefits for water quality may be enormous but diffi- also require contouring, strip-cropping, waterways, cult to measure on an annual basis. and buffer strips as well as structures like terraces. Farmers can compare tillage system costs with But residue management will be the cheapest, most crop yields to determine profit differences among effective choice for most farmers to meet compliance these practices. On heavy soils (clays) yields are requirements and protect water quality. often lower with no-till than with conventional systems. One theory is that the insulating effect of the Managing Fertilizers With Reduced Tillage surface residue slows soil warm-up, which reduces Careful management of fertilizer is essential for early growth and yield. Depending on the actual yield the success of minimum tillage cropping systems be- differences between the two methods, the lower oper- cause fertilizer is often placed on or near the surface ating costs of no-till can offset the lower yields so of the soil, not in it. There is a growing interest in the that profits are often competitive with conventional design of equipment for more accurate and deeper tillage. placement of fertilizer in reduced-tillage systems. On light-textured soils (sands and sandy loams) When legumes like soybeans and peanuts are part of yields from no-till can equal or exceed those from a multi-cropping operation, less fertilizer is needed conventionally tilled fields. On these soils, no-till usu- because legumes take nitrogen from the air, enriching ally has a profit advantage over conventional systems. the soil for the next crop as well. Depending on the Alabama’s sandy and medium-textured soils are well soil, many multi-crop systems can be fertilized effec- suited for minimum tillage. tively for two crops with a one-time application of lime, phosphorus, and potassium in the fall. In ex- Getting Help With Reduced Tillage tremely sandy soils, more fertilizer may need to be Minimum tillage systems require an innovative, applied with the second crop as well. highly skilled, and informed farmer who wants to make minimum tillage work. If you are considering Managing Pesticides With Reduced Tillage minimum tillage, learn before, not after, you make A minimum tillage/multi-crop system may re- mistakes. Attend short courses, conferences, field quire more pesticides. The reduction of intervals be- days, and demonstrations. Test minimum tillage on a tween crops may not leave enough time for roots of small acreage first. the previous crop to decompose and cause root pests The Natural Resources Conservation Service to flourish. Although timing may eliminate the need (NRCS) in your district may know of cost-share for pesticides in some cases, wise selection of herbi- funds for small-scale learning available through the cides, insecticides, and nematicides is vital. Consolidated Farm Service Agency (CFSA). Mini- Before applying pesticide, be sure to READ THE mum tillage sprayers and planters are being made LABEL CAREFULLY. Some pesticides are prohibit- available for use on small acreage through some Soil ed in combination with other crops or there are EPA and Water Conservation Districts. Call your local restrictions on maximum application. Other pesti- NRCS office or county Extension agent to see if such cides may react adversely with the second crop or equipment is available in your county. with pesticides on the residues of the first crop. Many Because planning is so important for successful combinations of pesticides may be used on individual minimum tillage, you will benefit from the guidance crops, but they may drastically reduce yields in multi- of your county Extension agent. The agent can advise crop systems. you of the minimum tillage/multi-cropping system Choosing the proper sequence of crops can also best suited to your land and crops. Several publica- reduce pest problems.ARCHIVE For example, if a summer crop tions related to minimum tillage and multi-cropping of soybeans in a field lightly infested with root-knot are available through the county Extension service. nematodes (microscopic worms) is to follow a small Benefits Of Reduced Tillage grain, rye grass, or other crop upon which the worms reproduce poorly, no nematicide will be needed. Soil and water are conserved. Fuel is saved because fewer trips over a field are Managing Crop Yields With Reduced Tillage necessary. Overall profitability of reduced tillage depends Higher profits often result because of compatibili- primarily on how it affects yields, which may be ty with multiple cropping.

4.3.4-3 Land use is intensified since it is possible to plant Farmers must plant 10 percent more seed since a second cash crop without delay for elaborate seeds often are not uniformly buried in rough seed- seedbed preparation. beds; however, subsoiler attachments can alleviate Lower-cost land can be farmed because it is pos- this problem. sible to plant row crops on sloping soils more commonly used for pasture land. References Soil structure is improved because of decompos- Cook, M. G., and W. M. Lewis. 1989. Conserva- ing organic material in crop residues. tion Tillage For Crop Production In North Carolina. AG-407. North Carolina Cooperative Extension Ser- Time and labor are saved throughout the season vice. North Carolina State University. Raleigh, NC. because of fewer field operations. Gallaher, R. N., and M. F. Laurent. 1983. Mini- Machinery costs are lower since fewer imple- mum Tillage: Pollution Solution. SP 21. Florida Co- ments are required. operative Extension Service. University of Florida. Stress of drought is reduced because of increased Gainesville, FL. infiltration, reduced evaporation, and a more vigorous Humenik, Frank J., DeAnne D. Johnson, root system. Jonathan M. Greglow, Steven A. Dressing, Richard P. Pesticide and nutrient losses associated with Maas, Fred A. Koehler, Lee Christensen, William transported sediment are decreased. While overall nu- Snyder, James W. Meek, and Fred N. Swader. 1982. trient losses are lower, dissolved fractions may in- Best Management Practices For Agricultural Non- crease. point Source Control: III Sediment. North Carolina Problems With Reduced Tillage Cooperative Extension Service. Biological and Agri- cultural Engineering Department. North Carolina More pesticides and fertilizers may be required State University. Raleigh, NC. than for conventional methods. In addition, plant Kral, David M., and Sherri Hawkins, eds. 1982. residues left on the surface may leach out phosphorus Predicting Tillage Effects On Soil Physical Properties in late fall and early spring. And Processes. Special Pub. No 44. American Soci- Weed control may not be effective. Herbicides, ety of Agronomy. Madison, WI. 198p. which have been adapted for better control of grass Protecting Surface Water By Managing Crop and broadleaf weeds, have lessened this problem to a Residues. 1991. Fact Sheet. Alliance For A Clean large extent. Rural Environment. Washington, DC. Herbicides, which are necessary to make mini- Walker, Robert, Steve Probst, and Doug Peterson. mum tillage a success, are costly. 1985. A Plan For The Land: Erosion-Control Alterna- Insect populations may increase. This can result tives. Land And Water Number Four. Illinois Cooper- in reduced or inconsistent yields. ative Extension Service. University of Illinois. Ur- Some pests can be more troublesome in reduced bana-Champaign, IL. tillage systems because crop residues are a haven for Weinberg, Anne, Steve Berkowitz, and Fred breeding insects. A spraying program may have to ac- Madison. 1979. Nonpoint Source Pollution: Land Use company the practice of minimum tillage. For some And Water Quality, G3025. Wisconsin Cooperative pests, such as the lesser cornstalk borer, damage is re- Extension Service. University of Wisconsin. Madi- duced in minimal tillage systems. son, WI. Soil warm-up may be slow.

This publication, supported in part by a grant from the Alabama Department of Environmental Management and the Tennessee Valley Authority, was prepared by James E. Hairston, Extension Water Quality Scientist, assisted by Leigh Strib- ARCHIVEling, Technical Writer. For more information, call your county Extension ofﬁce. Look in your telephone directory under your county’s name to ﬁnd the number. Issued in furtherance of Cooperative Extension work in agriculture and home economics, Acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914, and other related acts, in cooperation with the U.S. Department of Agriculture. The Alabama Cooperative Extension System (Al- abama A&M University and Auburn University) offers educational programs, materials, and equal opportunity employment to all people without regard to race, color, national origin, religion, sex, age, veteran status, or disability. ANR-790-4.3.4 UPS, New June 1995, Water Quality 4.3.4 4.3.4-4 Agriculture and Natural Resources WATER QUALITY: Controlling Nonpoint Source (NPS) Pollution

ALABAMA A&M AND AUBURN UNIVERSITIES

Soil Management To Protect Water Quality Structural Measures For ANR-790-4.3.5 Soil Management

tructural measures for soil management and ero- not usually vegetated. Essentially, they reduce erosion Ssion or sediment control are designed primarily to by shortening the length of the slope. The shorter the control runoff water. They remove the excess water slope length, the less chance there is for runoff to without allowing it to carry the soil away with it. This build enough momentum to cause excessive erosion. control of runoff water is accomplished by effectively Terracing is more effective for erosion control reducing slopes and slope lengths, by increasing infil- than strip cropping and contouring because it divides tration or settling of sediment, and by stabilizing wa- the slope into discrete segments. Although there may terways or other outlets that transport excess water. be soil movement within terrace intervals, most of Structural measures for soil management and ero- this material accumulates in the terrace channel or in sion or sediment control include diversions, terraces, basin areas. This measure is one of the most widely tile outlet water disposal systems, grassed waterways used practices to reduce erosion on cropland. With or outlets, lined waterways or outlets, improved sur- some types of terraces, more than 95 percent of the face drains, subsurface drains, grade stabilization detached soil particles remain on the land. structures, land smoothing or leveling, and debris or Terraces also channel runoff safely away through sediment basins. outlets—either underground pipes, grassed water- Diversions ways, or other stabilized outlets. Because they control the flow of water over long slopes, they prevent the Diversions are ridges of soil or channels with a supporting ridge on the lower side. They are built formation of gullies and often allow more intensive across the land slope to allow interception and dispos- row crop production on land that otherwise would al of runoff at a selected location. They are used to erode excessively. High yields can be sustained for break up long slopes, to move water away from active many years on fields where terraces have been con- erosion sites, to direct water around barnyards or structed and maintained. other sites, and to channel surface runoff to suitable Tile Outlet Water Disposal Systems outlet locations. Their primary purpose is to protect land or water below the structure. They often are used These consist of terrace systems augmented with in combination with contour strip-cropping, grassed underground plastic pipe or tile water outlets. The waterways, sediment filters, or other sod filters that pipe or tile is installed in natural drainageways on a can trap nutrients and fecal bacteria in the runoff gradient to allow for proper drainage. Small basins water. around outlets allow for most sediment to settle out. Terrace systems, especially tile outlet systems, Terraces have the highest initial cost of all row crop conserva- Terraces are earthen embankments or ridges with tion practices, and they require periodic maintenance. a channel constructedARCHIVE across the slope. Their spacing In addition, nutrient leaching to groundwater may be depends on slope. Terraces have gentle grades, which increased when this practice is used. allow them to intercept surface runoff and conduct it at low velocity to a stable outlet. These structures Grassed Waterway Or Outlet function much the same as diversions, except that ter- A grassed waterway is a natural or constructed races are usually constructed closer together, support watercourse kept in grass and designed to carry water less drainage area, are smaller than diversions, and are down slope without causing erosion. The sod slows

ANR-790 Water Quality 4.3.5 Visit our Web site at: www.aces.edu runoff and traps soil and nutrients carried in runoff Grade Stabilization Structures waters from cropland or animal production areas. These structures substantially reduce erosion and Grassed waterways serve as outlets for terraces, di- off-site sediment damage associated with channel and versions, or other concentrations of water, but they gully erosion. They are designed to reduce the ero- don’t take the place of erosion-control measures on sion effects of sharp changes in elevation or to pro- adjoining slopes. vide a stable area where the change in elevation takes If waterways are used primarily as filter strips to place. They are commonly used in natural as well as remove sediment, they can quickly silt in and lose artificial channels and may be used in conjunction their effectiveness. To prevent this, crop residue man- with other surface water outlets. agement, contour buffer strips, or other methods should be used to control erosion in the fields that Land Smoothing And Leveling contribute the runoff water. Designed to remove surface irregularities, this A stable outlet from the waterway is needed to practice tends to reduce rill and gully erosion by prevent a gully from forming and growing in size spreading the flow of water over a larger drainage with each storm. This may involve the construction of area. This allows for better control of surface runoff a water control structure, perhaps concrete-block and is more effective when used in combination with spillways. other practices such as terraces. Lined Waterway Or Outlet Debris Or Sediment Control Basins In some cases, because of land slope or other These basins consist of drainageways and em- conditions, a waterway or outlet must be lined with bankments, dams, ridges, or channels constructed an erosion-resistant material such as stones or even across the slope. Debris basins reduce the velocity of concrete. This structure is expensive but sometimes runoff water, allowing much of the sediment and as- necessary to stabilize critically eroding areas, and it is sociated nutrients to settle to the basin bottom. Sedi- generally used in combination with vegetative prac- ment basins are effective in reducing sediment deliv- tices such as critical area planting. ery from severe storms and in trapping small soil particles, but they do not control erosion at the Surface Drains source. Ditches or channels may be constructed in rela- These structures are generally used where ter- tively low-lying areas or flat fields next to streams to races cannot be installed and farmed with reasonable transport surface flow through a filter strip prior to its effort and where slope length and runoff rate or vol- entering a stream. This practice has limited applica- ume must be reduced. These shallow basins need a bility because it has no erosion control benefit. In grassed overflow section and may require periodic re- fact, these channels or ditches are not even vegetated. moval of trapped sediment. Their sole purpose is to facilitate the trapping of eroded sediment before it can enter a watercourse. Conclusion Structural measures usually have higher initial Subsurface Drains costs but lower annual costs than cropping and tillage Pipe or tile, usually plastic, may be installed un- practices. They require proper design and construc- derground to lower shallow groundwater tables or to tion and have a degree of permanency. They may re- handle seepage on side slopes or in drainageways. quire some limited land use changes, but they are This practice can reduce surface runoff, allow for most likely to require changes in tillage or manage- more efficient use of machinery around wet spots, ment techniques (like a row direction change, for ex- and serve as a water outlet for other conservation ample). Structural measures can be a very effective measures in some cases. However, subsurface means of water quality improvement, and they may drainage has limited applicability because it may allow continuation of a more intense cropping prac- cause additional nitrate leaching and may be defined tice than would be possible without them. as illegal drainage of wetlandsARCHIVE in the future.

4.3.5-2 References Alabama Department of Environmental Manage- ment. 1989. Alabama Nonpoint Source Management Program. Montgomery, AL. Amemiya, Min, Stewart Melvin, and J. Clayton Herman. 1980. Soil Management To Control Erosion. Pm-901e. Iowa Cooperative Extension Service. Iowa State University. Ames, IA. Grass Waterways And Buffer Strips: Soil-Saving Tools. 1991. Fact Sheet. Alliance For A Clean Rural Environment. Washington, DC. Humenik, Frank J., DeAnne D. Johnson, Jonathan M. Greglow, Steven A. Dressing, Richard P. Maas, Fred A. Koehler, Lee Christensen, William Snyder, James W. Meek, and Fred N. Swader. 1982. Best Management Practices For Agricultural Non- point Source Control: III Sediment. North Carolina Cooperative Extension Service. Biological and Agri- cultural Engineering Department. North Carolina State University. Raleigh, NC. Walker, Robert, Steve Probst, and Doug Peterson. 1985. A Plan For the Land: Erosion-Control Alterna- tives. Land And Water Number Four. Illinois Cooper- ative Extension Service. University of Illinois. Ur- bana-Champaign, IL. Weinberg, Anne, Steve Berkowitz, and Fred Madison. 1979. Nonpoint Source Pollution: Land Use And Water Quality. G3025. Wisconsin Cooperative Extension Service. University of Wisconsin. Madi- son, WI. Wheaton, Rolland Z., and Edward B. Hale. 1980. Best Management Practices For Row Crop Agricul- ture. Virginia Cooperative Extension Service. Vir- ginia Polytechnic Institute and State University. Blacksburg, VA.

This publication, supported in part by a grant from the Alabama Department of Environmental Management and the Tennessee Valley Authority, was prepared by James E. Hairston, Extension Water Quality Scientist, assisted by Leigh Strib- ARCHIVEling, Technical Writer. For more information, call your county Extension ofﬁce. Look in your telephone directory under your county’s name to ﬁnd the number. Issued in furtherance of Cooperative Extension work in agriculture and home economics, Acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914, and other related acts, in cooperation with the U.S. Department of Agriculture. The Alabama Cooperative Extension System (Al- abama A&M University and Auburn University) offers educational programs, materials, and equal opportunity employment to all people without regard to race, color, national origin, religion, sex, age, veteran status, or disability. ANR-790-4.3.5 UPS, New June 1995, Water Quality 4.3.5

4.3.5-3 Agriculture and Natural Resources WATER QUALITY: Controlling Nonpoint Source (NPS) Pollution

ALABAMA A&M AND AUBURN UNIVERSITIES

Soil Management To Protect Water Quality Irrigation Systems And ANR-790-4.3.6 Soil Management

wo major soil management problems are associat- rangement, crops, tillage, and fertilizer rates and Ted with irrigation of agricultural lands. One is schedules, are often changed to work with irrigation salinization, and the other is accelerated erosion. systems. Costs and returns are both increased with Salinization is climatic dependent while accelerated timely irrigation, but better management is needed to erosion and its associated damaging effects can occur take advantage of the opportunities while avoiding po- under any climate. tential problems. Potential problems include excessive leaching, increased surface runoff, and increased ero- Irrigation And Salinization sion. Erosion hazard is of concern because it not only Salinization is the buildup of salts that occurs degrades soil resources but can also lead to nonpoint when irrigation water is used extensively on arid and source water pollution from sediment and sediment- semiarid soils. Even fresh water is slightly salty, hav- associated nutrients and pesticides. ing acquired dissolved sodium, calcium, and magne- Three methods are used to apply irrigation water: sium salts. When this water is applied as irrigation to (1) the sprinkler method where water is sprayed into hot, dry soils, where drainage is very low and evapora- the air and falls like rain; (2) the surface method tion is very high, the water passes into the atmosphere where water is applied at ground level in furrows, by and the salts are left behind on the ground, usually as flooding, or through low-pressure trickle pipes or spe- a crust of sodium sulfate. This is generally not a prob- cial emitters; and (3) the subsurface method where lem in humid or sub-humid climates where natural rainfall continually flushes the soil of soluble salts. water is applied in open ditches or through buried pipes. Availability of water, quality and source of As time passes the salts gradually build up to the water, soil, climate, landscape features, crop water re- point where they become toxic to plants. It has been quirements, and expected net returns all play impor- estimated that as much as 400 tons per acre of salts tant roles in choosing what type of irrigation system have accumulated in the soils and shallow groundwa- to use. ter of some heavily irrigated farming regions of Southern California. Excessive fresh water is now re- Sprinkler and furrow irrigation are the two types quired to flush out some of these salts to make the that generally lead to the greatest erosion damage. soils suitable for crop growth. Much of this brackish However, irrigation of any kind that leaves soil satu- water enters nearby streams in irrigation return flows rated just prior to natural rainstorms will generally making them so salty that their downstream use for accelerate stormwater runoff and erosion. Monitoring irrigation or other purposes may be jeopardized. and/or forecasting weather conditions is an important Desertification tends to follow widespread salin- environmental aspect of irrigation scheduling, espe- ization in arid and semi-arid regions. Soil degradation cially in the humid Southeast. reduces vegetation, leaving land exposed to greater Irrigation Management Practices To wind and water erosion,ARCHIVE which may permanently alter Control Erosion And Sedimentation long-term productivity and habitability. The following irrigation management practices Irrigation And Accelerated Erosion may be used to control erosion and sedimentation. Supplemental irrigation, even in the humid South- Method Of Irrigation. Furrow irrigation is generally east, is a powerful means of increasing productivity much more erosive than other methods such as the and turning low-priced land into expensive cropland. various sprinkler methods or the drip or trickle irriga- Many other components of farming, including field ar- tion methods. However, the sprinkler method can be

ANR-790 Water Quality 4.3.6 Visit our Web site at: www.aces.edu very erosive if the system is improperly designed or if Therefore, irrigating less frequently usually reduces a properly designed system is improperly used. The erosion. This is especially true if the soil is cultivated sprinkler method results in very little erosion as long between irrigations. as the water application rate is less than the soil’s in- Cultivation. Erosion that takes place early in the irri- take rate and no water is applied just preceding a gation period may be, for the most part, a function of major rainstorm. On the other hand, low-intensity cultivation. Cultivation increases not only infiltration sprinkler irrigation may actually be used to wet a dry, but also erosion, especially during the first part of the freshly plowed soil to reduce wind or rainfall erosion succeeding irrigation. If there is no cultivation be- from a severe storm. tween irrigations, erosion is greatly reduced. Center pivots are the most erosive sprinkler sys- Slope. Erosion is a direct function of the rate of flow tems, especially at the far end of the main boom of water, and the flow rate obviously increases with where the soil intake rate will most likely be exceed- steepness of slope. Sometimes slope can be reduced ed. Since relative ground speed increases from the to some degree by land leveling. In some cases, slope center outward in a pivot system, water application can be reduced, in effect, by making irrigation fur- rate must also be higher from the center outward in rows across the slope rather than straight up and order to maintain a uniform level of application. This down the steepest part. makes erosion potential higher with increasing distance from the pivot point; soil intake at the far end of Erosion can be controlled on slopes up to 2 per- the system is the limiting factor. The Soil Conserva- cent with normal management practices. Fields with tion Service can assist you in determining travel slopes above 2 percent will require special practices speed and flow-rate requirements to properly match especially as they exceed 5 percent. Slopes much application rate to soil conditions at the end of your greater than 5 percent may have to be retired to per- system. Adjustments in nozzle size, ground speed, or manent sod or changed from furrow irrigation to pressure may be required. sprinkler or trickle irrigation. With good cover, slopes as high as 35 percent have been sprinkler irrigated for Stream Size And The “Cut Back” Method. Avoid- pasture and hay in the Pacific Northwest. Irregulari- ing large stream size and cutting back are both impor- ties in slope gradient and direction make irrigation tant practices that can be used in combination to re- difficult. duce erosion in furrow irrigation. A general guide is to adjust the stream size so that the water reaches the Shape Of The Furrow. V-shaped furrows may be tail end of the furrow in one-quarter to one-half the more erosive than U-shaped furrows especially on total irrigation period. Using the cut-back method slopes of less than 3 percent. after 12 hours reduces erosion and sediment transport Cropping. In general, fields seeded to small grains in the furrows. However, a much greater reduction and forage crops are less erosive than those planted to may be achieved by using a small stream size at the row crops. Sometimes soil becomes badly eroded at outset. Since the soil is usually most erosive at the be- the pipeline (or other distribution device) at the head ginning of the irrigation period, using as small a end of the field in furrow irrigation. Grass or small stream size as possible is very important. grain strips are useful in preventing such erosion. Ob- Length Of Run. Erosion can be reduced significantly viously, the strips have no effect on erosion in the by reducing the length of run in furrows for furrow ir- main part of the field. rigation and adjusting stream size accordingly. Seri- Minimum Tillage And Residue Management. The ous erosion can occur in long runs without the ap- use of crop residues lightly incorporated into the soil pearance of a great amount of sediment in the tail surface is important for the control of erosion under water. Erosion is greater near the head end of the furrow and sprinkler irrigation. For effective erosion runs. control under irrigation and because of the need for Duration Of Irrigation. The greatest erosion takes keeping crop residue at or near the soil surface, the place early in the irrigation period, especially if the moldboard plow is a less desirable tillage implement land was recently cultivated.ARCHIVE It is best to use fewer ir- than the chisel plow. rigations of longer duration. Two 12-hour irrigations Filter Strips. Grass or small grain strips at the tail are more erosive than one 24-hour irrigation. Of end of the irrigation runs are useful in filtering out course, if the soil is sandy and/or shallow, frequent ir- sediments from the tail water. rigations of short duration will be unavoidable. Frequency Of Irrigation. Erosion is somewhat relat- Conclusion ed to the total amount of water passing through the Effective erosion control involves excellent water furrow. More important, however, is the fact that soils management. Water management by itself cannot be tend to be more erosive early in each irrigation. expected to eliminate erosion, but erosion and sedi-

4.3.6-2 ment control begin with good water management. Good water management involves selecting a combination of management practices that best ﬁt the cropland and that effectively control erosion. References Dow, A. I., R. E. Hermanson, and R. Parker. 1979. Soil Erosion And Sediment Control Under Irri- gation. Extension Bulletin 712. Washington Coopera- tive Extension Service. Washington State University. Pullman, WA. Owens, Oliver S. 1985. Water. In Natural Re- source Conservation: An Ecological Approach. 4th ed., 140-177. Macmillan Pub. Co., New York, NY. Troeth, F. R., J. A. Hobbs, and R. L. Donahue. 1980. Irrigation And Reclamation. In Soil And Water Conservation For Productivity And Environmental Protection, 527-570. Prentice-Hall Inc. Englewood Cliffs, NJ.

This publication, supported in part by a grant from the Alabama Department of Environmental Management and the Tennessee Valley Authority, was prepared by James E. Hairston, Extension Water Quality Scientist, assisted by Leigh Strib- ling, Technical Writer. For more information, call your county Extension ofﬁce. Look in your telephone ARCHIVEdirectory under your county’s name to ﬁnd the number. Issued in furtherance of Cooperative Extension work in agriculture and home economics, Acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914, and other related acts, in cooperation with the U.S. Department of Agriculture. The Alabama Cooperative Extension System (Al- abama A&M University and Auburn University) offers educational programs, materials, and equal opportunity employment to all people without regard to race, color, national origin, religion, sex, age, veteran status, or disability. ANR-790-4.3.6 UPS, New June 1995, Water Quality 4.3.6

4.3.6-3 Agriculture and Natural Resources WATER QUALITY: Controlling Nonpoint Source (NPS) Pollution

ALABAMA A&M AND AUBURN UNIVERSITIES

Fertilizer Management To Protect Water Quality Understanding Nutrients And How ANR-790-4.4.1 They Affect Water Quality

lthough commercial fertilizer is essential to agri- Importance And Movement Of Phosphorous Aculture, it is one of many potential sources of ele- Phosphorus is an important nutrient necessary for vated nutrient levels in the environment. The nutrients plant growth. About 66 percent of Alabama’s crop- of major concern from a water quality standpoint are land needs phosphate fertilizer. Consequently, Alaba- phosphorus (P) and nitrogen (N) because they may ma growers buy and apply about 50,000 tons of phos- stimulate nuisance growths of algae and rooted aquat- phate (P O ) fertilizers per year. ic plants in surface waters. Nitrogen in the nitrate 2 5 form is also a health concern in drinking water sup- When phosphorus is applied as a fertilizer, it is plies. While potassium (K) is a major fertilizer ele- quickly bound to soil particles or taken up by plants. ment, it is not considered a potential water pollutant. Since plants are very inefficient users of applied P, re- Phosphorus is of particular environmental impor- covering only around 7 to 15 percent, most phospho- tance because it is the primary cause of accelerated rus is bound to soil particles. This P is removed from algae and weed growth in many lakes and ponds (eu- the land primarily by soil erosion or plant uptake. trophication). An overabundance of decaying algae Therefore, the major sources of phosphorus in depletes the water oxygen supply and can kill fish and stormwater runoff to surface water are eroding soil desirable vegetation. particles, where phosphorus is bound, or plant In addition to contributing to eutrophication, ex- residues, including clippings and leaves that are left cessive N causes other water quality problems. The in streets and gutters. All of these sources contain or- one of greatest public concern is the effect of nitrates ganic phosphorus. - (NO3 ) on drinking water quality. Because 90 percent Contrary to previous belief, recent findings indi- of rural Americans and more than 50 percent of all cate that stormwater may leach phosphorus from soils United States citizens depend on groundwater for where extrememly high levels of P have accumulated drinking and other uses, groundwater pollution from from numerous applications of animal waste. Animal nitrates gets much attention. waste management is covered in another section of High nitrate in drinking water is particularly dan- the water quality series. gerous to the very young. Infants under 6 months old do not yet have stomach acid strong enough to pre- Forms Of Soil Nitrogen vent the growth of certain bacteria in their intestinal Nitrogen occurs naturally in many chemical tract. Those bacteria convert nitrate to nitrite. Nitrites forms. In soil, it exists in two major classes of com- react with hemoglobin in the blood making it unable pounds: to carry oxygen. This condition is called methe- Organic nitrogen, such as consolidated amino acids moglobinemia or Blue Baby Syndrome. Without oxy- or proteins, free amino acids, amino sugars, and other gen in the blood, brain damage or suffocation can occur. ARCHIVEcomplex compounds, including nitrogen found within living organisms and decaying plant and animal tis- An understanding of how plant nutrients reach sue; and surface and subsurface waters is necessary before + management practices to improve and maintain water Inorganic nitrogen, including ammonium (NH4 ), - quality can be effectively selected. and nitrate (NO3 ).

ANR-790 Water Quality 4.4.1 Visit our Web site at: www.aces.edu Table 1. Chemical Forms Of Nitrogen Commonly Found In Soil. Compound group Name(s) Symbol Remarks + Inorganic* Ammonium NH4 Can adsorb to clay and organic matter, preventing large amounts from moving with water. Plant-available. Ð Nitrite NO2 Mobile with water, but not found in large amounts. Ð Nitrate NO3 Typically present in relatively large amounts in well-aerated soils and very mobile with water. Preferred by many plants.

Organic Proteins, amino acids, R-NH2 Contained in manure, organic wastes, nucleic acids, and amino sugars, and other living and dead plants and animals. Immobile. Not plant- complex compounds available.

*Nitrous oxide (N2O), nitric oxide (NO), and elemental nitrogen (N2) are inorganic forms of lesser importance. All three represent gaseous forms lost from the soil by denitriﬁcation. The oxides are chemically active, but elemental nitrogen is inert except for its use by nitrogen-ﬁxing microorganisms. Source: van Es, et al., 1991.

Within these two major classes, there are many many plants. Some plants, however, absorb ammoni- different nitrogen compounds—some are water solu- um readily and incorporate it directly into amino ble and others are relatively insoluble; some are mo- acids, amino sugars, and other complex molecules. bile in soil and others are immobile; some are avail- Blueberries and some rice cultivars prefer ammonium able for plant uptake and others are not. See Table 1. to nitrate while flue-cured tobacco is adversely affect- Most soil nitrogen is in organic form. Only inor- ed by ammonium. ganic nitrogen can be absorbed by plants and, therefore, is available for plant use. Fate Of Nitrogen In The Environment What happens to land-applied nitrogen is the Sources Of Plant-Available Nitrogen same whether it comes from fertilizer; legume or Nitrogen is the nutrient that produces the greatest other plant residues; animal, industrial, or municipal growth response in plants. Plant-available nitrogen wastes; or other sources. The possible outcome of ap- can come from a variety of sources: legumes, soil or- plied nitrogen includes remaining in the soil, recovery ganic matter, manure, sewage, and fertilizer. by harvested crop, loss to the air as gas, and loss to Leguminous plants have the ability to supplement water resources. soil nitrogen by fixing atmospheric nitrogen. This Nitrogen Remaining In The Soil. The total nitrogen process is accomplished by nitrogen-fixing bacteria in cultivated soils remains relatively constant over a living in nodules on the plant roots. Legumes can fix period of years. Most of the nitrogen is present in or- several hundred pounds of atmospheric nitrogen per ganic matter, which varies among soils and among acre per year. There are some free-living nitrogen-fix- cropping systems on the same soil but is relatively ing organisms in most soils. Research studies indicate constant for a particular soil on which a given crop ro- that they add fewer than 5 pounds of nitrogen per acre tation is practiced. Thus, regardless of how much ni- per year except under special conditions. trogen from fertilizers, plant residues, or animal waste Plowing under the residues of grass and legume is used on a particular soil, nitrogen does not normally sod crops and other green manures supplies nitrogen accumulate at high levels in the soil. Nitrogen may to subsequent crops. The conversion of organic nitro- carry over from one crop to another, but the nitrogen gen in animal manures and green manures to plant- content of a selected, cultivated soil does not increase available nitrogen is initiated soon after application greatly over a period of years. Thus, most of the nitro- and continues for several years, thereby providing in- gen is lost from the soil in one way or another. crements of availableARCHIVE nitrogen over a long time peri- Regardless of whether nitrogen is in the organic od. The natural decay of organic matter provides a or inorganic form when applied to well-aerated soils, slow but continuous supply of inorganic nitrogen. it undergoes transformation to yield nitrate as an end Typical fertilizers that supply nitrogen consist of product. urea, anhydrous ammonia, ammonium salts, and ni- As plants and other organic residues decompose, trate salts. Under normal conditions, most non-nitrate nitrogen is converted from organic form to inorganic + forms of nitrogen in mineral fertilizers are rapidly ox- ammonium (NH4 ). This process, facilitated by soil idized in the soil to nitrate, which is preferred by microorganisms, is known as mineralization.

4.4.1-2 Soil microorganisms may further transform am- ([NH4]2CO3) is formed. If soil pH is above 8, the ammonium to nitrite, and subsequently to nitrate in a se- monium carbonate can decompose to form water and quence of steps called nitrification. Nitrification oc- gases of ammonia (NH3) and carbon dioxide (CO2). curs at high rates when the soil is warm, moist, and Nitrogen Lost To Water Resources. Soil nitrogen well-aerated. Under favorable conditions, ammonium can be lost to water resources in two ways: (1) sur- fertilizer is converted quickly to nitrate. face loss (runoff and erosion) to streams, lakes, and The reverse of mineralization and nitrification oc- estuaries, and (2) leaching (downward movement) of curs when nitrate is taken up by soil microorganisms nitrate through the soil to groundwater. Nitrogen and converted to amino acids and proteins in organic leaches to groundwater almost entirely in the nitrate tissues. This is called nitrogen immobilization be- form. Surface loss of nitrogen may include any chem- cause this nitrogen is no longer available to crop ical form, inorganic or organic. plants. Considerable surface loss of nitrogen may occur Nitrogen Recovered In Harvested Crop. The amount of nitrogen harvested by crop plants is less than most if heavy rains immediately follow a surface applica- people assume; for example, recovery of 50 percent of tion of fertilizer on a moist soil surface, particularly the applied nitrogen is a good average. However, the where there is a steep slope. However, fertilizer nitro- recovery rate varies for different crops and soils. gen in surface runoff will be low if the fertilizer is Agronomic research has shown that 90 percent or mixed with the soil. The loss of organic nitrogen more of the nitrogen applied to sod crops (such as (contained in crop residues, animal waste, or soil ma- bluegrass or coastal bermudagrass) may be recovered. terial) could be considerable if intense rainfall results The recovery of nitrogen applied to corn for grain in substantial soil and debris movement. largely depends on the amount applied and the yield The amount of nitrogen that leaches with soil obtained. In most seasons an average of 30 to 50 per- water depends on its chemical form—ammonium, ni- cent of applied nitrogen may not be used by the crops. trate, or organic. Because it has a high solubility, ni- This nitrogen may be lost by volatilization, leaching, trate nitrogen normally moves readily into the soil or runoff and represents a potential source of pollution. with initial rainfall. Thus, if fertilizer nitrogen is a Nitrogen Lost To Air As Gas. Where there is a defi- source of pollution, it is usually from leaching or sub- ciency of oxygen in the soil (anaerobic conditions), surface drainage. some bacteria reduce nitrate (NO Ð) to nitrogen gas 3 The potential for pollution of surface water and (N ), nitrous oxide (N O), or nitric oxide (NO). This 2 2 groundwater depends on the availability of nitrogen process, called denitrification, results in the loss of nitrogen from the soil and its return to the atmosphere. for transport and on the quantities of water moving Denitrification occurs mainly in poorly aerated, wa- over or through the soil. Efforts to limit nitrogen con- terlogged soils. When soils are warm and water-satu- tamination of water must therefore focus on careful rated, much of the nitrate can be denitrified within 2 management to minimize the amount of nitrogen or 3 days. Proper drainage is the best means of pre- available for transport during those times when runoff venting nitrogen loss through denitrification. and leaching are most probable. Denitrification may have consequences far more Conclusion severe than the loss of fertilizer nitrogen. Although the mechanisms are not well understood, it is be- Nitrogen and phosphorus are natural parts of our environment and are key components of the human lieved that N2O gas participates in reactions con- food chain. Neither is destroyed in food metabolism tributing to destruction of atmospheric ozone (O3). The ozone layer shields the earth from harmful ultra- but is merely transformed from one form to another. violet radiation from the sun. They are part of a large cycle in the environment and Under warm, dry, alkaline conditions, where soil simultaneously have their own individual cycles in pH is greater than 8, some nitrogen from ammonium soils, plants, and animals. Both can be lost from the salts may be lost fromARCHIVE volatilization as ammonia soil, both are vitally needed as fertilizers, and both (NH3). Volatilization is more likely to occur with sur- can be managed in ways that serve farmers and con- face application. Volatilization generally results from sumers while at the same time remaining compatible chemical processes where ammonium carbonate with the environment.

4.4.1-3 References Alabama Department Of Agriculture And Indus- tries. 1991. Consumption Of Primary Plant Nutrients And Total Fertilizer In Alabama—July To June. Montgomery, AL. Baird, Jack V. 1990. Nitrogen Management And Water Quality. AG-439-2. North Carolina Coopera- tive Extension Service. North Carolina State Univer- sity. Raleigh, NC. Barton, Susan S. 1989. Fertilizer Basics. Fact Sheet NPS 2. Delaware Cooperative Extension Ser- vice. University of Delaware. Newark, DE. Tisdale, Samuel L., Verner L. Nelson, and James D. Beaton. 1985. Soil And Fertilizer Nitrogen. In Soil Fertility And Fertilizers. 4th ed., 112-188. Macmillan Publishing Co. New York, NY. van Es, Harold M., Stuart D. Klausner, W. Shaw Reid, and Nancy M. Trautmann. 1991. Nitrogen And The Environment. Information Bulletin 218. New York Cooperative Extension Service. Cornell Univer- sity. Ithaca, NY. Voss, Regis, and J. Clayton Herman. 1980. Plant Nutrients As Potential Pollutants. PM-901g. Iowa Co- operative Extension Service. Iowa State University. Ames, IA.

This publication, supported in part by a grant from the Alabama Department of Environmental Management and the Tennessee Valley Authority, was prepared by James E. Hairston, Extension Water Quality Scientist, assisted by Leigh Strib- ling, Technical Writer. ARCHIVEFor more information, call your county Extension ofﬁce. Look in your telephone directory under your county’s name to ﬁnd the number. Issued in furtherance of Cooperative Extension work in agriculture and home economics, Acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914, and other related acts, in cooperation with the U.S. Department of Agriculture. The Alabama Cooperative Extension System (Al- abama A&M University and Auburn University) offers educational programs, materials, and equal opportunity employment to all people without regard to race, color, national origin, religion, sex, age, veteran status, or disability. ANR-790-4.4.1 UPS, New June 1995, Water Quality 4.4.1

4.4.1-4 Agriculture and Natural Resources WATER QUALITY: Controlling Nonpoint Source (NPS) Pollution

ALABAMA A&M AND AUBURN UNIVERSITIES

Fertilizer Management To Protect Water Quality Soil Testing And Plant Analysis ANR-790-4.4.2 For Fertilizer Management

oil testing is not an exact science, but it is the are required in the second largest amount. The other Smost important Best Management Practice for elements are called minor or micronutrients because fertilizer management. Soil test results can be used to they are needed in very small quantities. With the ex- determine proper fertilization and liming rates and to ception of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, all the ele- monitor soil fertility. ments must be obtained from the soil. Also valuable in monitoring soil fertility is plant Plants may take up many elements that play no analysis. Plant analysis has been used as a diagnostic vital role in their own nutrition. Plants can consume tool for many years. It is based on the concept that high levels of certain elements, some of which are es- the concentration of an essential element in a plant or sential and some of which are not. They may accu- part of the plant indicates the soil’s ability to supply mulate low levels of elements which play no benefi- that nutrient. Thus, nutrient concentrations in plants cial role in the plants themselves but which are are assumed to be directly related to the quantity of important in the diet of animals that eat these plants. that nutrient available in the soil. Plant analysis and Plants can even take up elements, like heavy metals, soil testing go hand in hand. which may be extremely toxic when their availability exceeds certain levels in the soil. How Plants Use Nutrients Of the more than one hundred chemical elements Soil Sampling Procedures known today, only certain basic elements play impor- While there have been improvements in sampling tant roles in the growth and development of plants. procedures, one of the ongoing problems in soil test- Not all are required by all plants, but all have been ing is failure to collect a sample that truly represents found essential to some. the conditions that are to be measured. Soil sampling Many scientists think in terms of there being six- techniques are undergoing review because of the teen essential elements for all higher plants. Carbon changing chemical characteristics of the surface 1 to (C), hydrogen (H), oxygen (O), nitrogen (N), phos- 2 inches of soil in conservation tillage fields. New phorus (P), and sulfur (S) are the elements of which techniques may also be required where land is regu- proteins and protoplasm are made, the living sub- larly used for waste disposal. stance of all cells. In addition to these six, there are General recommendations for standard row crops, ten other elements which are essential to the growth pastures, forage, and small grain crops are that a mini- of some plants: calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg), mum of one soil sample should be taken for every 30 potassium (K), iron (Fe), manganese (Mn), molybde- to 45 acres of harvested crop. More recent research on num (Mo), copper (Cu), boron (B), zinc (Zn), and soil test variability, however, suggests that a sample chlorine (Cl). Sodium (Na), cobalt (Co), vanadium should not represent more than 2.5 acres and even (V), silicon (Si), and nickel (Ni) are also required by sampling on a 1-acre grid with at least 5 cores per some lower plants. WhenARCHIVE these elements occur in in- sample might be needed on small acreage, high-value, sufficient quantity, plant growth and production are intensively managed crops such as vegetables. reduced. Other elements may be found to be essential Another approach is sampling according to maps in the future. of soil types. This approach would allow farm man- Nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium are called agers to vary fertilizer rates according to soil type. Yet the primary macronutrients because they are required another sampling approach is detailed or grid sam- in the greatest amount. Calcium, magnesium, and sul- pling for all crops. This allows fertilizer applications fur are called secondary macronutrients because they to be varied according to changes within the field. ANR-790 Water Quality 4.4.2 Visit our Web site at: www.aces.edu As a minimum, soil tests should be taken once plant tissue. It should be distinguished from rapid per 3-year rotation for field crops and once every 5 (qualitative) plant tissue tests, which may be made in years for pastures. But on sandy soils, especially the field. where rainfall or irrigation rates are high, samples should be taken annually. The same is true if a mobile Using Test Results nutrient form, such as nitrate or chloride, is part of Soil testing and plant analysis can provide much the test. valuable information about soil fertility and plant Deep testing is important in drier climates to de- health. termine how much of last year’s nitrogen fertilizer re- Soil tests can be used to monitor soil fertility mains within the plant’s reach. For most dryland rather than just to make a recommendation for a par- crops in the western United States and central Great ticular crop in a particular year. Soil test records can Plains where residual nitrate tests are used, there is be used to determine if soil fertility is being depleted, evidence that sampling to 2 feet is sufficient. In the maintained, or built-up. western Corn Belt, sampling depths of 3 to 4 feet are Soil tests can be used to determine residual ni- required. trogen. The distribution and carryover quantities of Special field test kits and improvements in analyt- nitrate nitrogen are drastically affected by climate, ical methods and micro-electronics will allow for tillage practices, and irrigation practices. Determining more sophisticated and timely onsite sampling and residual nitrogen may help farmers fine tune their ni- testing in the future. Devices that monitor fertilizer trogen application rates and reduce nitrate carryover in levels in shallow-rooted field crops may help growers their fields. The wide scale adoption of this practice avoid applying too much fertilizer while still feeding can have a significant influence on decreasing fertiliz- their plants for optimum yield and quality. However, er’s potential role in groundwater nitrate levels and all tests must be calibrated to plant growth response improving the efficiency of nitrogen fertilizer use. or they are of little value. Soil tests can be used to maintain plant nutrients at optimum levels, where the supply will not Standard Soil Tests And Plant Analyses limit plant growth at any stage from germination to The tests that are run depend on the lab making maturity. The soil test of the future may be used to the analyses, the nature of the soil and crops to be determine the optimum level of a nutrient required to grown, and the problems that are expected to be en- reach high yields, the amount to be applied to reach countered with the soil or crop. There is no need to this level, and the amount needed to maintain it. By test for all the chemical or mineral elements found in providing optimum fertility for crops, the farmer can soils and plants. Only certain basic elements, called maximize profit and minimize potential danger to the essential plant nutrients, play important roles in the environment. growth and development of plants. Soil tests can be used to diagnose micronutri- Primary nutrients (N, P, K) and secondary nutrient problems. Micronutrient soil tests are not very ents (Ca, Mg) are the elements most commonly tested reliable for diagnosing deficiencies because of the for in soil samples, whereas, deficiencies of the others low levels normally found in soil, but they may be are usually tested through plant analyses. used to diagnose micronutrient levels for some crops. Many labs also determine organic matter, cation These micronutrient tests, however, may be more exchange capacity (CEC), and percent base satura- valuable for avoiding over-application in the future. tion. Other determinations are optional with some Zinc, Cu, Mn, and non-nutrient elements such as Cr, labs. These include sulphate-S, nitrate-N and total N, Cd, Hg, and Pb cannot be removed from the soil once Cl, and micronutrients such as Zn, Mn, Cu, B, and they are applied. Information on pH, organic matter Fe. In arid and semi-arid regions, it may be necessary content, irrigation water quality, soil depth, soil com- to run tests for sodium and soluble salts. Virtually all paction, and liming history may be more valuable in labs in humid regions run pH, lime requirement, P, diagnosing micronutrient problems than soil testing. and K. ARCHIVESoil tests may be used to make recommenda- The most reliable tests are generally assumed to tions for lime application. Many determinations be for pH and lime requirement and for N, P, and K. help arrive at soil lime requirements: pH and buffer There is more research information behind the inter- pH, CEC and percent base saturation, Ca and Mg lev- pretation of these tests and, hence, more confidence els, organic matter, and soil texture. in them. Plant analysis may be used to diagnose or con- Plant analysis usually refers to the quantitative firm diagnoses of visible symptoms. Nutrient defi- analysis for the total amount of essential elements in ciencies are often difficult to identify because a num-

4.4.2-2 ber of different factors may cause similar symptoms. Conclusion Often, analyses are used to compare normal and ab- Soil testing can help a grower realize maximum normal plants. returns for his fertilizer investment by using the value Plant analysis may be used to identify “hidden of residual fertility. The grower can also avoid plant hunger.” Sometimes a plant may be suffering from a toxicities and deficiencies inadvertantly created by nutrient deficiency but show no symptoms. A plant over-applying some nutrients. Soil testing and plant analysis looks beyond the appearance of a crop. analyses are established best management practices, which have an additional benefit of protecting the soil Plant analysis can be used to indicate if ap- and water quality from excessive nutrients and metals. plied nutrients entered the plant. If no response was obtained to applied nutrients it might be conclud- References ed that the nutrients were not lacking. However, such Herbert, Garry W. 1987. Deep Soil Sampling For factors as pests, unfavorable placement, soil chemical Residual Nitrate. Dealer Progress (November/Decem- properties, or moisture stress might have prevented ber). The Fertilizer Institute. Washington, DC. the nutrient from being taken up by the plant. Humenik, Frank J., DeAnne D. Johnson, Plant analysis can be used to indicate interac- Jonathan M. Greglow, Steven A. Dressing, Richard P. tions or antagonism among nutrients. Sometimes Maas, Fred A. Koehler, Lee Christensen, William the addition of one nutrient will affect the amount of Snyder, James W. Meek, and Fred N. Swader. 1982. Best Management Practices For Agricultural Non- another taken up by the plant. For example, metal point Source Control: II Commercial Fertilizer. North cations including Cu2+, Fe2+, and Mn2+ inhibit plant 2+ Carolina Cooperative Extension Service. Biological uptake of Zn , and a Zn deficiency can enhance and Agricultural Engineering Department. North Car- phosphorus accumulation to toxic levels under certain olina State University. Raleigh, NC. conditions. Refocusing On Soil Testing—Is It Up To Speed And, finally, plant analysis can be used to study For Today’s Needs? 1986. Fertilizer Progress trends during the year or over the years. Periodic (May/June). The Fertilizer Institute. Washington, DC. sampling during the season may help to determine if The Diagnostic Approach. 1991. Potash and a nutrient is becoming deficient. Sampling a crop Phosphate Institute. Atlanta, GA over the years monitors trends in the levels of fertility Tisdale, Samuel L., Verner L. Nelson, and James in the soil. Many of the more common nutrient defi- D. Beaton. 1985. Elements Required In Plant Nutri- ciencies are the result of long-term improper lime and tion. In Soil Fertility And Fertilizers. 4th ed., 59-111. fertilizer practices. Plant nutrient deficiencies or ex- Macmillan Publishing Co. New York, NY. cesses can be detected before they appear as visual symptoms or reduce yields and quality.

This publication, supported in part by a grant from the Alabama Department of Environmental Management and the Tennessee Valley Authority, was prepared by James E. Hairston, Extension Water Quality Scientist, assisted by Leigh Strib- ARCHIVEling, Technical Writer. For more information, call your county Extension ofﬁce. Look in your telephone directory under your county’s name to ﬁnd the number. Issued in furtherance of Cooperative Extension work in agriculture and home economics, Acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914, and other related acts, in cooperation with the U.S. Department of Agriculture. The Alabama Cooperative Extension System (Al- abama A&M University and Auburn University) offers educational programs, materials, and equal opportunity employment to all people without regard to race, color, national origin, religion, sex, age, veteran status, or disability. ANR-790-4.4.2 UPS, New June 1995, Water Quality 4.4.2 4.4.2-3 Agriculture and Natural Resources WATER QUALITY: Controlling Nonpoint Source (NPS) Pollution

ALABAMA A&M AND AUBURN UNIVERSITIES

Fertilizer Management To Protect Water Quality Fertilizer Application Techniques ANR-790-4.4.3

o minimize nutrient losses to the environment ¥ Fall-applied urea can be used for crops other Tfrom fertilizers, farm managers must ensure that than rice if it is plowed under or incorporated after plants use fertilizer efficiently. Best Management application. Urea should not be used on high pH soils Practices regarding fertilizer application techniques to especially at high temperatures because considerable increase fertilizer uptake efficiency include proper loss can occur through the release of ammonia. timing, rate, and placement. ¥ Fall-applied anhydrous ammonia is appropriate Timing in areas with cool, dry conditions. (This is not normally the case in Alabama.) The lower cost and stable Timing of fertilizer application may be the most form of nitrogen in the soil are strong advantages. critical factor in determining fertilizer uptake efficien- Losses are minimized by applying anhydrous ammo- cy and crop yield. This is especially true for nitrogen nia after soil temperatures have fallen below 50¡F. A fertilizer. When fertilizer is applied near the time of nitrification inhibitor also can be used effectively to maximum growth, crops are able to more efficiently reduce fall nitrogen losses in some areas. use the nutrients. The more nutrients that are used, the less opportunity there will be for loss. ¥ Split application of nitrogen as compared to single application can reduce potential nitrogen losses by Variables such as crop and soil type, date of up to 30 percent and reduce potential groundwater con- planting, and climate affect the optimum timing of tamination. This is especially true for soils with a high nutrient application. Therefore, it is crucial that indi- leaching potential, such as deep sandy soils over shal- vidual farmers manage their fertilization schedules to low water or fractured rock. Split application is recom- best match application with the peak demands of their mended where practical for all humid regions and specific crops in their unique situations. areas of intensive irrigation. Timing Nitrogen Application ¥ Sidedressed nitrogen can be very efficient with ¥ Timing and application rate should leave as lit- a fast-growing crop such as corn if it is applied before tle residual nitrogen in the soil during the noncropped the corn begins tasseling; however, adequate soil periods of the year as possible. moisture must be available for rapid uptake. Around ¥ Spring preplant applications provide an oppor- 50 percent of the nitrogen for corn may be applied to tunity to apply nitrogen closer to when it is needed by the crop at planting. the crop. All forms can be used, but incorporation is ¥ Slow-release nitrogen fertilizers can reduce N important to minimize loss. losses by as much as 95 percent as compared to con- ¥ Spring-applied nitrogen fertilizer for spring and ventional forms but only under certain situations. summer crops is superior to fall application in regions Slow-release nitrogen fertilizers are recommended for with wet soils, humid climates, and high infiltration. use in all regions of the United States. However, these Spring and split applicationsARCHIVE are highly recommended fertilizers are quite expensive in comparison to stan- where practical in the Pacific Northwest and the east- dard urea and inorganic salts containing ammonium ern half of the United States. and nitrate forms of nitrogen. ¥ Summer-applied urea is preferable to nitrate-N ¥ Nitrification inhibitors delay the microbiologi- in paddy rice production because it is not as readily cal transformation of ammonium to nitrate. They are lost to the atmosphere in flooded anaerobic soils as is typically applied with ammonium salts or ammoni- nitrate fertilizer. Rice can readily use the ammonium um-forming nitrogen fertilizers and are effective for form of nitrogen. (Rice is not grown in Alabama.) 30 to 90 days. In this way, nitrification inhibitors as- ANR-790 Water Quality 4.4.3 Visit our Web site at: www.aces.edu sist in regulating the amount and potential distribu- terial on the soil surface. The objective is uniform dis- tion of nitrates in the soil. These products, however, tribution of the nutrients and proper distribution of the do not perform well in warm, humid regions such as herbicide if a weed-and-feed combination of herbicide the Southeastern U.S. and fertilizer is used. Depending on the tillage system, crop, expected weather conditions, herbicide program, Rate and soil type, the fertilizer material may be left on the Extra amounts of fertilizer will not ensure better surface or incorporated after application. crop yields or more efficient fertilizer uptake. Exces- Generally, all nutrients will be more efficiently sive application will increase both the cost to the utilized if they are incorporated after application. In- grower and the potential contamination of surface corporation makes the nutrients less susceptible to waters and groundwater. Excessive application of ni- erosion and runoff loss just after application. Ammo- trogen fertilizer will increase the likelihood that nitro- niacal nitrogen fertilizers are usually incorporated to gen will be leached into surface water and groundwa- reduce possible losses of ammonia through volatiliza- ter. Excessive phosphorus application will cause P tion. Phosphate and potash are usually incorporated buildup in the soil and greater surface runoff losses of to encourage more efficient utilization by the crop P, where soil erosion is not kept to a minimum. since soil moisture enhances their availability. Rates Of Nitrogen Application Banding. Applying fertilizer in a narrow zone or band to provide a concentrated source of nutrients is ¥ The rate of nitrogen should be adjusted to a rea- an advantage under some situations. Band application sonable yield goal for the specific crop and field or may result in more efficient use of the nutrients (1) if soil, based on local research. All soils do not have the soil test levels are low, (2) when early season stress same yield potential and should not receive the same from cool or wet conditions is likely to limit root fertilizer rate. growth, (3) where large amounts of surface residue ¥ Some states use nitrate tests to estimate the limit soil-fertilizer contact, or (4) in soils that have a amount of nitrogen needed before planting or side- high tendency to fix nutrients in unavailable forms dressing. In years with extreme weather variation, throughout the soil. and especially in the warm, humid Southeastern U.S., Generally, all types of banding of P, K, and mi- the estimated amounts may be inaccurate for opti- cronutrients result in more of the applied fertilizer mum response. material being utilized during the first cropping sea- ¥ The amount of nitrogen from other sources son. This means less residual, or buildup, for later should be accounted for when determining nitrogen cropping seasons. Nitrogen applications for reduced application rates. Other sources include nitrogen in ir- tillage systems are particularly adapted to band appli- rigation water, soil nitrogen mineralization, and the cations. Band placement of some sort is the single nitrogen provided by organic wastes, manures, or most important management tool available to im- legumes such as alfalfa, soybeans, clover, and vetch. prove phosphorus use by plants. ¥ Soil leaching potential should be considered Surface Strip Or Banding. This method of fertilizer when determining application rates. In certain soils placement involves application of solid or fluid fertil- much of the applied nitrogen may be leached from the izers in bands or strips of varying widths on the soil root zone by natural rainfall or irrigation if applied surface or on the surface of crop residues. Typically, above certain rates and within a short time interval. the fertilizer material is applied in strips that represent 25 to 30 percent of the soil surface. Depending Placement on the tillage system, the strips may be either incor- Proper timing and placement of fertilizer deter- porated or left on the surface. Applications of phos- mines whether nutrients will be present when needed phate and potash should be incorporated since P and by the crop. This is especially true for immobile nu- K losses are closely tied to soil erosion. trients such as phosphorus and sometimes potassium. Starter. Starter fertilizer application, a form of band The efficient use of phosphorusARCHIVE is particularly affect- application close to the seed, is an important means ed by placement. of getting crops off to an early start. It is particularly Many placement techniques are available for helpful for crops planted in cool soils. Crops planted today’s farm managers. Soil and crop type, tillage under conservation or reduced tillage conditions fre- system, and economics all influence which placement quently face those conditions. Cool soil temperatures technique the farm manager will choose. slow root development, lower plant metabolism, and Broadcast And Surface Incorporation. The simplest diminish the amount of energy released by sugar method of fertilizer application is to broadcast the ma- metabolism, which is needed for nutrient uptake.

4.4.3-2 Higher concentrations of nutrients close to the devel- depths of 4 to 5 inches. A rotary valve in the wheel oping seedlings can help overcome limitations to nu- hub dispenses fertilizer to the “down” spike from a trient uptake and availability. positive displacement pump. “Pop-up” is another term that is sometimes used Theoretically, the effects of these high concentra- in connection with starter terminology. This term tions would be about the same as those from knifed means direct seed application of fertilizer material at bands, and modified soil chemistry in the retention low rates to stimulate very early growth. Many crops zone could be expected. Preplant or post-plant applica- are very sensitive to direct seed-fertilizer contact, and tions of fluid fertilizers for conventional and reduced rates of nutrients for pop-up must be very low. Seri- tillage systems may benefit from point injection. ous injury to the seed can result if the rate of total N Conclusion plus K2O is above 7 to 10 pounds per acre, particularly for row crops. Nitrogen and phosphorus are natural parts of a Starter fertilizer doesn’t pay every year, but it large cycle in the environment and their own individ- rarely causes a problem. It can get a crop off to a ual cycles in soils, plants, and animals. Both are vital- faster start, thus establishing the crop canopy and root ly needed as fertilizers. Both can be lost from the soil and into the environment. And both can be managed system earlier. A well-established crop will reduce in ways that serve farmers and consumers and that are water erosion of the soil and make more efficient use compatible with the environment. of resources. Deep Banding. The term “deep banding” usually References refers to preplant applications of nutrients (N, P, K, Best Management Practices For Profitable Nitro- and S) injected 2 to 6 inches below the soil surface. In gen Programs. 1989. Pioneer. Des Moines, IA. special situations, such as lime or deep potash place- Fertilizer Management For Today’s Tillage Sys- ment, the depth of injection may be 12 inches or more tems. 1989. Potash and Phosphate Institution. Foun- below the soil surface. dation for Agronomic Research. Atlanta, GA. Deep banding is ususlly the least desirable and Humenik, Frank J., DeAnne D. Johnson, often the most expensive way of incorporating fertil- Jonathan M. Greglow, Steven A. Dressing, Richard P. izer into the soil. Maas, Fred A. Koehler, Lee Christensen, William Early N should not be placed deeper than 2 inch- Snyder, James W. Meek, and Fred N. Swader. 1982. es for shallow-rooted vegetable crops grown on sandy Best Management Practices For Agricultural Non- soils. Natural rainfall or irrigation could leach the ni- point Source Control: II Commercial Fertilizer. North trogen too deep to be recovered by such crops. Carolina Cooperative Extension Service. Biological Point Injection Of Fluids. Point injection creates and Agricultural Engineering Department. North Car- pockets or “nests” of nutrients in the soil with subse- olina State University. Raleigh, NC. quent high nutrient concentrations. This relatively Plant Nutrient Use And The Environment: Execu- new technique employs a spoked wheel to physically tive Summary Of A Symposium. 1985. The Fertilizer inject nutrients at points about 8 inches apart to Institute. Washington, DC.

This publication, supported in part by a grant from the Alabama Department of Environmental Management and the Tennessee Valley Authority, was prepared by James E. Hairston, Extension Water Quality Scientist, assisted by Leigh Strib- ARCHIVEling, Technical Writer. For more information, call your county Extension ofﬁce. Look in your telephone directory under your county’s name to ﬁnd the number. Issued in furtherance of Cooperative Extension work in agriculture and home economics, Acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914, and other related acts, in cooperation with the U.S. Department of Agriculture. The Alabama Cooperative Extension System (Al- abama A&M University and Auburn University) offers educational programs, materials, and equal opportunity employment to all people without regard to race, color, national origin, religion, sex, age, veteran status, or disability. ANR-790-4.4.3 UPS, New June 1995, Water Quality 4.4.3

4.4.3-3 Agriculture and Natural Resources WATER QUALITY: Controlling Nonpoint Source (NPS) Pollution

ALABAMA A&M AND AUBURN UNIVERSITIES

Fertilizer Management To Protect Water Quality Cropping And Tillage Practices ANR-790-4.4.4 For Fertilizer Management

he goals of all best management practices for re- growing crop is alternated with a clean-tilled crop or Tducing nutrient loss to waters are to efficiently use fallow. nutrients in the field and to keep what is not used Sediment Basin: A barrier or dam constructed across from running off or leaching. Cropping and tillage a waterway or at other suitable locations to collect silt practices that reduce surface runoff and soil erosion or sediment. provide the lowest cost, most direct control of nutri- Terrace: An earth embankment, channel, or a combi- ent runoff. nation ridge and channel constructed across a slope to Surface losses of nitrogen can be reduced by 40 control runoff. to 85 percent by the use of crop rotations, no-till, and Level terraces can reduce total nitrogen losses in conservation tillage as compared to conventional surface runoff by as much as 85 percent, but they can practices. Phosphorus losses can be reduced by 40 to more than double groundwater nitrate loading as 70 percent by the use of crop rotations, cover crops, compared to contour farming. Terraces are recom- and conservation tillage as compared to continuous mended as nitrogen controls where no potential cropping and conventional tillage practices. groundwater problem exists. Contour farming should Cropping Practices be used in the humid eastern and Pacific Northwest states with groundwater nitrate problems. The cropping practices and structural controls that limit erosion are also used to protect against ex- Level terraces can reduce total phosphorus losses cessive nutrient loss. These are crop rotations, con- by as much as 65 percent as compared to contour tour plowing, strip-cropping, sediment basins, and farming. Terrace systems are a phosphorus control terraces. BMP across the nation. Crop Rotations: Planting crops to minimize the Tillage Practices number of years fields are in row crops. Systems Maintaining the protective effects of crop should include rotations that contain grasses, residues on sloping fields requires a shift away from legumes, and small grains such as rye, wheat, barley, conventional tillage systems that leave surface soil and oats. Grasses, legumes, and small grains are more susceptible to erosion. Tillage options should be cho- successful at protecting the soil from water and wind sen which improve the land’s soil- and nutrient-hold- erosion than row crops. ing capacity. For example, a winter cover of small grain offers The following practices offer control of both the effective protection against soil erosion and nutrient relatively immobile nutrients—phosphorus and potas- loss. Winter cover crops will also absorb and hold any sium—and the more soluble and mobile nutrient—ni- unused nitrogen from the previous crop and prevent it trogen. from leaching to groundwater.ARCHIVE Conservation Tillage: Controls or reduces the Contour Farming: Managing sloping, cultivated amount of runoff and erosion from crop fields. land in such a way that seedbed preparation, planting, No-till Or Zero Tillage: Untilled residues of the pre- and cultivation are done on the contour. vious crop are left on the soil surface to reduce soil Strip-cropping: Growing crops in a systematic ar- erosion while the seed slot is opened with a fluted rangement of strips or bands across a general slope. coulter or double-disk opener ahead of the planter Crops are arranged so that a strip of grass or close- shoe.

ANR-790 Water Quality 4.4.4 Visit our Web site at: www.aces.edu Strip Tillage: A narrow strip is tilled with a rototiller Conclusion gang or other implement; seed is planted in same op- While the water quality issue can be a complicat- eration. ed one, these BMPs may be part of a simple solution. Sweep Tillage: Soil is shattered and lifted, leaving None of these techniques is new, but their water qual- residue in place and enhancing infiltration. Used on ity benefits can be easily overlooked. small-grain stubble to kill early fall weeds. Listing: Plowing and planting in the same operation. References Plowed soil is pushed into ridges between rows, and Common Practices Yield Contemporary Benefits. seeds are planted in the furrows between the ridges. 1987. Fertilizer Progress (March/April). The Fertiliz- Listing is popular in low rainfall areas because it con- er Institute. Washington, DC. centrates soil moisture near the crop row. Most effec- Humenik, Frank J., DeAnne D. Johnson, tive on the contour. Jonathan M. Greglow, Steven A. Dressing, Richard P. Ridge Plant: Planting on ridges year after year, with Maas, Fred A. Koehler, Lee Christensen, William no seedbed preparation preceding planting. Produces Snyder, James W. Meek, and Fred N. Swader. 1982. a row configuration similar to listing. Used in higher Best Management Practices For Agricultural Non- rainfall areas to keep excess water away from plants point Source Control: II Commercial Fertilizer. North early in the growing season. Effective for erosion Carolina Cooperative Extension Service. Biological control when done on the contour. and Agricultural Engineering Department. North Car- Plow-plant: Planting directly into plowed ground olina State University. Raleigh, NC. with no secondary tillage. Increases infiltration and Plant Nutrient Use And The Environment: Execu- water storage. tive Summary Of A Symposium. 1985. The Fertilizer Wheel-track Plant: Planting on wheel tracks of the Institute. Washington, DC. tractor or planter. Similar to plow-plant, but isn’t restricted to freshly plowed ground.

This publication, supported in part by a grant from the Alabama Department of Environmental Management and the Tennessee Valley Authority, was prepared by James E. Hairston, Extension Water Quality Scientist, assisted by Leigh Strib- ling, Technical Writer. For more information, call your county Extension ofﬁce. Look in your telephone ARCHIVEdirectory under your county’s name to ﬁnd the number. Issued in furtherance of Cooperative Extension work in agriculture and home economics, Acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914, and other related acts, in cooperation with the U.S. Department of Agriculture. The Alabama Cooperative Extension System (Al- abama A&M University and Auburn University) offers educational programs, materials, and equal opportunity employment to all people without regard to race, color, national origin, religion, sex, age, veteran status, or disability. ANR-790-4.4.4 UPS, New June 1995, Water Quality 4.4.4

4.4.4-2 Agriculture and Natural Resources WATER QUALITY: Controlling Nonpoint Source (NPS) Pollution

ALABAMA A&M AND AUBURN UNIVERSITIES

Fertilizer Management To Protect Water Quality Nitrogen Management Practices ANR-790-4.4.5 For Fertilizer Management

he production and widespread use of commercial the manure will help to determine more accurately TN fertilizers has resulted in the development of a the proper rate to apply. very stable and productive agricultural system in the ¥ Classify crops and soils for leaching potential United States and elsewhere. Farm managers routine- and vary fertilizer application products, timing, rates, ly achieve levels of productivity that would have and methods to reduce this potential. Shallow-rooted seemed improbable a few decades ago. Unfortunately, crops with high N requirement have high leaching po- these gains can incur environmental costs; some ni- tential while deep-rooted crops with less N require- trogen applied to crops may escape to surface water ment have less leaching potential. Deep sands and or groundwater, possibly contaminating drinking shallow sandy soils over fractured geology have high water supplies. leaching potential while clayey soils have less leach- Proper management of soils, water, crops, and ni- ing potential but greater runoff potential. trogen application can ensure that nitrogen is avail- ¥ Use variable-rate fertilizer application if soils able when it is most needed and least likely to be lost within a field vary in nutrient supplying ability be- to the environment. Following is a list of recommend- cause of topography, erosion, soil type variation, de- ed practices to reduce water pollution. These prac- position, or other natural or human forces. tices can help farm managers provide the nitrogen ¥ Keep accurate and detailed records of produc- needed by crops in a manner that leaves as little ex- tion inputs, climatic data, soil test levels, yields, and cess as possible to enter the environment. other essential information to construct a manage- Nitrogen Management Practices ment system and to plan future improvements. ¥ Use a detailed soil and/or tissue testing pro- ¥ Apply preplant N fertilizers as near to planting gram. Use soil and or nitrate tests if they are recom- as possible. Avoid fall applications for spring or sum- mended for your area. Soil tests for nitrate have not mer seeded crops. been recommended in Alabama or most other states ¥ Use split N applications for the following situa- in the warm, humid Southeastern U.S. Chlorophyll tions: on high N requiring crops such as corn; on test meters may be effective in predicting the N needs shallow-rooted vegetable crops; when soils tend to re- of an actively growing crop. main wet for several days following rain; when soils ¥ Follow soil test and/or plant analysis recommen- are sandy; or where there are sink holes (areas of dations as well as other practices recommended by karst geology). university labs or other labs to obtain the most prof- ¥ Do not topdress small grain and cool season itable yields. Crops make more efficient use of total N grasses in the spring until the growing season begins. when other factors of production are not limited. The longer the interval between application and use, ¥ Establish realistic yield goals for crops based on the greater the chance N will be lost to the environ- soil potential and managementARCHIVE levels. Local Exten- ment. sion Service or Natural Resources Conservation Ser- ¥ Avoid applying fertilizer and manure to frozen vice offices can help in establishing yield levels. Gen- soils or before heavy rains. Runoff and leaching loss- erally, yields will be no more than 10 percent above es could be great. the average for the previous years. ¥ Incorporate animal manures, urea, or urea-con- ¥ Take into account contributions from all sources taining materials where possible to increase N-use ef- when determining amounts of N to apply (fertilizers, ficiency and reduce runoff potential. If materials are manures, legumes, sludges). A laboratory analysis of injected, slits should be made on the contour. ANR-790 Water Quality 4.4.5 Visit our Web site at: www.aces.edu ¥ Handle and store fertilizers and manures using References properly designed facilities and recommended tech- Coppock, Ray, and Roy S. Rauschkolb. 1979. Ni- niques. Do not leave dry fertilizers and manures ex- trate Losses In Agriculture: A Management Problem. posed to rainfall and stormwater runoff. Clean up California’s Environment Newsletter No. 48 spills immediately. Provide adequate containment for (March/April). California Cooperative Extension Ser- liquid storage tanks and lagoons to prevent seepage, vice. University of California. Berkeley, CA. leaching, or direct runoff from leaks or ruptures International Minerals and Chemicals Corpora- caused by accident or natural events. Do not allow tion. 1986. Nitrogen. In Efficient Fertilizer Use: Fer- manure lagoons and pits to overflow. tilizing For Maximum Profit, 71-97. IMC Corp. ¥ Maintain and calibrate equipment for spreading Mundelein, IL. fertilizers and manures. Uniform application at rec- Jared, John R., and Hugh O. Vaigneur. 1989. Ni- ommended rates increases crop yields and N use. trogen Management In Agriculture And Water Quali- ¥ Use accepted soil conservation practices, both ty. PB1355 Tennessee Cooperative Extension Service. for N management and to sustain high production. University of Tennessee. Knoxville, TN. Soil loss should be held to near tolerance levels set by van Es, Harold M., Stuart D. Klausner, W. Shaw USDA/NRCS. Practices include crop rotation, strip- Reid, and Nancy M. Trautmann. 1991. Nitrogen And cropping, contouring, terraces, grass waterways, di- The Environment. Information Bulletin 218. New versions, and conservation tillage. Although there is York Cooperative Extension Service. Cornell Univer- some evidence that no-till cropping increases the sity. Ithaca, NY. chances of nitrates moving into groundwater, no-till greatly reduces runoff and the amount of N and sedi- Wood, C. W., and D. W. Reeves. 1991. Field ment reaching surface waters. The net effect is in Chlorophyll Measurements May Predict N Needs Of favor of no-till, which greatly improves water quality Crops. In Research Highlights, 10. Alabama Agricul- overall. tural Experiment Station. Auburn University. Auburn, AL. ¥ Establish grass filter strips along field edges bordering ditches, streams, and sink holes. ¥ Use debris basins or ponds in critical areas to temporarily store runoff water and allow sediment to settle. ¥ Never dump nitrogen-containing materials in streams, wells, or sink holes. Properly seal old or abandoned wells. ¥ Avoid over-irrigating high N requiring crops, especially on sandy, excessively drained soils. High frequency N application through irrigation water may be the best alternative. ¥ Avoid over-fertilizing all crops!

This publication, supported in part by a grant from the Alabama Department of Environmental Management and the Tennessee Valley Authority, was prepared by James E. Hairston, Extension Water Quality Scientist, assisted by Leigh Strib- ARCHIVEling, Technical Writer. For more information, call your county Extension ofﬁce. Look in your telephone directory under your county’s name to ﬁnd the number. Issued in furtherance of Cooperative Extension work in agriculture and home economics, Acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914, and other related acts, in cooperation with the U.S. Department of Agriculture. The Alabama Cooperative Extension System (Al- abama A&M University and Auburn University) offers educational programs, materials, and equal opportunity employment to all people without regard to race, color, national origin, religion, sex, age, veteran status, or disability. ANR-790-4.4.5 UPS, New June 1995, Water Quality 4.4.5

4.4.5-2 Agriculture and Natural Resources WATER QUALITY: Controlling Nonpoint Source (NPS) Pollution

ALABAMA A&M AND AUBURN UNIVERSITIES

Fertilizer Management To Protect Water Quality Irrigation Systems And Fertilizer ANR-790-4.4.7 Management

merican farmers use irrigation on more than 49 Maintaining awareness of field soil moisture de- Amillion acres of cropland annually. But intensive pends on frequent field monitoring. Assessing soil irrigation can result in nutrient losses to surface wa- moisture—with a soil probe, by hand examination, or ters through irrigation return flows and nitrate losses other soil moisture monitoring equipment—is essential. to groundwater through leaching. In addition to monitoring field moisture, weather sta- In fact, nitrogen leaching is a very serious prob- tions and computer programs that predict water use and lem on many irrigated soils for two reasons. First, the evaporation can aid producers in scheduling irrigation. permeable soils that are commonly irrigated have Soil water intake and water-holding capacity high rates of leaching and nitrification. Second, a rel- varies according to soil type. Table 1 illustrates the atively high nitrogen fertilizer rate is used on most ir- difference in soil’s ability to store plant-available rigated crops because good returns are expected. water and their maximum intake rate for sprinkler ir- Water quality deterioration due to poor irrigation rigation. Grower knowledge of such information is management is not a major concern in Alabama, but important when determining irrigation applications. producers need to be aware of potential problems and For example, if an irrigator applies 1.5 inches of preventive measures. Only about 200,000 acres are ir- water on a field whose maximum holding capacity is rigated on a regular basis in Alabama, of which about only 1 inch of water, leaching will likely occur. If 153,000 is cropland. Nursery crops, golf courses, and water is applied faster than the soil’s intake rate, other recreational areas make up the bulk of the irrigat- runoff will likely occur. ed non-cropland acres. Most producers use sprinkler When all these factors are considered together, systems and few apply fertilizers or other chemicals producers will be able to balance stored soil moisture, through the irrigation systems. Thus, most potential rainfall, and irrigation water with crop moisture problems are associated with excessive runoff or needs—maximizing yield capacity with minimum nu- leachate which may be transporting nutrients. trient loss. Determining Irrigation Rates Table 1. Approximate Amounts Of Water Held By In most regions where irrigation supplements Different Soils And Maximum Rates Of Irrigation. rainfall, water applications should be matched to a Maximum Rate Of Water Held crop’s actual moisture needs. To determine irrigation Irrigation Soil Texture (inches per rates, farm managers must be able to balance crop (inches per hour, foot of soil) moisture needs with available stored soil moisture, bare soil) rainfall, and irrigation water. Crop water requirements depend on both soil Sand 0.5 to 0.7 0.75 evaporation and plant transpiration. Plants consume, Fine sand 0.7 to 0.9 0.60 on the average, from 0.1ARCHIVE to 0.3 inches of rainfall or ir- Loamy sand 0.7 to 1.1 0.50 rigation per day. Early in the season, soil evaporation Loamy fine sand 0.8 to 1.2 0.45 is the primary factor in moisture loss. As the crop Sandy loam 0.8 to 1.4 0.40 continues to grow, shading reduces evaporation, and Loam 1.0 to 1.8 0.35 transpiration becomes dominant. The peak water use Silt loam 1.2 to 1.8 0.30 period for corn, wheat, grain sorghum, and soybeans Clay loam 1.3 to 2.1 0.25 occurs during pollination. Crop moisture needs de- Silty clay 1.4 to 2.5 0.20 cline somewhat during late grain filling but are still Clay 1.4 to 2.4 0.15 important in determining ultimate yield levels. Source: Western Fertilizer Handbook, 1985. ANR-790 Water Quality 4.4.7 Visit our Web site at: www.aces.edu Using Limited Irrigation The increased pressure generated by the hydraulic New irrigation water management techniques can head greatly increases the rate of infiltration of water increase efficiency in water use and reduce nutrient into the crop root zone. Thus, it increases the crop’s losses to the environment. The new techniques are re- absorption of necessary moisture and nutrients. ferred to as “limited irrigation” and can be used on a Low pressure sprinkler systems and systems with number of crops, including cotton, winter wheat, bar- drop tubes reduce evaporation losses and erosion ley, oats, grain sorghum, forage, and soybeans. rates common for high pressure sprinkler systems. Limited irrigation is most successful when grow- Benefits Of Limited Irrigation ing drought-tolerant crops, when seasonal rainfall is normal or above normal, or when soils have high In addition to reducing costs for pumping water, water-holding capacities. Under limited irrigation, limited irrigation management can greatly reduce the precise scheduling of irrigation is critical to maintain potential for nutrient losses to the environment. Nutri- economic yields. ent losses are minimized through reduced runoff and a reduced volume of irrigation return flows. These Limited irrigation techniques include furrow waters are often discharged to surface waters and can compaction, alternate furrow irrigation or wide- deliver significant quantities of nutrients to receiving spaced furrows, elimination of pre-plant irrigation, streams. Also, three of the limited irrigation prac- surge flow irrigation, and low-pressure low-level tices—furrow compaction, wide-furrow spacing, and sprinklers or drop-tubes on a center pivot or linear- surge flow—greatly reduce water percolation beyond traversing system. the root zone, resulting in dramatically lowered po- Furrow compaction is accomplished by running a tential for nitrate leaching into groundwater. tractor tire over the furrow. This results in compaction which restricts water leaching beneath the root zone. References As a result, more irrigation water is available to the Hergert, Gary W., and Norman L. Klocke. 1985. plant roots. Cutting Leaching Losses During Irrigation. Fertilizer Alternate furrow irrigation is accomplished by al- Progress (May/June). The Fertilizer Institute. Wash- ternating a compacted furrow with a non-compacted ington, DC. or soft furrow to allow greater flexibility in supplying Humenik, Frank J., DeAnne D. Johnson, water to the crop. The soft furrow is used at times of Jonathan M. Greglow, Steven A. Dressing, Richard P. rapid plant growth when maximum rates of water in- Maas, Fred A. Koehler, Lee Christensen, William filtration and nutrient uptake are necessary to main- Snyder, James W. Meek, and Fred N. Swader. 1982. tain yields. The hard furrow allows application of Best Management Practices For Agricultural Non- slower, more measured amounts of water with less point Source Control: II Commercial Fertilizer. North potential for leaching losses to groundwater. Carolina Cooperative Extension Service. Biological The elimination of pre-plant irrigation can greatly and Agricultural Engineering Department. North Car- reduce soil erosion and loss of nutrients. Instead, irri- olina State University. Raleigh, NC. gation water is supplied in a well-calibrated manner Plant Nutrient Use And The Environment: Execu- after crops are planted. This technique ensures re- tive Summary Of A Symposium. 1985. The Fertilizer duced water losses at the beginning of the season. Institute. Washington, DC. Surge flow irrigation can be used to maximize Reducing Nutrient Losses With Limited Irriga- water uptake. This format uses intermittent application. 1986. Fertilizer Progress (September/October). tion of water in furrow irrigation. Surge flow applica- The Fertilizer Institute. Washington, DC. tion of irrigation water provides a series of waves, or Western Fertilizer Handbook. 7th ed. 1985. Cali- hydraulic heads, of water flowing down the furrows. fornia Fertilizer Association. Sacramento, CA. ARCHIVEThis publication, supported in part by a grant from the Alabama Department of Environmental Management and the Tennessee Valley Authority, was prepared by James E. Hairston, Extension Water Quality Scientist, assisted by Leigh Strib- ling, Technical Writer. For more information, call your county Extension office. Look in your telephone directory under your county’s name to find the number. Issued in furtherance of Cooperative Extension work in agriculture and home economics, Acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914, and other related acts, in cooperation with the U.S. Department of Agriculture. The Alabama Cooperative Extension System (Alabama A&M University and Auburn University) offers educational programs, materials, and equal opportunity employment to all people without regard to race, color, national origin, religion, sex, age, veteran status, or disability. ANR-790-4.4.7 UPS, New June 1995, Water Quality 4.4.7 4.4.7-2 Agriculture and Natural Resources WATER QUALITY: Controlling Nonpoint Source (NPS) Pollution

ALABAMA A&M AND AUBURN UNIVERSITIES

Pesticide Management To Protect Water Quality Understanding Pesticides And ANR-790-4.5.1 How They Affect Water Quality

hile pesticides are indispensable in modern agri- croorganisms in the soil; it may move downward in Wculture, their use or misuse may lead to serious the soil and either adhere to soil particles or dissolve; water quality problems. Fish kills, reproductive fail- it may volatilize and enter the atmosphere; it may be ure of birds, and acute illnesses in people have been broken down into less toxic compounds by microbes all attributed to the ingestion of pesticides or expo- and chemical reactions; it may be leached or moved sure to pesticides usually as the result of misapplica- out of the plant’s root zone by rain or irrigation water tion, careless storage, or careless disposal of unused filtering through the soil; it may be carried away in pesticides and pesticide containers. runoff water on the soil surface; or it may be trans- Pesticide contamination of drinking water is a na- ported while attached to eroding sediment. tional concern. In the fall of 1990, EPA completed a Properly applied pesticides may reach surface 5-year national well water survey of community and water and groundwater in three basic ways: runoff, rural wells. The results showed a much smaller detec- run-in, and leaching. tion level for pesticides than was expected: 4.2 percent in rural domestic (private) wells and 10.4 percent Runoff is the physical transport of pollutants over the in community wells. Only a small portion of the wells soil surface by rainwater that does not soak into the were estimated to have at least one pesticide above soil. Pesticides move from ﬁelds while dissolved or the drinking water standard or maximum contaminant suspended in runoff water or adsorbed (chemically at- level (MCL): 0.8 percent or 750 community wells tached) to eroded sediment. and 0.6 percent or 60,900 rural domestic wells. Run-in is the physical transport of pollutants directly Although this was better than expected news on to groundwater. For example, this can occur in areas pesticide contamination in groundwater, it still meant of limestone (Karst-carbonate) aquifers, which con- that an estimated 9,850 community wells (0.8 percent tain sinkholes and porous or fractured bedrock. Rain of the 94,625 community wells nationwide) and or irrigation water can carry pesticides through sink- 446,000 private wells (0.6 percent of the 10,508,770 holes or fractured bedrock directly into groundwater. rural domestic wells nationwide) throughout the Leaching is the movement of pollutants through the country have some pesticide contamination. soil by rain or irrigation water as the water moves In addition to potential health and environmental downward through the soil. Soil organic matter con- threats, pesticide losses from ﬁelds and contamination tent, clay content, and permeability all affect the po- of surface water and groundwater represent a mone- tential for pesticides to leach in soils. In general, soils tary loss to farmers. with moderate to high organic matter and clay content So how can pesticides be managed to minimize and moderate or slow permeability are less likely to both threats to the environment and health and eco- leach pesticides into groundwater. In fine-textured nomic losses? The first step in safe management of ARCHIVEsoils, macropores, which are principally root channels pesticides is understanding how pesticides move in and wormholes, may contribute to the leaching of soils and what factors affect their movement. pesticides. Pesticide Movement In Soils The EPA has compiled a list of leachable pesti- Once applied to cropland, a number of things may cides, which are shown in Table 1. Special restric- happen to a pesticide. It may be taken up by plants; it tions have been placed on some of these chemicals may be ingested by animals, insects, worms, or mi- and others have been discontinued.

ANR-790 Water Quality 4.5.1 Visit our Web site at: www.aces.edu Table 1. EPA’s List Of Leachable Pesticides. Chemical Name Trade Names Acephate Orthene Alachlor Lasso Aldicarb Temik Azinphos methyl Guthion, Gusathion M Bensulfide Betasan, Prefar Butylate Sutan Chloropicrin Telone Chlorsulfuron Glean, Telar Cyanizine Bladex, Fortrol Cycloate Ro-Neet 2,4-D, dimethylamine salt Diazinon Spectracide, Knox-Out Dichlobenil Casoron, Decabane, Prefix D Dicloron Allisan, Botran Diethalyl ethyl Antor Dimethoate Cygon, Fostion MM, Perfekthion, Rogor, Roxion Diquat dibromide Aquicide, Cleansweep, Pathclear, Reglone, Weedol Disulfoton Disyston, Dithiosystox, Frumin AL, Solvirex EPTC Eptam, Eradicane Ethofumesate Nortran, Tramat Ethoprop Mocap, Prophos Fenamiphos Nemacur Fluometuron Cotoran Fonofos Dyfonate Fosetyl-Al Aliette, Mikal Hexazinone Velpar Linuron Lorox, Afalon Metalaxyl Apron, Fubol, Ridomil Metaldehyde Deadline Methiocarb Mesurol, Draza Methomyl Lannate, Nudrin Methyl isothiocyanate Trapex Metolachlor Dual Metribuzin Lexone, Sencor Molinate Ordram Napropamide Devrinol Naptalam, sodium salt Alanap Norflurazon Evital, Solicam, Zorial Oryzalin Dirimal, Ryzelan, Surflan Oxadiazon Ronstar Oxydemeton methyl Metasystox R Parathion ARCHIVEBladan, Folidol, Fosferno, Niran Pebulate Tillam Prometryn Caparol, Gesagard Propyzamide Kerb Sulfometuron Oust Tebuthiuron Perflan, Spike Triallate Avadex BE, Fargo Vernolate Vernam Source: Council For Agricultural Science And Technology, 1992.

4.5.1-2 Factors Affecting Pesticide Movement The lower the partition coefficient, the greater the How much pesticide is lost to runoff, run-in, or pesticide leaching potential. leaching depends on some combination of the follow- Volatility. The tendency of a pesticide to become a ing four important factors: gas, similar to the evaporation of water, will affect its ¥ Pesticide properties. loss to the atmosphere by volatilization. If a pesticide ¥ Soil properties. is highly volatile (has a high vapor pressure) and is not very water soluble, it is likely to be lost to the at- ¥ Site conditions. mosphere and less will be available for leaching to ¥ Management practices. groundwater. Highly volatile compounds may be- The importance of these factors to pesticide come groundwater contaminants, however, if they are movement varies with each situation. A single factor highly soluble in water. For most pesticides, loss may be more important than another in one situation through volatilization is insignificant compared with and of very little consequence in the next. leaching or surface losses. Pesticide Properties. Four chemical properties that Volatile pesticides may cause water contamina- affect pesticide movement are solubility, adsorption, tion or other problems from aerial drift. Environmen- volatility, and degradation. tal conditions such as temperature, humidity, and Solubility. The tendency of a pesticide to dissolve in wind speed affect volatilization losses. Special surfac- water affects its leaching potential. As water seeps tants or carriers can be used to reduce volatilization downward through soil, it carries with it water-solu- losses. ble chemicals. This process is called leaching. Water Degradation. A pesticide’s rate of degradation (per- solubility greater than 30 milligrams per liter (or parts sistence) in soil also affects leaching potential. Pesti- per million) has been identified as the “flag” for a po- cides are degraded, or broken down into other chemi- tential leacher. Highly soluble pesticides have a ten- cal forms, by sunlight (photodecomposition), by dency to be carried in surface runoff and to be microorganisms in the soil, and by a variety of chemi- leached from the soil to groundwater. Poorly soluble cal and physical reactions. The longer the compound pesticides—applied to soil but not incorporated— lasts before it is broken down, that is, the longer it have a high potential for loss through runoff or ero- persists, the longer it is subject to the forces of leach- sion. ing and runoff. Adsorption. Adsorption refers to the attraction be- Soil Properties. The properties of soils that affect tween a chemical and soil particles. Many pesticides pesticide movement are texture, permeability, and or- do not leach because they are adsorbed, or tightly held, by soil particles. Pesticides which are weakly ganic matter content. adsorbed will leach in varying degrees depending on Texture. Soil texture is determined by the relative their solubility. proportions of sand, silt, and clay. Texture affects Adsorption depends not only on the chemical movement of water through soil (infiltration) and, properties of the pesticide but also on the soil type therefore, movement of dissolved chemicals such as and amount of soil organic matter present. Even pesticides. The sandier the soil, the greater the chance strongly adsorbed pesticides can be carried with erod- of a pesticide reaching groundwater. ed soil particles in surface runoff. Coarse-textured sands and gravels have high infil- The potential for a pesticide to be adsorbed is tration capacities, and water tends to percolate through the soil rather than to run off over the soil called the adsorption partition coefficient (Kd). Some example partition coefficients are shown in Table 2. surface or be adsorbed to soil particles. Therefore, coarse-textured soils generally have high potential for Table 2. Partition Coefficients For Selected leaching of pesticides to groundwater but low poten- Pesticides. tial for surface loss to streams and lakes. Pesticide K On the other hand, fine-textured soils such as ARCHIVEd clays and clay loams generally have low infiltration Aldicarb (Temik) 10 capacities, and water tends to run off rather than to Carbofuran 29 percolate. Soils with more clay and organic matter Atrazine 172 also have more surface area for adsorption of pesti- Carbaryl (Sevin) 229 cides and higher populations of microorganisms to Malathion (Cythion) 1,178 break down pesticides. Therefore, fine-textured soils Parathion 7,161 have low potential for leaching of pesticides to DDT 243,000 groundwater and high potential for pesticide surface Source: McBride, 1989. loss.

4.5.1-3 Permeability. Highly permeable soils are susceptible cides is a greater threat. The shallower the depth to to leaching. Soil permeability is a measure of how groundwater, the less soil there will be to act as a ﬁl- fast water can move downward through a particular ter and the less chance for degradation or adsorption soil and can typically be inferred from soil texture. of pesticides. Since water moves quickly through highly permeable In humid regions, groundwater may be only a few soils, these soils may lose dissolved chemicals with feet below the surface of the soil. If rainfall is high the percolating water. In highly permeable soil, the and soils are permeable, water carrying dissolved pes- timing and the method of pesticide application need ticides may take only a few days to percolate down- to be carefully designed to minimize leaching losses. ward to groundwater. In arid regions, groundwater Organic Matter Content. Soils high in organic matter may lie several hundred feet below the soil surface, have a low leaching potential. Soil organic matter in- and leaching of pesticides to groundwater may be a fluences how much water a soil can hold and how much slower process. well it will be able to adsorb pesticides and prevent Geologic Conditions. Pesticides are more likely to their movement. In addition, high organic matter may leach in areas where geologic layers between the soil reduce potential for surface loss by increasing the and groundwater are highly permeable. Highly per- soil’s ability to hold both water and dissolved pesti- meable materials, such as gravel deposits, allow water cides in the root zone where they will be available to and dissolved pesticides to freely percolate downward plants. High organic matter also supports much of the to groundwater. Layers of clay, on the other hand, are microbial activity that decomposes pesticides. much less permeable and thus inhibit the movement of water. Site Conditions. The site conditions that affect pesti- Proximity of drainage ditches, streams, ponds, cide movement are depth to groundwater, geologic and lakes increases the potential for rainfall or irriga- conditions, topography, and climate. tion runoff to contaminate surface water. Drainage Depth To Groundwater. In areas where groundwater wells, abandoned wells, and sinkholes pose similar is close to the soil surface, contamination from pesti- hazards for groundwater contamination.

Table 3. Summary Of Groundwater Contamination Potential As Influenced By Pesticide Characteristics, Soil Characteristics, Site Conditions, and Management Practices. Parameters Considered Low Risk High Risk Pesticide Properties: Water Solubility Low solubility High solubility Soil Adsorption Highly adsorbed Poorly adsorbed Degradation (Persistence) Short half-life (a few days) Long half-life (several weeks) Soil Properties: Texture/Permeability Fine clay Coarse sand Organic Matter High content Low content Macropores Few, small Many, large Site Conditions: Depth To Groundwater Deep (20 feet or more) Shallow (10 feet or less) Rainfall Small volumes Large volumes Irrigation Infrequently Frequently Management Practices: Application Methods Applied to crops or soil surface Injected or incorporated into soil Rates Low volume used High volume used Handling Practices: ARCHIVE Spills Prevented or cleaned up immediately Ignored Storing In locked building with impermeable floor On the ground, exposed to weather Mixing In field Near wellhead or water supply Washing On impermeable rinse pad Near well or water supply Rinsing Rinsate sprayed Rinsate poured on ground near well or ditch Back-siphoning Prevented with check valves Ignored Container Disposal Triple or pressure rinsed and recycled Ignored Source: McBride, 1989.

4.5.1-4 Topography. Topography, which includes the size, likely that some pesticide will leach to groundwater. shape, aspect, slope steepness, and slope length of Particular care should be taken when practicing landforms, affects the general drainage characteristics chemigation because of the risks of back-siphoning of the landscape and can impact surface runoff losses and leaching. of pesticides. Even slightly soluble pesticides and Handling Practices. Properly storing and mixing pes- those strongly adsorbed to soil particles can be car- ticides and properly disposing of the containers are ried off in stormwater, especially if intense rainfall other factors that can contribute significantly to the occurs shortly after application. Good soil and water contamination of surface water or groundwater. conservation practices will reduce these losses. Flat Quick and proper cleanup of spills is also important. landscapes, areas with closed drainage systems where water drains toward the center of a basin, and espe- See Table 3 for a summary of factors affecting cially sinkhole areas, are more susceptible to ground- pesticide movement. water contamination. References Climate. Areas with high rates of rainfall or irrigation Beneath The Bottom Line: Agricultural Ap- may have large amounts of water percolating through proaches To Reduce Agricultural Contamination Of the soil and, therefore, are highly susceptible to Groundwater—Summary. 1990. OTA-F-417. Office leaching of pesticides especially if the soils are highly Of Technology Assessment. Washington, DC. permeable. Intensity, duration, and frequency of oc- Bicki, Thomas J. 1989. Pesticides And Ground- curance of rainfall also affect stormwater run-off and water: Pesticides Add Potential Pollutants. Land and losses of surface-applied pesticides. Water Number 12. Illinois Cooperative Extension Management Practices. The management practices Service. University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. that affect movement of pesticides are application Urbana, IL. methods, application rates and timing, and handling Council For Agricultural Science And Technolo- practices. gy. 1992. Water Quality: Agriculture’s Role. Task Application Methods. The way in which a pesticide Force Report No. 120. Ames, IA. is applied determines leaching potential. Injection or McBride, Dean K. 1989. Managing Pesticides To incorporation into the soil, as in the case of nemati- Prevent Groundwater Contamination. 10 SAF-2. cides, makes the pesticide most readily available for North Dakota Cooperative Extension Service. North leaching. Most of the pesticides which have been de- Dakota State University. Fargo, ND. tected in groundwater are those which are incorporat- U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1990. ed into the soil rather than sprayed onto growing National Pesticide Survey: Summary Results Of crops. Pesticides sprayed onto crops, however, are EPA’s National Survey Of Pesticides In Drinking more susceptible to volatilization and surface runoff Water Wells. NPS Summary Results. Ofﬁce Of Water. losses. Washington, DC. Application Rates And Timing. The rate and timing van Es, Harold M. and Nancy M. Trautmann. of a pesticide’s application also are critical in deter- 1990. Pesticide Management For Water Quality; Prin- mining whether it will leach to groundwater. The ciples And Practices. Extension Series No. 1. New larger the amount used and the closer the time of ap- York Cooperative Extension Service. Cornell Univer- plication to a heavy rainfall or irrigation, the more sity. Ithaca, NY.

This publication, supported in part by a grant from the Alabama Department of En- vironmental Management and the Tennessee Valley Authority, was prepared by James E. Hairston, Extension Water Quality Scientist, Professor, Agronomy and ARCHIVESoils, assisted by Leigh Stribling, Technical Writer, both at Auburn University. For more information, call your county Extension ofﬁce. Look in your telephone directory under your county’s name to ﬁnd the number.

4.5.1-5 Agriculture and Natural Resources WATER QUALITY: Controlling Nonpoint Source (NPS) Pollution

ALABAMA A&M AND AUBURN UNIVERSITIES

Pesticide Management To Protect Water Quality Regulating Pesticide Registration ANR-790-4.5.2 And Tolerances

he Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act above statement. For a complete list of restricted-use T(FFDCA) and the Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, products, check with your pesticide dealer or your and Rodenticide Act (FIFRA) provide the Environ- county Extension agent. mental Protection Agency (EPA) with pesticide regulatory powers. Types Of Applicator Certification FIFRA distinguishes between commercial and FFDCA—Establishing Pesticide Tolerances private applicators. Private applicators supervise the Under FFDCA, EPA established the maximum use of pesticides on property owned or leased by levels of pesticides allowed in food and feed—termed them or their employers for the purpose of producing “tolerance” levels—aimed at protecting human health an agricultural commodity. Commercial applicators while allowing for the production of an “adequate, include all other certified applicators. The EPA has wholesome, and economical food and feed supply for established rules and procedures that must be fol- humans and animals.” Food-use pesticides must have lowed by the state for certifying both groups. valid tolerances before being registered for food uses Private Applicator Certification. Applicants for pri- in the United States. vate applicator permits must attend a training session FIFRA—Registering Pesticides For Use on the safe and proper use of pesticides. This training is available through each county Extension office. FIFRA authorizes EPA to register pesticides prior Following the training, the county agent will sign a to their sale or use in the United States and to remove permit application signifying that the applicant at- unreasonably hazardous pesticides from the marketplace. Under FIFRA, EPA can register a pesticide tended the required training. The applicant must also only if it determines that the pesticide will perform its sign the application, pledging his or her intent to use intended function without causing “any unreasonable pesticides according to label directions. The applica- risk to people or the environment, taking into account tion can then be submitted to the Alabama Depart- the economic, social, and environmental costs and ment of Agriculture and Industries for consideration. benefits of the use of [the] pesticide.” Thus, FIFRA Private pesticide applicator certification is valid focuses on balancing the inherent risks and benefits for 3 years. The recertification process is identical to of pesticide use. that for initial certification. The first four digits of a private applicator’s permit number indicate the month What Registration Means and year the permit expires. Required competency When the Environmental Protection Agency reg- testing for private applicator certification will proba- isters a pesticide for use in the United States, that bly be mandated in Alabama in the near future. Some product is designated for either “general use” or “re- states have it already. stricted use.” Restricted-useARCHIVE pesticides will bear a Commercial Applicator Certification. Commercial statement similar to the following: applicators must prove their competence with pesti- Restricted Use Pesticide cides by passing written examinations prepared for For use only by certified applicators or persons each category of applicator. Examples of commercial under the supervision of a certified applicator. applicator categories are Forest Pest Control, Right- The Alabama Department of Agriculture and In- of-Way, Ornamental and Turf, and Aerial Applica- dustries may, in special circumstances, restrict a pes- tion. Contact the Alabama Department of Agriculture ticide in addition to those which are federally restrict- and Industries for information regarding which exams ed. In such a case, the pesticide may not bear the are necessary and for exam schedules. Prior registra- ANR-790 Water Quailty 4.5.2 Visit our Web site at: www.aces.edu tion is required for some exams. Contact the Alabama Other information pertinent to pesticide applica- Cooperative Extension System for study materials. tion includes wind, weather, and field conditions. Recertification for commercial applicators is ac- Keeping track of each field’s treatment history can complished using a point system. Commercial appli- protect a farmer if there is ever a question about how cator certification is valid for 3 years. If, at the end of agricultural chemicals have been used. that 3-year period, an applicator has accumulated at least fifty points, his or her certification will be re- Sources Of Pesticide Information newed. Points are earned by maintaining a misuse- Alabama Department of Agriculture and Industries free record and by attending approved education Toll-Free Hotline 1-800-321-0018 meetings. Recertification points may be deducted in Agricultural Chemistry Division cases of pesticide misuse. If an applicator fails to ac- (Dr. John Bloch) 334-242-2631 cumulate the necessary points for recertification, he Alabama Pesticide Residue Lab 334-844-4705 or she may become recertified by passing the required Alabama Cooperative Extension System exams. For study materials for commercial exams (Extension Pesticide Coordinator) 334-844-6390 Strengthening Pesticide Laws Entomology (Department Head) 334-844-5006 A trend is underway at both the national and state Plant Pathology (Department Head) 334-844-5003 levels to strengthen legislation concerning pesticides. Agronomy (Department Head) 334-844-4100 Plant Diagnostic Lab (Lab Director) 334-844-5508 Some areas that have been or may be affected are as follows: Alabama Department of Environmental Management Hazardous Waste Branch 334-271-7737 Requirements For Private Applicator Certifica- Field Operations Division (to report spill) 334-271-7931 tion. Unlike commercial pesticide applicators, private applicators are not required to take a written exam, Environmental Protection Agency but that could change in the near future. There is a Regional Office (Atlanta) 404-347-3222 Field Inspector (Montgomery) 334-223-7440 move at the national level to require some type of examination for private applicators. And many states Alabama Poison Control Centers are adopting that position. Druid City Hospital, Tuscaloosa 800-462-0800 Children’s Hospital, Birmingham 800-292-6678 Penalties For Misuse Of Pesticides By Private Ap- Vanderbilt Hospital (north Alabama) 800-288-9999 plicators. In 1991, civil penalties were imposed at the state level in Alabama for the misuse of pesticides by Superfund Amendments and Reauthorization Act (S.A.R.A.) Hotline private applicators. Until then, the regulation of pesti- (for free S.A.R.A. Title III reprints) 800-535-0202 cide use had been limited to issuing letters of warning. However, regulations passed by the Alabama leg- Chemtrec islature in February 1991 clearly spell out civil (24-hour chemical emergency information regarding proper cleanup and safety procedures) 800-424-9300 penalties that may be levied against private applicators. The maximum penalty for the misuse of a re- National Pesticide Telecommunications Network stricted-use pesticide is $10,000, and the maximum (for medical and consumer information) 800-858-7378 fine for misusing a nonrestricted-use chemical is Chemical Referral Center $5,000. The maximum penalty for using or having in (referrals to manufacturers on health and safety matters, your possession a restricted-use pesticide without the weekdays only, 9 a.m. to 6 p.m. EST) 800-262-8200 required use permit is $3,000. These are the only Local Emergency Planning Coordinator areas of civil penalty provisions that affect private ap- ______plicators. County Extension Office Record-Keeping Of Restricted-Use Pesticide Ap- plications. Effective January 1, 1992, everyone who ______applies restricted-use pesticides must keep a record of Local Pesticide Dealer each application. TheseARCHIVE records must be made avail- ______able to federal and state regulators for a period of 2 years. Product name, application date, and location of treated field must be recorded.

4.5.2-2 References Olexa, M. T. 1990. Laws Governing Use And Im- pact Of Agricultural Chemicals: An Overview. Circu- lar 887. Florida Cooperative Extension Service. Uni- versity of Florida. Gainesville, FL. Pesticides: EPA’s Use Of Beneﬁt Assessments In Regulating Pesticides. 1991. GAO/RCED-91-52. U.S. General Accounting Ofﬁce. Resources, Commu- nity, and Economic Development Division. Washing- ton, DC.

4.5.2-3 Agriculture and Natural Resources WATER QUALITY: Controlling Nonpoint Source (NPS) Pollution

ALABAMA A&M AND AUBURN UNIVERSITIES

Pesticide Management To Protect Water Quality Integrated Pest Management ANR-790-4.5.3

rowing concerns regarding insecticide resistance, ¥ Accurately identify insect pests or other pests, Gsecondary pest resurgence, killing of beneficial beneficial insects, and their populations. insects, and threats to public health are increasing the ¥ Accurately assess crop damage or potential popularity of integrated pest management (IPM). IPM damage based on pest nature and population. You is the environmentally sound use of combined pest may need to call on specialists for this assessment. control strategies to limit crop losses because of in- ¥ Prepare a thorough set of crop scouting records. sects, diseases, and weeds. In many instances, use of ¥ Prepare field maps showing specific problem IPM techniques can result in an equally effective, less areas or areas where potential problems may develop. expensive program of pest control than reliance on pesticides alone. With scouting, pesticides are not used until pests become a threat and a treatment is economically justi- Various estimates suggest that the adoption of fied. currently available IPM practices would permit a 40 to 50 percent reduction in the use of insecticides Monitoring Economic Thresholds within a 5-year period and 70 to 80 percent in the The goal of IPM is to keep pest numbers and crop next 10 years, without sacrifice of crop yield or grow- damage below the economically damaging level er profits. called the “economic threshold.” The economic Essential activities for an IPM program for insect threshold (ET) is the level of an insect population or control include the following: other pests that indicates control tactics should be ¥ Scout fields for insect damage. used to stop a pest population from increasing. These ¥ Monitor economic thresholds. levels have been established for most insects, but lev- ¥ Use cultural and crop management practices els may vary from area to area. that provide a less favorable environment for pests. To successfully monitor economic thresholds ¥ Follow recommended pest control guidelines ¥ Fully understand the economic threshold level and use labeled rates when control measures are for your area. Economic thresholds will help deter- needed. mine when pest problems are severe enough so that An IPM program for disease and weed control chemical use is profitable in controlling the pests. would be very similar. One difference for weed con- ¥ Monitor university and local pest reports during trol is that fields should be monitored the previous the growing season. year so that the more effective herbicides normally ¥ Consider all possible control alternatives. applied prior to or at planting can be used where The ET helps growers decide when it is economi- needed for maximum efficiency. cally practical to use a pesticide, and more important- Scouting Fields For Insect Damage ly, when it is not. At ET, the additional cost of treat- ARCHIVEment equals the additional benefit from the treatment. The success of an IPM program hinges on moni- At population levels below ET, treatment is a waste of toring and mapping fields for insect populations and money, time, and pesticide. on recognizing various pests and their damage. Scout- ing programs are essential for gathering information Using Cultural And Cropping about pests and the crop condition. Best Management Practices To establish a successful field scouting program The application of good cultural and crop man- ¥ Determine how and when to scout and allow ad- agement practices is an important part of a pest con- equate time for the job. trol program. The available strategies of cultural and ANR-790 Water Quality 4.5.3 Visit our Web site at: www.aces.edu mechanical control practices that aid in insect and To prevent potential yield reductions, weeds need weed control include crop rotation, proper planting to be controlled by tillage or herbicides within 3 to 6 dates, and tillage. weeks after planting. Weeds that begin growing at the Crop Rotation. Rotating row crops may provide same time as the crop and remain uncontrolled all some weed control benefits and more flexibility in season can reduce yields significantly. The amount of herbicide treatments. Rotation to a densely planted yield reduction will depend on such factors as num- crop, such as alfalfa, for several years will prevent ber of weeds present, vigor of the weeds, competi- most annual weeds from going to seed and potentially tiveness of the crop, and the amounts of moisture, nu- reduce populations of some perennial weeds. trients, and light available. Crop rotation also greatly affects soil insect and The type of equipment, timing, depth, and fre- nematode populations. The complex of disease, in- quency of tillage operations can also dramatically insect, and nematode pests will change according to the fluence the survival of some insect species. type of crops rotated, sequence of rotation, and the amount of time devoted to the production of a crop Following Pesticide Application Instructions prior to planting the new crop. When a pesticide is needed, its selection should Planting Dates. Delaying planting dates may reduce be based on site characteristics and the pesticide’s ef- but not eliminate weed problems. Later planting fectiveness, toxicity to non-target species, and costs. makes it possible to destroy several flushes of weeds Remember, an important purpose of the pesticide with tillage operations and also delays the application container’s label is to instruct users how to apply the of herbicides. Delayed herbicide applications can re- pesticide safely and with minimum threat to nontar- sult in improved control of annual weeds that can ger- geted areas, such as surface water or groundwater. minate late in the season. Late planting is not appro- Pesticide users are responsible for following label in- priate, however, for some crops normally planted in structions. It is unsafe and unlawful not to do so. early spring in the South. Where To Get Help Tillage. Tillage has been a major weed control strate- Integrated Pest Management programs are con- gy used by growers. On the other hand, tillage can en- ducted by Alabama Cooperative Extension System hance germination of weeds, and each tillage practice and local crop consulting organizations. Programs may result in a new flush of weeds. Although in- and services might include “scouting” fields for pest creased emphasis on conservation tillage has resulted population levels and planning appropriate IPM in an additional dependence on herbicides, this trend strategies. is supported by the reduced soil erosion, improved water quality, and increased farming efficiency. Integrated Crop Management After the crop has emerged and weed seeds are at The philosophy of integrated pest management is or near emergence, rotary hoeing can greatly reduce expanding to include integrated crop management weed populations. Also, row cultivation is effective (ICM). ICM means using more efficient farming when weeds are small, but the crop needs to be tall practices to provide better economic returns and pro- enough to tolerate soil disturbance from the cultivator. tect the environment. ICM practices include scouting, mapping, planning yield goals, and reducing chemical use on problem soils. ARCHIVE

4.5.3-2 References Best Management Practices for Optimum Pest Control. Section 4. Pioneer Hi-Bred International, Inc. Des Moines, IA. Bicki, Thomas J. 1989. Pesticides And Ground- water: Pesticides As Potential Pollutants. Land and Water Number 12. Illinois Cooperative Extension Service. University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. Urbana, IL. DeWitt, Jerry, Vivian M. Jennings, Anne M. Mabry, and J. Clayton Herman. 1980. Pesticides As Potential Pollutants. Pm-901h. Iowa Cooperative Ex- tension Service. Iowa State University. Ames, IA. Linker, H. Michael. 1988. Reducing Pesticides And Saving Money Using Integrated Pest Manage- ment (IPM). Fact Sheet 8. North Carolina Coopera- tive Extension Service. North Carolina State Univer- sity. Raleigh, NC. van Es, Harold M. and Nancy M. Trautmann. 1990. Pesticide Management For Water Quality: Prin- ciples And Practices. Extension Series No. 1. New York Cooperative Extension Service. Cornell Univer- sity. Ithaca, NY. Using Integrated Pest Management. 1993. Fact Sheet. Alliance For A Clean Rural Environment. Washington, DC.

4.5.3-3 Agriculture and Natural Resources WATER QUALITY: Controlling Nonpoint Source (NPS) Pollution

ALABAMA A&M AND AUBURN UNIVERSITIES

Pesticide Management To Protect Water Quality Using Pesticides On The Farm: From Selection To Disposal ANR-790-4.5.4

sing pesticides safely will protect your family’s Survey agency to determine the depth to groundwater Uhealth and prevent surface water and groundwa- in your area. ter contamination. Safe use requires careful planning Management Practices. Select pest management before, during, and after application. Pesticides must strategies to prevent groundwater contamination. Se- be handled safely from initial purchase through ulti- riously consider the environmental impacts for all po- mate use or disposal. tential pest control practices. Use pesticides only when necessary and only in amounts that will ade- Planning For Pesticide Use quately control pests. Use alternative control methods When selecting a pesticide, consider the four where feasible. major factors which determine whether a pesticide is Choose application methods that are least likely to likely to reach groundwater: pesticide properties, soil contaminate groundwater. Generally, avoid soil injec- properties, site conditions, and management practices. tion and soil incorporation of the more soluble, weakly Pesticide Properties. Become familiar with pesti- adsorbed pesticides if other alternatives are available. cides that may leach. Pesticides with a high potential Make the fewest applications at the lowest rate that for leaching are more likely to contaminate ground- will achieve acceptable pest control. Proper application water. For example, some carbamate pesticides are rates are critical in prevention of soil overloading. more likely to leach and cause groundwater contami- Maintain records, by date, of the identity and nation than other pesticides. Check the pesticide label quantity of pesticides applied to each area. Include for warnings about potential to leach to groundwater. which chemical, how much, application rate, date, In addition, your Cooperative Extension System or time, temperature, wind conditions, which field, and U.S. EPA can provide information on the leaching reason for spraying. potential of different pesticides. Transporting Pesticides Soil Properties. Identify vulnerability of the soil. Well-drained or sandy soils low in organic matter An accident while transporting a product can spill have a high potential for groundwater contamination. a large amount of concentrated pesticide over a small Evaluate your soil and site conditions based on infor- area and can cause a substantial threat of leaching to groundwater. Consequently, the transport of pesticides mation from your local Cooperative Extension agent is becoming increasingly regulated. The Hazardous or USDA-Natural Resources Conservation Service. Materials Transportation Act of 1990 requires the U.S. Site Conditions. Consider the location of the pesti- Department of Transportation (DOT) to regulate the cide application site in relation to surface water and training of all employees involved in handling haz- groundwater. Wells are the most common source of ardous materials, which include pesticides and some present day contamination. Grade the area around fertilizers. Since farmers are considered to be self-em- your well to divert surfaceARCHIVE runoff away from the well- ployed, they are responsible for their own training. head. Do not handle, store, or use chemicals where If you transport pesticides over public highways, pesticides can enter a well or any water. Maintain a you are required to be trained in hazardous materials buffer zone around all water sources. handling (as of April 1, 1993). Part of the training Keeping pesticides away from water sources helps should include safe handling of pesticides: how to to prevent their introduction into groundwater. Consult handle an emergency, how to prevent accidents, and your Cooperative Extension System, Natural Re- what protective clothing is required. Simply having a sources Conservation Service, State Water Quality commercial drivers license will not satisfy training Agency, U.S. Geological Survey, or State Geological regulations. ANR-790 Water Quality 4.5.4 Visit our Web site at: www.aces.edu For more information on DOT’s hazardous materi- cies. Alabama and most southeastern states do not have al training rules, write The Fertilizer Institute, 501 Sec- these available at this time. In Alabama, call The Al- ond St., NE, Washington, DC 20002. Or, call DOT’s abama Department of Environmental Management Transportation Safety Institute at 405-954-4824. (Field Operations Division) 334-260-2700. To prevent accidents while transporting pesticides: For 24-hour emergency service call Chemtrec ¥ Inspect containers for tightly closed caps and (800-424-9300) regarding proper cleanup and safety plugs. procedures of roadway spills. Chemtrec is staffed by ¥ Make sure labels are legible. chemical experts who provide information on whom to ¥ Handle containers carefully to avoid rips or punc- call or what procedures to use for handling or cleaning tures. up a spilled agricultural chemical. They also contact the chemical manufacturer and give you the phone ¥ Carry concentrated pesticides on a steel truck bed number for follow-up. with solid side walls and endgate. ¥ Firmly secure containers against movement dur- Storing Pesticides ing transit. Proper storage protects chemical life, people, and ¥ Equip truck with spill cleanup materials: personal the environment. Follow these suggestions: protective clothing, shovel, plastic, absorbent material, ¥ Provide a secure location, out of reach of chil- and empty containers larger than the pesticide packag- dren, pets, livestock, and irresponsible people. ing. ¥ Lock Category I pesticides (Danger, Danger/ Poi- Cleaning Up A Spill son) in a posted enclosure, such as a separate building or storeroom. In case of a spill, use personal protective equipment and act immediately. Follow the three C’s for ¥ Know which chemicals must be stored in a heat- spill cleanup: ed area to prevent loss of effectiveness because of Control The Spill: Place torn or punctured containers freezing. into larger empty ones. Stand overturned containers up- ¥ Locate storage facility at least 100 feet from and, right. if possible, down slope from any water source (well, Contain (Confine) The Spill: Limit chemical spread ditch, stream, etc.) to keep spilled material from the by using a dike or dam. Seal off all entry points into water source. Some states require a 200-foot distance. water or sewers, no matter how small the spill. Add an ¥ Construct a well-ventilated, cool, and fire-resis- absorbent (dirt, sawdust, cat litter) to liquids. tant facility. Clean Up The Spill: Quick cleanup minimizes entry ¥ Install a concrete floor and concrete curbing into surface water or sewer water and leaching to around the perimeter. Slope the floor toward a liquid- groundwater. Be sure to clean up any contaminated ab- proof sump where any pesticide spill or leak can easily sorbent material. Call the manufacturer for advice on be cleaned up. clean-up of their chemical. ¥ Include an adjacent mix/load/rinse containment After a spill, properly dispose of the drenched soil area (if feasible). or absorbent material: ¥ Consider building a dike around the storage and ¥ Excavate as much soil as necessary. mixing center, especially in areas that might flood. ¥ Decontaminate or neutralize the contaminated ¥ Equip the facility with cleanup materials. area. ¥ Inventory and monitor pesticide stocks regularly ¥ Clean equipment. to discover and clean up spills and leaks. ¥ If possible, apply spilled material and contami- ¥ Keep duplicate records of amounts and types of nated soil to a labeled site or crop, at or below the rec- chemicals in storage. Keep one set some place other ommended application rate. This will depend on what than your chemical storage building. (The extra record and how much was spilledARCHIVE and the rules for disposal in is useful in case of fire.) your state. If this is not an option, the soil or absorbent material may need to be disposed of in a landfill that Handling Pesticides And handles such material. Pesticide-Contaminated Clothing ¥ If the spill is a hazard to people or to the environ- For your own personal safety, follow these sugges- ment or if it may enter water, call your state environ- tions: mental agency about handling or cleaning up the spill. ¥ Wear one of the new types of disposable cover- Some states now have state spill hotlines and state alls when mixing or applying chemicals. They are not emergency response numbers for pesticide emergen- very expensive and protect well.

4.5.4-2 ¥ Use rubber gloves and boots when handling zle bodies have caps that quickly snap into place and chemicals. (Leather absorbs chemicals and keeps hold the tips. them in contact with your skin for days.) Nozzle Tips. Examine the tips for obvious signs of ¥ Use Cooperative Extension System recommen- clogging or damage. Use only a soft bristled tooth- dations for washing pesticide contaminated clothing: brush to clean the tips. A wooden toothpick or paper Ð Assume that clothes worn while working with pesti- clip can severely damage the finely machined thin cides are contaminated. Keep them separate from edges around the spray tip oriﬁce. other clothes before and during washing. Brass tips can wear rapidly especially with fungi- Ð Pre-rinse or pre-soak the contaminated clothing in a cides and wettable powders, which are really abra- washing machine filled with hot water and heavy- sive. Consider using the new color-coded variety of duty liquid detergent. Then spin out and drain the nozzle tips. The colors help the operator to use the contaminated water before running the wash cycle. right size tip for the job. Wash just a few items at a time using hot water and Instead of brass tips, consider using stainless heavy-duty detergent. steel, which cost $1 more per tip but wear 3 to 4 Ð Clean the empty machine after washing contaminated times longer. Or, consider using ceramic tips instead clothing by running a complete wash cycle with detergent and hot water. of brass. Ceramic tips cost $1.50 more per tip but wear 15 to 20 times longer. Ð Line dry the clothing to avoid possible dryer contamination. Pumps. Check the casing of the centrifugal pump for Ð Apply starch to the clothing as an added protective cracks caused by freezing of water left in the pump measure. Research by textile scientists has found that over winter. a starched finish traps pesticides and helps prevent Screens. Clean the line strainer and all tip screens. their transfer to skin. The starch-bound chemicals can then be rinsed away in the wash. Calibrating Equipment ¥ Keep clean water on your tractor to rinse Calibrating equipment and calculating how much splashed chemicals off skin or eyes. pesticide to apply are two of the most important tasks ¥ Drive your tractor into wind or at right angles to for minimizing environmental harm. Inaccurate cali- the wind whenever possible while spraying to prevent bration or calculations and excessive overlap cause drift from getting on you. over application. For simple, accurate calibration of the ag chemical sprayers generally used in farming, Maintaining Equipment follow these steps: Maintain pesticide application equipment in good ¥ Fill your sprayer tank with water. Only use condition. Repair leaks. Replace or recondition worn clean water to calibrate. parts, especially those that affect pesticide delivery. ¥ Measure the distance between the nozzles on Hoses. Check the hoses and hose clamps for splits your spray boom. and leaks by running the pump with various combina- ¥ Choose the test course length (in feet), which tions of valves closed or partially closed to increase corresponds to your nozzle spacing, from Table 1. For the line pressure. If sprayer hoses are worn, replace them. Use proper hose fasteners. Table 1. Selecting A Test Course Length Based On Nozzle Spacing. Valves. Use check valves on nozzle bodies to prevent the chemical that remains in the hose from leaking Nozzle Spacing (inches) Test Course Length (feet) when the sprayer is turned off. Diaphragm check 14 291 valves allow the sprayer to keep up to 10 pounds of 16 255 pressure in the lines without leaking chemical from 18 227 the tips. 20 204 Check your shutoff valve on the tank. If it is a 22 185 gate valve, consider switching to a ball valve. Ball 24 170 ARCHIVE26 157 valves can be closed quickly if an accident happens 28 146 during application. 30 136 Pressure Gauge. Check to see if the pressure gauge is 32 127 working properly. The pressure gauge should move as 34 120 you turn the throttling valve. Have the pressure gauge 36 113 tested to make sure that it indicates accurate psi. 38 107 Nozzle Bodies. Check nozzle bodies for signs of 40 102 wear. If they are worn, replace them. Some new noz- Source: Calibration And Maintenance Of Spray Equipment, 1993.

4.5.4-3 directed and band rigs use the row spacing of the field Mixing And Loading you plan to spray. Carefully measure the appropriate A major source of groundwater contamination is course distance in the field and mark for easy visibility. mixing and loading near the primary water source—a ¥ Drive the test course at your normal spraying well. Many in the agricultural community believe im- speed. Be sure to operate all equipment. Record the proper pesticide activities at or near wells are causing seconds required to drive the measured distance. For most pesticide contamination. Keep pesticides from greatest accuracy, do the speed check with the spray reaching the soil, well, or any water source when tank half full. Be sure to take a “running start” at the mixing and loading. starting flag so that your tractor/sprayer reaches the ¥ Mix in the field to be treated to avoid concen- desired spraying speed before you begin timing. trating all spilled material from mixing and to avoid ¥ Park your tractor/sprayer, but keep the engine the chance for accidents on the way to the site. rpm at the same setting used to drive the test course. (Portable mixing/containment facilities are available.) ¥ Set the desired pressure on your sprayer. (This ¥ If you must mix and load pesticides near a water will vary with the type of spray tips you use and the source, or if you regularly mix at the same site, build gallons per minute you wish to spray through them. a liquid-tight, curbed concrete mixing/containment Consult the spray chart for tips you have chosen.) pad. ¥ Using a plastic container marked in ounces, col- ¥ Measure accurately for proper concentration. lect the water sprayed from one nozzle during the ¥ Mix only the amount needed. same amount of time that it took you to drive between ¥ Read the label thoroughly before mixing. Never the flags on your test course. exceed label application rates. “Overdosing” will not ¥ Measure the flow of each nozzle on the boom to do a better job of controlling the pests; it will only in- assure uniform distribution. If the flow rate of any tip crease both the cost of pest control and the chance is 10 percent greater or less than that of the others, re- that the material may reach groundwater. place it. If two or more are faulty, replace all tips on ¥ Avoid backsiphoning. If the well pump stops, the entire boom. At about $3 each, the total cost is the filler hose can suck the tank mixture back into the small compared to the avoided problems and dollars well. Observe these precautions: you will be saving by replacing defective tips. What- Ð Attend your sprayer during the entire filling op- ever type of spray tip you choose, be sure to use all eration. the same type on your boom. Ð Keep the fill hose above the liquid level in the ¥ The amount of water collected in ounces per tank. nozzle equals gallons per acre applied. Vary the Ð If possible, fill the tank with water before adding sprayer pressure slightly to fine tune your overall pesticides. sprayer output. Ð Install and maintain anti-backsiphoning valves on all pumps and water valves, including resi- ¥ Mix chemical in appropriate water volume. For dential sill-cocks and chemigation equipment. example, if you wish to apply chemical at the rate of The valves prevent liquids from moving back- 1 pound per acre and you are spraying 20 gallons of wards through water lines. water per acre, then simply add 10 pounds of chemi- ¥ If possible, use a “closed” application system to cal to your 200 gallon tank. If you are able to spray reduce spill potential when mixing. 10 acres, then your calibration is correct. Be sure to ¥ Triple rinse or pressure rinse containers imme- read the product label for proper application informa- diately upon emptying. tion. In addition, consider these other equipment cali- Applying Pesticides bration tips: ¥ Delay an application to avoid periods of heavy ¥ Check spray pattern and nozzle flow each day. rain or irrigation. ¥ Keep your sprayARCHIVE boom at the recommended ¥ Leave a no-spray buffer strip at least 100 feet height for your nozzle spacing during all full-cover- wide along surface waters and at least 50 feet wide age spraying. This will help control drift and give near abandoned wells and irrigation ditches. uniform coverage. ¥ Spray left-over chemical on the treated site if ¥ Know the pH of your spray water. High pH and feasible. Do not spray it in roadways, grassed water- hard water reduce spray potency. Optimum pH for ways, or ditches where surface runoff rates are high. glyphosphate and phenoxys is 3 to 4. Some chemicals ¥ Pay close attention to soil and environmental decompose readily at a pH greater than 8. conditions when introducing pesticides into the soil

4.5.4-4 with soil injection or incorporation. These methods ¥ Construct a site for regular equipment cleaning reduce soil surface degradation processes and may in- that can virtually eliminate generating hazardous crease groundwater contamination risk. waste materials. Build a combination mixing/load- ¥ Use contact pesticides that do not have to be in- ing/washing containment pad: corporated into the soil when possible. Ð Install a liquid-tight, sloped concrete floor with ¥ Use row banding application techniques where concrete curbing around the perimeter. appropriate to limit the amount of pesticide applied. Ð Slope the floor toward a liquid-proof sump with a pump. ¥ Be prepared for spills. Have cleanup materials available. Ð Install a dike around the pad. Include your pesticide storage facility if it is adjacent. Make the ¥ Control application overlap with swath markers, dike high enough to keep out all surface and such as dyes or foam generators. possible floodwater. Ð Pump liquids from the sump to one or more la- Cleaning Equipment belled holding tanks. Use collected liquids as Equipment cleaning can concentrate chemicals in diluent for laterspray batches. Re-use of rinse- a small area and can heavily contaminate soil and, water usually requires a separate holding tank potentially, groundwater. for each group of pesticides. ¥ Carry a nurse or saddle tank of clean water for A simple, efficient design for an agricultural an initial equipment rinse in the field; spray the rin- chemical rinse pad is available by writing to Alliance sate on the site. After this rinse, little residue is For A Clean Rural Environment for a fact sheet titled brought to the mix/load/rinse site. “Constructing And Using A Chemical Rinse Pad.” ¥ Unless you plan to use the same chemical for Their address is Suite 900, 1155 15th Street, NW, the next application, rinse and clean the sprayer after Washington, DC 20005. Phone 202-872-3864 or 1- each use. 800-545-5410. This pad was designed by Ronald T. ¥ Use pressure rinsers. Pressure rinsers are easy to Noyes, Extension Agricultural Engineer at Oklahoma use and can be conveniently attached to the pump on State University. He provides detailed design specifi- your nurse tank. cations and cost information in his publication, Ð Place the empty container in a vertical position “Modular Farm Sized Concrete Agricultural Chemi- so that it will drain into your spray tank. cal Handling Pads.” His address is: Oklahoma Coop- Ð Thrust the nozzle of the pressure rinser through erative Extension Service, 224 Ag Hall, Oklahoma the side of the container and rinse for 30 sec- State University, Stillwater, OK 74078. onds. It is normally not necessary to repeat this procedure. Disposing Of Pesticides And Containers ¥ Unless you are equipped to pressure-rinse Dispose of chemicals safely. Careless disposal empty containers, make sure that each container is can concentrate materials in the soil, causing a poten- triple rinsed. tial threat to groundwater. Ð Drain the container into your spray tank by ¥ Dispose of triple-rinsed containers at designated holding it vertically for at least 30 seconds. landfills. Check with local landfills for disposal ac- Ð Add enough water, or other recommended dilu- ceptance and procedures. ent, to fill the container about a quarter of the ¥ Have excess pesticides and nonrinsed containers way. transported to a hazardous waste facility by a licensed Ð Shake or roll the container to rinse all interior hazardous waste transporter. areas and drain the container again into the spray tank. ¥ Find someone who can legally use your excess- es to avoid generating waste. Repeat the rinsing procedure two more times, and ¥ Do not purchase more pesticide than you need. then puncture and crush the container, unless recycling, so that it cannot be reused for other purposes. If Recycling Containers they are to be recycledARCHIVE in Alabama, containers must Collection and recycling programs are being or- be completely dry (no liquid) so they can be inspect- ganized in a number of states as pilot programs. Al- ed individually prior to chipping. abama initiated a collection, rinsing, disposal, and re- ¥ Follow label instructions for cleaning if listed. cycling training program in 1992. The Alabama ¥ Wash the entire sprayer system, inside and out- Department of Agriculture and Industries, the Alaba- side. ma Soil Fertility Society, and the Alabama Agricul- ¥ Do not wash equipment near wellheads, ditches, tural Chemical Association participated. Properly streams, or other water sources. rinsed plastic containers from ten counties were col-

4.5.4-5 lected and processed to ensure cleanliness. The shred- References ded plastic was recycled for molding into new plastic Calibration And Maintenance Of Spray Equip- containers. ment. 1993. Fact Sheet. Alliance For A Clean Rural The success of any collection and recycling pro- Environment. Washington, DC. gram hinges on the guarantee that only properly Cleaning Up After Pesticide Use. 1993. Fact rinsed containers will be taken to the disposal facili- Sheet. Alliance For A Clean Rural Environment. ties. Without this guarantee, landﬁll operators and re- Washington, DC. cyclers, wary of handling hazardous waste, will not Constructing And Using A Chemical Rinse Pad. accept the containers. 1993. Fact Sheet. Alliance For A Clean Rural Envi- Tips For Using Pesticides Safely ronment. Washington, DC. ¥ Select pesticides carefully. Consider environ- Preventing Pesticide Spray Drift. 1993. Fact mental impact; know which pesticides are likely to Sheet. Alliance For A Clean Rural Environment. leach. Washington, DC. ¥ Understand site vulnerability: soil type, geolo- Proper Cleanup Of Pesticide Spills. 1993. Fact gy, topography, and climate. Sheet. Alliance For A Clean Rural Environment. Washington, DC. ¥ Be prepared for spills and leaks with clean-up equipment and personal protective equipment: while Ramsay, Carol A., Craig G. Cogger, and Craig B. transporting, storing, mixing and loading, and apply- MacConnell. 1991. Protecting Ground Water From ing. Pesticide Contamination. EB1644. Washington Coop- erative Extension Service. Washington State Univer- ¥ Store pesticides safely away from water sources. sity. Pullman, WA. ¥ Follow label directions and precautions. Safeguarding Well Water Quality. 1993. Fact ¥ Calculate and measure accurately. Be especially Sheet. Alliance For A Clean Rural Environment. careful around wellheads and water sources. Washington, DC. ¥ Do not use pesticides if conditions exist for po- Safe Use Of Pesticides. 1993. Fact Sheet. Al- tential groundwater contamination. liance For A Clean Rural Environment. Washington, ¥ Calibrate equipment accurately and often. DC. Check equipment operation and spray patterns at least van Es, Harold M., and Nancy M. Trautmann. daily. 1990. Pesticide Management For Water Quality: Prin- ¥ Monitor weather and irrigation schedules care- ciples And Practices. Extension Series No. 1. New fully. York Cooperative Extension Service. Cornell Univer- ¥ Triple rinse pesticide containers; crush unless sity. Ithaca, NY. recycling; then dispose of containers and unused pes- Water Quality Self-Help Checklist. 1989. Ameri- ticides legally. can Farm Bureau Federation. Natural and Environ- mental Resources Division. Park Ridge, IL.

4.5.4-6 Agriculture and Natural Resources WATER QUALITY: Controlling Nonpoint Source (NPS) Pollution

ALABAMA A&M AND AUBURN UNIVERSITIES Pesticide Management To Protect Water Quality Structural Controls And Land Management Strategies For ANR-790-4.5.5 Minimizing Pesticide Losses

esticides can be lost to water resources through Land Management Practices Prunoff, run-in, or leaching. Pesticide molecules Leave unsprayed strips and buffer zones around can be transported to waterways attached to soil parti- surface water supplies, active wells, abandoned wells, cles and decaying plant residues or dissolved in runoff drainage ways, or irrigation ditches. waters. Thus, structural controls and land mangement Use contour farming or conservation tillage on practices that reduce soil erosion and minimize runoff erodible lands to help keep runoff out of nearby water will also reduce the loss of field-applied pesticides. supplies. Several common sense practices can go a long Use mulches or permanent vegetative strips for way toward preventing agricultural runoff from enter- erosion control on high value, low acreage specialty ing streams, lakes, rivers, and ponds. These tips are crops that require large rates of pesticides. These valuable throughout the growing season. crops are sometimes grown on steep slopes where Structural Controls soils are highly susceptible to surface runoff and erosion. Grass waterways and grass or forage strips in Chisel plow and subsoil to shatter compacted soil fields help retard the runoff of soil and agricultural layers or traffic pans that promote excessive runoff. chemicals into water supplies. Plow berms around sinkholes to prevent surface Terraces and other structures in large fields re- runoff from entering water supplies. duce soil erosion and pesticide losses by slowing water velocity and limiting runoff to shorter distances. Use cover crops and farming systems that build Contouring alone or in combination with terracing im- up soil organic matter and improve structure, thereby reducing erosion and runoff. proves the likelihood that pesticides will remain where applied. Shift high pesticide use crops to soils and fields that are less prone to erosion and excessive leaching. Diversions reduce pesticide losses by directing runoff into stabilized areas and diverting overflow Keep in mind that some practices are designed to from impervious and chemically treated areas. reduce surface losses of pesticides from stormwater runoff by increasing infiltration and, thus, may accel- Sediment basins, farm ponds, and constructed erate leaching of certain pesticides to groundwater. wetlands trap sediments. Thus, chemicals in the sediment remain in the field or are trapped in biologically Local Natural Resources Conservation Service of- active areas like ponds or wetlands, which provide an fices can recommend conservation farming practices opportunity for microorganisms to degrade the pesti- to fit specific situations. cides, eventually renderingARCHIVE them harmless.

ANR-790 Water Quality 4.5.5 Visit our Web site at: www.aces.edu References DeWitt, Jerry, Vivian M. Jennings, Anne M. Mabry, and J. Clayton Herman. 1980. Pesticides As Potential Pollutants. Pm-901h. Iowa Cooperative Ex- tension Service. Iowa State University. Ames, IA. Safeguarding Surface Water Supplies. 1993. Fact Sheet. Alliance For A Clean Rural Environment. Washington, DC. Weinberg, Anne, et al. 1979. Nonpoint Source Pollution: Land Use And Water Quality. G3025. Wis- consin Cooperative Extension Service. University of Wisconsin. Madison, WI.

This publication, supported in part by a grant from the Alabama Department of En- vironmental Management and the Tennessee Valley Authority, was prepared by James E. Hairston, Extension Water Quality Scientist, Professor, Agronomy and Soils, assisted by Leigh Stribling, Technical Writer, both at Auburn University. ARCHIVEFor more information, call your county Extension ofﬁce. Look in your telephone directory under your county’s name to ﬁnd the number.

4.5.5-2 Agriculture and Natural Resources WATER QUALITY: Controlling Nonpoint Source (NPS) Pollution

ALABAMA A&M AND AUBURN UNIVERSITIES

Pesticide Management To Protect Water Quality Chemigation Safety ANR-790-4.5.6

he application of agricultural chemicals, including grains are especially effective as cover strips to catch Tfertilizers and pesticides, through irrigation sys- runoff and retain pesticides. tems is becoming more popular every year as farmers, ¥ Avoid wind drift by considering equipment and greenhouse managers, nurserymen, golf course opera- weather. Do not use chemigation when wind speed tors, and turf producers discover the convenience of exceeds 5 mph. chemigation. But improper operation of a chemiga- Ð Gun-type sprinklers should not be used. They tion system can lead to surface water and groundwa- spray a fine mist high into the air which is more ter contamination. likely to be carried by the wind. Recommended Practices For Ð Center-pivot, linear traversing, solid-set, or drip/ Chemigation Safety trickle systems are acceptable for chemigation if ¥ Check the agricultural chemical label at each they have the proper nozzle size and water pres- use. The label must state that the chemical can be ap- sure to provide large water droplets. Large drop- plied through an irrigation system. lets are resistant to wind drift. ¥ Use agricultural chemicals only on those crops Ð Overhead sprinkler systems can be made more or sites for which they are labeled and in the manner efficient for chemigation by using drop pipes to listed on the label. Do not exceed labeled chemical place nozzles closer to the ground and by reduc- rates. ing line pressure. ¥ Post warning signs at usual points of entrance to ¥ Locate the irrigation equipment to cover the en- the field to indicate that an agricultural chemical is tire field but do not place sprinklers near field bound- being applied in the irrigation system. aries. This reduces the likelihood of pesticide runoff ¥ Observe legal reentry waiting periods and pre- or drift into nontarget areas. harvest intervals. ¥ Make sure your equipment is in good operating ¥ Use the least amount of water possible to apply order at all times. Check for water leaks in the sys- the chemicals. Excess water may lead to surface tem, proper operation of the antisiphon system, prop- runoff and increased leaching into groundwater. The er setting and function of relief and check valves, and result could be long-term contamination of drinking clogged nozzles. Check calibration for proper chemi- water. Don’t chemigate when the intent is to irrigate. cal and water application rates. ¥ Use field borders around treated areas to catch Chemigation regulations require that any defec- runoff water. Vegetated field borders can prevent tive components be repaired or replaced before any runoff to surface waters. Such borders allow gradual agricultural chemical is introduced into the system. movement of the water containing pesticides, giving Regulatory agency representatives may at any time bacteria and sunlight more time to degrade the chemi- inspect an irrigation system utilizing chemigation to cals. ARCHIVEmake certain that it is in compliance with state regu- ¥ Use erosion and runoff controls. Practices such lations. as conservation tillage, terraces, strip-cropping, con- ¥ Do not connect your irrigation system directly touring, and sediment catch-basins (or farm ponds) to a public water supply when using chemigation. generally reduce runoff either by increasing the infil- This is illegal in most states. Instead, collect the pub- tration of water into the soil or by catching and stor- lic water into a reservoir or tank and pump it from ing the runoff water before it can reach streams and there. The pH of public water supplies may be too rivers. Close-growing crops such as grass or small high for certain chemicals. ANR-790 Water Quality 4.5.6 Visit our Web site at: www.aces.edu ¥ Do not inject an agricultural chemical into your References irrigation system on the suction side of the irrigation Chemigation Safety. 1993. Fact Sheet. Alliance pump. This is illegal and defeats all the safeguard de- for a Clean Rural Environment. Washington, DC. vices of the system. Williams, Ray S., and Len C. Stanley. 1988. ¥ Do not apply pesticides through an irrigation Chemigation Practices To Prevent Groundwater Con- system if the soil is already wet. Wet or saturated soil tamination. Fact Sheet 1. North Carolina Cooperative is more likely to allow surface runoff than drier soil. Extension Service. Biological and Agricultural Engi- If the runoff contains harmful pesticides, the likeli- neering Department. North Carolina State University. hood of surface water contamination is increased. If 1 Raleigh, NC. inch or more of irrigation or rainfall has occurred within the past 24 hours, the soil is probably too wet to apply pesticides. A complete listing of specifications, inspection requirements, and methods of operation of a chemigation system may be obtained from the Alabama Department of Agriculture and Industries.

4.5.6-2 Agriculture and Natural Resources WATER QUALITY: Controlling Nonpoint Source (NPS) Pollution

ALABAMA A&M AND AUBURN UNIVERSITIES

Pesticide Management To Protect Water Quality Common Sense Tips For Safe ANR-790-4.5.7 Aerial Spraying

erial application of seeds, fertilizers, and pesti- of each job. Pilots can often alter their droplet size, Acides plays an important role in agriculture. The nozzle position, spray volume or pattern, and boom USDA estimated in 1988 that more than 25 percent of height to compensate for existing wind and tempera- all agricultural chemicals were applied aerially and ture conditions that impact drift. more than 50 percent of all commercial applications of pesticides were aerial. Prevent Drift Problems To assure safe application of agricultural chemi- The best way to prevent drift is to avoid windy cals, farmers and ranchers can use a common sense spraying conditions. When wind is above a certain ve- approach when working with aerial sprayers. Com- locity, the potential exists for damaging off-target drift. monsense tips for safe aerial spraying include hiring a Table 1 can serve as a guide to recognizing atmospher- certified applicator, clarifying responsibilities, pre- ic stability. Aerial spraying should not be attempted at venting wind drift, drawing a map, leaving unsprayed wind velocities greater than 12 miles per hour. buffer zones, and notifying your neighbors. Table 1. Wind Velocity Guide. Hire A Certified Applicator Miles Per Hour Observations If you cannot hire an experienced local applicator whom you know, be sure to check the qualifications Less than 1 Smoke rises almost vertically. of any applicator you hire from other regions or 1 to 3 Direction of wind shown by smoke states. You may wish to call your Department of drift, but not by wind vanes. Agriculture or your state Pest Control Board (Depart- 4 to 7 Wind felt on face, leaves rustle; ment of Agriculture and Industries in Alabama) to de- ordinary wind vane moved by wind. termine the certification status of the applicator. 8 to 12 Leaves and small twigs in constant Certified pilots are qualified to apply agricultural motion, wind extends light flag. chemicals safely and professionally by following 13 to 18 Picks up dust and loose paper, small label directions and by considering drift, exposure, branches are moved. Application and disposal. should not be made under these conditions. Clarify Responsibilities 19 to 24 Small trees with leaves begin to sway; When hiring an aerial applicator, be sure to clari- crested wavelets form on inland water. fy where mixing, loading, and plane rinseout will Application should not be made under occur, who will rinse and dispose of empty contain- these conditions. ers, who will post reentry signs where required, and Source: Working With Aerial Applicators, 1993. who has responsibility for errors or misapplication. Plane rinseout is best ARCHIVEdone in flight over the field. Weather channels give up-to-date estimates of Be sure to establish whose responsibility it is for wind velocity. Check your local weather conditions making go/no-go weather decisions. Remember, there before scheduling aerial application of pesticides. are few absolutes to be considered in the go/no-go decision process other than foul weather, maximum and Draw A Map wrong direction winds, and obvious inversion condi- Identify the fields you want treated and any cru- tions, which can cause damaging drift problems. Pro- cial areas to avoid. Keep the map simple and easy to fessional pilots are experts at interpreting the effects read during flight with boundary landmarks clearly of changing weather conditions on operational plans identified. Use highly visible flags to mark bound- ANR-790 Water Quality 4.5.7 Visit our Web site at: www.aces.edu aries not readily apparent from the air. Review the References map with your pilot and carefully identify the follow- Olexa, M. T. 1990. Laws Governing Use And Im- ing nearby features: pact of Agricultural Chemicals: An Overview. Circu- ¥ Hazards to flight such as power lines, antennas, lar 887. Florida Cooperative Extension Service. Uni- or wire fences. versity of Florida. Gainesville, FL. ¥ Ponds, creeks, streams, or wetlands. Prevent Pesticide Spray Drift. 1993. Fact Sheet. ¥ Sensitive crops or organically grown crops. Alliance For A Clean Rural Environment. Washing- ¥ Sinkholes. ton, DC. ¥ Buildings, recreational areas, or neighbors close Working With Aerial Applicators. 1993. Fact to the target field. Sheet. Alliance For A Clean Rural Environment. Washington, DC. Leave Buffer Zones A buffer strip of at least 100 feet is recommended near water supplies, abandoned wells, wetland areas, sensitive crops, recreational areas, and downwind neighbors. If this area must be sprayed, use ground equipment when the wind is favorable. It is wise to leave at least 50 feet of unsprayed buffer between sensitive areas even with ground equipment. A law- suit arising from off-site damage could be expensive. Notify Your Neighbors Let your neighbors know that you have called in an aerial applicator. Try to give them as much notice as possible, especially if they keep bee hives, have field workers near the application site, or grow sensitive or organic crops. In fact, when you need an aerial applicator most, your neighbor may need one also. Be prepared to tell them what chemical the applicator will be spraying, its characteristics, and why crop treatment is important. Check with your county Extension agent, agricultural chemical dealer, or sales representative for this information. Show them your field map and plans. Good public relations can be as simple as a handshake or a phone call. Long before you need an aerial application, let your neighbors know that you are as concerned about safety and environmental protection as they are.

This publication, supported in part by a grant from the Alabama Department of Environmental Management and the Tennessee Valley Authority, was prepared by James E. Hairston, Extension Water Quality Scientist, assisted by Leigh Strib- ling, Technical Writer. ARCHIVEFor more information, call your county Extension ofﬁce. Look in your telephone directory under your county’s name to ﬁnd the number. Issued in furtherance of Cooperative Extension work in agriculture and home economics, Acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914, and other related acts, in cooperation with the U.S. Department of Agriculture. The Alabama Cooperative Extension System (Al- abama A&M University and Auburn University) offers educational programs, materials, and equal opportunity employment to all people without regard to race, color, national origin, religion, sex, age, veteran status, or disability. ANR-790-4.5.7 UPS, New June 1995, Water Quality 4.5.7

4.5.7-2 Agriculture and Natural Resources WATER QUALITY: Controlling Nonpoint Source (NPS) Pollution

ALABAMA A&M AND AUBURN UNIVERSITIES

Animal Waste Management To Protect Water Quality Animal Waste And How ANR-790-4.6.1 It Affects Water Quality

n Alabama, animal wastes are responsible for many Dead stock which are disposed of properly and in Iof the agriculture-related water pollution problems. a timely manner may present little pollution potential. In fact, more water quality complaints have been at- Burying dead stock, however, may result in some ni- tributed to animal wastes during recent years than all trate being available to leach to groundwater. The the other agricultural-related pollutants combined. larger the volume buried, the greater the risk. This Animal waste includes the fecal and urinary type of concentration of animal waste could also be wastes of livestock and poultry; the water used in pro- considered a point source. cessing; the feed, bedding, litter, and soil with which Once animal waste is applied to land, it becomes the manure or water becomes mixed; and the carcass- a potential nonpoint source of water pollution just es of dead animals. Because Alabama is one of the like fertilizers and pesticides. Methods to control leaders in poultry production, large poultry operations runoff and leaching losses of animal waste products produce huge amounts of animal waste including litter from land are essentially the same as those for effi- and carcasses. These wastes must be used or disposed cient and environmentally safe fertilizer management. of in a manner safe to the environment. All the standard practices for erosion and sediment Traditionally, most animal wastes have been ei- control generally reduce losses of animal waste pollu- ther burned, buried, or diluted throughout the envi- tants to surface water systems. ronment. However, environmental, economic, and health concerns are forcing a reorientation toward re- Contaminants From Animal Wastes cycling and resource recovery. The primary concern The potential pollutants of concern in manure are is that animal wastes be managed so that they do not oxygen-demanding organic matter, plant nutrients, in- pollute air, soil, and water resources or introduce fectious agents, salts, and heavy metals. These pollu- toxic substances into the food chain. tants can cause fish kills, turbidity, taste and odor problems, and health hazards to humans or animals Animal Waste Pollutants: that drink the water. These contaminants may be ei- Point And Nonpoint Sources ther leached to groundwater or transported to surface Any major concentration of animal waste or waters by runoff. waste products could be defined as a potential site for Organic Matter. The high organic matter associated point source pollution. At the present time, the Alaba- with livestock waste runoff is capable of rapidly de- ma Department of Environmental Management pleting the oxygen supply typically found in a stream (ADEM) does not regulate concentrations of animal or lake system, resulting in fish kills and severe dis- wastes as point sources unless there is intentional disruptions of other aquatic life. Also, nutrients are recharge into waters of the state. This may change in leased as organic matter is biodegraded. Decompos- the near future. ing organic matter may also cause color, taste, and Animal confinementARCHIVE operations such as swine odor problems in public or private water systems farrow houses, cattle feedlots, and poultry houses are, using surface sources. however, potential point sources of surface water and Plant Nutrients. The two nutrients of most concern groundwater contamination. from a water quality perspective are nitrogen and Manure stockpiles and poorly designed and main- phosphorus. Animal wastes can contribute both ni- tained treatment and storage lagoons that allow dis- trate concentrations in excess of drinking water stan- persal of animal waste products into the environment dards and phosphorous concentrations in excess of at concentrations that cause problems could also be what has been determined to stimulate rapid aquatic considered point sources. algae growth. Excessive levels of nutrients in surface ANR-790 Water Quality 4.6.1 Visit our Web site at: www.aces.edu waters can cause algal blooms, fish kills, odors, and Heavy metals, including zinc, copper, and occasion- increased turbidity. Nutrients—primarily nitrogen in ally arsenic, are present in many animal rations. the nitrate form—can also be leached through the soil There is increasing concern that the level of heavy profile to groundwater. metals, mainly copper and zinc, is building up in agri- Potential groundwater contamination by nitrates cultural lands where animal waste is being applied. from poultry wastes has become a public health con- Most of these metals are fairly immobile in soils (pH cern in Alabama since nitrate levels in groundwater 6.0 to 6.8) and rarely appear to have adverse effects appear to be increasing in some of the more intensive on crop production. In other words, they seldom ac- poultry producing areas. The primary reason for the cumulate in crops at levels that present a danger to concern is the fact that 50 percent of the state popula- people or animals consuming these crops. Even so, tion drinks water from groundwater and up to 98 per- animal and poultry scientists are investigating cent of the population uses groundwater for drinking whether these heavy metals are necessary in rations. water in many rural areas. As of yet, no detailed survey in the state has determined from which sources Animal Waste And Water Quality In Alabama these nitrates may be coming. Septic systems may be A Sand Mountain area watershed making up por- a primary contributor tions of Jackson, Marshall, and DeKalb counties in Nitrates are not toxic in the human body but may northeastern Alabama has been identified by the Al- be changed to other forms or other compounds, such abama Agricultural NPS Task Force as the top priori- as nitrites, which are harmful. Nitrites are toxic be- ty watershed in Alabama. The 626 square mile area cause they react with hemoglobin to form methe- has approximately 3,000 farms, 12,000 cattle, 12,000 moglobin, which reduces the blood’s capacity to swine, 6.8 million poultry, and 65,000 acres of crop- carry oxygen to all body cells. Nitrites can also inter- land eroding at greater than twice the tolerance level. act with other nitrogen compounds to form com- Water supplies, local tributaries, and Guntersville pounds that are carcinogenic in animals. Lake are severely impacted by sediment, nutrients, agrichemicals, and bacteria. Phosphorus as phosphate is one of the major nutrients required for plant nutrition and has been linked The two river basins with the greatest nonpoint to the accelerated eutrophication of streams and source impacts from agriculture in Alabama are the lakes. High concentrations stimulate excessive or nui- Tennessee and Black Warrior. Stream segments in sance growths of algae and other aquatic plants. both the Tennessee and Black Warrior rivers that These algal blooms can reduce aesthetic quality, mak- drain into Guntersville and Lewis Smith lakes, re- ing water bodies less desirable for swimming, fishing, spectively, have pollution problems attributed to ani- and boating. Algal growths can also impart undesir- mal wastes. able tastes and odors to water and interfere with water Conclusion treatment and purification. When large masses of One of the future challenges facing agriculture in algae or other aquatic plants die, the dissolved oxy- Alabama is managing and handling animal waste gen in the water decreases and certain toxins are pro- products to minimize water contamination. With duced, both of which can cause fish kills. more and larger animal operations confined to smaller Infectious Agents. Animal wastes can carry path- and smaller areas of land, the likelihood of water con- ogens to any swimming or drinking water they im- tamination increases. That is why there is concern for pact. These wastes are sources of bacteria, viruses, both surface water and groundwater in areas where and other microorganisms that can infect people and great concentrations of animals produce large animals and cause outbreaks of disease in the aquatic amounts of manure and other waste products. environment. Expanding animal production systems can meet Salt contents associated with animal wastes result increasing environmental concerns either by reducing from high salt content in animal rations. The excess the amount of waste generated or by using and han- salts pass through the animals and remain in the ma- dling waste to prevent environmental contamination. nure. If this manure isARCHIVE then applied to fields at high Both approaches will require, among other things, ex- rates, considerably higher salt concentrations may be tensive efforts by farm managers. found on these fields versus those without applied manure. Excess potassium and sodium in particular can contribute to soil structure deterioration and in some cases reductions in crop yields.

4.6.1-2 References Alabama Department Of Environmental Manage- ment. 1988. Alabama Nonpoint Source Assessment Report. Montgomery, AL. Alabama Department Of Environmental Manage- ment. 1989. Alabama Nonpoint Source Management Program. Montgomery, AL. Humenik, Frank J., DeAnne D. Johnson, Jonathan M. Kreglow, Steven A. Dressing, Richard P. Maas, Fred A. Koehler, William K. Snyder, Lee Christensen, James W. Meek, and Fred N. Swader.. 1982. Best Management Practices For Agricultural Nonpoint Source Control: I Animal Waste. North Carolina Cooperative Extension Service. Biological And Agricultural Engineering Department. North Carolina State University. Raleigh, NC. Molnar, Joseph, and Litchi S. Wu. 1989. Environ- mental Consequences Of Animal Waste Disposal: Farm Operator Perspectives And Practices. Circular 297. Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station. Auburn University, AL.

This publication, supported in part by a grant from the Alabama Department of Environmental Management and the Tennessee Valley Authority, was prepared by James E. Hairston, Extension Water Quality Scientist, assisted by Leigh Strib- ling, Technical Writer. ARCHIVEFor more information, call your county Extension ofﬁce. Look in your telephone directory under your county’s name to ﬁnd the number. Issued in furtherance of Cooperative Extension work in agriculture and home economics, Acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914, and other related acts, in cooperation with the U.S. Department of Agriculture. The Alabama Cooperative Extension System (Al- abama A&M University and Auburn University) offers educational programs, materials, and equal opportunity employment to all people without regard to race, color, national origin, religion, sex, age, veteran status, or disability. ANR-790-4.6.1 UPS, New June 1995, Water Quality 4.6.1

4.6.1-3 Agriculture and Natural Resources WATER QUALITY: Controlling Nonpoint Source (NPS) Pollution

ALABAMA A&M AND AUBURN UNIVERSITIES

Animal Waste Management To Protect Water Quality Regulating Animal Wastes ANR-790-4.6.2

ntil recently, few water quality regulations affected gion 6 has established a permit system to regulate Uanimal waste disposal practices on individual CAFOs above a certain size in Texas, Louisiana, farms in comparison to pollution control efforts re- Arkansas, New Mexico, and Oklahoma as point quired of nonagricultural industries. However, new reg- sources of pollution. This region has huge operations ulations for drinking water, waste treatment, and water of beef and dairy cattle. Other EPA Regions may de- quality protection now present a mounting challenge to velop similar programs. animal producers. Producers must alter traditional The following information is taken from EPA Re- practices and disposal methods to achieve and maintain gion 6 General Permit For Concentrated Animal Feed- fishable and swimmable rivers, lakes, and streams. ing Operations. These regulations do not yet apply They must also take precautions to prevent chemical to animal operations in Alabama. At the present and biological contamination of groundwater. time, the Alabama Department of Environmental One of the primary causes of water pollution from Management (ADEM) does not regulate concentra- animal production is stormwater runoff from confined tions of animal wastes unless there is a complaint or animal feeding operations (CAFOs). These concen- intentional discharge into waters of the state. Howev- trated animal operations create pollutants such as or- er, some type of permit system will probably be devel- ganic matter, nutrients (primarily nitrogen and phos- oped in the near future. phorus), pathogens, and salt and heavy metals that are Concentrated animal feeding operations include present in many animal rations. When stormwater feedlots, dairies, confinement systems, sale barns, and moves through these confined areas, runoff may either other operations. If new and existing CAFOs (1) con- transport the pollutants directly into surface waters or fine animals for a total of 45 days or more in any 12- accelerate pollutant leaching into groundwater. month period, (2) have a confinement area which does Even when animal waste is applied to land as a not sustain vegetation, and (3) contain more animals fertilizer material, water quality problems may still than those in Table 1 column 1, then a general permit occur especially where excessive rates are applied. is required. Land application rates are now being controlled in If new and existing operations discharge pollu- some states through special legislation requiring tants into navigable waters either (1) directly, or (2) mandatory nutrient management plans. through a manmade ditch, a flushing system, or other The Clean Water Act (CWA) and the Coastal similar manmade device, then a permit will be re- Zone Management Act (CZMA) are the two primary quired for smaller numbers of animals. (See Table 1 federal laws that deal with animal waste regulation. column 4.) Under the CWA, CAFOs may be treated as point sources of pollution and regulated by a permit system. Operations smaller than those shown in column 4 Those CAFOs regulated by permits are exempt from of Table 1 may also be designated as a CAFO by the the Coastal Zone ManagementARCHIVE Act. However, under Director of an NPDES discharge permit program. If so Section 6217 of the Coastal Zone Act Reauthorization designated, the operations would become eligible for Amendment (CZARA) of 1990, CAFOs not regulated coverage under this general permit. by a permit system are considered to be nonpoint Poultry facilities that have no discharge to waters sources of pollution. of the United States normally are not required to obtain permits. However, facilities that stockpile litter The Clean Water Act (CWA) near watercourses or dispose of litter on land such Under the Clean Water Act’s National Pollutant that stormwater runoff or flooding can wash it into Discharge Elimination System (NPDES), EPA’s Re- streams may be considered CAFOs. ANR-790 Water Quality 4.6.2 Visit our Web site at: www.aces.edu Table 1. Categories Of CAFOs And Numbers Of Animals Required To Obtain A Permit Under The CWA In EPA Region 6. If CAFO discharges into . . .

Categories . . . other than navigable waters . . . navigable waters Head Animal Unitsa Head Animal Units (Column 1) (Column 2) (Column 3) (Column 4) Slaughter or feeder cattle 1,000 1,000 300 300 Mature dairy cattle 700 980 200 300 Swine weighing more than 55 pounds 2,500 1,000 750 300 Horses, stabled 500 1,000 150 300 Sheep or lambs 10,000 1,000 3,000 300 Turkeys 55,000 1,000 16,000 300 Laying hens or broilers with unlimited continuous ﬂow watering systems 100,000 1,000 30,000 300 Laying hens or broilers with liquid manure handling systems 30,000 1,000 9,000 300 Ducks 5,000 1,500 Combination of animal unitsb 1,000 300 aA unit of measurement for any animal feeding operation calculated by multiplying slaughter and feeder cattle by 1.0, mature dairy cattle by 1.4, swine over 55 pounds by 0.4, sheep by 0.1, horses by 2.0, turkeys by 0.018, and chickens by 0.01 unless a liquid system is used then multiply by 0.033. bNumbers of animal units from a combination of slaughter or feeder cattle, dairy cattle, swine weighing more than 55 pounds, and sheep. Source: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1993b.

As required by the permit, a CAFO must have a Final guidelines for developing Coastal Nonpoint pollution prevention plan. The plan must include (1) Control Programs were published by EPA in January description of potential pollutant sources, (2) waste 1993. State water quality agencies will have 30 management controls, (3) preventive maintenance, (4) months to develop and implement their programs. sediment and erosion prevention, (5) employee train- This means that by July 1, 1995, animal operations in ing, and (6) inspections and record keeping. An ani- approved coastal areas that are causing pollution mal waste management plan developed by the USDA problems and that do not have a stormwater discharge Soil Conservation Service may be used as part of the permit will fall under state guidelines developed in pollution prevention plan. accordance with CZARA to protect coastal waters Coastal Zone Management Act (CZMA) from nonpoint source pollution. The CZARA applies to all new animal waste fa- The CZMA applies to twenty-nine states and territories of the United States, which have approved cilities regardless of size and to all new or existing Coastal Zone Management Programs. In coastal re- CAFOs that contain the number of head or animal gions of these states or territories, which include Al- units for two different size operations as defined in abama, any size animal operation which pollutes sur- Table 2. Measures for managing facility wastewater face waters that discharge to coastal waters may be and runoff from the two different size operations are regulated in one of two ways. very similar but somewhat different. One option is for the owner or operator to apply Management measures called for by the CZARA for a National PollutantARCHIVE Discharge Elimination Sys- include limiting the discharge from the CAFO by (1) tem (NPDES) permit. When the NPDES permit for storing both the facility wastewater and the stormwa- stormwater discharge is issued, the operation will be- ter runoff and (2) managing stored runoff and accumu- come exempt from guidelines of the coastal nonpoint lated solids through an appropriate water utilization pollution control programs. The other option is for system. Design components to control wastewater and the owner or operator to develop a pollution preven- stormwater runoff from large unit CAFOs are illustrat- tion plan that uses management measures listed under ed in Figure 1. Such systems are not yet mandated in Section 6217(g) of the Coastal Zone Act Reauthoriza- Alabama, but they will be required in the near future tion Amendments. in coastal areas.

4.6.2-2 Table 2. Categories Of CAFOs And Numbers Of Head Or Animal Units Required To Implement Manage- ment Measures Under The CZARA. Large Units Small Units Categories Head Animal Unitsa Head Animal Unitsa Beef feedlots 300 300 50 to 299 50 to 299 Dairies 70 98 20 to 69 28 to 97 Swine 200 80 100 to 199 40 to 79 Horses, stabled 200 400 100 to 199 200 to 399 Turkeys 13,750 248 5,000 to 13,749 90 to 247 Layers 15,000 150 b 5,000 to 14,999 50 to 149 b 495 c 165 to 494c Broilers 15,000 150 b 5,000 to 14,999 50 to 149 b 495 c 165 to 494c aA unit of measurement for any animal feeding operation calculated by multiplying slaughter and feeder cattle by 1.0, mature dairy cattle by 1.4, swine over 55 pounds by 0.4, sheep by 0.1, horses by 2.0, turkeys by 0.018, and chickens by 0.01; if a liquid system is used for chickens, then the multiplication factor is 0.033. bIf facility has a liquid manure system. cIf facility has continuous overﬂow watering system.

Source: U. S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1993a.

B A A

E D D E C A

A Runoff from enclosed conﬁned facilities Accumulated solids from facility B Runoff from silage storage areas Manage stored runoff and Storage for up to and including a C Runoff from open conﬁned areas accumulated solids from facility 25-year, 24-hour frequency storm ARCHIVE1 through an appropriate waste utilization system D Runoff from manure storage areas Minimize contamination of groundwater 2

E Facilities wastewater

Storage structures should have an earthen lining of clay or a plastic membrane lining, should be constructed with concrete, or should be a storage tank. Source: U. S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1993a.

Figure 1. Management measures for wastewater and runoff from conﬁned animal facilities (large units).

4.6.2-3 Permit Systems In Alabama References The NPDES Program Director for EPA Region 4 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1993a. or designated state NPDES Director will decide if Guidance Specifying Management Measures For and when a permit system similar to the one for Re- Sources Of Nonpoint Pollution In Coastal Waters. gion 6 will affect Alabama. Region 4 includes Alaba- EPA-840-B-92-002. Office Of Water. Washington, ma, Tennessee, Kentucky, Mississippi, Georgia, DC. South Carolina, North Carolina, and Florida. Since U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1993b. Alabama has primacy, which means the federal gov- EPA Region 6 General Permit For Discharges From ernment lets the state enforce water quality legisla- Concentrated Animal Feeding Operations (CAFOs). tion, in all probability the NPDES branch under the EPA Water Division. Dallas, TX. Water Division of ADEM will be responsible for enforcing a permit system covered under the CWA. State Nutrient Management Laws Most states have no nutrient management laws that deal speciﬁcally with animal wastes. However, in June 1993, Pennsylvania enacted a nutrient management law that requires all farms with 2,000 pounds of live animal weight from livestock or poultry per acre to develop and implement a nutrient management plan within 3 years. This regulatory approach to nutrient management for land-applied animal waste may soon be adopted by other states.

This publication, supported in part by a grant from the Alabama Department of Environmental Management and the Tennessee Valley Authority, was prepared by James E. Hairston, Extension Water Quality Scientist, assisted by Leigh Strib- ling, Technical Writer. ARCHIVEFor more information, call your county Extension ofﬁce. Look in your telephone directory under your county’s name to ﬁnd the number. Issued in furtherance of Cooperative Extension work in agriculture and home economics, Acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914, and other related acts, in cooperation with the U.S. Department of Agriculture. The Alabama Cooperative Extension System (Al- abama A&M University and Auburn University) offers educational programs, materials, and equal opportunity employment to all people without regard to race, color, national origin, religion, sex, age, veteran status, or disability. ANR-790-4.6.2 UPS, New June 1995, Water Quality 4.6.2

4.6.2-4 Agriculture and Natural Resources WATER QUALITY: Controlling Nonpoint Source (NPS) Pollution

ALABAMA A&M AND AUBURN UNIVERSITIES

Animal Waste Management To Protect Water Quality Animal Waste Management Systems ANR-790-4.6.3

or an animal waste management system to effec- for later use or to treat waste for a longer period of Ftively prevent pollution, every aspect of the sys- time before disposal. tem must be planned to protect water quality. In addi- The objective of storing waste for later use is to tion, the system must be designed to fit the needs, conserve nutrients so the waste can be more effective- resources, and capabilities of the producer and the an- ly used as a fertilizer or soil conditioner. If stored too imal operation itself, and the system must be properly long, the manure breaks down (decomposes), nutri- maintained and operated. ents are lost, and the fertilizer value of the waste will Options for animal waste management systems decrease. are constantly improving because waste-handling The objective of waste treatment prior to disposal technology is changing rapidly. If producers can is to promote decomposition by storing wastes for check periodically for new developments that will fit long periods (6 months to 1 year or more). Decompo- the purposes and resources of their individual opera- sition lowers the concentration of nutrients so that the tion, their waste management systems can effectively liquid portion can then be land-applied with less risk meet new environmental regulations that protect of over fertilization and pollution of streams through water quality. surface water runoff. An on-farm animal waste management system The type of storage or treatment system chosen has five components: collection, transfer, storage, will determine the amount of nutrients lost before treatment, and application. Only the first four compo- land application. Nitrogen content of manures stored nents are discussed here. Land application is disin lagoons can be reduced as much as 50 percent cussed in another article in the water quality series. through dilution with water and through losses as am- Collection monia gas and from denitrification. Losses of phosphorus and potassium range from 5 to 20 percent for Collection of animal waste from pens, lots, or all systems except the open lot and lagoon waste han- houses is the first component of a waste management dling systems where losses can reach up to 70 percent system. Collection methods vary, ranging from scrap- for P and 60 percent for K. If the feedlot is covered ing to washing and flushing. Farm machinery and and the manure is stored in a manure pack or deep manual labor are commonly used in scraping. Scrap- compost pit, losses can be reduced. ing may also be accomplished by the installation of scrapers on cables. Regardless of the collection Safety hazards exist with practically any waste method, after animal waste is moved to a designated handling system. Precautions must be exercised to point, it is then transported for storage or treatment. prevent accidental entry into storage or treatment areas by other livestock, pets, and humans. Fences Transfer and gates should be installed to restrict access to the Transfer of manure to storage or treatment in- system, and warning signs should be posted. Pits ARCHIVEshould never be entered unless properly ventilated be- volves the movement of the manure. Depending upon the system selected to handle the waste, this can be cause gases formed during decomposition are ex- accomplished with cross-conveyors, augers, pumps, tremely dangerous. Otherwise, entry should be only wagons, or manure spreaders. with a self-contained breathing apparatus and with properly attended lifelines. Storage And Treatment Storage Ponds Or Pits. The most common storage The most important decision in choosing a waste facilities are storage ponds or concrete pits. These fa- handling system is whether to store waste temporarily cilities are designed to store wastes for a relatively ANR-790 Water Quality 4.6.3 Visit our Web site at: www.aces.edu short period of time (such as 60 days) before land ap- Aerobic lagoons break down waste material with plication and to conserve nutrients that would be lost oxygen provided by mechanical or natural aeration. under treatment and decomposition. These storage fa- This type of lagoon creates less odor than anaerobic cilities must have scheduled maintenance of the struc- lagoons when naturally aerated. Aerobic lagoons re- ture and spreading equipment is required to clean quire more surface area, shallower depth, and regular them out on a regular basis. The sludge and liquid additions of waste to function properly. mixture can be spread on land with a liquid manure Both anaerobic and aerobic lagoons reduce the spreader or irrigation equipment. This system re- concentration of nutrients and, therefore, require less quires a fairly small land area for holding the wastes, acreage for spreading. The reduction of solution phos- and the initial cost to construct it is low. phorus is as much as 90 percent through settling; the Dry Storage. Another storage method is dry storage, reduction of nitrogen is 60 to 90 percent through set- where the manure collects on litter at the ground level tling and biological breakdown. When properly de- or under cages built on a “high rise” or second floor signed, both types of lagoons allow disposal of the by some poultry operators. The floor is scraped and wastewater either by irrigation or by controlled gravity the waste is then stored temporarily before it is land flow to a grass filter strip between the lagoon and applied. Fans are necessary to ventilate such houses stream. Both lagoon types accumulate solids or sludge to prevent vapors from accumulating. in the bottom that must be periodically removed (every Lagoons. The most common method for treating 10 to 15 years for anaerobic lagoons, more frequently dairy, swine, and some poultry wastes is the lagoon. for aerobic); these solids can then be land applied. Lagoons are classified as liquid systems since they One type of lagoon that serves more for storage collect not only the manure but also the wastewater than treatment is shown in Figure 1. Wastes from the from washing areas, flush water, and rainfall on the lagoon can be pumped directly to cropland or pas- lagoon surface. The addition of water for flushing tureland at regular intervals or further treated through may result in a four-fold increase in the volume of wetland cells. wastewater that a lagoon will have to handle. There are two types of lagoons—anaerobic and aerobic. Best Management Practices for waste or wastewater Anaerobic lagoons break down waste material retention structures include the following: without oxygen or aeration and can handle all wastes ¥ The retention structure should be able to contain from a poultry layer hen operation with the exception the solid wastes, the wastewater, and all rainfall and of human waste. These lagoons should be constructed stormwater runoff from a 25-year, 24-hour frequency deep enough to promote anaerobic waste breakdown, storm if the facility is outdoors. and they require the addition of waste on a regular ¥ Manures and solid waste should be stored under basis for the system to function effectively. a cover so as to be protected from rainfall especially

Animal Production System

Lagoon or Holding Pond Wetland CellsARCHIVE

Irrigation System Source: Reick, et al., 1993.

Figure 1. Example of lagoon and constructed wetland system for animal waste management

4.6.3-2 if facility runoff is not controlled. The cover may be a Other Ideas In Animal Waste Management permanent structure or temporary cover such as plas- Converting To Silage. In intensive poultry produc- tic sheeting. tion areas, where adequate land area is not available ¥ The stored waste should be isolated from all for application or incorporation into the soil, it may stormwater runoff by dikes, terraces, berms, ditches, be necessary to implement alternative practices. Fresh or other similar structures. poultry manure or broiler litter can be a component of ¥ The location of new structures should be based ensiling mixtures or added to other silages. Poultry on the following site conditions: susceptibility to manure contains nitrogen as uric acid and ammonia flooding or erosion, depth to groundwater, soil condi- which other animals can convert into protein. tions, and climatic conditions. New structures should not be in a floodplain or a wetland. A University of Georgia entomologist at Tifton, GA is studying the use of soldierflies to reduce ma- ¥ The following setback distances apply to new nure volume by 50 percent from poultry caged layer- structures: hen facilities. The larvae of the flies, which contain Ð 250 feet from private water wells. 42 percent crude protein, can then be fed to swine, Ð 500 feet from public water wells. poultry, or fish. Ð 500 feet from property lines. Drying Or Composting. Other alternatives for ani- ¥ Constructed basins or lagoons should meet cer- mal waste disposal may be drying for use as house- tain design criteria including embankment wall width plant fertilizer or composting to produce an organic and slope, emergency spillway, and freeboard storage. fertilizer. If the producer sells the waste to others, Engineers with USDA Soil Conservation Service can proper management will allow for a product that is provide this information. higher in value to both the buyer and seller. Estimating Waste Storage Needs. Planning for new waste and wastewater storage or treatment structures Dynamic Lifter of Danville, AL offers area grow- means that producers may need to estimate how much ers free cleanout in exchange for their broiler litter. waste will be generated. Table 1 gives estimated The company processes litter into fertilizer pellets, quantities of livestock and poultry manure produced which it sells. The fertilizer usually carries an analy- yearly. These quantities are commonly used for cal- sis of 3-4-2. The company also has plans for turning culating storage volume and equipment requirements pelleted broiler litter into cattle feed. Other compa- and do not indicate quantities available for land appli- nies may soon follow suit in turning animal waste cation. into income-producing products.

Table 1. Estimated Quantity Of Livestock And Poultry Manure Produced Yearly.a Manure Quantitya Total Solids Animal Weight Per Animal-Year Vol. Per Year Content Type (Ton) (Gal.) (Percent) Wet Dry Dairy 3,614 14.94 1.89 12.7 Beef 1,614 6.70 0.77 1.6 Swine 548 2.38 0.21 9.2 Sheep 168 0.73 0.18 25.0 Layersb 986 3.86 0.96 25.0 Broilersb 657 2.62 0.65 25.0 b ARCHIVE Turkeys 2,446 10.22 2.55 25.0 aThe quantities are based on average animal weight as follows: dairy and beef, 1,000 lb; swine, 200 lb; sheep, 100 lb; layers, 4 lb; broilers, 2 lb; and turkeys, 10 lb. The quantities do not include bedding or other materials such as spilled feed, spoil, or water from precipitation. Neither do they reﬂect the decomposition processes that begin as soon as the manure is voided by the animal. bPer one hundred birds. Source: USDA and U.S. EPA. 1979.

4.6.3-3 Treating With Constructed Wetlands. Constructed Transfer. About 86 percent of dairy operators had wetlands wastewater treatment (WWT) systems cost some mechanism for transferring manure to storage one-tenth to one-half as much to build and operate as or treatment, as did 71 percent of the hog operators. conventional systems, are simple to operate, provide Less than 45 percent of broiler and beef farms had reliable treatment to meet permit limitations under such facilities. varying loading rates, and provide aesthetic and sec- More than 65 percent of the respondents gave ondary beneﬁts. Constructed wetlands, however, are high ratings to the transfer aspect of their systems. limited in the waste load they can accept, and a size- Almost 90 percent of the broiler operators gave good able land area with appropriate soils will be needed or better ratings. for very large animal operations. Water from wetlands must be recycled or applied to land since its Storage. More than 50 percent of the dairy and hog discharge to streams has not been permitted. Figure 1 operations had waste storage systems for later use on demonstrates how wetland cells may be used in con- the land; less than 50 percent of the other operations junction with lagoons. had waste storage systems. Dairy farmers were most Disposing Of Dead Animals. Dead animals should concerned about the storage of animal waste for later be disposed of within 24 hours. Animals may be use; only 40 percent rated this part of their facilities buried or composted in accordance with health de- as good or better. About 65 percent of the remainder partment standards. If animals are buried, the site of the sample rated their waste storage systems as must be a minimum of 150 feet from any drainage good or better. way with a minimum of 3 feet of cover. Treatment. Hog and dairy operators were most likely Composting is a very effective way to dispose of to have some kind of facility for storing and treating dead broilers or layers. Composting is a controlled animal waste. Almost 65 percent of the dairy opera- natural process in which beneficial microorganisms tors had treatment facilities, as did 30 percent of the reduce and transform organic wastes into a useful end hog operations. Almost 80 percent of the beef opera- product: compost. Thermophilic bacteria use nitroge- tors reported no facilities. About 50 percent of the nous and carboniferous materials (dead birds and ma- poultry operators had no system. nure, and straw, respectively) to synthesize bacterial Lagoon and storage pond systems were common- biomass. In the process, bulk is reduced 35 to 40 per- ly found on dairy and hog farms. Dairy farms were cent, heat is generated, and water and carbon dioxide more likely to use lagoon complexes, whereas hog are released without offensive odors or noxious pests. farmers were more likely to employ some type of When whole broiler chickens are incorporated into storage pond arrangement. Broiler operators were compost mixtures, their soft tissues are rapidly bro- more likely to store chicken waste within the building ken down and made soluble, leaving only bone and where the animals are conﬁned. Almost half the dairy feather residues after 12 to 14 days of digestion. farmers reported other kinds of systems, often some Refer to Circular ANR-580, “Poultry Waste Manage- type of concrete or block pit. ment Manual,” for further details. All the broiler operators rated their treatment sys- Animal Waste Management tem as good or better, but only 50 percent of the other Systems In Alabama operators felt the adequacy of their system was good Animal waste producers in Alabama include or better. The treatment or biological reduction of ani- dairy, beef, hog, broiler, and layer operations. In a mal manure was viewed as the most inadequate or survey conducted by Auburn University’s Department vulnerable component of the animal waste manage- of Agricultural Economics and Rural Sociology, ani- ment system by the respondents in this study. mal waste producers were asked about their animal A majority of all respondents reported that their waste management systems. facilities were not fully utilized. More than 33 percent Collection. Only 55 percent of the beef operators re- of dairy and layer operators indicated that their facili- ported a method for collecting waste on their farms. ties were at capacity. Dairy and hog farmers were ARCHIVEmost likely to report facilities receiving more waste Of the other producers, more than 82 percent reported a collection component in their systems. than they were designed to handle. The collection components of the systems were Most operators disposed of their dead animals in rated highly by most of the sample. More than 90 per- an excavated or constructed pit while poultry opera- cent of broiler operators gave high ratings to this as- tors were somewhat more likely to use incineration. pect of their system, but only slightly more than 60 Recently, poultry operators have begun to switch to percent of the dairy and hog operators did so. composting.

4.6.3-4 References Hammer, Donald A., Burline P. Pullin, and James T. Watson. 1989. Constructed Wetland For Livestock Waste Treatment. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Region IV. Water Management Division. At- lanta, GA. Molnar, Joseph, and Litchi S. Wu. 1989. Environ- mental Consequences Of Animal Waste Disposal: Farm Operator Perspectives And Practices. Circular 297. Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station. Auburn University, AL. Murphy, D. W., and D. H. Palmer. Dead Bird Dis- posal: Composting. Poultry Science Department. University of Maryland. College Park, MD. Poultry Waste Management. Tennessee Valley Authority. Knoxville, TN. Rieck, Angela, John Langston, and Karl VanDe- vender. 1993. Constructed Wetlands: An Approach For Animal Waste Treatment. University Of Arkansas Cooperative Extension Service. Little Rock, AR. Sutton, A. L. 1990. Animal Agriculture’s Effect On Water Quality: Pastures And Feedlots. Doc. No WQ7. Indiana Cooperative Extension Service. Purdue University. West Lafayette, IN. U.S. Department Of Agriculture and U. S. Envi- ronmental Protection Agency. 1979. Animal Waste Utilization On Cropland And Pastureland: A Manual For Evaluating Agronomic And Environmental Ef- fects. USDA Research Report No 6. or EPA-600/2- 79-059. Ofﬁce of Research and Development. Wash- ington, DC. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1993. Guidance Specifying Management Measures For Sources Of Nonpoint Pollution In Coastal Waters. EPA-840-B-92-002. Office of Water. Washington, DC.

This publication, supported in part by a grant from the Alabama Department of Environmental Management and the Tennessee Valley Authority, was prepared by James E. Hairston, Extension Water Quality Scientist, assisted by Leigh Strib- ling, Technical Writer. ARCHIVEFor more information, call your county Extension ofﬁce. Look in your telephone directory under your county’s name to ﬁnd the number. Issued in furtherance of Cooperative Extension work in agriculture and home economics, Acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914, and other related acts, in cooperation with the U.S. Department of Agriculture. The Alabama Cooperative Extension System (Al- abama A&M University and Auburn University) offers educational programs, materials, and equal opportunity employment to all people without regard to race, color, national origin, religion, sex, age, veteran status, or disability. ANR-790-4.6.3 UPS, New June 1995, Water Quality 4.6.3

4.6.3-5 Agriculture and Natural Resources WATER QUALITY: Controlling Nonpoint Source (NPS) Pollution

ALABAMA A&M AND AUBURN UNIVERSITIES

Animal Waste Management To Protect Water Quality Land Application Of Animal Wastes ANR-790-4.6.4

he availability and relatively low cost of petro- that nitrogen and phosphorus contents can be Tleum-based fertilizers made handling, shipping, matched with crop requirements. This step is very im- and spreading manure fertilizers uneconomical for portant since the nutrient content of animal manures the past 50 years. However, substituting livestock and varies with the animal species and diet, the type and poultry manure for commercial fertilizers is now be- amount of bedding or litter, and the storage and han- coming more economical because of increased fertil- dling of the manure. izer costs, shortages of fertilizer materials, and envi- Nutrient analysis methods for various manures ronmental constraints. are covered in a another article in the water quality The environmental concerns of land-applied ani- series. mal waste are the same as those with commercial fertilizers. Once animal waste is applied to land, it be- Site Selection comes a potential nonpoint source of water pollution Matching nitrogen and phosphorus rates with just like fertilizers and pesticides. Controlling non- crop requirements will not always prevent surface point source pollution from animal waste requires water and groundwater pollution. To determine careful planning by farm managers. whether animal waste can be safely applied, consider When using animal wastes as a substitute for the following site and soil characteristics: water inﬁl- commercial fertilizer, several preliminary steps tration rate, water holding capacity, soil texture, and should be taken before actual application. These steps slope. Distances to streams, ditches, and other water are soil testing, nutrient analysis, and site selection. sources must also be considered if animal wastes are Then rate, timing, and method of application must be surface applied and not immediately incorporated. considered to increase nutrient uptake and decrease Rate Of Application potential water pollution. The application rate for animal wastes should be Soil Testing based on crop nutrient requirements, the nutrient pool An annual soil test can determine the available of the soil, and the nutrient value of the manure. nutrient levels in your soil. This provides a baseline When animal waste is used as a fertilizer, the rate of to let you determine how much additional nutrients application is usually based on matching crop nitro- are needed to achieve the desired crop yields. gen needs and available nitrogen in the waste. Any Annual soil testing on cropland can help you de- additional nitrogen requirements should then be met termine if nitrogen is being used effectively, if salini- using supplemental commercial fertilizer. Where ty problems exist, if certain elements are at toxic lev- local surface water quality is threatened by phospho- els, and if an increase of one element has reduced the rus, the application rate should be limited by the crop availability of another. uptake rate of phosphorus. When taking a soilARCHIVE sample, make sure the sample More information on calculating rates of applica- is representative of the entire ﬁeld. tion based on nitrogen needs can be found in another article in the water quality series. Nutrient Analysis Nitrogen and phosphorus requirements of select- Whenever manure spreading takes place, some ed crops are given in Table 1. estimate of nutrient value is important to plan spread- Excessive application of animal waste may result ing rates to meet fertility needs. Manure nutrient anal- in nitrate-nitrogen leaching into groundwater sources, ysis should be made just prior to land application so phosphorus accumulation in the upper soil profile

ANR-790 Water Quality 4.6.4 Visit our Web site at: www.aces.edu Table 1. Nutrient Requirements Of Selected Crops. Nitrogen Phosphorus Crop Expected Yield (lb./A) (lb./A) Corn 75 to 99 bu/A 75 to 100 60 100 to 149 bu/A 110 to 165 80 150 to 200 bu/A 180 to 240 80 Cotton 1.0 bales/A 40 40 1.5 bales/A 60 60 2.0 bales/A 80 80 2.5 bales/A 100 80 Grain Sorghum 1500 to 2000 lb./A 30 to 40 20 2000 to 4000 lb./A 40 to 80 40 4000 to 6000 lb./A 80 to 120 60 6000 to 8000 lb./A 120 to 160 80 Wheat 20 to 30 bu./A 40 to 60 20 30 to 40 bu./A 60 to 80 40 40 to 60 bu./A 80 to 120 40 60 to 80 bu./A 120 to 160 60 80 to 100 bu./A 160 to 200 60 Coastal Bermuda Grazing only 100 to 160 50 1 cutting plus grazing only 160 to 220 50 3 cuttings 300 to 350 100 4 to 6 cuttings 400 to 600 130 Alfalfaa Non-irrigated, annually 0 60 Irrigated, 6 tons/A 0 100 Irrigated, 8 to 12 tons/A 0 140 Wheat Light grazing 160 60 Moderate grazing 200 75 Heavy grazing 240 80 Sorghum/Sudan 1 cutting or light grazing 80 40 2 cuttings or moderate grazing 160 60 3 cuttings or heavy grazing 200 80 aAlfalfa is a legume which can get its nitrogen from the atmosphere. If fertilized, it can utilize up to 180 pounds of N per acre in producing a yield of 4 tons. Source: U.S. EPA, 1993. where it may be lost by erosion, and excessive accu- studies indicate that soluble phosphorus increases mulation of salts. where excessive P levels have been applied, crop ARCHIVEphosphorus requirements should also be closely The sandy loam soils of Alabama and Georgia are especially susceptible to short-term nitrogen accu- matched to the phosphorus content of the manure mulation and leaching. To prevent leaching and after phosphorus builds up to very high levels. groundwater contamination, crop nitrogen require- Salinity is not a common problem in Alabama. ments should be matched with the nitrogen value in An average rainfall more than 50 inches per year and the manure. Since phosphorus not used by crops can natural leaching on most agricultural soils keeps salts accumulate in the upper surface layers of the soil pro- from building up to toxic levels. If excessive applica- ﬁle and be lost in surface erosion and because recent tions of manure are made, however, soil salinity can

4.6.4-2 become a problem. Salts can affect seed germination, Animal Species. The species of animal manure used cause inefficient use of plant elements, reduce yields, should be considered in order to be assured that plant and be leached to groundwater. Corn, which has a nutrients are available when they are most needed. low tolerance to salinity, can be significantly affected More than 50 percent of the available nitrogen in by excessive manure applications. swine and poultry waste may be mineralized in 3 to 6 weeks depending on climatic conditions; beef manure Timing Of Application may take up to 18 weeks. Timing of animal waste application must be con- Crop Type. The crop’s sensitivity to ammonia should sidered to reduce potential water pollution and to in- also be taken into account when determining applica- crease plant nutrient uptake. Timing of application tion time. Animal wastes with high ammonia concen- should be just prior to or during periods of maximum trations have been shown to inhibit seed germination crop nutrient uptake such as either spring or summer and decrease yields when applied too close to the when crops can utilize most of the nutrients. planting date. Spring application can be made on almost any crop. Bermuda grass hayfields are ideal for spring ap- Methods Of Application plications of lagoon waste because they can use the Methods of applying animal wastes are broad- water and large amounts of nitrogen. Make sure that casting; broadcasting followed by incorporation; knif- the excess forage produced is harvested or heavily ing or injection; and irrigation. grazed. The application method is dependent on the ma- Fall application can lead to losses of up to 50 nure moisture content. Most animal manures are in a percent of the total nitrogen through decomposition solid, liquid, or slurry form. Solid manure will have a and leaching. solids content of about 15 to 25 percent; liquid ma- Winter applications have also shown large nutri- nure will have 0 to 4 percent solids; slurry manure ent losses: up to 86 percent of the nitrogen and 94 will have a solids content in between. percent of the phosphorus applied during the winter Liquid manure can usually be spray applied season can be lost in a single rainfall or snowmelt runoff event in colder climates. If fall and winter ap- with an irrigation system. Liquid manure slurry plications cannot be avoided, manure rates should be knifed midway between the rows and applied 4 to 6 applied to a vegetative cover crop, thus reducing inches beside the rows has resulted in somewhat bet- runoff losses. ter yields than if the manure was surface applied or plowed under. Since knifing incorporates the liquid Split application of animal wastes is a best man- manure, it also reduces pollution from runoff. agement practice when applied to grasses or when injected as a side-dressing for row crops. Split applica- Slurry manure can be spray irrigated but is often tions are ineffective, however, if applied to bare broadcast or soil injected by a liquid manure spreader. ground where a crop is not available to immediately Waste slurries should be applied to the soil surface so utilize the nutrients. that plants and soil bacteria can use and breakdown Climate, animal species, and crop type can also the nutrients with a minimum of soil and water pollu- affect the timing of application. tion. Climate. In areas that are warm throughout much of Solid manure can be handled either by drying or the year, like the Southern Coastal Plain, organic-ni- by adding bedding (straw, wood chips). Bedding, in trogen and ammonium-nitrogen can be rapidly con- addition to its adsorption properties, helps reduce verted to nitrate-nitrogen. Thus, manurial nitrogen volatilization losses of nitrogen. applied in the fall or winter seasons can be leached Broadcasting without immediate injection can away before the following growing season. lead to losses by ammonia volatilization and by sur- Local weather conditions should also be checked face runoff. Limiting winter manure spreading to before land application. It is best to spread manures cropland with less than 4 percent slopes or on land in the morning whenARCHIVE the air is warming and rising, treated to meet allowable soil loss limits can reduce when the humidity is low, and when the wind is blow- surface runoff. Spreading animal manure on land fur- ing away from residential areas. Although rain re- ther than 200 feet from a stream, tile intake, sinkhole, moves odors from the air, waste should not be spread shoreline, or well can also reduce potential transport within 24 hours of predicted rain unless it can be in- of nutrients to surface water and groundwater. Plant- corporated into the soil at the time of application. ing a grassed buffer strip between the land and any Checking these and other weather conditions will creek, waterway, and surface impoundment can pro- help to dissipate the odors quickly. tect the water from excess surface runoff and erosion.

4.6.4-3 Incorporation of manure into the soil before it rated the adequacy of their land application system as dries produces the best crop yields and lowest nutri- good or better. ent losses. Immediate incorporation of solid manure Dairy operators were most likely to spread ma- minimizes losses to the air and allows soil microor- nure on crop acres and to spread on more acres than ganisms to decompose the waste sooner, thus allow- farmers in other enterprise categories. Dairy farms ing nutrients to become available sooner. When ma- dispersed waste in liquid form more often than other nure slurry is incorporated, losses to air and runoff, as types of operations. Two of the 14 dairy farms report- well as odors, are minimized. All forms of animal ed using irrigation as a method for applying waste to waste should be incorporated when applied to land land. Almost 25 percent of the dairy operators report- with slopes greater than 10 percent or on land subject ed spreading waste on land they described as mostly to ﬂooding. hilly. BMPs For Land Application Of Poultry operators were most likely to spread Animal Wastes waste on pasture land and to apply manure to more acres. All the layer operations in the study applied an- ¥ Land to receive solid manures or wastewater ir- imal waste at least once a year. About 62 percent of rigation should have a slope less than 6 percent. Waste and wastewater may be applied to steeper the broiler operators applied animal waste to land two slopes if it is incorporated immediately or if vegeta- or more times a year. Broiler operators were the only tion and other practices to reduce erosion and surface ones to recycle chicken manure as a component of a runoff are adequate. cattle ration. About 25 percent of the dairy and poultry operators gave animal waste to others without ¥ Waste should not be spread when the ground is charge. frozen or saturated or during rainfall. Beef operations applied manure least frequently ¥ Waste should be incorporated into the soil with- of all the enterprise categories. Around 16 percent of in 48 hours of application. If the waste is not to be in- beef and hog operations rarely or never spread ma- corporated, a 200 foot buffer zone of grass or other nure. Almost a quarter of hog farmers indicated they thick vegetation should be maintained between the applied animal waste to land that was mostly ﬂat. disposal areas and the downhill property line or water courses. The results suggest that farmers clearly recognize ¥ Representative soil samples should be taken at the value of animal waste as a feed and a fertilizer, least annually from the water and/or wastewater ap- while at the same time they tend to discount the ex- plication site. Samples should be taken from three tent to which animal waste is a source of pollution to different depths below the ground surface: 0 to 6 groundwater, rivers, and streams. Few respondents inches, 6 to 12 inches, and 12 to 30 inches. The sam- acknowledged the necessity of making changes in the ples should be analyzed for nitrate-nitrogen, ammonia way animal waste is handled on their farms. nitrogen, cation exchange capacity, extractable phos- The terrain of the study counties is such that ap- phorus, sodium, magnesium, calcium, sulfur, and plication of animal waste to hilly land could readily electrical conductivity. lead to runoff and pollution problems. Animal waste ¥ When wastewater is applied through irrigation, spread on hilly land is vulnerable to erosion and sub- a 100-foot or more buffer zone should be left down- sequent pollution of rivers and streams. Given the wind to prevent spray from leaving the property. hilly terrain characterizing the two north Alabama ¥ The cover crop should be harvested at least once counties and the low levels of problem recognition, a year. animal waste pollution may represent a significant performance gap for some farm operators. Land Application Practices In Alabama Deciding If Land Application Is In a survey conducted by Auburn University’s Department of Agricultural Economics and Rural So- Appropriate For Your Operation ARCHIVEMany factors play a role in determining if land ciology, farmers in Blount and Cullman counties were questioned about their land application prac- application is appropriate for your operation. Consid- tices. Wastes produced came from dairy, broiler, er the following questions: layer, beef, and hog operations. ¥ How will you remove and apply animal wastes? In Alabama, manure is most often applied to pas- Do you have access to pumping equipment and an ir- ture or hayland in solid form with a spreader. It is ap- rigation system? plied in multiple periods of the year to at least partly ¥ What effect will land application have on your hilly land. More than 77 percent of the operators neighbors?

4.6.4-4 ¥ Where will you be able to land apply animal References wastes? Do you have nearby cropland, hayfields, or Best Management Practices Of Profitable Nitro- pasture land that can use the extra nutrients? gen Programs. Pioneer Hi-Bred International. Des ¥ How will you use the extra forage (hay or graz- Moines, IA. ing) that will be produced? Humenik, Frank J., DeAnne D. Johnson, ¥ When can you apply the effluent so that the Jonathan M. Greglow, Steven A. Dressing, Richard P. crop/forage will use both the water and nutrients. Maas, Fred A. Koehler, Lee Christensen, William ¥ What do the soil tests indicate? What are your Snyder, James W. Meek, and Fred N. Swader. 1982. crop/forage needs? Best Management Practices For Agricultural Non- By answering the above questions you will be point Source Control: I Animal Waste. North Caroli- better able to determine if land application of animal na Cooperative Extension Service. Biological and wastes is appropriate for your operation. Agricultural Engineering Department. North Carolina State University. Raleigh, NC. Isaacs, Mark. 1987. Manure Sampling: A Key To Proper Nutrient Management. Delaware Cooperative Extension Service. University of Delaware. Newark, DE. Isaacs, Mark, and J. Ross Harris Jr. 1987. Proper Manure Management: A Key To Tomorrow’s Suc- cess. Delaware Cooperative Extension Service. Uni- versity of Delaware. Newark, DE. Molnar, Joseph, and Litchi S. Wu. 1989. Environ- mental Consequences Of Animal Waste Disposal: Farm Operator Perspectives And Practices. Circular 297. Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station. Auburn University, AL. Strong, Charles F., Jr., and William I. Segars. 1981. Poultry Waste: Georgia’s 40 Million Dollar Forgotten Crop. Leaflet 206. Georgia Cooperative Ex- tension Service. University of Georgia, Athens, GA. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1993. EPA Region 6 General Permit For Discharges From Concentrated Animal Feeding Operations (CAFOs). EPA Water Division. Dallas, TX.

This publication, supported in part by a grant from the Alabama Department of Environmental Management and the Tennessee Valley Authority, was prepared by James E. Hairston, Extension Water Quality Scientist, assisted by Leigh Strib- ling, Technical Writer. ARCHIVEFor more information, call your county Extension ofﬁce. Look in your telephone directory under your county’s name to ﬁnd the number. Issued in furtherance of Cooperative Extension work in agriculture and home economics, Acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914, and other related acts, in cooperation with the U.S. Department of Agriculture. The Alabama Cooperative Extension System (Al- abama A&M University and Auburn University) offers educational programs, materials, and equal opportunity employment to all people without regard to race, color, national origin, religion, sex, age, veteran status, or disability. ANR-790-4.6.4 UPS, New June 1995, Water Quality 4.6.4

4.6.4-5 Agriculture and Natural Resources WATER QUALITY: Controlling Nonpoint Source (NPS) Pollution

ALABAMA A&M AND AUBURN UNIVERSITIES

Animal Waste Management To Protect Water Quality Analyzing Nutrient Value ANR-790-4.6.5 Of Animal Wastes

y determining the nutrient value of animal Table 1. Relationship Between Electrical Conduc- Bwastes, producers can prevent environmental tivity (Soluble Salts) And Total N In Lagoon problems, meet crop fertility needs, and save on com- Wastes. mercial fertilizer costs. Manure nutrient analysis Electrical Conductivity, EC Estimated Total Nitrogen should be made just prior to land application so that (mmhos/cm)a (Pounds/1,000 Gallons) nitrogen and phosphorus contents can be matched with crop requirements. Nutrient value of lagoon 55 wastes and manure piles can be determined by mea- 10 12 suring electrical conductivity, estimating, or sampling 15 18 followed by laboratory or field testing. 20 24 25 30 Measuring Electrical Conductivity 30 36 In the absence of a more complete analysis, elec- 35 42 trical conductivity of liquids and slurries can be used 40 47 to estimate both nitrogen content and salinity. For manure in liquid or slurry form, electrical conductivi- aSome meters read in micromhos per centimeter. If this is ty (EC) as an estimate of soluble salts can be mea- the case, convert micromhos to millimhos by dividing the sured quickly in the field. micromhos by 1,000. “Solu-bridges” or other conductivity meters are Source: Chapman, 1984. relatively inexpensive and maintenance free. A county Extension office can purchase a pocket-size model for around $50 or pay more than $250 for a portable, Estimating digital lab model. Conductivity meters are also used Sometimes, the best a producer can do is to esti- to check dissolved solids (salts) in fish ponds, green- mate the nutrient content of solid manure or lagoon house and nursery soils, and irrigation water. Electri- waste, apply it based on this estimate, and follow up cal conductivity should be measured in several sam- with a laboratory analysis to determine exactly what ples after the lagoon is agitated. was applied. Since nutrient content of animal ma- Calculating Nitrogen Content. Table 1 shows the nures varies widely, estimates based on the values in relationship between electrical conductivity measured Tables 2, 3, and 4 may be helpful. However, values in in millimhos per centimeter (mmhos/cm) and total ni- Tables 2, 3, and 4 are for illustrative purposes. Ani- trogen in pounds per 1,000 gallons. mal wastes should be analyzed and land-applied at Most of the time EC readings will not be in the rates based on laboratory tests and local data when increments listed in Table 1. If this is the case, N con- available. tent must be calculated.ARCHIVE For example, assume an agi- Nutrient content of animal manure may change tated lagoon has an electrical conductivity reading of substantially from the time it is generated to the time 13,335 micromhos per centimeter. This would be it is land applied because of storage and handling. La- 13.3 mmhos/cm (13,335 / 1,000 = 13.3). The 13.3 goons, for example, reduce the nitrogen content of mmhos/cm reading is about two-thirds of the differ- manures by as much as 50 percent through dilution ence between 10 and 15 mmhos in Table 1, and with water and through losses as ammonia gas and would be equivalent to two-thirds of the difference from denitrification. Table 2 gives the range and aver- between 12 and 18, or about 16 pounds of N per age values of samples taken from twelve lagoons in 1,000 gallons. Arkansas. ANR-790 Water Quality 4.6.5 Visit our Web site at: www.aces.edu Nutrient content of animal manures can also sentative of the entire material being sampled. The change substantially over time because of animal procedure is as follows: species and diet and rate of decomposition. Tables 3 ¥ Collect small amounts of manure in a clean and 4 give estimated quantities and nutrient values of bucket from several areas within the stack or pile. manures available at the time of land application. For the dry forms of manure, such as poultry, Sampling horse, or dairy cow manure, a shovel or trowel works well in obtaining the sample since a soil probe will The most accurate method to determine nutrient most likely present some problems. If you have a ma- levels in land-applied manure is to have a sample ana- nure pile 50 feet long, pull ten samples from the top, lyzed by a reputable lab just prior to application. In bottom and middle of the pile. Alabama, samples can be sent to Auburn University’s Soil Testing Laboratory or any other laboratory that For liquid manure, such as lagoon wastes, you offers a manure analysis program. The cost for such can make a scoop from a tin can attached to a pole or an analysis is around $30 but can be cost-shared stick and sample from the top, bottom, and middle of under certain USDA Consolidated Farm Service the storage facility. Liquid manures should be agitat- (CFSA) programs. ed and thoroughly mixed prior to sampling. Ideally a lagoon could be sampled a week or so before pump- Taking a manure sample is much like taking a ing and a laboratory could do a complete analysis. good soil sample: the manure sample should be repre- However, since lagoons are not usually agitated until just before pumping, timely sampling is difficult. ¥ Thoroughly mix the large composite sample, Table 2. Amount Of Nutrient Components From and place a small subsample in a container to send to Animal Waste Lagoons. an area lab for analysis. A 1-gallon heavy duty “zip Range In Pounds Average Pounds Component lock” plastic bag works well for the dry forms of ma- Per 1,000 Gal Per 1,000 Gal nure such as broiler litter. A wide-mouth, 1-quart Nitrogen (N) 1 to 58 16 plastic bottle works well for the liquid forms of hog Phosphorus (P O ) < 1 to 30 10 or cattle manure. Do not ship liquid manure in glass 2 5 jars. Glass jars can break, or they can explode when Potassium (K O) < 1 to 42 12 2 left in warm, sunny areas. Source: Chapman, 1984.

Table 3. Some Estimated Total Solids And Nitrogen Values Of Livestock And Poultry Manure At The Time Available For Land Application. Source Of Manure Total Solids Na N Rangea (Percent) (Percent) (Percent) Dairy, stored 18.0 2.0 1.5 to 3.9 Dairy, removed daily 13.0 3.2 Dairy runoff 0.1 0.015 0.001 to 0.86 Beef 52.0 2.1 0.6 to 4.9 Beef runoff 0.1 0.1 0.001 to 0.86 Swine 18.0 2.8 2.0 to 7.5 Swine lagoon 1.0 0.024 0.01 to 0.15 Sheep 28.0 4.0 0.9 to 5.4 Hen 45.0 5.0 3.0 to 11.0 Hen litter ARCHIVE75.0 2.8 1.2 to 5.0 Broiler litter 75.0 3.9 1.21 to 5.0 aNitrogen and nitrogen range for solid manures are on a dry-weight basis; these values for liquid manures (dairy runoff, beef runoff, and swine lagoon water) are on a wet-weight basis. Source: Extracted from USDA and U.S. EPA, 1979.

4.6.5-2 Table 4. Some Estimated Nutrient Values Of Livestock And Poultry Manures At The Time Available For Land Application.a Element (Percent)a Source Of Manure Pb Kc Ca Mg Na Dairy, stored 0.6 2.4 2.3 0.7 0.4 Dairy, removed daily 0.6 2.4 2.3 0.6 0.3 Dairy runoffc 0.005 0.085 0.016 0.011 0.053 Beef 0.8 2.3 2.0 0.7 0.7 Beef runoff 0.01 0.01 0.02 0.01 0.06 Swine 0.6 1.5 2.3 2.4 0.6 Swine lagoon 0.005 0.025 0.005 0.006 0.06 Sheep 0.6 2.9 1.7 0.5 0.7 Hen 1.8 1.4 3.4 0.5 0.7 Hen litter 1.9 1.9 3.5 0.5 0.7 Broiler litter 1.5 2.0 1.9 0.5 0.7 aNutrient levels for solid manures are on a dry-weight basis; these values for liquid manures (daily runoff, beef runoff, and swine lagoon water) are on a wet-weight basis. b Multiply by 2.29 to convert to P2O5. c Multiply by 1.2 to convert to K2O Source: Extracted from USDA, 1954 and USDA and U.S. EPA, 1979.

¥ Submit the manure sample to an area lab and re- MANURE ANALYSIS REPORT quest an analysis for N, P, K, and NH4+ (ammoni- -For use as Fertilizer- um). This analysis will provide the available nutrients in pounds per ton in the manure. The Auburn lab can Type of Sample: Manure also estimate soluble salts in irrigation or lagoon Note: All results are reported on the sample as it was received by the water using electrical conductivity measured in mil- laboratory before drying. limhos per centimeter (mmhos/cm). An example report on manure analysis from the -- Sample Identiﬁcation -- Auburn lab is presented in Figure 1. Fertilizer value is Manure reported as pounds per ton based on the moisture con- -- % -- tent of the sample that arrives at the lab. From the in- MOISTURE 40 formation in Figure 1, the N value is calculated by ASH 47 multiplying 0.0142 (percent N) times 2,000 (pounds NUTRIENTS per ton) to get 28 pounds of N per ton of manure con- Nitrogen N 1.42 taining 40 percent moisture. For liquid manure fertil- Phosphorus P2O2 1.19 izer, values are reported as pounds per 1,000 gallons Potassium K2O 0.98 as sampled. Calcium Ca 0.67 Magnesium Mg 0.14 Sulfur S ---- ARCHIVE-- ppm -- Copper Cu 22 Zinc Zn 85 FERTILIZER VALUE AS SAMPLED (lb./Ton) MANURE

N - P2O5 - K2O 28-24-20

Figure 1. Example report on manure analysis from the Auburn University Soil Testing Laboratory.

4.6.5-3 References Chapman, S. L. 1984. Estimating The Fertilizer Value of Liquid Animal Manures. Information Article 1-84. Arkansas Cooperative Extension Service. Little Rock, AR. Richards, L. A., ed. 1954. Diagnosis And Im- provement Of Saline And Alkali Soils. U.S. Depart- ment Of Agriculture Handbook No. 60. U.S. Depart- ment Of Agriculture. Washington, DC. U.S. Department Of Agriculture and U.S. Envi- ronmental Protection Agency. 1979. Animal Waste Utilization On Cropland And Pastureland: A Manual For Evaluating Agronomic And Environmental Ef- fects. USDA Research Report No. 6 or EPA-600/2- 79-059. Ofﬁce of Research and Development. Wash- ington, DC.

This publication, supported in part by a grant from the Alabama Department of Environmental Management and the Tennessee Valley Authority, was prepared by James E. Hairston, Extension Water Quality Scientist, assisted by Leigh Strib- ling, Technical Writer. ARCHIVEFor more information, call your county Extension ofﬁce. Look in your telephone directory under your county’s name to ﬁnd the number. Issued in furtherance of Cooperative Extension work in agriculture and home economics, Acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914, and other related acts, in cooperation with the U.S. Department of Agriculture. The Alabama Cooperative Extension System (Al- abama A&M University and Auburn University) offers educational programs, materials, and equal opportunity employment to all people without regard to race, color, national origin, religion, sex, age, veteran status, or disability. ANR-790-4.6.5 UPS, New June 1995, Water Quality 4.6.5

4.6.5-4 Agriculture and Natural Resources WATER QUALITY: Controlling Nonpoint Source (NPS) Pollution

ALABAMA A&M AND AUBURN UNIVERSITIES

Animal Waste Management To Protect Water Quality Calculating Rates Of Application ANR-790-4.6.6 Based On Nitrogen Needs

any producers have discovered that animal waste Table 1. Nitrogen Requirements Of Selected Crops. Mis an excellent source of plant nutrients for near- Crop Expected Yield Nitrogen (lb./A) by pastures and crops. When animal waste is land-applied, the nitrogen content is the most important con- Corn 75 to 99 bu./A 75 to 100 sideration. 100 to 149 bu./A 110 to 165 Nitrogen is not only the most valuable fertilizer 150 to 200 bu./A 180 to 240 nutrient applied to crops, but it is also the nutrient of Cotton 1.0 bales/A 40 primary environmental concern if it gets into the 1.5 bales/A 60 water supply. The amount of manure required to sup- 2.0 bales/A 80 ply all N needs may lead to excessive levels of phos- 2.5 bales/A 100 phorus and salts and may lead to potential nitrate contamination of groundwater. Grain Sorghum 1500 to 2000 lb./A 30 to 40 To calculate the rate of application based on ni- 2000 to 4000 lb./A 40 to 80 trogen needs requires both a knowledge of crop needs 4000 to 6000 lb./A 80 to 120 and of nitrogen availability and losses. 6000 to 8000 lb./A 120 to 160 Wheat 20 to 30 bu./A 40 to 60 Crop Needs 30 to 40 bu./A 60 to 80 The application rate for animal wastes should be 40 to 60 bu./A 80 to 120 based on crop nutrient requirements, the nutrient pool 60 to 80 bu./A 120 to 160 of the soil, and the nutrient value of the manure. Ni- 80 to 100 bu./A 160 to 200 trogen requirements of selected crops are given in Table 1. These are also given on a soil test recom- Coastal Bermuda Grazing only 100 to 160 mendation. 1 cutting plus grazing only 160 to 220 3 cuttings 300 to 350 Nitrogen Availability 4 to 6 cuttings 400 to 600 Unlike commercial fertilizers, not all N in animal Alfalfaa Non-irrigated, annually 0 waste is immediately available to the crop. This is be- Irrigated, 6 tons/A 0 cause much of the total N is organic and very slowly Irrigated, 8 to 12 tons/A 0 available. Wheat Light grazing 160 Different types of manure have different amounts Moderate grazing 200 of nitrogen available over differing time periods. For Heavy grazing 240 example, with broiler litter, only 30 percent of the actual N may be readilyARCHIVE available with 35 percent slow- Sorghum/Sudan 1 cutting or light grazing 80 ly available during the season (Figure 1). 2 cuttings ormoderate grazing 160 3 cuttings or heavy grazing 200 In general, the amount of manure required to supply a given amount of N decreases with repeated ap- aAlfalfa is a legume which can get its nitrogen from the atmo- plications over years. If manure is applied to the same sphere. If fertilized, it can utilize up to 180 pounds of N per acre field year after year, the available N becomes very in producing a yield of 4 tons. important in determining land application rates. Source: U. S. EPA, 1993.

ANR-790 Water Quality 4.6.6 Visit our Web site at: www.aces.edu To estimate the amount of manure that will sup- on method of application. With broadcasting and ply the N needed for successive years of application, sprinkler irrigation, N losses to volatilization can be see Table 2. as much as 25 percent. On the other hand, broadcast- For more information on the value and use of ing followed by immediate incorporation and knifing poultry waste as fertilizer see Extension publication can reduce N volatilization losses to only 5 percent. ANR-244, “Value And Use Of Poultry Manure As Denitrification loss of manure-applied N is com- Fertilizer.” mon, especially on clayey soils (Table 3). Most agricultural soils, however, are not clay. Other variables Nitrogen Losses like management, rainfall, irrigation, amount of or- As much as 25 percent of the N that is applied in ganic matter, and texture can affect denitrification animal waste may be lost by volatilization, depending losses of N. Table 3 shows multiplication factors to use in adjusting manure-applied N rates under two management schemes on Group A, B, C, and D soils to ensure adequate crop needs after volatilization and 30% denitrification losses. Urea/ 35% Calculating Nitrogen Application Rate Ammonium The following examples illustrate how to calcu- Slowly late the amount of manure or liquid lagoon waste (immediately Available needed to produce 100 to 150 bu/A of corn on sandy available) (Group B) soils. If spreader equipment is not careful- Organic N ly calibrated, however, the application rate can be in- correct. Calibration of manure spreaders is discussed in another article in the water quality series. 35% Determine Nitrogen Needs And Residual Manure Application Rate: ¥ Nitrogen Requirement: Soil test report suggests Organic N 120 pounds of N per acre (expected yield of corn is 100 to 150 bushels per acre from Table 1). ¥ Broiler litter will be used as the source of N. A manure analysis indicates the N-P205-K20 content is Figure 1. Nitrogen availability in broiler litter. 60-60-40 pounds per ton.

Table 2. Quantity Of Livestock Or Poultry Manure Needed To Supply 100 Pounds Of Nitrogen Over The Cropping Year.a

Length Nitrogen In Manure Of Time (Percent) Applied (Pounds Per Ton) (Years) 0.25 0.50 0.75 1.0 1.25 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 4.0 (5) (10) (15) (20) (25) (30) (40) (50) (60) (80) (Tons Of Manure/100 lb N)b 1 154.1 60.7 34.1 22.2 15.7 11.6 7.0 4.6 3.1 1.4 2 79.3 36.6 22.5 15.6 11.6 9.0 5.8 3.9 2.8 1.4 3 53.8 27.2 17.6 12.7 9.7 7.7 5.1 3.6 2.6 1.4 4 40.9ARCHIVE 22.0 14.8 11.0 8.6 6.9 4.7 3.4 2.5 1.3 5 33.0 18.7 13.0 9.8 7.8 6.3 4.4 3.2 2.4 1.3 10 17.0 11.2 8.5 6.9 5.7 4.9 3.7 2.8 2.2 1.3 15 11.5 8.3 6.7 5.6 4.8 4.2 3.3 2.6 2.0 1.2 20 8.7 6.7 5.6 4.8 4.2 3.8 3.0 2.4 2.0 1.2 aThe values are for repeated application on the same acreage. bAs measured for nitrogen content. Source: Adapted from USDA and U.S. EPA, 1979.

4.6.6-2 Table 3. Multiplication Factors To Adjust Live- ity problems, and accumulation of other elements stock Or Poultry Manure Quantities For Nitrogen could lead to salinity or toxicity problems for sensi- Volatilization And Denitrification Losses After tive crops. The Wastes Are Applied To The Soil. Determine Amount Of Manure Management Lagoon Waste To Surface Apply: Hydrologic Soil Group Surface- Soil- ¥ Nutrient Analysis: As determined by lab analy- Applied Incorporated sis or field measurement of electrical conductivity, assume that a particular lagoon waste contains 18 A (sandy) 1.33 1.05 pounds of N per 1,000 gallons. B (sandy, silty loam) 1.33 1.18 ¥ Assume a yield goal of 175 bushels per acre of C (shallow, relatively clayey soils) 1.33 1.33 corn and an N recommendation of 200 pounds per acre. D (clay soils) 1.33 1.67 ¥ Amount Of Lagoon Waste Needed: The per acre Source: USDA, 1979. rate would be 11,111 gallons (200 pounds per acre divided by 18 pounds per 1,000 gallons = 11,111). ¥ Nitrogen Losses: To compensate for volatiliza- ¥ Figure 1 suggests that approximately two-thirds tion-denitrification losses on Group B soils with sur- (65 percent) of the N is available the first year. There- face application, the multiplication factor from Table fore, the amount of litter needed is: 3 is 1.33. 120 lb/A divided by 60 lb/ton = 2 tons/A ¥ Amount To Apply: Since calculations must ac- 2 count for nitrogen losses, the actual amount to apply 2 tons/A divided by ( ⁄3 available) = 3 tons/A would be 14,778 gallons per acre (11,111 x 1.33 = ¥ Since this will be applied to a sandy loam soil 14,778). Use 15,000 gallons per acre as the applica- and incorporated, the multiplication factor from Table tion rate. 3 to account for losses is 1.18. Therefore, For irrigated application, use 0.55 inches per acre 3 tons/A x 1.18 = 3.54 tons/A (15,000 gallons per acre divided by 27,152 gallons ¥ 3.5 tons per acre of broiler litter should provide per acre-inch = 0.55 inch per acre). Use coffee cans to adequate N for the corn crop. The estimated value catch irrigation water during application to check for from Table 2 is 3.1 tons to supply 100 pounds of N or accuracy. 3.72 tons to supply 120 pounds (3.1 x 1.2) for poultry ¥ Land Area Covered: If lagoon waste is used as manure containing 60 pounds of N per ton. If broiler the only source of N, then an 8,000 cubic foot lagoon litter has been applied in previous years, residual or- (40 x 25 x 8) contains 60,000 gallons (8,000 cubic ganic N will have to be considered and the total rate feet x 7.5 gallons per cubic foot) and will fertilize 4 applied will be lower. If litter averaging 60 pounds of acres of corn at 200 pounds per acre (60,000 gallons N per ton has been applied for 10 years, then only divided by 15,000 gallons per acre = 4 acres). 2.64 tons would be needed to supply 120 pounds per acre of N (2.2 x 1.2 = 2.64 from Table 2). Conclusion Research is underway to refine our understanding It is not advisable to apply very high rates of N as of the capacity of animal waste to supply crop nitro- a single application, even with animal manure. In gen requirements, especially with broiler litter, Al- warm, humid climates, this N may be released faster abama’s number one animal waste product. The high than plants can absorb it, leading to water quality rates of litter needed to supply complete nitrogen problems. Many agronomists now recommend split needs may cause other problems that are not yet well applications from any source of N where more than defined. Excessive phosphorus accumulation in the 100 pounds per acre are available for plant uptake or top few inches of soilARCHIVE may lead to surface water qual- leaching within a 3- to 4-week period.

4.6.6-3 References Mitchell, Charles C., James O. Donald, and John Martin. 1989. Circular ANR-244, “The Value And Use Of Poultry Waste As Fertilizer.” Extension Circu- lar ANR-244. Alabama Cooperative Extension Ser- vice. Auburn University, AL. U.S. Department Of Agriculture and U. S. Envi- ronmental Protection Agency. 1979. Animal Waste Utilization On Cropland And Pastureland: A Manual For Evaluating Agronomic And Environmental Ef- fects. USDA Research Report No 6. or EPA-600/2- 79-059. Ofﬁce of Research and Development. Wash- ington, DC. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1993. EPA Region 6 General Permit For Discharges From Concentrated Animal Feeding Operations (CAFOs). EPA Water Division. Dallas, TX. Willrich, T. L., D. O. Turner, and V. V. Volk. 1974. Manure Application Guidelines For The Paciﬁc Northwest. ASAE Paper No 74-4061. American So- ciety of Agricultural Engineers. St. Joseph, MI.

This publication, supported in part by a grant from the Alabama Department of Environmental Management and the Tennessee Valley Authority, was prepared by James E. Hairston, Extension Water Quality Scientist, assisted by Leigh Strib- ling, Technical Writer. ARCHIVEFor more information, call your county Extension ofﬁce. Look in your telephone directory under your county’s name to ﬁnd the number. Issued in furtherance of Cooperative Extension work in agriculture and home economics, Acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914, and other related acts, in cooperation with the U.S. Department of Agriculture. The Alabama Cooperative Extension System (Al- abama A&M University and Auburn University) offers educational programs, materials, and equal opportunity employment to all people without regard to race, color, national origin, religion, sex, age, veteran status, or disability. ANR-790-4.6.6 UPS, New June 1995, Water Quality 4.6.6

4.6.6-4 Agriculture and Natural Resources WATER QUALITY: Controlling Nonpoint Source (NPS) Pollution

ALABAMA A&M AND AUBURN UNIVERSITIES

Animal Waste Management To Protect Water Quality Calibrating Manure Spreaders ANR-790-4.6.7

nimal and poultry manure can be applied to meet ¥ Repeat the procedure three times. Acrop needs only if you know how much you are ¥ Determine average weight of the three manure spreading over a given area. Calibrating your spread- applications. er is a simple and effective way for you to improve ¥ Check Table 1 for pounds applied and size of the use of nutrients in the manure. the sheet; then read tons of manure applied per acre. To calibrate your solid or liquid spreader, you must determine (1) the capacity of your hopper in tons or tank in gallons and (2) the amount of manure Table 1. Tons Of Manure Applied Per Acre As put on a certain area or the area your spreader covers Correlated To Pounds Of Manure Spread On Test to be emptied. Below are specific suggestions for Area. simplifying calibration. Pounds of Manure Size of Plastic Sheet Calibration Of Solid And Applied to Sheet 8' x 8' 10' x 10' 10' x 12' Semisolid Manure Spreaders Tons of Manure Applied/Acre Solid manure has from 15 to 25 percent solids. Semisolid manure has from 5 to 14 percent solids. 1 0.34 0.22 0.18 Solid manure includes broiler and horse manure; 2 0.68 0.44 0.36 semisolid manure includes dairy cow wastes. 3 1.02 0.65 0.54 To calibrate a spreader for solid manure, collect 4 1.36 0.87 0.73 the following materials: a bucket; a plastic sheet, tarp, 5 1.70 1.09 0.91 or old bed sheet (An even size like 8 x 8 ft., 10 x 10 6 2.04 1.31 1.09 ft., or 10 x 12 ft. will make calculation easier.); and 7 2.38 1.52 1.27 scales. 8 2.72 1.74 1.45 To calibrate your spreader: 9 3.06 1.96 1.63 ¥ Locate a large, reasonably smooth, flat area 10 3.40 2.18 1.82 where manure can be applied. 11 3.74 2.40 2.00 ¥ Spread the plastic sheet, tarp, or bed sheet 12 4.08 2.61 2.18 smoothly and evenly on the surface of the test ﬁeld. 13 4.42 2.83 2.36 ¥ Start driving the spreader at the normal applica- 14 4.76 3.05 2.54 tion speed toward the sheet spread on the ground, al- 15 5.10 3.27 2.72 lowing the manure to begin leaving the spreader at an 16 5.45 3.48 2.90 even, normal rate. 17 5.79 3.70 3.09 ¥ Drive over the ARCHIVEsheet at the normal application 18 6.13 3.92 3.27 speed while continuing to apply manure. 19 6.47 4.14 3.45 ¥ Weigh the empty bucket, then pick up the sheet 20 6.81 4.36 3.63 carefully and pour the manure into the bucket. 21 7.15 4.57 3.81 ¥ Weigh the bucket remembering to subtract 22 7.49 4.79 3.99 empty-bucket weight. This will give you the pounds of manure applied to the sheet. Source: Harris, 1978a.

ANR-790 Water Quality 4.6.7 Visit our Web site at: www.aces.edu If the size of your sheet is not listed, use the fol- If you prefer to calculate the number of cubic feet lowing equation to determine litter application per and then the storage capacity in gallons, see figure 1 acre: below. Pounds of manure applied to sheet x 21.78 = Tons/acre Area of sheet (in square ft.) This basic procedure can also be used for wet litter or dairy cow wastes with the following modifica- tions: use a plastic sheet; weigh the sheet and bucket; place the sheet and the litter in the bucket together; L and subtract the dry weight of both bucket and sheet. The capacity of solid manure spreaders can be estimated from Table 2. If you know the number of spreader loads you used to cover a field or pastured area of known acreage, you can double-check your calibration. If you have a box-shaped spreader, its length, width, and depth can be multiplied to get capacity in cubic feet. D Table 2. Estimating Solid Manure Spreader Capacity. Spreader Size Amount Of Manure (Bushels) (Cubic Feet*) (Tons) Cu ft = 0.79 x D x D x L Example: If D = 7 ft, L = 10.4 ft 70 to 75 87 to 93 1.5 cu ft = 0.79 x 7 x 7 x 10.4 = 400 cu ft 90 to 100 112 to 124 2.0 gallons = 400 x 7.5 = 3,000 125 to 135 155 to 168 2.5 180 224 3.5 Figure 1. Calculating the volume of a full cylindrical tank. *A bushel is equivalent to 1.24 cubic feet. Source: Harris, 1978a. ¥ Measure the distance the spreader travels to empty the tank. One method to determine the travel Calibration Of Liquid Manure Spreaders distance is to measure and count the number of wheel Liquid manure has from 0 to 4 percent solids. rotations. The following procedure is best used to calibrate a Tie twine or rope around tractor tire at top of tire. liquid waste spreader, but it can be used for all types Mark ground directly below twine. Run tractor until of manure. rope again comes to the top. Measure distance tractor ¥ Determine capacity of liquid spreaders in gal- traveled. This gives the length of one revolution of lons. For liquid manure tanks, the capacity will most the tractor tire in feet. likely be expressed as gallons. (If the capacity of your Run spreader load out in field and count number tank is in tons, it takes about 240 gallons to make 1 of times rope comes to the top. Multiply number by ton.) length of one revolution of the tractor tire. This gives Gallons in square tanks: To find the number of total length the manure spreader traveled in feet. gallons in a square or oblong tank, multiply the ¥ Measure width of path the spreader covered number of cubic feet that it contains by 7.5. For with manure. The path width can be paced off or example, a tank ofARCHIVE 100 cubic feet holds 750 gal- measured with a tape. lons (100 x 7.5 = 750). ¥ Multiply length times width and divide by Gallons in circular tanks: To find the number of 43,560. This gives total area in acres. gallons in a circular tank, square the diameter in feet, multiply by length (depth for upright tank), ¥ Divide total gallons or tons of manure applied and then multiply by 5.875. For example, a 6-foot by the area to which it was applied: diameter tank that is 10 feet long, or deep, holds Total manure applied in gallons or tons Gallons or 2,115 gallons (6 x 6 x 10 x 5.875 = 2115). This is = equivalent to about 8.8 tons. Total area covered in acres tons/acre

4.6.7-2 References Collins, Eldridge R., Jr. 1980. Calibration Of Ma- nure Spreaders. Virginia Cooperative Extension Ser- vice. Virginia Polytechnic Institute And State Univer- sity. Blacksburg, VA. Harris, J. Ross, Jr. 1978a. Calibrating Manure Spreaders: Procedure I For Solid And Semisolid Ma- nure. AW-1. Delaware Cooperative Extension Ser- vice. University of Delaware. Newark, DE. Harris, J. Ross, Jr. 1978b. Calibrating Manure Spreaders: Procedure II For Liquid, Solid, Or Semisolid Manure. Delaware Cooperative Extension Service. University of Delaware. Newark, DE. VanDevender, Karl, Phil Tacker, Angela Rieck, and John Langston. 1993. Calibrating Liquid Manure Tank Spreaders. FSA 1021-4M-4-93-S458. Arkansas Cooperative Extension Service. University of Arkansas. Little Rock, AR.

This publication, supported in part by a grant from the Alabama Department of Environmental Management and the Tennessee Valley Authority, was prepared by James E. Hairston, Extension Water Quality Scientist, assisted by Leigh Strib- ling, Technical Writer. ARCHIVEFor more information, call your county Extension ofﬁce. Look in your telephone directory under your county’s name to ﬁnd the number. Issued in furtherance of Cooperative Extension work in agriculture and home economics, Acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914, and other related acts, in cooperation with the U.S. Department of Agriculture. The Alabama Cooperative Extension System (Al- abama A&M University and Auburn University) offers educational programs, materials, and equal opportunity employment to all people without regard to race, color, national origin, religion, sex, age, veteran status, or disability. ANR-790-4.6.7 UPS, New June 1995, Water Quality 4.6.7

4.6.7-3 Agriculture and Natural Resources WATER QUALITY: Controlling Nonpoint Source (NPS) Pollution

ALABAMA A&M AND AUBURN UNIVERSITIES

Animal Waste Management To Protect Water Quality Managing Open Lots And Pasture ANR-790-4.6.8 Systems To Minimize NPS Pollution

hen animal waste from open lots or pastures is Runoff can be either diverted, directed to vegeta- Wexposed to weather, there is potential for leach- tive filters or over land, or held in settling ponds for ing and runoff losses. Barnyard effluent carried by treatment and land application. rain and melting snow can be a major source of water Clear Water Diversion. A livestock yard runoff con- pollution in rural watersheds. The contribution that trol system can divert clear runoff water away from pastured livestock will make to nonpoint source pol- the yard to prevent contact with pollutants and to lution is dependent upon the stocking density, length minimize the volume of polluted water. Diverting of grazing period, average manure loading rate, ma- clear water reduces the size of the facilities needed to nure spreading uniformity by grazing livestock, dis- collect and treat livestock yard runoff. appearance of manure with time, distance of livestock Terraces, diversions, and service road ditches in- from a water body, and quality and quantity of buffer stalled on a slope above the livestock yard can inter- between water sources and animal production and cept and redirect clear water so it does not flow waste dispersion or distribution areas. through the livestock yard. Changing the shape of the Good management practices for small open feed- yard often makes diversion easier. Decreasing the open lots and pasture systems can minimize the potential lot surface area can also reduce runoff water volume. for nonpoint pollution. The key factor in controlling Gutters and downspouts prevent roof drainage nonpoint pollution is controlling runoff and leaching. from entering the yard area. Tile lines connected to Many of the standard practices for erosion and sedi- downspouts can be used to carry roof water under the ment control will reduce losses of animal waste pol- yard. More roofed area can be provided if necessary. lutants to surface water systems. Relocation of manure piles away from gutter Feedlots downspouts and concentrated flow areas, where water The magnitude of pollution from feedlots can be flows naturally following a rainstorm, will prevent several times that of land application sites. Under an runoff of nutrients, organic materials, and bacterial open lot system almost 50 percent of the phosphorus contaminants into nearby streams. and 40 percent of the potassium can be lost to runoff Filter Or Vegetative Strip. Filter strips are very ef- and leaching. Losses of nitrogen are usually in the fective in treating animal waste runoff in most regions form of ammonia and nitrates. These losses are espe- of the United States. Filter strips can reduce the nitro- cially important if the nutrients are getting to receiv- gen, phosphorus, and organic matter in animal waste ing streams through surface runoff. runoff by as much as 77 percent, 94 percent, and 96 The criteria for determining if a feedlot is a point percent, respectively. source of pollution are established under the National Vegetative filters may be areas such as pastures, Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) grassed waterways, or even cropland, which intercept permit program of theARCHIVE Clean Water Act (CWA). Point and slow runoff water following a rainstorm. Vegeta- source feedlots must have a permit which stipulates tive filters are useful for treating feedlot runoff and the amounts and conditions under which the lot efflu- dairy parlor wastes. ent can be discharged. Small feedlots which are clas- These filters may have either channelized or over- sified as nonpoint sources, however, can also con- land flow. Channelized flow systems such as graded tribute significant amounts of pollutants to surface terrace channels or grassed waterways concentrate the water and groundwater. Thus, small feedlot operators flow to a relatively narrow channel. Overland flow must also incorporate some type of effluent control or systems allow flow of uniform depth over the dispos- treatment into their waste management system. al area. ANR-790 Water Quality 4.6.8 Visit our Web site at: www.aces.edu Overland flow systems appear to be more effec- Pasture Systems tive than channelized flow systems for removal of Rangeland management should include restric- pollutants from runoff. Because of the concentrated tion of pastured animals from water sources including flow that occurs in channelized systems, vegetative streams, lakes, and other impoundments. Rotational kill sometimes results, or the vegetation may be overgrazing and stocking rates should be maintained at topped, limiting the effectiveness of this system. levels to prevent grass cover reduction. Requirements Effectiveness of both systems can be limited by will be variable depending on site conditions and type daily heavy loadings. Where loadings of this nature of vegetation. Forage specialists can provide this in- are anticipated, a second filter area for periodic sys- formation. tem recovery and drying is recommended. Settling Stocking Rates And Overgrazing. Most of the pol- basins can also reduce the amount of solids in the ef- lution associated with livestock on pasture or range- fluent, thus reducing the amount of vegetative kill. land results from overgrazing. As livestock overgraze The type of filter treatment system chosen and the an area, grass cover is reduced and soil erosion oc- degree of treatment achieved will depend on soil type curs, resulting in the loss of sediment-bound nutri- and texture, size of the treatment area, frequency of ents. Lack of a grass cover increases runoff and de- treatment, consistency and rate of discharged effluent, creases the effectiveness of vegetative filtering, thus and time of year. allowing more animal waste pollutants to reach re- Settling Ponds. Settling basins receive runoff from ceiving bodies of water. open lots and allow solids to settle and liquids to For pasture management to maintain water quali- drain to storage or disposal areas. Settling basins will ty, a grass cover should be maintained to prevent soil remove as much as 85 percent of the manure solids. erosion and restrict runoff volumes. Stocking rates Settling basins should be large enough to store should be such that the pasture or rangeland is not the solids that will settle out during a month. They converted from a grazing area to a holding area. should be able to detain runoff for at least 30 minutes Restriction Of Animals. Other than causing direct so that solids can settle. The most effective basins are pollution, animals destabilize streambanks making large and shallow, preferably less than 3 feet deep. them more susceptible to erosion. They also open Concrete bottoms allow equipment to be used to re- areas for direct discharge to streams by destroying ri- move solids. parian (stream-side) vegetation that normally absorbs Detention ponds store livestock yard runoff until it nutrients and traps pollutants before they can enter can be safely applied to the land. A detention pond the stream. 100 feet square and 12 feet deep with 2:1 side slopes Animals should be restricted from critical areas will usually store the runoff from an unpaved dairy lot such as highly erodible areas, streams, or ponds. Pas- containing eighty animals for about 8 months. Exten- ture feeding areas should be as far removed from sion agricultural engineers or engineers with the Soil water courses as possible and should be periodically Conservation Service can assist in design of appropri- rotated in order to allow the denuded areas around the ate facilities to meet specific local requirements. feed bunk to recover. Salt licks, artificial waterers, and A waste storage pond or lagoon will reduce bac- shade should also be located away from water courses. teria and nutrient pollution of nearby waterways by Artificial watering systems can be designed and trapping bacteria, nutrients, and sediment. For proper built to supply water from streams or ponds without management, it should be pumped periodically. animals having direct access to the water. (For more Pumps should have the capacity to empty the information, check with the USDA Soil Conservation pond in 10 days (preferably within 2 to 3 days in the Service.) Fencing will prevent farm animals from en- Southeast). Whenever the accumulated volume of tering streams and eliminate any bacterial contamina- stored runoff is more than can be disposed of during a tion threat through direct waste contamination of a day, the pond should be emptied. During the summer waterway. when weather and soil conditions permit, accumulated effluent can be land-appliedARCHIVE through irrigation sys- Animal Management In Alabama tems. Nutrient levels should be matched to soil condi- In a survey conducted by Auburn University’s tions and crop needs. More information on matching Department of Agricultural Economics and Rural So- nutrient levels with soil conditions and crop needs is ciology, farmers in Blount and Cullman counties included in another article in the water quality series. were asked how they confine and water their animals. Your local soil and water conservation district may be Poultry were mainly kept in buildings. About 80 able to assist in locating the appropriate machinery percent of the poultry growers used public systems as and irrigation equipment. water sources for their livestock.

4.6.8-2 Large animals were conﬁned in pastures or open References lots. Springs, streams, and rivers were cited as water Humenik, Frank J., DeAnne D. Johnson, sources by many large animal producers. About 65 Jonathan M. Greglow, Steven A. Dressing, Richard P. percent reported that animals had access to a stream Maas, Fred A. Koehler, Lee Christensen, William on at least an occasional basis. The proximity of ani- Snyder, James W. Meek, and Fred N. Swader. 1982. mal herds to surface water can be a source of pollu- Best Management Practices For Agricultural Non- tion if wastes are not managed properly. point Source Control: I Animal Waste. North Caroli- na Cooperative Extension Service. Biological and Agricultural Engineering Department. North Carolina State University. Raleigh, NC. Massie, L. R. 1980. Livestock Yard Runoff Con- trol Systems. A3077. Wisconsin Cooperative Exten- sion Service. University of Wisconsin. Madison, WI. Molnar, Joseph, and Litchi S. Wu. 1989. Environ- mental Consequences Of Animal Waste Disposal: Farm Operator Perspectives And Practices. Circular 297. Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station. Auburn University. Auburn, AL. Rouse, Gene, S. W. Melvin, and J. Clayton Her- man. 1980. Animal Agriculture And Water Quality. Pm-901i. Iowa Cooperative Extension Service. Iowa State University. Ames, IA. Shelton, Theodore, and Michael T. Olohan. 1987. Best Management Practices For Soil Conservation And Animal Waste Control. FS192. New Jersey Co- operative Extension Service. Cook College. New Brunswick, NJ.

This publication, supported in part by a grant from the Alabama Department of Environmental Management and the Tennessee Valley Authority, was prepared by James E. Hairston, Extension Water Quality Scientist, assisted by Leigh Strib- ling, Technical Writer. ARCHIVEFor more information, call your county Extension ofﬁce. Look in your telephone directory under your county’s name to ﬁnd the number. Issued in furtherance of Cooperative Extension work in agriculture and home economics, Acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914, and other related acts, in cooperation with the U.S. Department of Agriculture. The Alabama Cooperative Extension System (Al- abama A&M University and Auburn University) offers educational programs, materials, and equal opportunity employment to all people without regard to race, color, national origin, religion, sex, age, veteran status, or disability. ANR-790-4.6.8 UPS, New June 1995, Water Quality 4.6.8

4.6.8-3 Agriculture and Natural Resources WATER QUALITY: Controlling Nonpoint Source (NPS) Pollution

ALABAMA A&M AND AUBURN UNIVERSITIES

The Urban Environment And NPS Pollution Urbanization And How ANR-790-4.7.1 It Affects Water Quality

lthough the relationship between urbanization Location Of Urban Areas Aand water pollution is complex, it is relatively Urban areas are usually located near water easy to understand. Urban areas contain many people sources. Urban development is impossible without de- in relatively small areas, and the activities of these pendable fresh water that is readily available to meet people produce pollutants and cause pollution. Fortu- both domestic and industrial needs. Early develop- nately, most urban area pollutants are of a point ment was also dependent on coastal waters for food source nature and are controlled by discharge regula- and transportation. Thus, most urbanization in the tions. However, as an area is urbanized, the land is al- U.S. originated adjacent to freshwater streams and tered to meet the needs of the people who live there. often not far from the coast. This growth pattern has This alteration of the land accelerates nonpoint source continued, with approximately 80 percent of the U.S. pollution because it changes the way water moves, in- population now living on major streams in coastal creases surface runoff, and causes erosion. Moving zones. The results have been negative impacts not with the water and eroded soil are other pollutants, only on local lakes, streams, and groundwater but on which cause numerous water quality problems down- coastal and estuarine waters as well. stream. Specific factors involved in the negative impact Activities Of People urban sites have on water quality include the follow- Nonpoint source pollution is directly associated ing: with the activities of people. Table 1 shows the variety ¥ Large numbers of people in a small area. of nonpoint pollutants common to some urban activi- ¥ Location of urban areas. ties and land uses. This table does not include the nu- ¥ Activities of people. merous household chemicals and maintenance prod- ¥ Alteration of land. ucts that may also contribute to nonpoint source water pollution if not handled and disposed of correctly. ¥ Transportation of pollutants. Large Numbers Of People Alteration Of Land Three-fourths of U.S. citizens now live in urban Changes In Water Movement. As urbanization oc- environments. In some states more than 90 percent of curs, the natural hydrology or water movement of an the people live in urban areas, and even in Alabama, a area changes in response to site clearing, grading, and state considered to be relatively rural, more than 60 the addition of impervious areas. Even natural de- percent of the people live in urban environments. On pressions that once temporarily ponded water and de- a land use basis, however, urban land makes up only a layed runoff are graded to a uniform slope. The cu- small percentage of the total land base in many states. mulative effects of this paving, filling, grading, and In Alabama, for example, urban land accounts for compacting of the soil are enormous. The most com- less than 3 percent of ARCHIVEthe total land base. Since pollu- mon problems are the increased runoff and associated tion is associated directly with human waste and the erosion and sediment loadings to surface waters. activities of people, large volumes of pollutants are Streams experience more rapid ﬂows and greater vol- generated within these densely populated and rela- umes, and banks erode as channels change their con- tively small land areas. This creates special waste tours to accommodate the increased ﬂows. management problems that municipal officials must Increased Surface Runoff. In an urbanized water- constantly address. shed, surface runoff is further magnified after con-

ANR-790 Water Quality 4.7.1 Visit our Web site at: www.aces.edu Table 1. Nonpoint Source Pollutants From Urban Activities And Land Uses. Activity Or Land Use Potential Pollutants Paved Areas Asphalt and concrete particles, road marking paints, crack fillers and join compounds; anti- skid compounds (salts, sand, and ash); dirt and other spills Motor Vehicles Leaked fuel, battery acid, antifreeze, car-care products, and lubricants; tire, clutch, and brake lining parts; larger pieces of metal and glass; bulk materials spilled from open trucks (sand, dirt, and chemicals) Industrial/Commercial Smoke stack emissions; oil and grease leakages from parking lots, salvage yards, service stations, and roadways; overflowing trash and seepage from dumpsters and temporary waste storage areas Lawns And Gardens Organics like leaves, bark, seeds, twigs, and grass clippings; pesticides; fertilizers; domestic animal wastes Construction And Primarily sediment; petroleum products and construction materials; solid Demolition Areas wastes from construction materials and workers; wash water from concrete mixers Litter Disposal Waste items disposed of in streets, along water courses, and in other areas Source: Weinberg 1979. struction is completed. The excessive flow from all Transportation Of Pollutants the impervious surfaces such as rooftops, roads, park- Urban stormwater runoff is the primary transport ing lots, and sidewalks decreases infiltration. This mechanism for many contaminants associated with makes it necessary to construct other runoff con- urban land uses and may include the following: set- veyances or modify existing drainage systems to han- tled air pollutants; food wastes, wash water, and trash dle all the extra runoff while avoiding erosion of discarded onto streets; rubbish or other materials stream banks and steep slopes. Not only is frequency dumped into stormwater drains such as used an- and severity of flooding increased during rainstorms tifreeze and crankcase oil; and a multitude of chemi- but stream flow is reduced during prolonged periods cals from spills, leaks, corrosion by-products, de- of dry weather because the level of groundwater icing salts, and lawn-care products. recharge has been lowered. This lower stream flow The runoff from a typical American city during during dry periods may severely disrupt downstream the first hour of a storm may carry more pollutants environments such as wetlands, floodplains, and estu- than that same city’s untreated sewage would during aries that depend on a continuous flow of fresh water. the same period. Stormwater runoff and water pollu- Under low flow conditions, the quality of wastewater tion from urban areas are discussed in greater detail discharge may have to be improved to meet minimum in another article in the water quality series. water quality standards of adjacent streams. Increased Erosion. Land development seriously ac- Alabama Case Study celerates erosion. Erosion on a construction site may A 1981 in-stream monitoring study of Village be ten thousand times that of undeveloped land. The Creek in Birmingham provides a classic example of resulting sediment can be very destructive in water. It stream degradation because of intense urban develop- can clog the gills of fish; block light transmission and ment. At the stream’s origin at Roebuck Springs, the kill aquatic plants; increase water temperatures; ac- creek had excellent physical and chemical character- celerate flooding by filling channels, lakes, and reser- istics and supported watercress and other vegetation. voirs; and transport other pollutants. By the time the stream passed under Vanderbilt Road, Sedimentation products from urban areas are gen- it had turned grey-green, had an oily sheen, and con- erally more hazardousARCHIVE than natural mineral sedi- tained significant debris. Further downstream at the ments. They are more hazardous because they usually western limits of Birmingham, the creek was dark contain more adsorbed chemicals from atmospheric green, had a putrid odor, and contained considerable deposition and surface-added particulates that result oil and grease. At this point the creek was often from tire wear, automobile exhausts, numerous spills, anaerobic and contained no fish or other biological and road surface decomposition. life. This study found that, on an annual basis, more

4.7.1-2 than 90 percent of the copper loadings, more than 75 References percent of the chromium and zinc loadings, and about U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1992. 40 percent of the lead loadings originated from urban Storm Water Management For Construction Activi- runoff. ties: Developing Pollution Prevention Plans And Best Management Practices. USEPA/832-R-92-005. Ofﬁce Conclusion of Water. Washington, DC. When stormwater moves through urban areas, its Water Quality Engineers. 1981. Village Creek: velocity and volume give it the potential to pick up a An Urban Runoff Sampling And Assessment Report. multitude of pollutants from many sources. Unlike Birmingham Regional Planning Commission. Birm- rural areas, the lack of buffer zones and natural ﬁlters ingham, Alabama. generally causes urban stormwater to have high concentrations of certain types of chemicals, especially Weinberg, Anne, Steve Berkowitz, and Fred metals. Although treatment plants have been built to Madison. 1979. Nonpoint Source Pollution: Land Use clean up most municipal and industrial wastewaters, And Water Quality. G3025. Wisconsin Cooperative there is no effective way to collect, treat, and dis- Extension Service. University of Wisconsin. Madi- charge all contaminated water that runs off urban son, WI. landscapes, just as there is no practical way to treat all stormwater that runs off rural landscapes. It is generally more practical and effective to control urban nonpoint source pollutants with management near their sources. Basic principles for reducing urban nonpoint source pollution have been developed.

This publication, supported in part by a grant from the Alabama Department of Environmental Management and the Tennessee Valley Authority, was prepared by James E. Hairston, Extension Water Quality Scientist, assisted by Leigh Strib- ling, Technical Writer. ARCHIVEFor more information, call your county Extension ofﬁce. Look in your telephone directory under your county’s name to ﬁnd the number. Issued in furtherance of Cooperative Extension work in agriculture and home economics, Acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914, and other related acts, in cooperation with the U.S. Department of Agriculture. The Alabama Cooperative Extension System (Al- abama A&M University and Auburn University) offers educational programs, materials, and equal opportunity employment to all people without regard to race, color, national origin, religion, sex, age, veteran status, or disability. ANR-790-4.7.1 UPS, New June 1995, Water Quality 4.7.1

4.7.1-3 Agriculture and Natural Resources WATER QUALITY: Controlling Nonpoint Source (NPS) Pollution

ALABAMA A&M AND AUBURN UNIVERSITIES

The Urban Environment And NPS Pollution Understanding Urban ANR-790-4.7.2 Stormwater Runoff

recipitation is a necessary component of the water useful to know how often rainstorms of certain inten- Pcycle that constantly replenishes our water sup- sities and duration occur. plies. However, precipitation can become a nuisance The most common classification system for when it flows off lawns, streets, paved areas, and storms uses intensity, duration, and frequency of oc- rooftops during and after a rainstorm and must be currence. Intensity is how much it rains per unit of managed. time such as 1 inch per hour, 6 inches per hour, or 6 Called urban stormwater runoff, this rain removes inches per 24 hours. Duration is how long the storm chemicals and suspended particles from the air. As it lasts in minutes or hours. Frequency of occurrence is ﬂows across the ground, it gathers dust, debris, litter, how often a rainstorm of similar characteristics oc- animal refuse, and toxic substances. This means that curs, such as once every 5 years. For example, a rain- any polluting agent left exposed to natural rainfall— storm that delivers 12 inches in a 24-hour period may whether by negligence, accident, or on purpose—has occur on the average of once every 100 years in a par- the potential to cause water pollution in urban envi- ticular area, and rainstorms of 1 inch in 24 hours may ronments. occur several times each year. In general, a 1-year 24- Managing stormwater runoff can create pollution hour rainstorm in Alabama ranges from 3 to 4 inches, problems, too. Highly efficient methods for getting while a 100-year 24-hour rainstorm ranges from 8 to stormwater runoff away from streets and into nearby more than 11 inches, depending on location in the rivers, lakes, or wetlands has degraded water quality, state. Severe flooding and property damage usually damaged or destroyed many natural wetlands, in- occur with 100 year storms or greater. creased ﬂooding problems, and even reduced natural Most areas in Alabama receive from 70 to 125 groundwater levels in some areas. measurable rainfall events during a given year. Only Stormwater runoff with its associated contami- about 20 to 25 percent of these storms produce signif- nants has been identified as the largest remaining icant stormwater runoff. However, during the most in- source of nonpoint pollution in the United States. Up tense part of a storm, almost all precipitation may go to 70 percent of the surface water problems are to runoff. The probable maximum precipitation that caused by nonpoint pollution—in both urban and climatologists believe could occur in a 24-hour period rural environments. Virtually every metropolitan area is 30 inches. The highest precipitation in a 24-hour has this pollution problem. period recorded in the southeastern United States has What Factors Increase Pollutants From been 20 to 24 inches. Urban Stormwater Runoff Storms are quite different from one location to Three critical factors affect the amount of water another. For example, it is possible for a 25-year 24- pollution generated from urban runoff: (1) the intensi- hour storm to produce 2 inches of rainfall in one area ty of the storm, (2) theARCHIVE proportion of land covered by and as much as 8 inches in another area just a few impervious surfaces, and (3) the system used to carry miles away. This variability can occur because of stormwater to a nearby waterway or wastewater treat- major differences in topography and weather patterns. ment plant. Surface Cover. The type of surface cover also affects Storm Intensity. Very intense rain storms affect the the pollution generated from urban runoff. In an amount of pollution generated from urban runoff. The urban area, the cover usually consists of both imper- greater the intensity and duration, the more erosion vious (impermeable) and pervious (permeable) sur- and more runoff a storm produces. Therefore, it is faces. Impervious surfaces include roofs, streets, side-

ANR-790 Water Quality 4.7.2 Visit our Web site at: www.aces.edu walks, driveways, and parking lots. Pervious surfaces sediment are increased turbidity, reduced light pene- include lawns, parks, gardens and playing fields. tration, and decreased submerged aquatic vegetation. About 30 percent of a typical urban area is cov- When turbidity increases and light penetration and ered by impervious surfaces such as buildings or vegetation decrease, the aquatic communities are ad- pavement. As the number of impervious surfaces inversely impacted. This can impair commercial and creases, the rate and volume of runoff increase. The recreational fishing. increasing speed and volume of runoff cause an in- Nutrients. Phosphorus is the plant nutrient which is crease in the amount of pollutants carried in the water usually least abundant naturally in many freshwater and in the frequency of flooding problems. lakes and streams. In rural areas most phosphorus A higher concentration of impervious areas and reaches streams in association with sediment. In less vegetation cause more runoff from small storms urban areas the primary sources are phosphate-con- in urban areas than in rural areas. For small rainfall taining cleaners or detergents, human and animal events most of the runoff comes from impervious waste, and lawn fertilizers. When excessive phospho- areas while for the larger, less frequent storms both rus enters water it can trigger the rapid growth of pervious and impervious areas contribute to runoff. algae and aquatic weeds. Water clogged with weeds Types Of Systems. How stormwater runoff is trans- is undesirable for most recreational uses, such as ported can influence the amount of pollution entering swimming and boating. In addition, when these surface water. In many large cities urban stormwater weeds die and decompose, they consume the oxygen enters either a combined sewer system, which carries in water. Severe oxygen shortages may result in fish both municipal sewage and stormwater runoff, or a kills. Decaying algae and lake weeds also cause taste separate stormwater sewer, which takes the stormwa- and odor problems in drinking water. ter directly to the nearest lake or stream. In smaller Toxic Substances. Heavy metals, industrial solvents, municipalities, stormwater runoff can be transported petroleum products, lawn-care products, and many by natural drainage channels. common household products and waste by-products Combined sewers transport stormwater to a are washed into our waters daily. wastewater treatment plant, possibly overloading the The danger of toxic metal contamination has in- plant, or by-passing it to flow directly to surface wa- creased in waters adjacent to urban areas. Metals of ters. Thus, it is not just stormwater that enters lakes most concern in urban stormwater are lead, zinc, cop- and rivers when there is a treatment plant overflow in per, chromium, cadmium, nickel, and mercury. Lead, some cities, but stormwater mixed with raw sewage. zinc, and copper are the metals found most often. Ac- Natural drainage channels provide a chance for cidental spills and leaks from storage tanks and pollutants to be filtered out or absorbed by soil and pipelines as well as corrosion and leaching from dis- vegetation. Consequently, fewer pollutants are carried posal and junkyard sites can cause severe water con- from areas drained by natural channels. tamination problems. In Alabama most cities do not have combined Petroleum hydrocarbons are derived from oil sewer systems. Instead, most municipalities rely on products, and the source of most such pollutants separate stormwater sewers and natural drainage found in urban runoff is vehicles—auto and truck en- channels. gines that drip oil. Many do-it-yourself auto mechan- What Are The Pollutants From ics dump used oil directly into storm drains. Concen- Urban Stormwater Runoff trations of petroleum-based hydrocarbons are often high enough to kill aquatic organisms. Pollutants reaching water bodies from urban areas are as diverse and as intense as the activities Lawn-care products such as pesticides can be and land uses which occur there. Pollutants resulting transported by wind, rain, or groundwater to lakes from stormwater runoff include sediment, nutrients, and streams. After entering the water, pesticides may toxic substances includingARCHIVE metals, and organic mate- decompose to toxic or nontoxic substances or they rials. may persist in their original forms. Aquatic organ- Sediment. As with agricultural runoff, suspended isms may concentrate these chemicals in their bodies solids are the major contaminants found in urban well above the average concentration in water. stormwater runoff. Generally, these come from either Common household products like ammonia- one of two sources: established urban areas or areas based cleaners, car waxes, paints, paint thinners, var- undergoing development. Sediment has both short- nishes, sealers, drain cleaners, degreasers, toilet and long-term impacts on surface waters. Among the cleaners, chrome or silver polishes, and roach and ant immediate adverse impacts of high concentrations of killers find their way into stormwater runoff.

4.7.2-2 Organic Materials. Plant debris and animal wastes References contribute nutrient- and oxygen-demanding materials Berg, Vincent E., and Paul F. Clement. 1992. to our waters. Bacteria decompose these organic ma- Maryland’s Stormwater Park Brings Control To terials and consume oxygen in the process. If the sup- Runoff. Land And Water Magazine (November/De- ply of organic materials is excessive, the oxygen sup- cember): 26-31. Fort Dodge, Iowa. ply in the water may become seriously depleted. In Bracht, Betty. 1990. Urban Runoff And Stormwa- general, the less dissolved oxygen in a lake or stream, ter Management Handbook. The Terrene Institute. the less capable the water is of supporting a variety of Washington DC or U.S. Environmental Protection fish and aquatic life. Agency Water Division. Chicago, IL. Urban runoff typically contains elevated levels of Climatological Data—Alabama. 1991. National pathogenic organisms. Potential disease-causing or- Oceanic And Atmospheric Administration. National ganisms may be delivered to waterbodies in runoff Climatic Data Center. Asheville, NC. containing sewer overflows, septic tank wastes, and animal wastes. These organisms live in the intestines Taggart, Judith, and Betty Bracht. 1991. Handle of humans and animals and some are bound to enter With Care: Your Guide To Preventing Water Pollu- lakes and streams in runoff. The presence of tion. The Terrene Institute. Washington, DC. pathogens in runoff may result in waterbody impair- U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1993. ments such as closed beaches, contaminated drinking Management Measures For Urban Areas. In Guid- water sources, and shellfish bed closings. ance Specifying Management Measures For Sources Of Nonpoint Pollution In Coastal Waters, Ch 4. Conclusion USEPA/840-B-92-002. Office of Water. Washington, Although the urban environment often seems DC. cleaner after rainfall, in reality stormwater runoff has Weber, Susan, ed. 1988. USA By Numbers: A merely carried pollution from one place to another. Statistical Portrait Of The United States. Zero Popu- Unfortunately, what is washed from the streets, park- lation Growth Inc. Washington, DC. ing lots, and rooftops may turn up in the water supply somewhere else. If every industry in every city stopped discharging wastes immediately, more than half of the pollution from urban areas would continue to reach our rivers, lakes, and streams. Stormwater runoff pollution is a collective result of every citizen’s action. Consequently, nonpoint source pollution prevention relies on the collective effort of every citizen who lives in the urban environment.

This publication, supported in part by a grant from the Alabama Department of Environmental Management and the Tennessee Valley Authority, was prepared by James E. Hairston, Extension Water Quality Scientist, assisted by Leigh Strib- ling, Technical Writer. For more information, call your county Extension ofﬁce. Look in your telephone ARCHIVEdirectory under your county’s name to ﬁnd the number. Issued in furtherance of Cooperative Extension work in agriculture and home economics, Acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914, and other related acts, in cooperation with the U.S. Department of Agriculture. The Alabama Cooperative Extension System (Al- abama A&M University and Auburn University) offers educational programs, materials, and equal opportunity employment to all people without regard to race, color, national origin, religion, sex, age, veteran status, or disability. ANR-790-4.7.2 UPS, New June 1995, Water Quality 4.7.2

4.7.2-3 Agriculture and Natural Resources WATER QUALITY: Controlling Nonpoint Source (NPS) Pollution

ALABAMA A&M AND AUBURN UNIVERSITIES

The Urban Environment And NPS Pollution Regulating Urban Stormwater Runoff ANR-790-4.7.3

egulating urban stormwater runoff is difficult be- ty standard or contributes a significant level of pollu- Rcause programs that control point source pollutants tants to waters of the United States. and programs that control nonpoint source (NPS) pollu- Under Phase II of the stormwater permit program, tants often overlap. The reason for this is that point EPA is to prepare two assessment reports to Congress sources may become nonpoint sources and vice versa, on the remaining stormwater discharges not controlled especially in the urban environment. For instance, in- under Phase I. Then EPA is to issue regulations which dustrial pollutants normally considered point sources designate additional stormwater discharges to be regu- may get dispersed through spills, leaks, or other releases lated to protect water quality. These regulations were to and become nonpoint source pollutants. On the other have been issued by EPA not later than October 1, hand, pollutants that originate as nonpoint sources, may 1992. However, because of the numerous discharges to be channelized in urban stormwater runoff and ultimate- be covered by the studies and regulations, EPA had not ly become point sources. issued these regulations prior to the preparation of this Efforts to control nonpoint source pollutants article. through stormwater runoff are underway at the federal, Coastal Zone Act Reauthorization Amendments state, and local levels. Section 4.7.3 summarizes current (CZARA). Congress enacted section 6217 of the programs and legislation. Coastal Zone Act Reauthorization Amendments Federal Legislation (CZARA) in late 1990 to require that states develop The Clean Water Act. Enacted as part of the 1987 coastal NPS pollution control programs, which conform amendments to the Clean Water Act, the stormwater with EPA management measures. These programs are to permit program in section 402(p) requires EPA to es- be developed by July 1, 1995. tablish requirements for obtaining a permit to discharge Coastal NPS pollution control programs exclude all stormwater associated with industrial activity. The stormwater discharges that are covered by Phase I of the stormwater permit program is to be enacted in two NPDES stormwater permit program. Thus EPA is ex- phases. cluding any discharge from the following: municipal Under Phase I, National Pollutant Discharge Elimi- separate storm sewer systems serving populations of nation System (NPDES) permits are required to be is- 100,000 or more; any point source discharge associated sued for municipal separate storm sewers serving large with a permitted industrial activity; any discharge which or medium-sized populations (greater than 250,000 and has already been permitted; and any discharge which 100,000 people, respectively) and for stormwater dis- contributes to violation of a water quality standard or charges associated with industrial activity. Industrial fa- causes significant contamination to waters of the United cilities include manufacturing plants, where stormwater States as determined by EPA or the state water quality comes in contact with raw materials or wastes; con- agency. All of these activities are clearly addressed by struction operations thatARCHIVE disturb 5 or more acres; land- the stormwater permit program and, thus, are excluded fills receiving industrial wastes; hazardous waste treat- from the coastal nonpoint pollution control program. ment, storage and disposal facilities; junkyards; power Some of the activities covered by the coastal NPS plants, including their transformer storage facilities; pollution control program and, therefore, exempt from mining operations; some oil and gas operations; and the NPDES permit requirements include the following: airports. construction activities on sites fewer than 5 acres; dis- Permits may also be issued on a case-by-case basis charges from wholesale, retail, service or commercial if EPA or a state water quality agency determines that a activities, including gas stations, which are not covered stormwater discharge leads to violation of a water quali- by Phase I of the NPDES stormwater program; and on- ANR-790 Water Quality 4.7.3 Visit our Web site at: www.aces.edu site disposal systems which are generally not covered by from construction, excavation, land clearing, other land the stormwater permit program. disturbance activities, and associated areas to allow in- Coastal NPS pollution control programs will also dustry a simpler method of complying with federal reg- cover discharges from urban areas that may be ultimate- ulations for discharging stormwater. This GP requires: ly covered by Phase II of the stormwater permits pro- ¥ A company or individual to use BMPs to control grams. Any stormwater discharge that is ultimately is- stormwater runoff. sued an NPDES permit will become exempt from the ¥ Monthly inspections by ADEM. coastal NPS pollution control program at the time that ¥ Monitoring of on-site precipitation by permittee. the permit is issued. ¥ Monitoring of discharges from the site by permit- While different legal authorities may apply to dif- tee at a minimum rate of once every 6 months. Samples ferent situations, the goals of the NPDES and CZARA must be analyzed for pH, total solids, flow, and—in programs are to be complimentary. Many of the tech- some cases—oil, grease, and biochemical (BOD) and niques and practices used to control urban runoff are chemical (COD) oxygen demand. equally applicable to both programs, yet the programs do not work identically. States have the option to imple- Contact ADEM for applicable forms and details. ment the CZARA section 6217(g) management mea- In 1993, an Office of Water Resources was estab- sures throughout the state’s coastal zone, including lished within the Alabama Department of Economic and Phase I stormwater areas, as long as the NPDES re- Community Affairs (ADECA). A Water Resources quirements are met for areas subject to NPDES permit- Commission was also created to carry out the rules and ting. States are encouraged to develop consistent ap- regulations for the Office of Water Resources. Statewide proaches to addressing urban runoff throughout their planning and management efforts to protect the avail- entire coastal zones. ability of waters of the state could result in significant rural and urban watershed management strategies that State Authority protect both surface water and groundwater from con- The Alabama Department of Environmental Man- tamination caused by stormwater runoff. A Coastal Pro- agement (ADEM) is the state agency with responsibility grams Office (CPO) in ADECA is also involved in the for carrying out all federal regulations that deal with overall development of Alabama’s coastal NPS control stormwater management under the Clean Water Act program. (CWA) and Coastal Zone Act Reauthorization Amend- ments (CZARA). ADEM also has the legal authority to Local Authority limit, restrict, or moderate any action that changes the Programs developed under local authority are most conditions of Alabama water so that beneficial use of effective in preventing pollution from urban stormwater that water by any citizen is affected. runoff. Since local governments generally hold authority ADEM General Requirements For Stormwater Run- to enforce land use regulations, the primary responsibili- Off From Construction, Land Disturbance, And As- ty for stormwater control and management is in the sociated Areas. State law and ADEM regulations re- hands of county and municipal officials. quire that appropriate, effective BMPs for control of The most common method of regulating land-use is pollutants in stormwater runoff be fully implemented through zoning ordinances. Most states have zoning- and maintained for all construction and land disturbance enabling legislation that allows local governments to activities, regardless of permit status or size of the dis- regulate development by setting certain restrictions. turbance, to prevent or minimize discharges of sediment These restrictions are commonly based on housing den- and other pollutants to Alabama waters (Alabama Water sity, type of development, impervious surface limits, Pollution Control Act, Code of Alabama 1975, Sections septic tank restrictions, and high risk areas. 22-22-1 through 22-22-14). Interim regulations, also known as moratoriums, ADEM General Permit Requirements For Storm- can also be used to temporarily prevent urban develop- water Runoff From Construction, Land Distur- ment or other potentially damaging land uses until long- bance, And Associated Areas. In accordance with term policies, plans, or regulations are adopted. Interim Phase I federal stormwaterARCHIVE permitting requirements, ef- controls for urban watersheds temporarily restrict devel- fective October 1, 1992, an operator is required to apply opment through the denial of building permits, rezoning for a permit from ADEM for construction, land distur- requests, water and sewer connections, septic system bance activities, and associated areas that exceed 5 acres permits, or other permits until permanent controls are or is part of a larger plan of development. Most areas adopted. These interim regulations can apply to a partic- smaller than 5 acres come under the general require- ular jurisdiction (such as a county, township, or city), to ments. an entire watershed, or to critical portions of a water- On August 1, 1992, ADEM issued a NPDES Gen- shed. Such regulations are generally initiated by con- eral Permit (GP) ALG610000 for stormwater runoff cerned citizens and their elected representatives or

4.7.3-2 through the formation of a special entity that can deal Watershed Conservancy Districts develop construc- with water-related issues. tion projects and other programs relating to water con- Finally, comprehensive information and education servation, water usage, flood prevention, flood control, programs for the general public can play a major role in erosion prevention, and control of erosion, floodwater, people accepting environmental regulations. A certain and sediment damage. percentage of the citizenry will always remain indiffer- Watershed Management Authorities develop and exe- ent, but there is often a cooperative effort within the cute plans, projects, and programs related to water con- community to improve environmental conditions once servation, water usage, flood prevention and control, people at the local level are made aware of problems water pollution control, wildlife habitat protection, and and how to solve them. erosion, floodwater, and sediment damage control. They are similar to the Watershed Conservancy District ex- Regional And Local Entities cept in the following way: any resident inside the water- In most states a number of regional and local enti- shed boundary can take part in formation of a watershed ties have authority to deal with water-related issues. management authority, whereas only landowners can Most of these entities can be formed in rural areas or vote on formation of a watershed conservancy district. areas affected by metropolitan growth, depending on the Water Management Districts construct, manage, and nature of the water issues. They are authorized and ca- maintain levees, drainage systems, and other structures pable of undertaking projects, programs, and activities and improvements for the purposes of preventing floods, within the boundaries of Alabama municipalities. Once providing drainage, reducing sediment, and reclaiming established, most of these entities can control develop- wet, swampy, or overflowed lands. ment and land use by their authority to acquire property County Drainage Districts And Subdistricts develop through the power of eminent domain. This means they systems of surface water distribution to protect land have the power to take private property for public use owners through the prevention, elimination, or control upon compensating the owner. Most of these entities of overflow waters from wet, swampy, and overflow have bonding authority, so they can issue bonds for lands. funding any authorized purpose of the entity. Water, Sewer, And Fire Protection Authorities estab- In addition to regional and local entities, individual lish, operate, and maintain public water systems, which waterway or reservoir management authorities have may consist of facilities and systems useful in supplying been established by specially tailored legislation. Au- or distributing water, including (but not limited to) thorities such as Bear Creek Development Authority, reservoirs, wells, intakes, aqueducts, filtration and pu- Elk River Development Agency, and Tombigbee Valley rification plants, and all necessary appurtenances and Development Authority can either directly or indirectly equipment. affect land use and the type of development allowed within their boundaries and, thus, potential stormwater Water, Sewer, Solid Waste Disposal And Fire Protec- impacts from such areas. tion Districts can be multi-county alternatives to the county water, sewer, and fire protection authorities. In Alabama, there are currently eleven types of gen- They manage solid waste in addition to water supply eral regional and local authorities, districts, subdistricts, services. agencies, and public corporations which may be char- tered to manage or otherwise oversee water-related is- Environmental Improvement Authorities have the sues. power to acquire, operate, and maintain equipment, plants, and systems which may be useful in the control, Mutual Economic Associations develop and operate abatement, or prevention of water pollution. Their pri- waterworks. mary activity is general watershed improvement. They County Water Conservation And Irrigation Corpo- must be approved by the governor to operate within an rations develop and operate irrigation projects; they can area where environmental pollution is above normal, ac- also develop water power and municipal and industrial ceptable tolerances. water supply. They operate under the county commission. Municipal Entities Water ConservationARCHIVE And Irrigation Agencies are Municipal governments in Alabama can authorize multi-county alternatives to the County Water Conserva- entities to provide water for municipal residents and tion And Irrigation Corporations. businesses. In general, all municipal entities that deal Soil And Water Conservation Districts prevent or with water resources and water issues have the basic au- control soil erosion and siltation and the effects caused thorities of municipalities. They can enter into agree- by silting in and sedimentation of stream channels, ments with and cooperate with other entities. They can reservoirs, dams, and harbors. They oversee establish- sell water to other entities or municipalities. They also ment of Watershed Conservancy Districts and Water- have the power (directly or indirectly through the gov- shed Management Authorities. erning board of the municipality) to do whatever is nec-

4.7.3-3 essary to protect the municipal water supply from pollu- responsibilities of the public corporation but operates tion problems. This could entail a number of restrictions under the governing board of the municipality. on urban development depending on the nature and lo- Waterworks Utility Boards. Municipalities have the cation of the municipal water supply. alternative of establishing a less “independent” form of Municipalities have provided water supplies in Al- internal water system management. Although this entity abama since the nineteenth century under general mu- has very similar powers and responsibilities of the pre- nicipal governmental authorities, but the current provi- vious boards, it cannot spend in excess of $5,000 with- sions of Alabama law authorize five distinct types of out consent and approval of the municipality’s govern- approaches or bodies, which a municipality may follow, ing board. create, or charter to arrange for the supply of water to its citizenry. References Direct Municipal Operation. Municipalities have au- Bracht, Betty. 1990. Urban Runoff And Stormwater thority to own and operate water systems and other utili- Management Handbook. The Terrene Institute. Wash- ty systems. They have bonding authority, they can sell ington DC or USEPA Water Division. Chicago, IL. their water, and they have the power of eminent domain Christenbury, Edward S. 1992. Overview Of Re- to acquire and protect sources of water, watersheds, gional And Local Entities Dealing With Water-Related property, and rights-of-way in order to maintain and Issues In The State Of Alabama. In Confederation Of provide water services. They cannot acquire properties Water Systems: North Alabama. A Report submitted to of or duplicate services provided by a water, sewer, and William H. Kennoy. fire protection authority; a water, sewer, solid waste disposal, and fire protection district; or a mutual economic Daniel, T. C., R. C. Wendt, and J. G. Konrad. 1978. association without the consent of the governing board Nonpoint Pollution: Runoff In Urban Areas. G2958. of the other entity. Wisconsin Cooperative Extension Service. University of Wisconsin. Madison, WI. Waterworks And Sewer Boards. Municipalities can allow a public corporation to assume responsibility for Robbins, Richard W., Joseph L. Glicker, Douglas L. municipal water supply and protection. The board has Bloem, and Bruce M. Niss. 1991. Effective Watershed bonding authority and the power of eminent domain to Management For Surface Water Supplies. American acquire, construct, operate, enlarge, improve, and main- Water Works Association Research Foundation. Denver, tain a water system to provide municipal services. CO. Water, Sewer, Gas And Electric System Boards. Mu- U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1993. Guid- nicipalities can also give a public corporation flexibility ance Specifying Management Measures For Sources Of to provide gas and/or electric services in addition to Nonpoint Pollution In Coastal Waters. USEPA/840-B- water and sewer services. 92-002. Office of Water. Washington, DC. Boards Of Water And Sewer Commissioners. Munic- Weinberg, Anne, Steve Berkowitz, and Fred Madi- ipalities have authority to establish an entity within the son. 1979. Nonpoint Source Pollution: Land Use And municipal government itself—rather than a separate Water Quality. G3025. Wisconsin Cooperative Exten- public corporation. This entity has the same powers and sion Service. University of Wisconsin. Madison, WI.

This publication, supported in part by a grant from the Alabama Department of Environmental Management and the Tennessee Valley Authority, was prepared by James E. Hairston, Extension Water Quality Scientist, assisted by Leigh Strib- ling, Technical Writer. ARCHIVEFor more information, call your county Extension ofﬁce. Look in your telephone directory under your county’s name to ﬁnd the number. Issued in furtherance of Cooperative Extension work in agriculture and home economics, Acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914, and other related acts, in cooperation with the U.S. Department of Agriculture. The Alabama Cooperative Extension System (Al- abama A&M University and Auburn University) offers educational programs, materials, and equal opportunity employment to all people without regard to race, color, national origin, religion, sex, age, veteran status, or disability. ANR-790-4.7.3 UPS, New June 1995, Water Quality 4.7.3

4.7.3-4 Agriculture and Natural Resources WATER QUALITY: Controlling Nonpoint Source (NPS) Pollution

ALABAMA A&M AND AUBURN UNIVERSITIES

The Urban Environment And NPS Pollution Best Management Practices ANR-790-4.7.4 To Control Urban NPS Pollution

n a general sense, entire cities and towns may be als, and animal droppings. Nonpoint source runoff Ithought of as point source generators of pollution. from commercial land areas such as shopping centers, Technically, pollutants such as auto exhaust and in- business districts, office parks, and large parking lots dustrial waste do originate from point sources, places and garages often contain higher levels of hydrocar- that can literally be pointed out. However, many bons and heavy metals than other urban runoff. urban pollutants are more accurately defined as non- Source control measures reduce either the amount point source (NPS) pollutants because they are wide- of pollutants or their potential for transport in runoff. spread in urban areas and find their way to lakes and Examples of source controls are reducing automobile streams not through direct discharge but through emissions, applying less road salt, improving street stormwater runoff. Although much less obvious than sweeping, and implementing anti-litter or leaf pick-up point sources, they can be equally as hazardous. programs. Options for dealing with urban nonpoint source Urban areas can accomplish many source control pollution range from doing nothing to catching all the measures at little or no cost with the cooperation of stormwater runoff, storing it, and channeling it citizens. Some of the activities causing NPS pollution through treatment facilities. Doing nothing only ne- in urban areas that can be effectively addressed glects the problem until waterways become open through pollution prevention and education programs sewers. On the other hand, building large treatment include the following: plants or separating combined sewers would cost bil- lions of dollars. ¥ The improper storage, use, and disposal of household hazardous chemicals, including automo- Other management alternatives are available. bile fluids, pesticides, paints, solvents, etc. They are called best management practices or BMPs. Because of the numerous BMPs to select from and ¥ Lawn and garden activities, including the appli- the availability of several manuals to aid in this selec- cation and disposal of lawn- and garden-care prod- tion process, only general information about manage- ucts, and the improper disposal of leaves and yard ment strategies, practices, and principles will be dis- trimmings. cussed in this article. ¥ Turf management on golf courses, parks, and recreational areas. Management Strategies ¥ Improper operation and maintenance of onsite Three major strategies for controlling nonpoint disposal systems. source pollution through best management practices ¥ Discharge of pollutants into storm drains in- are: (1) source control, (2) runoff control, and (3) cluding floatables, waste oil, and litter. treatment. Source control BMPs are usually considered more cost effective but are not always applica- ¥ Commercial activities including parking lots, ble, especially in urban environments where land and gas stations, and other entities not under National ARCHIVEPollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) water resources are often overexploited. Source Control. The first management strategy at- purview. tempts to reduce the sources of pollutants in urban ¥ Improper disposal of pet and other animal stormwater runoff. A major source of suspended wastes. solids in established urban areas is runoff from Runoff Control. A second management strategy at- streets. Street contaminants originate from a variety tempts to reduce runoff quantity and peak runoff rates of sources, including dust and dirt, street litter, chem- by soaking up or storing water during heavy rain- icals, dead vegetation, eroded materials, traffic residu- storms. Infiltration can be increased by using fewer ANR-790 Water Quality 4.7.4 Visit our Web site at: www.aces.edu impervious surfaces, using porous pavement, redi- erosion controls in building codes and subdivision recting roof downspouts to grassy areas, and using regulations and controls on the use of herbicides and natural drainage systems wherever possible. To col- pesticides. Nonstructural measures are often less cost- lect, store, and gradually release stormwater, surface ly than structural measures. ponds, subsurface tunnels, holding tanks, and special- Nonstructural controls include the following: ly designed rooftops or parking lots are effective. ¥ Open storage regulations. Directing downspouts to areas where water can ¥ Anti-litter laws. soak in instead of connecting them to a storm sewer is ¥ Air pollution abatement. a relatively low-cost measure. It is very expensive, however, to install other runoff-reducing mechanisms ¥ Catch basin cleaning. in stable, developed areas. In developing areas it may ¥ Improved de-icing methods. cost less to install these measures during development ¥ Public education. rather than to build expensive stormwater treatment ¥ Street cleaning. facilities later. ¥ Land use ordinances. Treatment. The final management strategy is to ei- ¥ Erosion control and chemical usage regulations. ther treat or remove pollutants from stormwater. In Structural BMPs. These practices involve the established urban areas this is often the only practical construction of physical features such as catch basins alternative. The costs, however, can be substantial. and dams. These structures are designed to reduce Treatment facilities must be able to handle the large runoff and erosion by soaking up or storing water volumes of water rapidly generated during rainfall. during heavy rainstorms. In addition to erosion and Treatment systems often incorporate some form of flood control, structural BMPs result in cleaner neigh- temporary stormwater storage to reduce required borhoods and environmental benefits. Some structural treatment capacity. BMPs, however, are relatively expensive. Physical treatment processes are very effective in Structural controls include the following: removing suspended solids and are widely used. Often some form of chemical treatment is used to ¥ Porous pavement. augment solids removal. Physical and chemical pro- ¥ Parking lot ponding. cesses commonly include some type of liquid-solid ¥ Infiltration systems. separation and disinfection with chlorine. ¥ Diversion structures. Biological treatment processes use bacteria or ¥ Vegetation seeding and mulching. biochemical action to remove organic pollutants. ¥ Rooftop ponding. These processes are not used widely to treat urban ¥ Detention basins. stormwater runoff because it is difficult to keep the necessary organisms alive between runoff periods. ¥ Grade stabilization. Biological treatment processes include high rate ¥ Drain systems. trickling filtration and various types of oxidation la- During recent years, much research and develop- goons. They produce a high quality effluent for a rela- ment have gone into designing a multitude of engi- tively low cost. neering structures to help control NPS pollution. Many engineering firms and the USDA Soil Conser- Management Practices vation Service provide specifications for these struc- Management practices to control urban runoff tures. The Alabama Soil and Water Conservation and its pollutants are of two types: nonstructural and Committee has a handbook that includes information structural. Nonstructural BMPs are used to reduce on stormwater management in urban areas. (See ref- sources of pollution while structural BMPS are gener- erences.) ally more effective at controlling runoff and treating pollution. Combinations of both types of management Management Principles practices may be neededARCHIVE to effectively control and Best management practices to control urban treat NPS pollutants from urban environments. runoff are primarily structural practices that rely on Nonstructural BMPs. The most common nonstruc- three basic principles: filtration, infiltration, and de- tural BMPs are those actions or practices adopted by tention. people to remove or prevent pollutants from reaching Filtration practices such as filter strips, grassed the waste stream. These approaches range from im- swales, and sand filters treat runoff by using vegeta- proved urban maintenance programs to land use con- tion or sand to filter and settle pollutants. In some trols such as zoning to keep pollution-prone indus- cases infiltration and treatment in the subsoil may tries away from watercourses. They may also include also occur. After passing through the filtration media,

4.7.4-2 the treated water can be routed into streams, drainage References channels, or other waterbodies; evaporated; or perco- Alabama Soil and Water Conservation Commit- lated into groundwater. Sand filters are particularly tee. 1992. Alabama Handbook For Erosion Control, useful for groundwater protection. Sediment Control, And Stormwater Management On Infiltration devices rely on absorption of runoff to Construction Sites And Urban Areas. Montgomery, treat urban runoff discharges. Water is percolated AL. through soils, where filtration and biological action Schueler, T. R. 1987. Controlling Urban Runoff: remove pollutants. Infiltration trenches, basins, A Practical Manual For Planning And Designing porous and concrete block pavements, and permeable Urban BMPs. Metropolitan Washington Council of surfaces are examples of infiltration devices. Systems Governments. Washington, DC. that rely on absorption require deep permeable soils Schueler, T. R., J. Galli, L. Herson, P. A. Kumble, and a distance of at least 4 feet between the bottom of and D. Shepp. 1991. Developing Effective BMP the structure and seasonal groundwater table. Strategies For Urban Watersheds. In Nonpoint Source Infiltration devices are very useful in restoring Watershed Workshop, 69-83. EPA/625/4-91/027. pre-development hydrology to increase dry-weather Washington, DC. baseflow and reduce flooding frequency. However, in- Schueler, T. R., P. A. Kumble, and M. A Heraty. filtration devices may not be appropriate where 1992. A Current Assessment Of Urban Best Manage- groundwater protection is a high priority. Also, they ment Practices: Techniques For Reducing Nonpoint may not be appropriate where they can be clogged Source Pollution In The Coastal Zone. Department of with heavy sediment loads from disturbed area Environmental Programs. Metropolitan Washington runoff. Council of Governments. Washington, DC. Detention practices temporarily impound runoff to Simko, Robert A. 1989. Urban Stormwater control the speed of flow and to settle and retain sus- Runoff: Citizen Handbook. Institute of State And Re- pended solids and associated pollutants. Rooftop gional Affairs. The Pennsylvania State University. ponding, parking lot ponding, detention ponds, and Middletown, PA. wet ponds fall within this category. Constructed wetlands and multiple-pond systems also remove pollu- U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1993. tants by detaining flows that lead to sedimentation, Management Measures For Urban Areas. In Guide- which is gravitational settling of suspended solids. lines Specifying Management Measures for Sources These systems treat runoff through the processes of of Nonpoint Pollution in Coastal Waters, Ch 4. adsorption, plant uptake, filtration, volatilization, and USEPA/840-B-92-002. Office of Water. Washington, microbial decomposition. Properly designed ponds DC. protect downstream channels by controlling discharge Weinberg, Anne, Steve Berkowitz, and Fred velocities, which reduce bank-cutting erosion and fre- Madison. 1979. Nonpoint Source Pollution: Land Use quency of flooding. If landscapes are planted with ap- and Water Quality. G3025. Wisconsin Cooperative propriate vegetation, these systems not only reduce Extension Service. University of Wisconsin. Madi- pollutant loads but also provide for terrestrial and son, WI. aquatic wildlife habitat. Inundation and heavy sedi- Woodward-Clyde Consultants. 1990. Urban Tar- ment loads can render these areas ineffective and pe- geting And BMP Selection: An Information And riodic maintenance is required. Guidance Manual For State Nonpoint Source Pro- gram Staff Engineers And Managers. The Terrene In- For More Information stitute. Washington, DC or U.S. Environmental Pro- Additional BMP guidance documents on urban tection Agency Water Division. Chicago, IL. stormwater management are available at a cost from ADEM. Call the Mining and Nonpoint Source Sec- tion or the Industrial Branch in the Water Division of the Montgomery officeARCHIVE (334-271-7700). Conclusion Nonpoint source problems are variable, widespread, and serious. While many practices are available to control urban NPS pollution, BMPs must be tailored to fit the needs of particular sources and circumstances. In urban areas management strategies, practices, and principles must be evaluated.

4.7.4-3 This publication, supported in part by a grant from the Alabama Department of Environmental Management and the Tennessee Valley Authority, was prepared by James E. Hairston, Extension Water Quality Scientist, assisted by Leigh Strib- ling, Technical Writer. ARCHIVEFor more information, call your county Extension ofﬁce. Look in your telephone directory under your county’s name to ﬁnd the number. Issued in furtherance of Cooperative Extension work in agriculture and home economics, Acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914, and other related acts, in cooperation with the U.S. Department of Agriculture. The Alabama Cooperative Extension System (Al- abama A&M University and Auburn University) offers educational programs, materials, and equal opportunity employment to all people without regard to race, color, national origin, religion, sex, age, veteran status, or disability. ANR-790-4.7.4 UPS, New June 1995, Water Quality 4.7.4

4.7.4-4 Agriculture and Natural Resources WATER QUALITY: Controlling Nonpoint Source (NPS) Pollution

ALABAMA A&M AND AUBURN UNIVERSITIES

The Urban Environment And NPS Pollution Best Management Practices ANR-790-4.7.5 For Construction Activities

ore than one million acres of land are disturbed by highly erodible soils should be protected from con- Mconstruction each year in the United States. struction activities. Such areas require expensive con- Runoff from the construction of homes, factories, shop- trols and are best suited for open space or recreational ping centers, and highways can carry large quantities of uses. pollutants to surface waters. While sediment is the most common pollutant, other substances such as chemicals, Develop A Plan pesticides, paints, plant debris, and fertilizers can also An erosion control program, worked out before be washed from construction sites. construction begins, can avoid or lessen most erosion Causes of construction site erosion are relatively and sedimentation problems. Plans should include ways simple to understand and almost as simple to remedy. to protect erodible areas, a schedule of activities to When protective vegetation is removed and earth-mov- minimize soil exposure, and provisions to trap sediment ing machinery begins to reshape the site, the soil is laid before it leaves the site. open to the erosive forces of water and wind. The extent and intensity of land disturbance, the length of Use Erosion And Sediment Control Practices time before construction activities are completed and Several basic measures may be used to control ero- surfaces are restabilized, the amount of traffic on the sion during construction. site during construction, and the severity of storms dur- ¥ Schedule construction activities to minimize ing this period all greatly affect the amount of erosion land disturbance during peak runoff periods. By that occurs. completing soil conservation practices in the fall or late Erosion under these circumstances can be hundreds winter, for example, erosion can be reduced during or thousands of times higher than that from comparable spring runoff. undeveloped sites. Although the actual construction pe- ¥ Minimize exposed area by grading only one part riod may be relatively short, the impact on water quali- of a construction site at a time. The site can be divided ty can be severe and long lasting. Over a short period of into subareas or subwatersheds. If possible, grading on time, construction sites can contribute more sediment to a new subarea can be delayed until protective cover is streams than was previously deposited over several restored on the previously graded area. Also, utility in- decades. stallations can be coordinated to limit the number of Educate Those Involved excavations. All of this requires careful planning to The first step in reducing erosion problems is to in- minimize costly delays. form municipal officials, developers, builders, and ¥ Protect disturbed soil from rainfall by preserv- home buyers of the potential damages resulting from ing as much natural cover, topography, and drainage as soil erosion on lands undergoing development. Under- possible during construction. Trees or shrubs should standing the problem ARCHIVEmay result in voluntary coopera- not be removed unnecessarily since they, too, can help tion in erosion control programs or in policies and ordi- decrease erosion. nances designed to insure the use of erosion control ¥ Stabilize disturbed areas as promptly as possi- practices. ble, especially on long or steep slopes. Use recom- Builders and developers can minimize erosion and mended plant materials and mulches to establish pro- sedimentation by fitting the development into the natu- tective ground cover. Vegetation, such as fast growing ral landscape. Knowing the soil, topography, and annual and perennial grasses, shields and binds the soil. drainage patterns for a site will help determine its suit- Mulches and artificial binders must be used until vege- ability for development. Areas with severe slopes and tative cover has been established. Where truck traffic is ANR-790 Water Quality 4.7.5 Visit our Web site at: www.aces.edu frequent, gravel approaches can reduce soil compaction water. Good housekeeping practices such as handling, and limit the tracking of sediment into streets. storing, and disposing of materials properly can prevent ¥ Control surface runoff to reduce erosion by di- chemical pollution from construction sites. recting flowing water away from critical areas and by ¥ Develop a plan to prevent, control, and cleanup reducing runoff velocity. Diversion structures—such as any spills of fuel, oils, or hazardous materials. terraces, dikes, and ditches—collect and direct runoff ¥ Develop a nutrient management plan to prevent water around vulnerable areas to prepared drainage out- excess runoff losses and contamination of drainage lets. Surface roughening, berms, checkdams, hay bales, courses. and similar devices reduce runoff velocity and its abili- ¥ Store, handle, use, and dispose of petroleum ty to erode. products properly. ¥ Contain the sediment when conditions are too ¥ Store, cover, and isolate construction materials in- extreme for treatment only by surface protection. Vari- ous practices may be used to contain or trap pollutants. cluding topsoil and chemicals to prevent runoff losses Temporary sediment traps, filter fabric fences, inlet and contamination of groundwater. protectors, vegetative filters and buffers, or settling ¥ Establish fuel and vehicle maintenance areas basins detain runoff water long enough for the sediment away from all drainage courses and design these areas particles to settle out. Sediment catch basins may also to control runoff. be used when other control schemes are too expensive ¥ Maintain and wash equipment and machinery in or impractical. For many construction projects these confined areas specifically designed to control runoff. basins should be permanent. ¥ Provide sanitary facilities for construction work- The effectiveness of any control technique also de- ers. pends on the type of construction activity. Very steep ¥ Provide disposal facilities for soil wastes includ- slopes, for instance, such as those resulting from road ing excess asphalt produced during construction. construction, require special sediment control. Other ¥ Educate all workers in the proper handling, use, construction activities, such as extensive stockpiling of cleanup, and disposal of all chemical materials used topsoil on large construction sites, may also require spe- during construction activities. cial management practices. Topsoil is essential in establishing new vegetation and stockpiled topsoil should be References protected from rainfall and runoff. Alabama Soil And Water Conservation Committee. Despite the most effective best management prac- 1992. Alabama Handbook For Erosion Control, Sedi- tices (BMPs), some erosion will occur on construction ment Control, And Stormwater Management On Con- sites. More information is presented on erosion and struction Sites And Urban Areas. Montgomery, AL. sedimentation in another article in the water quality series. Detailed information on erosion and sediment con- U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1993. trol is presented in the Alabama Handbook For Erosion Management Measures For Urban Areas. In Guidelines Control, Sediment Control, And Stormwater Manage- Specifying Management Measures For Sources Of ment On Construction Sites And Urban Areas (Alaba- Nonpoint Pollution In Coastal Waters, Ch 4. ma Soil And Water Conservation Committee, 1992). USEPA/840-B-92-002. Office of Water. Washington, D.C. Use Chemical Control Practices Weinberg, Anne, Steve Berkowitz, and Fred Madi- Other pollutants from construction sites can also son. 1979. Nonpoint Source Pollution: Land Use And contaminate runoff water. Certain chemicals, pesti- Water Quality. G3025. Cooperative Extension Pro- cides, and fertilizers should be prevented from entering grams, University of Wisconsin. Madison, WI.

This publication, supported in part by a grant from the Alabama Department of Environmental Management and the Tennessee Valley Authority, was prepared by James E. Hairston, Extension Water Quality Scientist, assisted by Leigh Strib- ARCHIVEling, Technical Writer. For more information, call your county Extension ofﬁce. Look in your telephone directory under your county’s name to ﬁnd the number. Issued in furtherance of Cooperative Extension work in agriculture and home economics, Acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914, and other related acts, in cooperation with the U.S. Department of Agriculture. The Alabama Cooperative Extension System (Al- abama A&M University and Auburn University) offers educational programs, materials, and equal opportunity employment to all people without regard to race, color, national origin, religion, sex, age, veteran status, or disability. ANR-790-4.7.5 UPS, New June 1995, Water Quality 4.7.5 4.7.5-2 Agriculture and Natural Resources WATER QUALITY: Controlling Nonpoint Source (NPS) Pollution

ALABAMA A&M AND AUBURN UNIVERSITIES

The Urban Environment And NPS Pollution Best Management Practices ANR-790-4.7.6 For Individuals

n the urban environment, much of the pollution ¥ Fertilize your lawn and garden according to Itruly begins and ends with the individual. Too often needs as shown by soil tests. Try not to apply fertiliz- we forget that what we flush down the toilet, what we er when it might be washed off by heavy rains. pour down the storm drain, and what washes off our ¥ Apply pesticides according to the labels on the yards, gardens, playing fields, and parking lots often containers. Do not purchase more pesticide than you ends up in our water—a resource critical to our sur- can use in a reasonable time. Store containers where vival. they will not be exposed to the climate. Do not pour Since everyone is a part of the problem, everyone any unused pesticide or rinsate from containers down must be a part of the solution. Although local govern- any sink, drain, or storm sewer. Clean up spills ing bodies are responsible for application of best promptly with soil, sawdust, or kitty litter and spread management practices (BMPs) in urban areas, indi- it over a large area where it is labeled for use to en- viduals can help at home in the following ways: courage rapid break down. Properly dispose of con- ¥ Recycle aluminum cans, glass, and newspapers. tainers according to local provisions (triple rinse prior Recycling reduces the need for landfills and garbage to placing in household trash or recycle bins). disposal that can pollute surface water and groundwa- ¥ Onsite sewage disposal systems should be locat- ter. ed, constructed, and installed according to regula- ¥ Recycle yard and garden trimmings and other tions. Maintenance and prompt correction of prob- organics such as leaves by mulching or composting. lems is important. Septic tank additives are of little If this is not possible, collect and dispose of them ac- value in correcting problems. cording to local provisions. ¥ If you change your own oil, brake fluid, or an- ¥ Minimize impervious surfaces around your tifreeze, dispose of the used products at a recycling house. Instead of concrete walks use bricks, pavers, depository. Do not dump them into a storm drain. or decking to increase infiltration and reduce contaminated runoff. ¥ Be careful with household products containing toxins. Buy only what you really need and dispose of ¥ Direct roof runoff onto a grassed area, but be any leftovers properly and promptly. Do not pour careful that it does not flood your or your neighbor’s them down any sink, drain, or storm sewer. Use phos- basement. Roof drains should not be connected into a phate-free detergents if phosphorus is a local concern. sanitary or storm sewer system. ¥ Participate in hazardous chemical recycling pro- ¥ Watch for soil erosion around your home. Plant grams; use recycling collection centers. grass or ground cover, install sod, or use mulch to ¥ Use biodegradable cleaners and other alterna- protect the site. tives to hazardous chemicals. ¥ Pick up litter, pet wastes, leaves, and debris be- ¥ Clean up spilledARCHIVE brake fluid, oil, grease, and an- fore they wash into street gutters and storm drains tifreeze. Do not hose them into the street where they that drain directly to lakes, streams, and rivers. The can eventually reach local streams and lakes. floatable items can easily be washed into storm sew- ¥ Remove or replace underground tanks if they are ers and surface waters. leaking. Consider aboveground storage instead. Re- ¥ Manage animal waste to minimize runoff into move abandoned tanks and dispose of them properly. surface waters.

ANR-790 Water Quality 4.7.6 Visit our Web site at: www.aces.edu ¥ Reduce your driving. Car pool, use mass transit, References ride a bicycle, or walk. This not only saves you Magette, William L. 1990. Ground Water Protec- money but reduces pollution from automobiles. tion: An Introduction. Water Resources 22. Maryland ¥ Participate in programs such as Adopt-A-High- Cooperative Extension Service. The University of way and Adopt-A-Stream to assist in keeping road- Maryland, College Park, MD. ways and waterways free of litter and other debris. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1985. ¥ Practice water conservation both indoors and Protecting Our Ground Water. A-107. Ofﬁce Of Pub- outdoors around the home. For example, do not let lic Affairs. Washington, DC. the water run while you do dishes or brush your teeth. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1989. ¥ Participate in voluntary monitoring programs How To Set Up A Program To Recycle Used Oil. such as Alabama Water Watch. For information, con- EPA/530-SW-89-039A. Washington, DC. tact the Center for Environmental Research and Ser- U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1993. vice (CERS) at Troy State University (800-642-2377) Management Measures For Urban Areas. In Guide- or the Department of Fisheries and Allied Aquacul- lines Specifying Management Measures for Sources tures at Auburn University (334-844-9119). of Nonpoint Pollution in Coastal Waters, Ch 4. USEPA/840-B-92-002. Water Division. Washington, DC. Voorhees, Temple, Baker, and Sloane, Inc. 1989. Generation And Flow Of Used Oil In The United States In 1988. U.S. Environmental Protection Agen- cy. Ofﬁce of Solid Waste. Washington, DC.

This publication, supported in part by a grant from the Alabama Department of Environmental Management and the Tennessee Valley Authority, was prepared by James E. Hairston, Extension Water Quality Scientist, assisted by Leigh Strib- ling, Technical Writer. ARCHIVEFor more information, call your county Extension ofﬁce. Look in your telephone directory under your county’s name to ﬁnd the number. Issued in furtherance of Cooperative Extension work in agriculture and home economics, Acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914, and other related acts, in cooperation with the U.S. Department of Agriculture. The Alabama Cooperative Extension System (Al- abama A&M University and Auburn University) offers educational programs, materials, and equal opportunity employment to all people without regard to race, color, national origin, religion, sex, age, veteran status, or disability. ANR-790-4.7.6 UPS, New June 1995, Water Quality 4.7.6

4.7.6-2 Agriculture and Natural Resources WATER QUALITY: Controlling Nonpoint Source (NPS) Pollution

ALABAMA A&M AND AUBURN UNIVERSITIES

Underground Storage Tanks (USTs) And NPS Pollution USTs And How They Affect ANR-790-4.8.1 Water Quality

nderground storage tanks (USTs) may contain a problems and liabilities associated with them. There Ularge variety of liquid chemicals including gaso- was no way to predict how long they would last or line, other petroleum products, and hazardous sub- what type of problems buried tanks would present. stances. Millions of gallons of these potentially dan- From the 1920s to the 1980s, millions of under- gerous chemicals are stored in USTs prior to their use ground storage tanks were installed at commercial, or disposal. Because of the widespread potential con- industrial, residential, and governmental sites. These tamination threat these substances pose to groundwa- systems were neither well designed nor carefully inter, USTs have been described as “ticking time stalled and maintained. In most cases, once the tanks bombs.” were installed, the owner or operator simply forgot USTs are a threat because no one knows exactly about them. The end result was a significant number how many exist. The total UST population in the U.S. of leaks and spills of the stored material, particularly may be as high as 15 million. Only 1.5 to 3 million of gasoline. these tanks, because of their size or other special fea- By the 1960s and 1970s, underground storage tures, fall under current federal regulations. The other tanks were identified as our nation’s number one 12 to 14 million tanks are small and unregulated. source of groundwater contamination. Eighty percent Many were abandoned decades ago and are hard to or more of the USTs installed prior to 1980 were account for. made of unprotected steel. Steel tanks could leak after USTs are a threat because old tanks will leak. Of as little as 10 years in the ground, depending on soil the 1.5 to 3 million USTs that fall under federal regu- and climatic conditions. lations, at least 25 percent are already leaking. Some surveys have estimated that 30 to 35 percent of these Causes Of Spills And Leaks tanks have failed tank tightness tests. Spills and leaks are primarily the result of either USTs are also a threat because they can be found system failure or human error. The specific reasons everywhere. Unlike most hazardous waste disposal for leaks and spills are sites, USTs are common in both urban and rural areas ¥ Operational errors. because they are used for storing heating oil, diesel ¥ Improper installation. fuels, and gasoline. Thus, the concern for USTs, un- ¥ Piping failures. like most other hazardous wastes, is not primarily an ¥ Tank failures. industrial concern but a concern for private citizens, service stations, local governments, schools, and al- Operational Errors. Filling and dispensing opera- most everyone else storing significant quantities of tions can cause numerous chemical releases from fuel on their property. aboveground and underground storage tank systems. Overfills are common for tank systems, especially Sources Of UndergroundARCHIVE Storage Tanks those that lack overfill protection or cutoff devices. Most original liquid chemical storage tanks were Similarly, operator errors can result in product losses motor fuel tanks kept aboveground. Wholesalers, re- during dispensing activities. For most systems these tailers, businesses, and governments started placing types of losses are relatively small, but such losses them below ground in the 1920s because above- may be frequent and can cause severe contamination ground tanks were considered more susceptible to ve- of soil and groundwater over a long period of time. hicular accidents, theft, and tampering. They also Improper Installation. A large percentage of UST took up valuable real estate space. The idea was to system leaks are the result of improper installation bury these storage tanks, and thus, bury most of the techniques. Tanks and piping are frequently damaged ANR-790 Water Quality 4.8.1 Visit our Web site at: www.aces.edu during transportation and installation. Inappropriate water supplies. Such contamination may be a direct backfill material, which contains rocks or concrete, threat to human health and is extremely expensive can damage tanks and piping. The use of inappropri- and very time consuming to clean up. ate backfill materials can also accelerate corrosion, Gasoline is especially hazardous in drinking and insufficient tightening of joints or fittings can re- water. It contains numerous toxic chemicals and addi- sult in leaks. Studies indicate that up to 10 percent of tives to reduce carbon monoxide emissions and boost all newly installed tanks may have a leak somewhere octane. Many of the chemicals from gasoline can in the system, most likely in the piping. cause damage to the kidneys, liver, and nervous sys- Piping Failures. Four out of five leaks in UST system. Benzene, toluene, xylene, and ethylbenzene, for tems occur in the piping, not in the tank itself. While example, are major contaminants likely to enter corrosion appears to be a primary cause of such fail- drinking water from leaking underground gasoline ures, piping leaks can also occur because of the fol- tanks. These four chemicals account for approximate- lowing: loose fittings; improper sealing of pipe joints; ly 15 percent of the volume of unleaded gasoline and differential settling of the tank and piping; stresses are among the more volatile and water soluble chemi- caused by freeze-thaw cycles, wetting-drying cycles cals found in gasoline. All four chemicals are highly in high shrink-swell soils, or heavy traffic; hydraulic toxic. shock; and pump-induced vibrations. Tank Failure. The most damaging leaks are likely to Conclusion occur with tank failure. The most common cause is Leaking USTs are one of our nation’s leading corrosion. Most tanks are steel, which has a natural causes of groundwater contamination. They pose the tendency to corrode. Corrosion is a natural electro- greatest threat in rural America, where 95 percent of chemical process, and any factor in the design or in- the population depends on well water for drinking. As stallation of a tank system that enhances this process a result, local governments, businesses, and private can result in accelerated corrosion and premature tank citizens face substantial costs to comply with regula- failure. For example, corrosion may be accelerated by tions covering both the tanks and potential cleanup, in the following: the use of corrosive or non-homoge- case there is a problem. In 1990 the average cost for neous backfill; the use of dissimilar metals in the tank cleaning up a spill or leak was more than $50,000. By or piping; the presence of shallow groundwater or 1993, the average investigation and cleanup of contemporary water around the tank; damage to corro- taminated soil and/or groundwater averaged over sion control coatings; and stray currents from electri- $100,000 per site in Alabama, a cost similar to that cal power sources. incurred and reported in other states. In some cases Effects Of Leaking USTs On Water Quality cleanup costs can run up to several million dollars. Nationally, groundwater provides much of our The National Association of Towns and Town- daily needs for fresh water, including half of our ships in Washington, DC has developed valuable re- drinking water supplies. In some areas, groundwater source materials for local officials of towns and cities provides more than 95 percent of the water for all in dealing with underground storage tank issues uses. In Alabama, at least 40 percent of the popula- (1522 K Street, N.W., Suite 600, 20005-1202, 202- tion drinks water from groundwater sources. Stored 737-5200). This organization has also compiled a list wastes or fuels seeping from underground storage of available technical and non-technical resource ma- tanks are capable of contaminating these valuable terials on USTs. ARCHIVE

4.8.1-2 References Alabama Department of Environmental Manage- ment. 1993. Amendments To The Alabama Under- ground Storage Tank Trust Fund Act, Title 22, Chap- ter 35 Of The Code Of Alabama During The 1993 Regular And Special Sessions Of The Alabama Leg- islature. Fiscal Note to Accompany Proposed Revi- sion To The Alabama Department Of Environmental Management’s Administrative Code. Montgomery, AL. Cheremisinoff, Paul N. 1991. Protecting Water Supplies. Pollution Engineering 23(2):44-50. Hoffman, R. D. R. 1991. Stopping The Peril Of Leaking Tanks. Popular Science 238(3):77-79, 89. National Association Of Towns And Townships. 1991. Getting Out From Under: Underground Storage Tank Alternatives For Small Towns. Washington, DC. Robinson, Janet E., Paul Thompson, W. David Conn, And Leon Geyer. 1993. Issues In Underground Storage Tank Management: Tank Closure And Finan- cial Assurance. CRC Press, Inc. Boca Raton, FL.

This publication, supported in part by a grant from the Alabama Department of Environmental Management and the Tennessee Valley Authority, was prepared by James E. Hairston, Extension Water Quality Scientist, assisted by Leigh Strib- ling, Technical Writer. ARCHIVEFor more information, call your county Extension ofﬁce. Look in your telephone directory under your county’s name to ﬁnd the number. Issued in furtherance of Cooperative Extension work in agriculture and home economics, Acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914, and other related acts, in cooperation with the U.S. Department of Agriculture. The Alabama Cooperative Extension System (Al- abama A&M University and Auburn University) offers educational programs, materials, and equal opportunity employment to all people without regard to race, color, national origin, religion, sex, age, veteran status, or disability. ANR-790-4.8.1 UPS, New June 1995, Water Quality 4.8.1

4.8.1-3 Agriculture and Natural Resources WATER QUALITY: Controlling Nonpoint Source (NPS) Pollution

ALABAMA A&M AND AUBURN UNIVERSITIES

Underground Storage Tanks (USTs) And NPS Pollution Regulating USTs ANR-790-4.8.2

fforts at the federal, state, and local levels are un- ¥ All new UST systems must be protected from Ederway to protect the quality of groundwater corrosion, equipped with spill and overfill prevention from leaking underground storage tanks (USTs). This devices, and provided with leak detection. article summarizes applicable laws and regulations. ¥ Existing UST systems must be provided with Recent amendments to the Alabama Underground leak detection that is phased in over a 5-year period, Storage Tank Trust Fund Act (effective June 1, 1994) with the oldest tanks due in the first year (December also address aboveground storage tanks (ASTs). 1989) and the youngest in the fifth year (December 1993). Federal Laws ¥ Existing UST systems must be upgraded (essen- Two federal laws deal with underground storage tially to the new tank standards) by 1998. tanks: the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act ¥ All suspected releases must be investigated, and (RCRA) of 1976 with 1986 reauthorization amend- confirmed releases must satisfy corrective action re- ments and the Comprehensive Environmental Re- quirements established on a site-by-site basis by the sponse, Compensation, and Liability Act passed by state. Congress in 1980 (CERCLA or Superfund). Subtitle I of RCRA amendments contains all the UST technical ¥ Requirements for reporting, record-keeping, op- standards and corrective action requirements, which erating, maintaining, and closure must assure that the are the bulk of the federal legislation. Subtitle C of UST system does not leak or spill throughout its op- RCRA deals with hazardous waste regulations as they erating life. apply to USTs, and CERCLA deals with owner or Financial Responsibility Requirements. The federal operator liabilities, release reporting requirements, regulations call for UST owners and operators to and cleanup requirements for USTs containing a haz- demonstrate their financial capability to take prompt ardous substance. corrective action and to compensate third parties for injuries or damage because of leaks or spills from The Resource Conservation And Recovery Act USTs. The Resource Conservation and Recovery Act Compliance requirements vary for different sizes (RCRA) of 1976 is the major vehicle for hazardous and classifications of owners and operators. The net waste and underground storage tank regulation. After worth of larger municipalities can serve as a financial a number of states passed their own underground indicator of their ability to pay for cleanup costs and storage tank regulatory programs, Congress required liability claims. However, most motor fuel industries, EPA to develop national standards for USTs. These local governments, and many small businesses with were included in the 1986 reauthorization amend- vehicle fleets fall into the category of owners or oper- ments to RCRA and published under Subtitle I in ators which must demonstrate the ability to provide September of 1988. ARCHIVEall of the following: The federal regulations on USTs are divided into ¥ A minimum of $500,000 to cover costs for indi- two broad categories: technical standards and finan- vidual releases. cial responsibility requirements. ¥ A minimum of $1,000,000 to cover costs of an- Technical Standards. The USTs of greatest concern nual aggregate releases (should more than one leak are those used for storing and dispensing of petro- occur). leum products. The EPA has summarized the techni- Small rural governments and many smaller busi- cal standards for petroleum products as follows: nesses which cannot qualify for the self-insurance op-

ANR-790 Water Quality 4.8.2 Visit our Web site at: www.aces.edu tions must use one of the other mechanisms on EPA’s Alabama Underground And Aboveground Storage list of allowable methods to demonstrate financial ca- Tank Trust Fund. This act establishes financial re- pability. Local governments must meet the applicable sponsibility in Alabama for owners and operators of financial responsibility by no later than one year after underground storage tanks (USTs) as required by fed- the financial requirements become final (October eral law, and also for owners of aboveground storage 1993) or within 30 days of putting a new or upgraded tanks (ASTs) as well. Administered by the Alabama tank into service after that date. Department of Environmental Management (ADEM), EPA has encouraged states to develop and pro- this law establishes all the rules, regulations, proce- mote state-sponsored assurance mechanisms for local dures, exemptions, etc., for owners and operators of governments. At least 43 states, including Alabama, USTs and ASTs to follow in maintaining Tank Trust currently operate or have passed enabling legislation Fund eligibility requirements. to establish a state assurance fund. These funds are The act deals specifically with regulated tank sys- different from state to state. Some do not cover the tems used for storage, use, or dispensing of “motor full $1,000,000 required for aggregate annual cover- fuels.” Any applicable UST system in use on Novem- age, and the deductible which local governments ber 8, 1984, or brought into use after that date must must pay runs as high as $100,000. comply with the provisions of this act. Any applica- Subtitle C of RCRA indirectly applies to USTs be- ble AST in use on August 1, 1993 or brought into use after that date must comply with the provisions of this cause it governs the generating, transporting, storing, act. treating, and disposing of hazardous waste. A “hazardous waste” is defined as any waste material that The Tank Trust Fund is maintained by tank own- (1) exhibits specified characteristics of ignitability, re- ers, who pay annual fees set by ADEM. Costs for in- activity, toxicity, or corrosivity, or (2) is explicitly vestigation, site assessment, certain types of interim identified and numbered by EPA on a series of lists and permanent restoration and rehabilitation, and based on industrial source or specific chemical type. some liability costs after the first $5,000 ($10,000 for Subtitle C of RCRA or appropriate state and local ASTs) can be charged against the fund. Costs of re- regulations apply when more than 220 pounds or 26 placement, installation, closure, and/or retrofitting, or gallons (about half of a 55-gallon drum) of hazardous testing of affected tanks and associated piping is not eligible for payment or re-imbursement by the Tank waste is produced at a site or remains in an under- Trust Fund. Costs for environmental audits, property ground storage tank to be closed. transfer audits, and purchase of equipment for testing State Laws and rehabilitation are not eligible. Hourly rates for In most states two sets of legislation address use of such equipment however, is eligible for those who have response action clearance from ADEM. USTs. Most states have now enacted their own UST regulations, some more stringent than the federal reg- The Tank Trust Fund is strictly for the use of ulations under RCRA. Most states also have state- owners who comply with all applicable requirements wide construction or building codes, which may con- of the state and federal law. The federal Leaking Un- tain UST removal or abandonment criteria and derground Storage Tank (LUST) Trust Fund may be notification or inspection requirements. available for abandoned sites, which pose emergency risks to health or the environment or where the ex- Two state laws were enacted in Alabama in 1988 pected cleanup is beyond the financial capability of in response to the federal legislation dealing with un- the responsible party. derground storage tanks: Alabama Underground Storage Tank And Well- ¥ Alabama Underground Storage Tank (AUST) head Protection Act Of 1988. This act established Trust Fund Act. essentially the same rules and regulations contained ¥ Alabama Underground Storage Tank And Well- in federal legislation (RCRA Subtitle I and CER- head Protection Act. CLA) to protect wellhead areas from underground The Alabama StorageARCHIVE Tank Trust Fund Act of storage tanks. 1988 was amended in 1993 by Act No. 93-628 and Alabama’s UST program requires more than the Act No. 93-891, effectively changing its title to Al- minimum installation requirements for USTs located abama Underground and Aboveground Storage Tank within 300 feet of a private well, within 1,000 feet of Trust Fund. The primary purpose of these amend- a public water supply well, and in any area designated ments was to provide additional revenue to the former as being highly vulnerable to groundwater contami- Alabama Underground Storage Tank Trust Fund, now nation. These installation requirements are currently simply called “Tank” Trust Fund. The 1993 amend- being implemented in delineated wellhead protection ments went into effect June 1, 1994. areas in Alabama.

4.8.2-2 Underground And Aboveground Tank Exemptions. Statutory Authority And Financial Responsibility In Underground tank exemptions in Alabama are essen- Alabama. In order to participate in the liability limi- tially identical to those adopted by the EPA. Above- tations and reimbursement benefits of the Alabama ground tanks in Alabama carry the same exemptions. Tank Trust Fund, each owner or operator of USTs or The types of tanks for belowground or aboveground ASTs must comply with ADEM Administrative Code storage that are not covered by state and federal stan- or the applicable Code of Federal Regulations. Appli- dards in Alabama include the following: cable tanks must be registered by ADEM, and the ¥ Farm and residential tanks holding 1,100 gal- owner or operator must remain in compliance with lons or less of motor fuel used for noncommercial the regulations. Each year the owners or operators of purposes. applicable tanks will pay an annual fee or special as- ¥ Tanks storing heating oil used on the premises sessment fees after 30 days notice (not to exceed where they are stored. $150 per regulated tank per year) to keep the fund ¥ Tanks situated on or above the floor of under- solvent. ground areas, such as basements, cellars, or mine- Every owner or operator of a UST is required to working, drift, shaft, or tunnel areas. maintain financial responsibility in the amount of ¥ Septic tanks and systems for collecting storm- $5000 ($10,000 for ASTs) per occurrence ($25,000 water and wastewater. aggregate) or another amount if required by the ¥ Pipeline facilities regulated under the Natural ADEM Commission. Any one or combination of the Gas Pipeline Safety Act of 1968, the Hazardous Liq- following may be used to meet this financial obliga- uid Pipeline Safety Act of 1979, or state laws compa- tion: insurance, guarantee, surety bond, letter of cred- rable to these Acts. it, or qualification as a self-insurer by demonstration ¥ Surface impoundments, pits, ponds, and lagoons. of a tangible net worth in the amount of $25,000. ¥ Flow-through process tanks. Penalties. Tank owners or operators delinquent in payment of Tank Trust Fund Fees may be charged a ¥ Liquid traps or associated gathering lines direct- late fee not to exceed $100 per tank each day such ly related to oil or gas production and gathering operations. payment is delinquent. ¥ Other underground storage tanks exempted by Any person in Alabama who negligently or will- the administrator of EPA. fully violates the regulations or standards adopted under the provisions of the state laws dealing with ¥ Piping connected to any of the above exemp- USTs or ASTs is subject to stiff fines, imprisonment, tions. or both. Fines may be up to $25,000 per day for the ¥ Pipeline terminals, refinery terminals, rail and first violation and not more than $50,000 per day for barge terminals, and tanks associated with each. subsequent violations. Other UST and AST systems excluded from the Any person who knowingly makes any false requirements of this Act include: statement in reference to certification, records, re- ¥ Tanks of state and federal government entities ports, or other documents filed in reference to state which have debts and liabilities to the state or United regulations or tampers with any monitoring device or States. method required to be maintained under these laws ¥ Any UST or AST system holding hazardous may be fined not more than $10,000 per day, impris- waste listed or identified under Div. 14 of the ADEM oned for not more than 6 months, or both. Administrative Code on hazardous waste manage- State Common Law. Although many underground ment. storage tanks are now extensively regulated under ¥ Any wastewater treatment tank system that is federal and state law, state common law rules still part of a wastewater treatment facility regulated under apply to many individual situations. The owner, oper- Chapter 335-6-5 or 335-6-6 of the ADEM Adminis- ator, or lease-holder of a UST or AST that has caused trative Code. ARCHIVE environmental damage may be held accountable for ¥ Equipment or machinery operation tanks that those damages under the common law theories of contain motor fuels or hydraulic fluids. nuisance, trespass, negligence, or strict liability. Com- ¥ Any UST system whose capacity is 110 gallons mon law applies both to tanks regulated by RCRA or less. and tanks exempt from regulation. Thus, compliance ¥ Any emergency spill or overflow containment or attempted compliance with federal and state rules UST or AST system that is expeditiously emptied does not necessarily shield a tank owner or operator after use. from common law actions by neighbors.

4.8.2-3 Local Laws For more information on county or municipal Some of the tanks that are exempt from federal regulations or local fire codes, you may contact the and state regulations may not be exempt from certain fire department, local building inspector, zoning local regulations. board, or town planner. Most local requirements dealing with USTs and Conclusion ASTs are found in ordinances dealing with fire codes, Many UST owners or operators who have not building codes, or zoning restrictions. In some states, been involved in environmental protection programs the fire department is the implementing agency for must now comply with sweeping federal regulations the federal regulations. The fire department may be on USTs that went into effect in the late 1980s. They responsible for all notices and local inspections. are finding themselves in the situation of either con- Criteria for removal and abandonment of USTs sulting with engineers to remove their tanks or ob- are often included in local fire codes. The Building taining adequate financial assurance to pay for a po- Officials And Code Administration (BOCA) periodi- tential cleanup. Similar criteria may apply to cally issues National Fire Prevention Codes, which aboveground tanks. are adopted by numerous states and localities. The Some communities, businesses, industries, and 1990 version of these codes includes guidelines for individuals have no choice but to own and operate UST closure. USTs. For them, UST regulations impose new costs Local building codes may also have criteria for to meet the technical and financial responsibility re- UST removal or abandonment and may include crite- quirements as long as their tanks are in service. ria for notification and inspection. These may be different from state codes. References Zoning laws typically have tank location restric- Code Of Alabama. 1993. Alabama Underground tions, but may also contain criteria on removal and And Aboveground Storage Tank Trust Fund Act, as abandonment. amended. Sections 22-35-1 through 22-35-13. Mont- gomery, AL. For More Information Code Of Alabama. 1988. Alabama Underground Detailed information on the UST technical stan- Storage Tank And Wellhead Protection Act Of 1988. dards and corrective action requirements under RCRA Sections 22-36-1 through 22-36-10. Montgomery, Subtitle I and the hazardous waste regulations under AL. RCRA Subtitle C may be obtained from either the re- National Association Of Towns And Townships. gional EPA office or state UST regulatory agency. 1991. Getting Out From Under: Underground Storage The primary contact in Alabama is Tank Alternatives For Small Towns. Washington, DC. Chief, UST and AST Compliance or Corrective Robinson, Janet E., Paul Thompson, W. David Action Units Conn, And Leon Geyer. 1993. Issues In Underground Groundwater Branch/Water Division Storage Tank Management: Tank Closure And Finan- Alabama Department of Environmental Manage- cial Assurance. CRC Press, Inc. Boca Raton, FL. ment 1751 Congressman W. L. Dickinson Drive P.O. Box 301463 Montgomery, Alabama 36130-1463 334-271-7986 or 270-5613

This publication, supported in part by a grant from the Alabama Department of Environmental Management and the Tennessee Valley Authority, was prepared by James E. Hairston, Extension Water Quality Scientist, assisted by Leigh Strib- ARCHIVEling, Technical Writer. For more information, call your county Extension ofﬁce. Look in your telephone directory under your county’s name to ﬁnd the number. Issued in furtherance of Cooperative Extension work in agriculture and home economics, Acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914, and other related acts, in cooperation with the U.S. Department of Agriculture. The Alabama Cooperative Extension System (Al- abama A&M University and Auburn University) offers educational programs, materials, and equal opportunity employment to all people without regard to race, color, national origin, religion, sex, age, veteran status, or disability. ANR-790-4.8.2 UPS, New June 1995, Water Quality 4.8.2 4.8.2-4 Agriculture and Natural Resources WATER QUALITY: Controlling Nonpoint Source (NPS) Pollution

ALABAMA A&M AND AUBURN UNIVERSITIES

Underground Storage Tanks (USTs) And NPS Pollution Managing Commercial And Municipal ANR-790-4.8.3 USTs: Installing And Upgrading Tanks

cross the country, thousands of fuel storage tanks piping meets the standards of trade associations or Aare owned and operated by industries, agribusi- testing firms such as the Steel Tank Institute (STI), nesses, and municipalities. Yet most owners or opera- Association of Composite Tanks (ACT), and Under- tors have little idea of the age or condition of these writers’s Laboratory (U.L.). tanks even though they represent a growing threat to Notification. For tanks installed or upgraded since the environmental and financial security of their com- the 1986 notification deadline, owners and operators munity. have 30 days from the beginning of operation to sub- There is special concern for underground storage mit a standard form providing information on the tanks (USTs), because they may be leaking with no tank’s age, size, type, location, uses, contents, etc. visible evidence until serious environmental pollution The owners or operators of all regulated USTs in problems have occurred. Millions of gallons of operation after January 1, 1974 should have notified groundwater and large areas of soil may become the designated state or local agency about each of severely contaminated before a problem is ever rec- their tanks by May 8, 1986. In some states this re- ognized from the surface. quirement applies to tanks which were abandoned or Most commercial and municipal USTs are gov- closed between 1974 and 1986. In Alabama, ADEM erned by strict federal and state regulations. Most wants to be notified only of those tanks in use. states are beginning to apply similar regulations to aboveground storage tanks (ASTs) as well. These Inspection And Record Keeping. After tanks are in- regulations require owners and operators to manage stalled, the installation must be inspected and ap- and maintain tanks so that they do not severely dam- proved by a registered professional engineer or by the age the environment. By properly installing well-de- implementing agency. signed tanks and by upgrading existing tanks, com- Records about tank installation, including those mercial and municipal UST operators can greatly showing that tank specifications meet federal and reduce the associated liability of owning USTs. state requirements, are important should you have a problem in the future. Records, service manuals, and Installation Requirements all important documents should be in an accessible Certified UST installers should be used for all location for use when needed. regulated tanks. The EPA requires that UST installers be certified by the tank and piping manufacture or by Tank Designs the state implementing agency. The Alabama Depart- Proper installation begins with well-designed ment Of Environmental Management (ADEM) is cur- tanks. All new tanks must be designed and construct- rently working on a certification program for UST ined to prevent corrosion and structural failure for as stallers. ARCHIVElong as they are used to store gasoline and other regu- Since practices vary from state to state, UST lated substances. See Table 1 for minimum require- owners and operators should verify the procedures re- ments for corrosion protection. quired by their designated state UST agency. More Improved tank designs include the following: than half the states have their own certification procedures. ¥ Coated and cathodically protected steel tanks. Owners or operators should make certain, in writ- ¥ Fiberglass-reinforced plastic tanks. ing, that the tank system they select is compatible ¥ Fiberglass-coated steel tanks. with the product to be stored and that the tank and ¥ Double-walled tanks. ANR-790 Water Quality 4.8.3 Visit our Web site at: www.aces.edu Table 1. Minimum Requirements For Corrosion Better quality pipe fittings and valves are now Protection. available that can withstand and even counter some of Tanks And the pipe stresses associated with expansion, contrac- Choices Piping tion, and pressure surges. Some improved valves prevent backflow of fluids from pipes and hoses during Coated and cathodically protected steel loading and dispensing operations. New Tanksa Fiberglass Steel tank clad with fiberglass Corrosion Protection Same options as for new tanks When buried, many USTs have corrosive electrical forces flowing through them or their components Existing Add cathodic protection system just like through a battery. These electrical forces ac- Tanksa Interior lining celerate corrosion. Relatively few USTs installed prior Interior lining and cathodic protection to 1980 were designed with built-in corrosion protec- Coated and cathodically protected steel New Pipinga tion. They could be painted with a water resistant ma- Fiberglass terial, but a single crack in the coating that allowed contact with water caused corrosion to proceed. Existing Same options as for new piping Pipinga Cathodically protected steel Two types of electro-chemical protection systems are now available for underground storage tanks and aNew tanks and piping are those installed after December piping networks to reduce corrosion. Galvanic cathod- 1988. Existing tanks and piping are those installed before ic protection systems employ “sacrificial” anodes on December 1988. the outside of USTs. These protruding pieces of metal Source: National Association Of Towns And Townships, 1991. sacrifice themselves to the corrosive forces conducted through the soil before the tank itself is damaged. The second type of protection, the impressed cur- Some of the earlier fiberglass-reinforced plastic rent system, utilizes a low powered electric current. tanks failed because they did not have adequate struc- When continuously applied to the tank or piping, it tural strength to support heavy loads. Newer fiber- offsets the corrosive currents generated by the tank it- glass designs are much stronger, and fiberglass will self. not corrode, which is a concern with steel tanks. Some engineering firms now provide tank tight- Double-walled tanks provide the greatest envi- ness testing and corrosion protection for underground ronmental protection since they consist of internal tanks and pipelines. (See Appendix J.) and external tank shells of steel or fiberglass with a Testing And Inspection. EPA regulations require not leak detection system between the two walls. In these only that corrosion protection be provided for the double-walled tanks, it is easy to detect leaks into the storage tank and piping but also that the system be tank through the outer wall or leaks out of the inner tested regularly. In addition to inspection at the time tank into the internal space. However, double-walled of installation, EPA requires that tanks can cost 25 percent more than corrosion-pro- ¥ All cathodic protection systems be tested with- tected single-wall steel tanks with leak detection. in 6 months of installation and at 3-year intervals Some states require double-walled tanks or sec- thereafter. ondary containment in environmentally sensitive ¥ Impressed current cathodic protection systems areas. Alabama law requires corrosion protection and be inspected every 60 days;. monitoring for all regulated tanks, but secondary containment is required only for those in vulnerable areas ¥ Inspections be conducted by a qualified “ca- such as wellhead protection areas. thodic protection tester.” (Local employees can quality to be testers.) Piping And Fittings There are no cathodic protection test require- A variety of alternativeARCHIVE piping materials is now ments for fiberglass tanks, which do not corrode. available to cut down on the adverse conditions of Record Keeping. UST owners must keep records of corrosion and stress. Plastic, fiberglass-reinforced the last three inspections, as well as the results of the plastic, stainless steel, and composite materials are last two tests conducted on the cathodic protection now available to replace galvanized pipe, the standard system. for many years. Composite pipes typically consist of rubber, plastic, or epoxy-lined steel pipes. In addition, Tank Upgrading there are double-walled pipe designs, similar in con- Historically, a large proportion of all underground cept to the double-walled tanks. storage tanks were constructed of a single wall of

4.8.3-2 bare carbon steel with no protective coating, inside or tank should be emptied of regulated substance during out. With the constraints imposed by recent federal this time. Corrosion protection and leak detection and state regulations, the use of bare steel tanks has systems must continue to be operated and monitored. virtually ceased. In fact, if you have a bare steel UST All lines (except vents) must be capped and all access in use, your safe bet is to dig it up immediately before points to the tank (such as pumps and manways) must it causes problems. If inspection reveals that it is in a be secured. well-drained area and still in good condition, cathodic If the tank is to be closed permanently, owners protection may more than double its useful life. How- must notify the appropriate regulatory agency ever, a bare steel tank has a 100 percent chance of (ADEM in Alabama) at least 30 days in advance, re- failure at some future date. It can be replaced by a move all product, and clean the tank of all remaining better tank, an aboveground tank, or another fuel al- liquid and accumulated residue. The tank must then ternative. be removed from the ground or filled in place with an Large commercially owned tanks can be upgrad- inert material. Finally, owners must test the surround- ed to extend their useful life in some instances. These ing soil for contamination and, if necessary, take cor- improvements may include lining the interior of the rective action before closure procedures can be con- tank, replacing all pipes and fittings, and adding over- sidered complete. fill prevention, leak and spill detection, and corrosion Some states require complete removal of a tank protection devices. It still may be less expensive in rather than allowing closure in place. Alabama allows the long run to replace the entire system or find an al- closure in place except under certain circumstances. ternative, because the useful life of the tank must be Inspection And Record Keeping. In many states, weighed against the added reduction in risk by re- closures must be inspected by state agency personnel placing the entire tank system. before they become final. Tank owners must keep de- Tank Repairs tailed permanent records of all actions taken in clos- ing a UST temporarily or permanently. Both steel and fiberglass tanks needing preventive maintenance or other repairs must be repaired accord- References ing to codes developed by nationally recognized asso- Code Of Alabama. 1993. Alabama Underground ciations of testing laboratories. Pipes and fittings And Aboveground Storage Tank Trust Fund Act, as must meet the manufacturer’s repair standards. amended. Sections 22-35-1 through 22-35-13. Mont- Testing And Record Keeping. All tank repairs are gomery, AL. subject to tightness testing or other EPA-accepted Code Of Alabama. 1988. Alabama Underground practices within 30 days of installation to confirm that Storage Tank And Wellhead Protection Act Of 1988. the repairs have been completed successfully. Ca- Sections 22-36-1 through 22-36-10. Montgomery, thodic protection systems must be tested within 6 AL. months of repair. National Association Of Towns And Townships. As with other areas of UST operations and main- 1991. Getting Out From Under: Underground Storage tenance, owners must maintain records which indi- Tank Alternatives For Small Towns. Washington, cate their compliance with federal or state repair stan- D.C. dards. Robinson, Janet E., Paul Thompson, W. David Tank Closure Conn, and Leon Geyer. 1993. Issues In Underground Temporary closure requirements apply to all reg- Storage Tank Management: Tank Closure And Finan- ulated tanks that are not used for 3 to 12 months. The cial Assurance. CRC Press, Inc. Boca Raton, FL.

This publication, supported in part by a grant from the Alabama Department of Environmental Management and the Tennessee Valley Authority, was prepared ARCHIVEby James E. Hairston, Extension Water Quality Scientist, assisted by Leigh Strib- ling, Technical Writer. For more information, call your county Extension ofﬁce. Look in your telephone directory under your county’s name to ﬁnd the number. Issued in furtherance of Cooperative Extension work in agriculture and home economics, Acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914, and other related acts, in cooperation with the U.S. Department of Agriculture. The Alabama Cooperative Extension System (Al- abama A&M University and Auburn University) offers educational programs, materials, and equal opportunity employment to all people without regard to race, color, national origin, religion, sex, age, veteran status, or disability. ANR-790-4.8.3 UPS, New June 1995, Water Quality 4.8.3 4.8.3-3 Agriculture and Natural Resources WATER QUALITY: Controlling Nonpoint Source (NPS) Pollution

ALABAMA A&M AND AUBURN UNIVERSITIES

Underground Storage Tanks (USTs) And NPS Pollution Managing Commercial And Municipal ANR-790-4.8.4 USTs: Preventing Spills And Leaks

ince the 1980s, advances in tank technology have overflow devices should be tested and maintained ac- Ssignificantly reduced the probability of spills and cording to manufacture’s recommendations. leaks from fuel storage tanks. However, an under- Proper training, use of uniform procedures, and ground storage tank system is made up of the tank limiting the number of UST users can all help control and all associated piping, fittings, filling, and dispens- accidental spills. Local governments must ensure that ing equipment. Leaks or spills may occur from any of written procedures for filling and dispensing opera- these points. tions are posted prominently at the UST site and that Implementing preventive and corrective actions all personnel are adequately trained. UST owners and can reduce the likelihood of leaks and spills and the operators are required to follow procedures which associated liability of owning USTs. Good manage- prevent spilling and overfilling of gasoline (and other ment includes overfill prevention and leak and spill regulated substances) during transfer operations. Tank detection, containment, and cleanup. owners cannot transfer responsibility for overfills to Spill And Overfill Prevention the local supplier, even if delivery is the only procedure during which spills occur. Preventing spills from any size tank anywhere, whether it is above or below ground, is one of the Spill And Leak Detection best practices to eliminate the potential cleanup costs Tank testing and leak detection have advanced and liability associated with leaks and spills. Spill and rapidly since the mid-1980s. Leak detection devices overflow devices are required on all new USTs and, (other than those in double-walled tanks) may be by December 22, 1998, on all existing tanks. See used to monitor leaks in the soil or water around the Table 1. tank. There are numerous techniques for detecting Many tanks, especially those used commercially, leaks in tanks or piping networks. Most leaks come are now equipped with overfill prevention devices or from fittings and pipes. emergency overfill containment systems. These devices may include sensors and gauges designed to de- One technique uses thermal conductivity or elec- tect liquid level in the tank, an alarm that sounds trical resistance to measure changes in the soil envi- when the tank is almost full, automatic shutoff de- ronment beneath or adjacent to a tank system. This vices, emergency overfill containment, and special technique can measure the presence of gasoline, for dry-disconnect couplings and transfer hoses. Spill and example. Another technique uses vapor detection. If the stored materials are sufficiently volatile, vapor detection devices can also be utilized in concert with Table 1. Minimum Requirements For Spill And monitoring wells installed immediately adjacent to Overfill Prevention. the tank excavation. An array of groundwater wells or gas monitoring Tanks ARCHIVEChoices (one from each set) wells, some equipped with automatic monitoring and Catchment Basins alarm systems, are now installed with many of the AND larger commercial tank operations. All Tanks Larger operations can more easily afford the extra Automatic Shutoff Devices or protection of automated or in-ground monitoring, but Overfill Alarms or small towns and other owners will probably rely on Ball Float Valves manual gauging of underground storage tanks and an- Source: National Association Of Towns And Townships, 1991. nual tightness testing for many years to come. Manu- ANR-790 Water Quality 4.8.4 Visit our Web site at: www.aces.edu al gauging is more risky because it cannot detect a tion methods satisfy federal and state standards, but slow steady leak, whereas, vapor monitoring and all require careful observation and record keeping to other in-ground detection devices can. provide maximum protection. The records cover such For smaller non-regulated tanks, the simplest areas as maintenance, repair, and results of all sched- method of leak detection is through good record uled testing, sampling, and monitoring. The type of keeping. When delivery and dispensing records show records kept may vary somewhat from system to sys- more gallons have been delivered than were either tem. State and local agencies determine how long used or still in a tank, first double check the records these records must be kept and the frequency of re- for accuracy and then get a tank tightness test. porting. To provide some measure of acceptable performance, EPA regulations specify that each test Spill And Leak Containment Systems method, variously known as a “precision leak test,” Containment systems are designed to contain “tank integrity test,” or “tank tightness test,” must be spills aboveground and leaks from tanks and piping able to detect leaks as small as 0.1 gallon per hour underground. Containment systems are necessary for with a 95 percent probability of detection and a 5 per- some fuel tanks or other chemical storage tanks. cent probability of a false alarm. Tanks meeting these Aboveground systems consist of collection sumps standards could still be leaking more than 2 gallons located at transfer points and/or impervious diked per day. Some of the firms that test tank tightness in areas designed to collect accidental spills. A collec- Alabama are listed in Appendix J. tion sump or dike can be built by the tank owner if it Table 2 summarizes leak detection techniques re- meets design requirements of a professional engineer. quired for tanks and piping. It should have a concrete foundation with adequate Leak Detection Records. Federal regulations require containment for the total maximum volume of materi- all regulated UST owners to keep leak detection al stored within the aboveground tank and the volume records for each UST. A wide variety of leak detec- of precipitation from a 25-year, 24-hour storm.

Table 2. Minimum Requirements For Leak Detection. Tanks And Piping Choices Monthly Monitoringb New Tanksa Monthly Inventory Control and Tank Tightness Testing Every 5 Yearsc Monthly Monitoringb Existing Tanksa Monthly Inventory Control and Annual Tank Tightness Testing Monthly Inventory Control and Tank Tightness Testing Every 5 Yearsc (Choice Of One From Each Set) Automatic Flow Restrictor or Automatic Shutoff Device or New And Existing Pressurized Pipinga Continuous Alarm System AND Annual Line Testing or Monthly Monitoringb Monthly Monitoringb New And Existing Suction Pipinga Line Testing Every 3 Years ARCHIVENo Requirementsd aNew tanks and piping are those installed after December 1988. Existing tanks and piping are those installed before Decem- ber 1988. bMonthly monitoring includes: Automatic tank gauging, vapor monitoring, interstitial monitoring (between the tank and the containment liner), groundwater monitoring, other approved methods. (Automatic tank gauging cannot be used for monthly monitoring of piping.) cVery small tanks may also be able to use manual tank gauging. dIf the system has the characteristics described in the ﬁnal federal or state regulations, no requirements may be necessary. Source: National Association Of Towns And Townships, 1991.

4.8.4-2 Aboveground containment systems may have to com- Remediation (Cleanup) Techniques ply with other federal, state, or local stormwater man- Federal and state UST regulations require the agement regulations. cleanup of all leaks and spills above a certain amount. Below ground systems include clay or membrane Until recently, tank operators dealt with underground liners installed beneath tanks and piping networks to releases either by excavating to recover and treat the prevent the migration of any released materials. Un- free product and contaminated soil or by using pump- derground vaults that permit visual inspection may be ing techniques to recover the floating and dissolved constructed of concrete; however, these areas present products from groundwater. certain safety hazards and must be kept well ventilat- Other site investigation and evaluation procedures ed to reduce the chance of fire and explosion. as well as remediation techniques are now available. Site investigation techniques include surface geo- Spill And Leak Containment Procedures physical methods that indirectly assess the extent of The key to dealing successfully with accidental contamination in soil and groundwater. New tech- releases is to report them immediately, to follow an nologies for remediating contaminated soil and emergency response plan, to act swiftly in stopping groundwater, include the release and cleaning up the contamination, and to ¥ Soil washing techniques. keep careful records of all actions taken to minimize ¥ Petroleum degrading bacteria (bioremediation). the threat of liability. ¥ Improved groundwater pumping and treatment Local governments should obtain a full set of methods. spill and release requirements and incorporate them into local emergency response plans. A number of engineering firms now deal with soil remediation and water treatment problems. These In responding to a confirmed leak, local leaders firms deal primarily with problems caused by regulat- must ed tanks. ¥ Report regulated releases to state or local authorities. (Localities must report all aboveground re- References leases and all underground releases that exceed 25 National Association Of Towns And Townships. gallons or those that visibly contaminate a source of 1991. Getting Out From Under: Underground Storage surface water.) Tank Alternatives For Small Towns. Washington, DC. ¥ Minimize threats to human health (including Robinson, Janet E., Paul Thompson, W. David explosive vapors and fire hazards). Conn, and Leon Geyer. 1993. Issues In Underground ¥ Prevent further release. Storage Tank Management: Tank Closure And Finan- ¥ Determine contamination levels. cial Assurance. CRC Press, Inc. Boca Raton, FL. ¥ Remove released product and contaminated soil and dispose of these materials properly.

This publication, supported in part by a grant from the Alabama Department of Environmental Management and the Tennessee Valley Authority, was prepared by James E. Hairston, Extension Water Quality Scientist, assisted by Leigh Strib- ling, Technical Writer. ARCHIVEFor more information, call your county Extension ofﬁce. Look in your telephone directory under your county’s name to ﬁnd the number. Issued in furtherance of Cooperative Extension work in agriculture and home economics, Acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914, and other related acts, in cooperation with the U.S. Department of Agriculture. The Alabama Cooperative Extension System (Al- abama A&M University and Auburn University) offers educational programs, materials, and equal opportunity employment to all people without regard to race, color, national origin, religion, sex, age, veteran status, or disability. ANR-790-4.8.4 UPS, New June 1995, Water Quality 4.8.4

4.8.4-3 Agriculture and Natural Resources WATER QUALITY: Controlling Nonpoint Source (NPS) Pollution

ALABAMA A&M AND AUBURN UNIVERSITIES

Underground Storage Tanks (USTs) And NPS Pollution Managing Privately Owned USTs: ANR-790-4.8.5 Guidelines For Private Property Owners

f you have underground fuel tanks on private prop- also cause problems, but they are usually easier to lo- Ierty, it is easy to ignore them since they are out of cate and fix. It is usually less expensive to replace sight. However, the potential problems associated below ground tanks than comply with other require- with them will never go away. Sooner or later, some- ments of the UST legislation. one will have to deal with them. Removal And Cleanup. If your tank has a confirmed Most old tanks on private property are bare steel leak, you have no alternative but to remove it or close tanks, and almost all bare steel tanks are going to leak it in place and clean up the contamination. if left in the ground long enough. Some have actually Removal and cleanup can be quite expensive. For leaked when left in the ground less than a year. example, digging up and disposing of a tank with a Even if neither the tank nor lines leak, contami- 2,000 gallon capacity plus treating contaminated soil nation may still occur from careless spills during fill- may cost from $50,000 to more than $100,000. ing or dispensing fuel. Contamination can also occur Cleanup costs are based on the following activities: from abandoned tanks that still contain petroleum ¥ Excavation. products. Contamination can be relatively light, or it ¥ Soil analysis. can be severe and have far reaching consequences. ¥ Groundwater analysis. What you must do about USTs on private proper- ¥ Soil transportation and disposal. ty depends on the tank size. Tanks with a capacity ¥ Groundwater cleanup. 1,100 gallons or less are exempt from federal regula- ¥ Regrading. tions and state regulations in Alabama. Tanks with a capacity greater than 1,100 gallons are regulated by ¥ Special management options that must be fol- federal guidelines. However, both regulated and un- lowed. regulated tanks can be liabilities. Alabama has a trust fund to assist in the cleanup costs of regulated tanks which are in substantial com- Regulated Tanks pliance with state and federal regulations. In 1994, If you have an underground fuel tank that holds the Alabama Underground Storage Tank Trust Fund more than 1,100 gallons on your property, you must Act was amended to include aboveground storage comply with EPA’s Underground Storage Tank Pro- tanks (ASTs) that contain more than 1,100 gallons. gram and any federal or state regulations that apply. The use of these funds must be approved through Underground tanks installed after December 21, ADEM on a site specific basis. The state tank trust 1988 must have correct installation, corrosion protec- fund may cover as much as 90 percent of the total tion, spill prevention, and leak detection. Owners of combined costs for excavation, tank disposal, and tanks installed before that date have until December treating of any contaminated soil. The owner of regu- 1998 to upgrade them for corrosion protection and to lated tanks is liable for the first $5,000 in costs for add spill and overfill ARCHIVEprevention devices. All regulat- USTs and the first $10,000 for ASTs. The Trust Fund, ed tanks including new, existing, and even out-of-ser- however, does not apply to non-regulated tanks. vice tanks, should have been upgraded for leak detec- Closure. When regulated USTs are permanently tion by December 1993. All regulated tanks must be taken out of use, they must be decommissioned. The checked for leaks. complete decommission plan involves the following: Replacement. Most individual tank owners are opt- ¥ Locating and uncovering the tank and pipelines. ing to replace underground tanks with aboveground ¥ Removing flammable vapors, product, and tanks. Spills and leaks from aboveground tanks can sludge. ANR-790 Water Quality 4.8.5 Visit our Web site at: www.aces.edu ¥ Cleaning and disposal of tank, or disposal in od of time and may not comply with future ground- place by filling with an inert material. water legislation. The safest choice is an aboveground ¥ Disposal of product and sludges. tank with secondary containment and a roof to keep ¥ Final site assessment, with records maintained rainfall out of the containment area. at least 3 years. If you excavate and find a leak and contaminated soil in the immediate vicinity of a fuel tank, you Unregulated Tanks should deal with it now. Ignoring the situation may Currently, all underground and aboveground farm cost you more at a later date. Although UST regula- fuel tanks, which hold 1,100 gallons or less; all heat- tions do not apply to these tanks, you are still respon- ing oil tanks regardless of size; and other specific sible for cleaning up contaminated soil and groundwa- tanks which hold 110 gallons or less are exempt from ter under provisions of the Alabama Water Pollution federal underground storage tank regulations and both Control Act. state aboveground and underground storage tank reg- Cleaning Up Contaminated Soil. If an underground ulations. storage tank leak has contaminated soil or groundwa- However, property owners with non-regulated ter, special contractors are available for soil remedia- tanks may still be faced with costly cleanup. For ex- tion and water treatment if necessary, but they are example, if a non-regulated tank is found to be contami- pensive. nating groundwater, the state water quality agency If the leak has not contaminated soil or ground- (ADEM in Alabama) can intervene under other regu- water, you may proceed on your own by excavating latory authority. Also, if a non-regulated tank contam- and removing the tank according to accepted tech- inates someone else’s water supply, the property niques to prevent future contamination. Contact the owner can be sued for negligence or nuisance. What UST section in the Groundwater Branch, Water Divi- all of this means is that non-regulated tank owners sion of ADEM for guidelines in Alabama. may still have a costly cleanup and no source of fed- Small-Scale Onsite Soil Remediation (Cleanup). eral or state funds to help pay the cost. The simplest approach for remediating a small volume Therefore, property owners with unregulated of petroleum contaminated soil at the farm level is tanks still need to know the condition of their tanks. bio-remediation through land application. (A small By testing and monitoring the condition of your tank, volume would be less than 25 cubic yards or some you could reduce the possibility of future problems or volume you can handle within one working day.) The liability. Keep in mind that the bottom of above- contaminated soil can be spread on agricultural land at ground tanks and underground piping to and from a rate not to exceed 50 parts per million of total aboveground tanks can be leaking underground. petroleum hydrocarbons (TPH) after the material has been incorporated into the top 7-inch plow layer. This Testing For Tank Tightness. If you wish to investi- mixing would dilute the toxic chemicals to the most gate an individually owned tank in Alabama that does common action level specified in many remedial work not fall under federal and state regulations, it must be plans and allow for rapid degradation in the biologi- at your own expense. Engineering firms that test tank cally active topsoil without causing any plant or soil tightness are listed in Appendix J. You can contact an problems. Laboratory measurements for TPH will be engineering contractor or independent laboratory that necessary to determine your land application rate. does soil and water analyses for petroleum contamina- Example Calculation. If the contaminated soil con- tion. tains 5,000 parts per million (milligrams per kilo- Replacing Or Abandoning. You may excavate your- gram, mg/kg) of TPH, an application rate of 10 tons self to check on tank condition. If you have a single- per acre would give a concentration of 50 ppm when wall steel tank buried somewhere on your property, contaminated soil is incorporated in the top 7 inches your safest action may be to dig it up immediately. If of most field soils. (The top 7 inches of most soils it is not leaking, it most likely will sometime in the weigh about 1,000 tons.) not too distant future.ARCHIVE By replacing any below ground tanks with aboveground tanks and using proper containment, you can reduce the risk of fuel leaks, which Rate per 50 ppm (desired field concentration) = x 1,000 tons may contaminate your water supply, your neighbor’s acre TPH concentration in ppm (mg/kg) water supply, or a major aquifer. Aboveground tanks can be more easily monitored for leaks or spills, = 50 ppm/5,000 ppm x 1,000 tons while buried tanks are bound to leak after some peri- = 10 tons

4.8.5-2 If you have 25 tons of contaminated soil, then A property owner can be held accountable for only 2.5 acres of land would be required. The mea- damage to another individual’s water supply when the surable rate of TPH should be less than the 5 parts per source of contamination is traced to a UST on his million level within 5 to 10 days depending on cli- property, regardless of the size of the tank. In most matic conditions and soil temperature. Another labo- cases, the current property owner is liable, even if the ratory analysis can confirm this. property was just purchased, unless it can be proved If you are not equipped to spread bulk soil mate- that the previous property owner was negligent. rial, another bio-remediation approach is to spread the contaminated soil over an impervious soil area References preferably on an artificial liner in a sunny area that is Alabama Department of Environmental Manage- not prone to flooding. Dikes should be built around ment. 1993. Amendments To The Alabama Under- the entire area to prevent water from running onto or ground Storage Tank Trust Fund Act, Title 22, Chapter off the treatment area. Cover the area during rainfall 35 Of The Code Of Alabama During The 1993 Regu- events if possible. In low rainfall areas, water should lar And Special Sessions Of The Alabama Legislature. be added. Non-contaminated soil or special microor- Fiscal Note to Accompany Proposed Revision To The ganisms may be added to furnish microbial popula- Alabama Department Of Environmental Manage- tions for the decomposition process. Nitrogen fertiliz- ment’s Administrative Code. Montgomery, AL. er, preferably in the urea form, at a rate of 100 to 200 Autry, Andrew R. 1992. Soil Remediation: A ppm or about 0.025 to 0.050 pounds (0.4 to 0.8 Fast, Economical, And Safe Approach. Land And ounces) per cubic yard of mixture is recommended to Water (July/August): 40. help feed the active microorganisms. Thorough mix- Code Of Alabama. 1993. Alabama Underground ing and aeration will further accelerate decomposi- And Aboveground Storage Tank Trust Fund Act, as tion. If the contaminated layer is 1 foot or less in amended. Sections 22-35-1 through 22-35-13. Mont- thickness, mixing may not be necessary. gomery, AL. A test for TPH will confirm when the remediation Code Of Alabama. 1988. Alabama Underground process has been completed. This may take from 10 Storage Tank And Wellhead Protection Act Of 1988. days to more than 3 months depending on the con- Sections 22-36-1 through 22-36-10. Montgomery, tamination level and climatic conditions. This process AL. is very similar to composting and could be accelerat- Link, Joe. 1992. Tankfuls of Trouble. Progressive ed further with additional sources of carbon, nitrogen Farmer (February): 92-93. and water to promote the growth of thermophylic bacteria. Robinson, Janet E., Paul Thompson, W. David Conn, and Leon Geyer. 1993. Issues In Underground Conclusion Storage Tank Management: Tank Closure And Finan- You need to be aware of the condition of any un- cial Assurance. CRC Press, Inc. Boca Raton, FL. derground fuel tanks buried on your property, even Tolvin, Jeff, and Howard J. Rubenstein. 1992. those that have been abandoned in the past. A leaking Cleaning Soil Contaminated By Leaking Gasoline underground tank is not only a personal health risk, Tanks. Land And Water (September/October): 10-11. but also a potential financial liability, should you have to pay for the cleanup of contaminated groundwater.

This publication, supported in part by a grant from the Alabama Department of Environmental Management and the Tennessee Valley Authority, was prepared by James E. Hairston, Extension Water Quality Scientist, assisted by Leigh Strib- ling, Technical Writer. ARCHIVEFor more information, call your county Extension ofﬁce. Look in your telephone directory under your county’s name to ﬁnd the number. Issued in furtherance of Cooperative Extension work in agriculture and home economics, Acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914, and other related acts, in cooperation with the U.S. Department of Agriculture. The Alabama Cooperative Extension System (Al- abama A&M University and Auburn University) offers educational programs, materials, and equal opportunity employment to all people without regard to race, color, national origin, religion, sex, age, veteran status, or disability. ANR-790-4.8.5 UPS, New June 1995, Water Quality 4.8.5

4.8.5-3 Appendixes

The appendixes to this handbook consist of sources of information on water quality, services related to water quality, and videos in the Alabama Cooperative Extension System Media Library that relate to water quality. The ﬁrst six appendixes are federal, state, and private sources of information; the next six are companies or organizations that provide services; a list of videos follows. Every attempt has been made to ensure that this listing is as comprehensive as possible. Undoubtedly, these lists omit sources that did not come to our attention. No discrimination is intended against agencies or organizations not listed. Contents

Sources Of Information On Water Quality Appendix A. Water Quality Contacts, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) Appendix B. Water Quality Contacts, Alabama Department Of Environmental Management (ADEM) Appendix C. Water Quality Contacts, Alabama Cooperative Extension System (ACES) Appendix D. Water Quality Contacts, Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA) Appendix E. Other Organizations Involved With Water Quality Appendix F. Organizations Involved With Solid Waste Management And Recycling

Services Related To Water Quality Appendix G. Laboratories Certiﬁed For Biological Testing Of Drinking Water (Compiled by Alabama Department of Public Health, November 1993) Appendix H. State Of Alabama Licensed Water Well Drillers Appendix I. Laboratories That Test Water And Wastewater (Compiled by ADEM, November 1993) Appendix J. Tank Tightness Testing Companies (Compiled by ADEM, October 1993) Appendix K. Cathodic Protection (Tank and Pipe Corrosion) Consultants (Compiled by ADEM, February 1992) Appendix L. Approved Response Action Contractors For Alabama Tank Trust Fund (Compiled by ADEM, October 1993) Appendix M. ARCHIVEWater Quality Videos Available From The ACES Media Library

Appendixes Appendix A: Water Quality Contacts, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)

National Offices Water and Watershed Management (404-347-2126) Jeff Cohen Office of Drinking Water (WH-550) Water Reuse and Recycling U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (404-347-3633) 401 M Street SW Region 5 Washington, DC 20460 U.S. EPA-Region 5 (202-382-5456) 230 South Dearborn Street Chicago, IL 60604 Regional Offices (312-353-2000) Region 1 Region 6 U.S. EPA-Region 1 U.S. EPA-Region 6 JFK Federal Building First Interstate Bank Tower Boston, MA 02203 1445 Ross Avenue (617-565-3715) Dallas, TX 75270-2733 (214-655-6444) Region 2 U.S. EPA-Region 2 Region 7 26 Federal Plaza, Room 813 U.S. EPA-Region 7 New York, NY 10278 726 Minnesota Avenue (212-264-2657) Kansas City, KS 66101 (913-236-2817) Region 3 U.S. EPA-Region 3 Region 8 841 Chestnut Street U.S. EPA-Region 8 Philadelphia, PA 19107 Denver Place (811WM-RI) (215-597-9800) 999 18th Street, Suite 500 Denver, CO 80202-2405 Region 4 (303-293-1603) U.S. EPA-Region 4 345 Courtland Street, NE Region 9 Atlanta, GA 30365 U.S. EPA-Region 9 (404-347-4727) 1235 Mission Street San Francisco, CA 94103 Water Division (415-556-6322) (404-347-4450) Region 10 Drinking Water Branch U.S. EPA-Region 10 (404-347-2207) 1200 Sixth Avenue Seattle, WA 98101 Groundwater (206-442-1200) (404-347-3379) Nonpoint Source Coordinator Region 1 (ME, VT, NH, MA, RI, CT) Mary Ann Gerber Region 2 (NY, NJ, PR) (404-347-2126) Region 3 (PA, MD, DE, WV, VA) Region 4 (NC, SC, GA, FL, AL, MS, TN, KY) Pesticides ARCHIVERegion 5 (MI, OH, IN, IL, WI, MN) (404-347-3222) Region 6 (LA, AR, OK, TX, NM) Underground Storage Tanks Region 7 (NE, IA, MO, KS) (404-347-3866) Region 8 (MT, ND, SD, WY, CO, UT) Region 9 (NV, AZ, CA, HI) Region 10 (WA, OR, ID, AK)

A-1 Important Phone Numbers For toll-free (800) numbers, dial 1, then the 800 number. Acid Rain (General Information) (617-674-7377) Chemicals Referral Center (Non-Emergency Services) (800-262-8200) Chemtrec Emergency Hotline (800-424-9300) Disposal of Hazardous Pesticides (703-557-7400) EPA Hazardous Waste Hotline (800-424-9346) EPA RCRA-Superfund Hotline (800-424-9346) EPA Safe Drinking Water Hotline (800-426-4791) EPA Stormwater NPDES Permitting Hotline (703-821-4823) National Agricultural Chemicals Association (202-296-1585) National Pesticides Telecommunications Network (800-858-7378 [PEST]) Radon in Water Supply Program (800-767-7236) Small Flows Clearing House (800-624-8301) Solid Waste Information Clearinghouse (SWICH) (800-677-9424) Toxic Substances Control Act (TSCA) (202-554-1404) Wastewater Hotline (800-624-8301) Water Environment Federation (Formerly Water Pollution Control Federation) (800-666-0206) Wetlands Information (800-832-7828) ARCHIVE

A-2 Appendix B: Water Quality Contacts, Alabama Department Of Environmental Management (ADEM)

For toll-free (800) numbers, dial 1, then the 800 number. Alabama Department Of Environmental Management (ADEM) Water Division 1751 Congressman W. L. Dickinson Drive Montgomery, AL 36130 (334-271-7823) ADEM Hotline (For Reporting Problems and Services) (800-533-2336) ADEM Field Ofﬁces: 2204 Perimeter Road Mobile, AL 36615 (334-450-3400) 110 Vulcan Road Birmingham, AL 35209 (205-942-6168) 400 Wells Street Suite 210 Decatur, AL 35602 (205-353-1713)

Water Division, Branch, Section, And Unit Chiefs For ADEM (Prepared 08-93) Switchboard ...... (334-271-7700) Division Chief Charles Horn ...... (334-271-7823) Division Secretary Martha Lambert ...... (334-271-7823) Coastal Zone Section Chief Blake Roper ...... (334-450-3420) Groundwater Branch Chief Sonja Massey...... (334-271-7832) Groundwater Branch Secretary Karen Hester ...... (334-271-7862) Hydrogeology Unit Chief Fred C. Mason III ...... (334-271-7831) Underground Storage Tank (UST) Corrective Action Unit Chief Dorothy Malaier ...... (334-270-5613) Industrial Branch Chief John Poole...... (334-271-7852) Industrial Branch Secretary Judi Shields...... (334-271-7841) Mining/NPS Section Chief Tim Forester...... (334-271-7958) Mining/NPS Section Secretary Marie Spear ...... (334-271-7984) Municipal Branch Chief Truman Green ...... (334-271-7800) Municipal Branch Secretary Martha Green...... (334-271-7810) Administrative Section (P & S) Rusty Jones ...... (334-271-7803) Administrative Section Secretary Daphne McCurdy...... (334-271-7997) Water Quality Branch Chief Mac McIndoe...... (334-271-7826) Water Quality BranchARCHIVE Secretary Teresa Smart ...... (334-270-5604) Water Supply Branch Chief Joe Alan Power...... (334-271-7774) Water Supply Branch Secretary Irene Williams ...... (334-271-7773) ADEM Air Division...... (334-271-7861) ADEM Land Division...... (334-271-7726)

B-1 If you want to know specifics about: Call: Aboveground storage tanks (Industrial) ...... (334-271-7841, or -7836,-7943, -5609) ADEM organizational chart...... (334-271-7715) AUST (Groundwater) ...... (334-271-7862 or -7830, -7995) AUST Payments (Administrative) ...... (334-271-7949) 305 B Report...... (334-271-7829) Birmingham field office ...... (205-942-6168) Boat sewage ...... (334-271-7822) Bottled water...... (334-271-7790) 401 Certification...... (334-271-7782 or -7789) Car wash (Groundwater UIC) ...... (334-271-7782 or -7830, 7995) Cattle operations: Determined by county or...... (334-271-7786) Chemical sampling ...... (334-271-7957) Chicken houses: Determined by county or...... (334-271-7786) Classification of streams ...... (334-270-5604) Coalbed methane ...... (334-271-7967) Coastal zone management...... (Mobile Field Office: 334-450-3420) Complaints (Public water supply): Determined by county or ...... (334-271-7773) Complaints (Industrial): Determined by county or...... (334-271-7841) Complaints (Municipal): Determined by county or...... (334-271-7808) Construction grants...... (334-271-7997) Construction (Mining): Determined by county or ...... (334-271-7839) Construction problems (On private wells) ...... (334-271-7957 or -7779) Cooperative water monitoring ...... (334-271-7826) Decatur field office...... (334-353-1713) Dioxin...... (334-271-7826 or 270-5662) Drinking water quality: Determined by county or...... (334-271-7773) Drinking water quality standards...... (334-271-7774) Financing (Municipal wastewater) ...... (334-271-7805) Financing (Water systems)...... (334-271-7774 or -7777) Federal trust fund (Groundwater) ...... (334-271-7862, -7830, or -7995) Fish kill (Go to field operations)...... (334-260-2700) Funeral homes (Groundwater UIC) ...... (334-271-7862, -7830, or -7995 GICS (Admin. Section) ...... (334-271-7813) General permits...... (334-271-7841) Groundwater monitoring...... (334-271-7862) Hazardous waste (RCRA, Land Division)...... (334-271-7726) Hog lagoons (Mining-NPS): Determined by county or ...... (334-271-7786) Hydrogeological unit (Groundwater)...... (334-271-7862, -7830, or -7995) Industrial discharge...... (334-271-7841, -7836, -7943, -5609) Industrial waste surveyARCHIVE (Municipal)...... (334-271-7810, -7799, -7796, or -7808) Lab certification ...... (334-271-7791) Lab (ADEM Chemical) ...... (334-271-7980) Land application of sludge (Municipal or Wastewater)...... (334-271-7816) Laundromat (Groundwater UIC)...... (334-271-7862, -7830, -7995) Logging operations: Determined by County or ...... (334-271-7984) MWPP (Municipal) ...... (334-271-7800, -7810) Mining operations (Coal, Sand, Gravel, etc.): Determined by county or ...... (334-271-7984)

B-2 Montgomery field operations ...... (334-260-2700 or 260-2701) Mobile field operations ...... (334-479-2336) Nonpoint source (Mining-NPS) ...... (334-271-7783 or -7938) NPDES Permits (Industrial): Determined by county or ...... (334-271-7841) NPDES Permits (Municipal) ...... (334-271-7808, -7799, -7796, -7810) Operators certification (Public water) ...... (334-271-7791 or -7781) Operators certification (Wastewater)...... (334-271-7814 or -7781) Pesticides (Groundwater)...... (334-271-7862, -7830, -7995) Pond closures (Groundwater) ...... (334-271-7862, -7830, or -7995) Private well construction problems...... (334-271-7957, -7779, or -7700) Public affairs ...... (334-271-7955) Radon gas (Health department) ...... (334-613-5315) Recycling ...... (334-271-7969) SID Permits (Industrial): Determined by county or ...... (334-271-7841) Semi-public and private permits...... (334-271-7808, -7799, -7796, or -7810) Sewage lagoons (Municipal) ...... (334-271-7808, -7796, -7799, or -7810) Sewer lines on the highway...... (334-271-7810, -7796, -7808, or -7799) Solid waste...... (334-271-7726) Special projects...... (334-260-2779) Spills (Field Operations)...... (334-260-2700) State revolving fund (SRF) ...... (334-271-7997) State regulations...... (334-271-5606) Storet (Water Quality)...... (334-271-7853) Stormwater permits (Industrial): Determined by county or...... (334-271-7841) Stormwater permits (Municipal)...... (334-271-7811) Stream relocations: Determined by county or ...... (334-271-7984) Stream studies...... (334-271-7827) Toxicity testing (Municipal)...... (334-271-7806, -7808) Underground storage tanks ...... (334-271-7862, -7830, or -7995) Used motor oil ...... (334-271-7726) Waste dump...... (334-271-7761) Waste load allocation...... (334-270-5604) Wastewater permits (Municipal)...... (334-271-7799, -7808, -7796, or -7810) Water conference room...... (334-271-7824) Water quality standards (Regs) ...... (334-271-7826) Water resources ...... (334-271-7826, -7822) Water sample invoices ...... (334-271-7951) Water system monitoring, compliance...... (334-271-7795) Water system construction-design ...... (334-271-7777) Water treatment plant sludge and filter backwash...... (334-271-7808, -7799, -7810, or -7796) Well driller license orARCHIVE complaints ...... (334-271-7957, or -7779, -7790) Wellhead protection ...... (334-271-7776) Wetlands (Mining/NPS) ...... (334-271-7782, -7789)

B-3 Appendix C: Water Quality Contacts, Alabama Cooperative Extension System (ACES)

If you want to know about: Contact: Animal Waste Management Alternative uses...... (Feed supplement) B. G. Rufﬁn Animal Science (334-844-1559) [email protected] (Potting media) James O. Donald Agricultural Engineering (334-844-4181) [email protected] (Biogas production) Dave Hill* Agricultural Engineering (334-841-4181) [email protected] Farm structures ...... (Lagoons) Ted Tyson Agricultural Engineering (334-844-3542) [email protected] (Buildings) James O. Donald Agricultural Engineering (334-844-4181) [email protected] (Composters, burial pits, incinerators) James O. Donald Agricultural Engineering (334-844-4181) [email protected] (Rendering, fermentation) John Blake Poultry Science (334-844-2640) [email protected] Waste and wastewater recycling and treatment ...... Thomas A. McCaskey* ARCHIVEAnimal Science (334-844-1518) [email protected]

C-1 Land application...... (Nutrient management) Charles C. Mitchell, Jr. Agronomy and Soils (334-844-5489) [email protected] (Equipment calibration) Charles Ogburn Agricultural Engineering (334-844-4181) [email protected] (Lagoon pumping) Ted Tyson Agricultural Engineering (334-844-3542) [email protected] Environmental Policy And Public Policy Education Ag-law and regulations...... James R. Hurst* Agricultural Economics and Rural Sociology (334-844-5616) [email protected] Socio-economic impacts...... Harry B. Strawn Extension Economist (334-844-3688) [email protected] Conner Bailey* Agricultural Economics and Rural Sociology (334-844-5632) [email protected] Sustainable agriculture...... James L. Novak Agricultural Economics and Rural Sociology (334-844-3512) [email protected] Water policy education and natural resource economics...... W. Robert Goodman Agricultural Economics and Rural Sociology (334-844-5633) [email protected] General education...... Hosea Nall Alabama A&M Water Quality (205 -851-5710) [email protected] Erosion-Sediment Control Forestry ...... KathrynARCHIVE Flynn Forestry (334-844-1036) [email protected] Pasture systems ...... Donald M. Ball Agronomy and Soils (334-844-5491) [email protected]

C-2 Row crop systems ...... James E. Hairston Agronomy and Soils (334-844-3973) [email protected] Fish Pond Problems...... John W. Jensen Fisheries and AlliedAquacultures (334-844-9211) [email protected] Michael P. Masser Fisheries and Allied Aquacultures (334-844-9312) [email protected] Land Application Of Wastes, Wastewaters, And Sludges ...... Charles C. Mitchell, Jr. Agronomy and Soils (334-844-5489) [email protected] Ted Tyson Agricultural Engineering (334-844-3542) [email protected] Pests And Pesticide Management Pesticide use and safety ...... G. Talmadge Balch Pesticide Education (334-844-6390) [email protected] Container disposal...... Jesse C. LaPrade Environmental Education (334-844-5533) [email protected] Fisheries...... John W. Jensen Fisheries and Allied Aquacultures (334-844-9211) [email protected] Forestry ...... Kenneth L. McNabb Forestry (334-844-1044) [email protected] Forestry (Nurseries) ...... John R. McVay Entomology (334-844-6395) [email protected] Fungicides...... WilliamARCHIVE S. Gazaway Plant Pathology (334-844-5505) [email protected] Herbicides ...... John Everest Agronomy and Soils (334-844-5493) [email protected]

C-3 Home...... Kathy Flanders Entomology (334-844-6393) [email protected] Insecticides...... Geoffrey W. Zehnder Entomology (334-844-4940) [email protected] Livestock and poultry ...... Gene R. Strother Entomology (334-844-6398) [email protected] Ornamental crops and turf ...... Patricia P. Cobb Entomology (334-844-6392) [email protected] Nutrient Management Aquaculture crops...... Michael P. Masser Fisheries and Allied Aquacultures (334-844-9312) [email protected] Fertigation-chemigation...... Ted Tyson Agricultural Engineering (334-844-3542) [email protected] Forest nurseries ...... Kenneth L. McNabb Forestry (334-844-1044) [email protected] Horticultural crops ...... Kenneth Tilt Horticulture (334-844-5484) [email protected] Row crops ...... Charles C. Mitchell, Jr. Agronomy and Soils (334-844-5489) [email protected] Turf ...... Coleman Y. Ward Horticulture (334-844-5479) [email protected]

C-4 Residential And Municipal Waste Management Composting...... J. David Williams Horticulture (334-844-5481) [email protected] Household waste management (Recycling)...... Genta Speakman Home Environment (334-844-2236) [email protected] Oil recycling ...... Jesse LaPrade Environmental Education (334-844-5533) [email protected] Risk Management-Assessment...... Jesse LaPrade Environmental Education (334-844-5533) [email protected] James L. Novak Agricultural Economics and Rural Sociology (334-844-4962) [email protected]

Stream Monitoring (Water Watch) Program ...... William D. Davies* Fisheries and Allied Aquacultures (334-844-9311) [email protected] William G. Deutsch* Fisheries and Allied Aquacultures (334-844-4786) [email protected] Water Conservation And Management Ag-rural (Irrigation)...... Larry M. Curtis Agricultural Engineering (334-844-3543) [email protected] Ted Tyson Agricultural Engineering (334-844-3542) [email protected] Greenhouse crops...... Briget Behe* Horticulture ARCHIVE(334-844-3030) [email protected] Household (Indoors) ...... Genta J. Speakman Home Environment (334-844-2236) [email protected]

C-5 Home landscape (Outdoors) ...... Kenneth M. Tilt Horticulture (334-844-5484) [email protected] Nursery crops...... Charles H. Gilliam* Horticulture (334-844-3045) [email protected] Well Water-Wellhead Protection Water testing ...... James E. Hairston Agronomy and Soils (334-844-3973) [email protected] Ramble Ankumah* Tuskegee University Water Quality (334-727-8400) [email protected] William Hodge Tuskegee University Water Quality (334-724-4450) [email protected] Water treatment...... James E. Hairston Agronomy and Soils (334-844-3973) [email protected] William Hodge Tuskegee University Water Quality (334-724-4450) [email protected] Watershed management (Agricultural and urban) ...... James E. Hairston Agronomy and Soils (334-844-3973) [email protected] Watershed management (Forestry) ...... Kathryn Flynn Forestry (334-844-1036) [email protected] Watershed management (Special project areas) ...... Jesse LaPrade Hydrologic Unit Area Coordinator ARCHIVE334-844-5533 [email protected]

C-6 Wetlands Natural wetlands ...... Kathryn Flynn Forestry (334-844-1036) [email protected] Constructed wetlands...... Thomas A. McCaskey* Animal Science (334-844-1518) [email protected]

*University professionals that do not hold Extension appointments.

ARCHIVE

C-7 Appendix D: Water Quality Contacts, Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA)

Carol Davis Bert R. Bock Water Management Libraryu Environmental Research Center 1101 Market Street, Haney Building 2C P.O. Box 1010 Chattanooga, TN 37402 Muscle Shoals, AL 35660-1010 (615-751-7338) (205-386-3095) Clerk Filer (to order TVA Reports) Agricultural Systems, Fate, and Impact (With Emphasis on Nutrient Management and Water Tennessee Valley Authority Quality) Water Quality Department Library Haney Building, 2C Willie Buchanan 1101 Market Street Environmental Research Center Chattanooga, TN 37402-2801 P.O. Box 1010 (615-751-7338) Muscle Shoals, AL 35660-1010 (205-386-3936) Contacts On Speciﬁc Subject Areas: Pollution Prevention for Agri-Industries (With Special Emphasis on Agricultural Retailers) Steve Abston Clean Water Initiative Earl R. Burns OSA 1B Clean Water Initiative Muscle Shoals, AL 35660 OSA 1B (800-288-2483) Muscle Shoals, AL 35660 Vector and Plant Management (205-386-3650) Aquatic Weed Control Ronald E. Addison Environmental Research Center Neil Carriker P.O. Box 1010 Clean Water Initiative Muscle Shoals, AL 35660-1010 1101 Market Street, Haney Building 2C (205-386-2212) Chattanooga, TN 37402 Wastewater (615-751-7330) National Pollutant Discharge Elimination Monitoring System (NPDES) Kim Choate Groundwater Clean Water Initiative Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA) 1101 Market Street, Haney Building 2C Leslie L. Behrends Chattanooga, TN 37402 Environmental Research Center (615-751-3255) P.O. Box 1010 Urban Nonpoint Source Specialist Muscle Shoals, AL 35660-1010 Larry Clark (205-386-3488) Clean Water Initiative Biological Wastewater Treatment 1101 Market Street, Haney Building 2C Aquaculture Chattanooga, TN 37402 Aquatic Ecology (615-751-7331) Walter G. Bennett ARCHIVEPoint Source Specialist Environmental Research Center Joe Cooney P.O. Box 1010 Clean Water Initiative Muscle Shoals, AL 35660-1010 OSA 1B (205-386-2617) Muscle Shoals, AL 35660 Pollution Prevention for Agri-Industries (205-386-2277) Vector and Plant Management

D-1 Linda J. Cournoyer Wayne Poppe Environmental Education Clean Water Initiative Environmental Research Center 1101 Market Street, Haney Building 2C P.O. Box 1010 Chattanooga, TN 37402 Muscle Shoals, AL 35660-1010 (615-751-7333) (205-386-2115) Senior Fisheries Biologist Environmental Education Habitat Enhancement and Improvement Technology Transfer Karen E. Rylant Deborah J. Craft Environmental Research Center Chemical Engineer P.O. Box 1010 P.O. Box 1010 Muscle Shoals, AL 35660-1010 Muscle Shoals, AL 35660-1010 (205-386-2349) (205-386-2992) Agricultural Research for Watershed Protection Environmental and Chemical Applications Frank Sagona Kudjo Dzantor Clean Water Initiative Environmental Research Center 1101 Market Street, Haney Building 2C P.O. Box 1010 Chattanooga, TN 37402 Muscle Shoals, AL 35660-1010 (615-751-7334) (205-386-3596) Agricultural Nonpoint Source Specialist PCB Degradation Frank Sikora Metal Precipitation Environmental Research Center Ronald E. Edwards P.O. Box 1010 Chemical Engineer Muscle Shoals, AL 35660-1010 P.O. Box 1010 (205-386-2827) Muscle Shoals, AL 35660-1010 Biological Wastewater Treatment (205-386-2496) Aquatic Chemistry Waste Management and Remediation Edward L. Snoddy Jack J. Kuhn Environmental Research Center SCS-Liaison Land & Water 201 P.O. Box 1010 CTR 1A CST 17D Muscle Shoals, AL 35660-1010 1101 Market Street (205-386-3652) Chattanooga, TN 37402 Aquatic Vector and Plant Management (615-751-3816) Harold K. Speidel Land and Water Management Environmental Research Center Carl E. Madewell P.O. Box 1010 Rural Development Muscle Shoals, AL 35660-1010 P.O. Box 1010 (205-386-2597) Muscle Shoals, AL 35660-1010 Biological Wastewater Treatment Processes (205-386-2465) Survival of Bacterial Pathogens and Indicators Sustainable Agriculture of Water Pollution by Fecal Material Biological and Chemical Water Quality Drew Miller Wheeler/Elk River Action Team James T. Watson 1101 Market Street, Haney Building 2C Engineering Services Chattanooga, TN 37402 1101 Market Street, Haney Building 2C (615-751-4790) ARCHIVEChattanooga, TN 37402 Land and Water Management (615-751-7316) Wastewater Treatment Waymon R. Pace (Constructed Wetlands) Rural Development P.O. Box 1010 Muscle Shoals, AL 35660-1010 (205-386-2628) Sustainable Agriculture

D-2 Appendix E: Other Organizations Involved With Water Quality For toll-free (800) numbers, dial 1, then the 800 number. This list is not in any way an endorsement of these organizations.

Acid Rain Foundation, Inc. Alabama Department of Public Health 1630 Blackhawk Hills Bureau of Environmental Health and Standards St. Paul, MN 55122 434 Monroe Street Montgomery, AL 36130-3017 Adopt-A-Stream (334-613-5366) P.O. Box 435 Pittsford, NY 14534-0435 For on-site sewage information contact: (Organizes volunteer programs to clean Sam Robertson, Chief up and monitor water quality.) On-site Sewage Section General Sanitation Branch Air Pollution Control Association (334-613-5373) P.O. Box 2861 Pittsburg, PA 15230 Alabama Forestry Association, Inc. 555 Alabama Street Alabama Audubon Council Montgomery, AL 36104 2516 Mt. Brook Parkway (334-265-8733) Birmingham, AL 35223 (205-879-1935) Alabama Forestry Commission Education Section The Alabama Environmental Council 513 Madison Avenue 2717 7th Avenue South Montgomery, AL 36130 Suite 207 (334-261-2526) Birmingham, AL 35233 (205-322-3126) Alabama Oilman’s Association 400 South Union Street Alabama Department of Agriculture and Industries Suite 395 1445 Federal Drive Montgomery, AL 36104 Montgomery, AL 36109 (334-834-1044) (334-242-2640) Alabama Petroleum Council Pesticide Residue Laboratory Division 660 Adams Avenue Highway 29 at Donahue Drive Suite 188 P.O. Box 370 P.O. Box 4220 Auburn, AL 36831-0370 Montgomery, AL 36195 (334-844-4705) (334-834-9707) Alabama Department of Conservation and Alabama Power Company Natural Resources Educational Services 64 North Union Street P.O. Box 2641 Montgomery, AL 36130 Birmingham, AL 35291 (334-242-3486) (205-250-4090) For information on Project Wild contact: Mr. Jerry deBin Alabama Rural Water Association Game and Fish Division 4556 South Court Street Montgomery, AL Montgomery, AL 36105 (800-245-2740) ARCHIVE(334-288-3652) Alabama Department of Economic and Alabama State Department of Education Community Affairs Community Education Ofﬁce of Water Resources Gordon Persons Building 401 Adams Avenue Room 3328 Montgomery, AL 36103 Montgomery, AL 36130-3901 (334-242-5499) (334-242-8148)

E-1 Alabama State Soil and Water Conservation Mobile: BCM Engineers Inc.; McCrory & Committee Williams; Woolpert Consultants 2800 Zelda Road Montgomery: CH2M Hill Inc. Suite 200-9 & 200-10 Tuscaloosa: Almon Associates Inc. Montgomery, AL 36106-3332 America’s Clean Water Foundation (334-242-2620) 750 First Street NE Suite 911 Alabama Surface Mining Commission Washington, DC 20002-4241 P.O. Box 2390 Aquatic Eco-Systems, Inc. Jasper, AL 35502 (Products Catalog) (205-221-4130) 2056 Apopka Boulevard Alabama Wildlife Federation Apopka, FL 32703 46 Commerce Street (407-886-3939) Montgomery, AL 36104 Association of State Drinking Water Administrators (334-832-9453) 1911 North Fort Meyer Drive Alliance for a Clean Rural Environment Arlington, VA 22209 1155 15th Street, NW Suite 900 (703-524-2428) Washington, DC 20005 The Cahaba River Society (202-872-3863 or 800-545-5410) 2717 7th Avenue S Suite 205 Alliance for Environmental Education Birmingham, AL 35233 Zerox International Training Center (205-322-5326) Leesburg, VA Center for Environmental Research and Service (703-253-5812) (CERS) American Groundwater Trust Troy State University (800-423-7748) Troy, AL 36082 (334-670-3624) American Planning Association 1313 East 60th Street Citizen Action Chicago, IL 60637 3604 Debby Drive (312-955-9100) Montgomery, AL 36111 (334-264-8969 or 265-9821) American Rivers 801 Pennsylvania Avenue SE Suite 400G Clean Water Action Project Washington, DC 20003-2167 1320 18th Street NW Washington, DC 20036 American Water Resources Association (202-457-1286) 5410 Grosvenor Lane Suite 220 Bethesda, MD 20814-2192 Conservation Foundation 1250 24th Street NW Suite 500 American Water Works Association (AWWA) Washington, DC 20037 6666 West Quincy Avenue (202-293-4860) Denver, CO 80235 (303-794-7711) Conservation Tillage Information Center (CTIC) For outreach to small water systems contact: 1220 Potter Drive Room 170 AWWA’s Small System Operational West Lafayette, IN 47906 Support (SSOS) Service (317-494-9555) (800-366-0107) Cooperative Extension System AWWA consultantARCHIVE members in Alabama include: (listed under county name in white or business Auburn: Roy F. Weston Inc. pages of phone book) Birmingham: Paragon Engineering Inc. Environmental Defense Fund Fort Payne: Ladd Environmental Consultant 1616 P Street NW Suite 150 Gadsden: Jones, Blair, Waldrup & Tucker Inc. Washington, DC 20036 Huntsville: PDR Engineers Inc. (202-387-3500) Jasper: Perc Engineering Co. Inc.

E-2 Environmental-Energy Center Lewis Publishers University of North Alabama (Environmental Sciences Catalog) Box 5015 2000 Corporate Boulevard NW Florence, AL 35632-0001 Boca Raton, FL 33431 (205-760-4228) (800-272-7737) Environmental Toxicology Center Marine Environmental Sciences University of Wisconsin - Madison P.O. Box 386 309 Inﬁrmary Dauphin Island, AL 36528 1300 University Avenue (334-861-2141) Madison, WI 53706 Michigan Sea Grant College Program (608-263-4580) 334 Natural Resources Building The Fertilizer Institute Michigan State University 501 Second Street NE East Lansing, MI 48824-1222 Washington, DC 20002 (517-353-9568) (202-675-8250) Millipore Intertech Freshwater Foundation (Water Quality Test Kits) Spring Hill Center P.O. Box 255 725 County Road Six Bedford, MA 01730 Wayazata, MN 55391-9611 (800-225-1380) (612-449-0092) Birmingham, AL Geological Survey of Alabama (205-664-9172) Water Resources Division Museum of Natural History 420 Hackberry Lane P.O. Box 870340 P.O. Box O Tuscaloosa, AL 35487 Tuscaloosa, AL 35486-9780 (205-348-2039) (205-349-2852) National Association of Towns and Townships HACH Company 522 K Street, NW (Water Testing Supplies) Suite 730 P.O. Box 389 Washington, DC 20005 Loveland, CO 80539-0389 (202-737-5200) (800-227-4224 or 303-669-3050) National Energy Foundation Izaak Walton League of America 5160 Wiley Post Way Suite 200 (Citizen’s Clean Water Guide) Salt Lake City, UT 84116 1401 Wilson Boulevard Level B (801-536-1406) Arlington, VA 22209 (703-528-1818) National Groundwater Information Center A Service Of: League of Women Voters Education Fund Water Well Publishing Company 1730 M Street NW 6375 Riverside Drive Washington, DC 20036 Dublin, OH 43017 (202-429-1965) (614-761-3222) Alabama Chapter League of Women Voters National Nonpoint Source Federation 703 Shallow Creek Road P.O. Box 30101 Tuscaloosa, AL 35406 Kansas City, MO 64112 ARCHIVE(800-795-3634) (205-752-3675) Legal Environmental Assistance Foundation 1115 North Gadsden Street Tallahassee, FL 32303-6327 (904-681-2591)

E-3 National Sanitation Foundation Project ROSE (Recycled Oil Saves Energy) 3475 Plymouth Road The University of Alabama P.O. Box 130140 Box G Ann Arbor, MI 48113-0140 Tuscaloosa, AL 35487-9644 (313-769-8010) (800-452-5901, 800-392-8098, or Regional Ofﬁce 205-348-4878) Atlanta, GA Project SOAR (Statewide Oil Acquisition and (404-455-1253) Reprocessing) National Small Flows Clearinghouse Auburn University West Virginia University Department of Chemical Engineering P.O. Box 6064 230 Ross Hall Morgantown, WV 26506-6064 Auburn University, AL 36849 (800-624-8301) (334-844-4827) National Water Quality Information Database Resources for the Future (RFF) (ES-USDA) 1616 P Street NW (Cooperative agreement between ES-USDA and Washington, DC 20036 Purdue University) (202-328-5025) Contact: River Fields, Inc. Cathy Burwell 643 West Main Street Suite 200 Information Management Specialist Louisville, KY 40202-2921 9170 N. Clover Lane (502-583-3060) Rome City, IN 46784 (219-854-2309) River Network [email protected] P.O. Box 8787 or Contact: Portland, OR 97207 Agricultural Communication Service Department (503-241-3506 or 800-423-6747) Purdue University Rural Community Assistance Program, Inc. 1143 Agricultural Administration Building 602 S King Street Suite 402 West Lafayette, IN 47907-1143 Leesburg, VA 22075 (317-494-8396) (703-771-8636) [email protected] Sierra Club National Wildlife Federation 730 Polk Street 1400 16th Street NW San Francisco, CA 94109 Washington, DC 20036-2266 (415-776-2211) (202-797-6800) or Natural Resources Defense Council 408 C Street NE 40 West 20th Street Washington, DC 20002 New York, NY 10011 (202-547-1141) (212-727-2700) Sierra Club of Alabama The Nature Conservancy 1330 21st Way South No. 110 1800 N. Kent Street Suite 800 Birmingham, AL 35205 Arlington, VA 22209 (205-933-9269) Ofﬁce of Drinking Water and Groundwater Soil and Water Conservation Society Mail Code WH-550 7515 NE Ankeny Road U.S. Environmental ProtectionARCHIVE Agency Ankeny, IA 50021-9764 401 M Street SW (515-289-2331) Washington, DC 20460 (202-260-7077)

E-4 State of Alabama U.S. Department of Commerce Emergency Management Agency National Technical Information Service (NTIS) 520 S Court Street 5248 Port Royal Road Montgomery, AL 36130 Springfield, VA 22161 (334-834-1375) (703-487-4812, 487-4650, or 800-336-4700) (Local offices listed under Alabama State of or U.S. Department of Transportation (DOT) Government offices) 400 Seventh Street SW Terrene Institute Washington, DC 20590 1000 Connecticut Avenue NW Suite 802 (202-366-5046) Washington, DC 20036 U.S. Geological Survey (202-833-8317) 520 South 19th Avenue U.S. Department of Agriculture Tuscaloosa, AL 35401 Extension Service (205-752-8104) Director of Communications, Information Water Resources Division and Technology P.O. Box 210337 Room 3328-S Montgomery, AL 36121-0337 South Building (205-223-7511) Washington, DC 20250 National Water Information Clearinghouse (202-720-3029) U.S. Geological Survey U.S. Department of Agriculture 423 National Center Forest Service Reston, VA 22092-0001 1765 Highland Avenue U.S. Public Interest Research Group Montgomery, AL 36107 215 Pennsylvania Avenue, SE (205-832-7630) Washington, DC 20003 (Local offices listed under U.S. Government agen- (202-546-9707) cies) Water Education Foundation U.S. Department of Agriculture 717 K Street Suite 517 Information Center Sacramento, CA 95814-3408 14th & Independence Avenue, SW (Provides information primarily Washington, DC 20250 for western states) (202-720-2791) Water Environment Federation U.S. Department of Agriculture (Formerly Water Pollution Control Federation) Soil Conservation Service 601 Wythe Street Director of Public Affairs Alexandria, VA 22314-1994 Room 4247-S (703-684-2400 or 800-666-0206) South Building Washington, DC 20013 Water Quality Association (202-205-0026) 4151 Naperville Road State Office at: Lisle, IL 60532 P.O. Box 311 (312-369-1600 or 369-1749) Auburn, AL 36830 Water Resources Research Institute (334-821-8070) 202 Hargis Building (Local offices listed under U.S. Government agen- Auburn University, AL 36849 cies) ARCHIVE(334-844-5075) U.S. Department of Army World Resources Institute Army Engineer DISTRICT, Mobile P.O. Box 4852 P.O. Box 2288 Hampden Station Mobile, AL 36628-0001 Baltimore, MD 21211 (334-434-7777) (800-822-0504) Engineer Detachment Worldwatch Institute (334-470-1468) 1776 Massachusetts Avenue NW Maintenance Washington, DC 20036-1904 (334-470-1470) E-5 Appendix F: Organizations Involved With Solid Waste Management And Recycling For toll-free (800) numbers, dial 1, then the 800 number. This list is not in any way an endorsement of these organizations.

(Pesticide container recycling) (Containers for recycling) Alabama Department of Agriculture and Industries Knight Limited Corporation 1445 Federal Drive 1300 Leesburg Road Montgomery, AL 36109 Fort Wayne, IN 46808 (334-242-2640) (219-436-4739) Alabama Department of Environmental Management (Recycling presses) (ADEM) Load King Manufacturing Co., Inc. Land Division P.O. Box 40606 Solid Waste Section Jacksonville, FL 32203 1751 Congressman W. L. Dickinson Drive (904-354-8882) Montgomery, AL 36130 National Recycling Coalition (334-271-7726) (402-475-3637) Aluminum Association National Soft Drink Association Washington, DC Washington, DC (202-862-5100) (202-463-6732) American Paper Institute (Scrap tires and other wastes) Washington, DC National Technical Information Service (NTIS) (202-340-0600) 5285 Port Royal Road Can Manufacturers Institute Springfield, VA 22161 Washington, DC (703-487-4600 or 800-336-4700) (202-232-4677) The following publications are available for a fee (Community waste reduction programs) from NTIS (call 703-487-4650): Central States Education Center Addendum for the Regulatory Impact Analysis for Solid Waste Planning Specialist the Final Criteria for Municipal Solid Waste (217-344-2371) Landfills. PB92-100 858 (Containers for recycling) Analysis of U.S. Municipal Waste Combustion Commercial Recycling Systems Operation Practices. PB89-220 578 Route 1, Box 95 State Highway 20 Charging Households for Waste Collection and Freeport, FL 32439 Disposal: The Effects of Weight- or Volume- (904-835-2121 or 835-3131) Based Pricing on Solid Waste Management. PB91-111 484 Council on Solid Waste Solutions (Plastics) 1275 K Street NW Suite 400 Markets for Scrap Tires. PB92-115 252 Washington, DC 20005 Municipal Waste Combustion Study: Report to (202-371-5319) Congress. PB87-206 074 (Polystyrene foam recycling) Office Paper Recycling: An Implementation Dart Container Corporation ARCHIVEManual. PB90-199 431 Mason, MI 48854 (800-288-2273[CARE]) Promoting Source Reduction and Recyclability in the Market Place. PB90-163 122 Glass Packaging Institute 1801 K Street NW Suite 1105L Regulatory Impact Analysis for the Final Criteria Washington, DC 20006 for Municipal Solid Waste Landfills. (202-887-4850) PB92-100 841

F-1 Solid Waste Dilemma: An Agenda for Action; State Recycling Programs Background Document. PB88-251 137 Alabama Solid Waste Dilemma: An Agenda for Action; (334-277-7050) Background Document; Appendices. PB88-251 145 Arkansas (501-562-7444) States’ Efforts to Promote Lead-Acid Battery Recycling. PB92-119 965 Florida Variable Rates in Solid Waste: Handbook for (800-FLA-BIRP) Solid Waste Ofﬁcials. PB90-272 063 Georgia Yard Waste Composting: A Study of Eight (404-656-3898) Programs. PB90-163 114 Kentucky Plastics Recycling Foundation (502-227-7481) Washington, DC Louisiana (202-371-5212) (504-342-8148) (Newspaper recycling) Missouri Southeast Recycling Corporation (314-947-9766) 2000 Powers Ferry Road Suite 610 Marietta, GA 30067 North Carolina (404-951-7950) (919-821-1647 or 733-2178) Montgomery Division: Oklahoma 110 Pollard Street (918-227-1412) Montgomery, AL 36103 South Carolina (205-262-1961) (803-734-0143) Steel Can Recycling Institute Foster Plaza U.S. Environmental Protection Agency 680 Andersen Drive EPA Waste Wise Hotline Pittsburgh, PA 15220 (800-EPA-WISE) (800-876-7274 [SCRI]) For businesses and industries interested in waste Southeastern Region: AL, AR, FL, GA, LA, MS reduction measures. 4900 Bayou Boulevard, Suite 110 C Pensacola, FL 32503 EPA Regional Contacts on (904-479-7208) Municipal Solid Waste Solid Waste Information Clearinghouse (SWICH) Region 1 P. O. Box 7219 Ron Jennings Silver Spring, MD 20910 U.S. EPA-Region 1 (Hotline 800-67-SWICH) JFK Federal Building Boston, MA 02203 Solid Waste Resource Center Mail Code: HER-CAN6 American Paper Institute (617-573-9656) 1250 Connecticut Avenue NW Suite 210 Washington, DC 20036 Region 2 (800-878-8878) Mike DeBonis U.S. EPA-Region 2 Waste Management, Inc. of North America 26 Federal Plaza 3003 Butterﬁeld RoadARCHIVE New York, NY 10278 Oak Brook, IL 60521 Mail Code: 2AWM Attn: Waste Reduction and Recycling (708-572- (212-264-0002) 8880) For Chemical Waste Info Call: (708-218-1500) Region 3 Andrew Uricheck U.S. EPA-Region 3 841 Chestnut Street

F-2 Philadelphia, PA 19107 EPA Publications on Mail Code: 3HW53 Municipal Wastes and Recycling (215-597-7936) The following publications are available at no charge Region 4 from the EPA RCRA-Superfund Hotline (Call 800- Patricia Zweig 424-9346). U.S. EPA-Region 4 345 Courtland Street, NE General Atlanta, GA 30365 Bibliography of Solid Waste Management Mail Code: 4WD-RCRA Alternatives. 530/SW-89-055 (404-347-2091) Characterization of Municipal Solid Waste in the Region 5 United States: 1990 Update; Executive Summary. Andy Tschampa 530/SW-90-042a U.S. EPA-Region 5 77 West Jackson Blvd. Decision Makers Guide to Solid Waste Chicago, IL 60604-3590 Management. 530/SW-89-072 Mail Code: HRP-8J Environmental Fact Sheet: SWITCH: EPA’s (312-886-0976) National Solid Waste Information Clearinghouse. Region 6 530/SW-91-025 Will Lemmond Sites for Solid Waste: A Guidebook for Public U.S. EPA-Region 6 Involvement. 530/SW-90-019 Interstate Bank Building 1445 Ross Avenue Solid Waste Dilemma: An Agenda for Action. Dallas, TX 75202-2733 530/SW-89-019 (214-655-6760) Unit Pricing: Providing an Incentive to Reduce Region 7 Waste. 530/SW-91-005 David Flora Variable Rates in Solid Waste: Handbook for U.S. EPA-Region 7 Solid Waste Ofﬁcials. 530/SW-90-084a 726 Minnesota Avenue Kansas City, KS 66101 Source Reduction Mail Code: STPG Characterization of Products Containing Lead (913-551-7523) and Cadmium in Municipal Solid Waste in the Region 8 United States, 1970 to 2000: Executive Summary. Judy Wong 530/SW-89-015c U.S. EPA-Region 8 Household Hazardous Waste: Bibliography of 999 18th Street Suite 500 Useful References and List of State Experts. Denver, CO 80202-2466 530/SW-88-014 Mail Code: 8HWM-WM (303-292-1667) Survey of Household Hazardous Waste and Related Collection Programs. 530/SW-86-038 Region 9 Jeff Scott Recycling U.S. EPA-Region 9 75 Hawthorne Street Recycle. 530/SW-88-050 San Francisco, CA 94105 Recycling in Federal Agencies. 530/SW-9—082 Mail Code H-3-1 (415-744-2091) ARCHIVERecycling Works! State and Local Success Stories. 530/SW-89-014 Region 10 Lauris Davies Incineration U.S. EPA-Region 10 Characterization of Municipal Waste Combustion 1200 6th Avenue Ash, Ash Extracts, and Leachates: Executive Seattle, WA 98101 Summary. 530/SW-90-029b Mail Code: HW072 206-553-6522

F-3 Landfilling Recycle Today: Educational Materials for Grades K-12 (Pamphlet). 530/SW-90-025 Environmental Fact Sheet: Municipal Landfill Regulations Mean Safer Disposal of Solid Waste. Ride the Wave of the Future: Recycle Today! 530/SW-91-066 (Poster). 530/SW-90-010 Environmental Fact Sheet: Small Communities School Recycling Programs: A Handbook for and the Municipal Landfill Regulations. Educators. 530/SW-90-023 530/SW-91-067 Newsletters Solid Waste Disposal Facility Criteria: Final Native American Network Rule (October 9, 1991). OSWFR91004 Reusable News Used Oil Used Oil Recycling How to Set Up a Local Program to Recycle Used Oil. 530/SW-89-039a (Free subscriptions as well as back issues are available through the Hotline.) Recycling Used Oil: 10 Steps to Change Your Oil. 530/SW-89-039c Other Recycling Used Oil: For Service Stations and Environmental Fact Sheet: Yard Waste Other Vehicle Facilities. 530/SW-89-039d Composting. 530/SW-91-009 Recycling Used Oil: What Can You Do? 530/SW- Procurement Guidelines for Government 89-039b Agencies. 530/SW-91-011 Report to Congress: Methods to Manage and Educational Materials Control Plastic Waste; Executive Summary. Adventures of the Garbage Gremlin: Recycle and 530/SW-89-051a Combat a Life of Grime (Comic Book). Summary of Markets for Scrap Tires. 530/SW-90-024 530/SW-90-074b Let’s Reduce and Recycle: A Curriculum For Solid Waste Awareness. 530/SW-90-005

ARCHIVE

F-4 Appendix G: Laboratories Certiﬁed For Biological Testing Of Drinking Water (Compiled By The Alabama Department of Public Health, November 1993)

This list is not in any way an endorsement of these companies.

Auburn Area Talladega Water And Sewer Board Laboratory P.O. Box 498 Phenix City Water Laboratory Talladega, AL 35160 12th Avenue and 32nd Street ATTN: James Brasher Phenix City, AL 36868 (205-362-6091) ATTN: Bob Green (334-291-4757) Birmingham Area Robert A. Betts Filter Plant Birmingham Division Laboratory Opelika Water System 1400 6th Avenue S Rt. 2, Box 129-M1 Birmingham, AL 35233 Valley, AL 36854 ATTN: Ronnie Williams ATTN: Eddie Owen (205-933-1388) (334-745-0787) Birmingham Water Works Laboratory West Point Pepperell Filter Plant 3600 1st Avenue N c/o Service Center Birmingham, AL 35222 P.O. Box 217 ATTN: Joel Rhaly Valley, AL 36854 (205-251-3261) ATTN: Steve Alford (404-645-4890) Decatur Area Anniston-Gadsden-Talladega Area Decatur Division Laboratory 510 Cherry Street NE Mr. John Borden, General Manager Decatur, AL 35602 Water Works Board, City of Anniston ATTN: Dan Abston 131 West 11th Street (205-350-0810) P.O. Box 2268 Anniston, AL 36202-2268 Dothan Area ATTN: Don Miller (205-831-0631) City of Dothan Compliance Laboratory P.O. Box 2128 Commander J B Chapman Road Preventive Medicine Services Dothan, AL 36302 USA MEDDAC ATTN: Mary Jones Ft. McClellan, AL 36205-5083 (334-793-0396) ATTN: Capt. McNeil (205-848-3634) Dothan Division Laboratory P.O. Box 2047 Gadsden Water Works and Sewer Board 2101B Cottonwood Highway Laboratory Dothan, AL 36301 515 Rains Boulevard ARCHIVE ATTN: Tom Kirkland Gadsden, AL 35999 (334-793-1933) ATTN: Marvin C. Neal (205-543-2884)

G-1 Huntsville Area Tuscaloosa Area Huntsville Utilities Water Treatment Plant City of Tuscaloosa Water Works Laboratory 14000 S Memorial Parkway Ed Love Water Treatment Plant Huntsville, AL 35803 1125 River Road NE ATTN: Tony Owens Tuscaloosa, AL 35404 (205-881-6281) ATTN: Harriet Mattox (205-349-0247) Southeastern Analytical Services, Inc. 1004 Oster Drive Suite One Others Huntsville, AL 35816 ATTN: Teresa Boggs Albertville Utilities Board (205-536-8110) 210 W Main Street Albertville, AL 35950 Mobile Area ATTN: Danny Baugh (205-582-3780) Baldwin Testing Laboratory P.O. Box 155 City of Alexander City Highway 59 Sugar Creek Laboratory Summerdale, AL 36580 Alexander City, AL 35010 ATTN: James Sellers ATTN: Al Phillips (334-989-6384) (205-329-3979) Mobile Division Laboratory Preventive Medicine 757 Museum Drive Lyster Army Hospital Mobile, AL 36608 Ft. Rucker, AL 36362-5333 ATTN: Walter Creighton ATTN: Captain Moser (334-690-6176) (334-255-2975) Mobile Municipal Laboratory Prichard Water Works 207 N Catherine Street 125 E Clark Avenue Mobile, AL 36633 Prichard, AL 36610 ATTN: Catherine Jackson ATTN: Marilyn King (334-433-7482) (334-457-9786) Savannah Laboratories Riverside Wastewater Treatment Plant 900 Lakeside Drive P.O. Box 790 Mobile, AL 36693 County Road 19 ATTN: Jesse Smith Andalusia, AL 36420 (334-666-6633) ATTN: Claude Lawrence (334-222-8208) Montgomery Area Wallace State Community College Bureau of Clinical Laboratories Hanceville, AL 35077-9080 8140 University Drive ATTN: Edwin Calvert Montgomery, AL 36130 (205-352-6403) ATTN: Paula Lansdon (334-277-8660) Perry Plant Laboratory Water Works Board 22 Bibb Street Montgomery, AL 36192ARCHIVE ATTN: Keith Yarborough (334-240-1657) USAF Regional Hospital Maxwell - SGPB Maxwell AFB, AL 36112-5304 ATTN: Captain Kul Garg (334-293-5848)

G-2 Appendix H: State Of Alabama Licensed Water Well Drillers

This list is not in any way an endorsement of these companies.

AAA Water Well Drilling G. H. Anderson Rt. 2, Box 233 1113 N Main Avenue Fort Payne, AL 35967 Sylacauga, AL 35150 (205-657-4471) (205-245-4186) A-1 Drilling Service Delma Baird Well Drilling Rt. 2, Box 366 Rt. 2, Box 73 Laurel, MS 39440 Arley, AL 35541 (601-428-1435) (205-384-4923) A. D. And Hayward Hughes Well Drilling Ballard Well Drilling Co. Rt. 1, Box 320 Hwy 22 E Chancellor, AL 36316 Alexander City, AL 35101 (334-347-2989 or -8762 (205-234-6850) Abernathy Well Drilling Bama Pump And Well P.O. Box 5344 Rt. 1, Box 79 Rome, GA 30161 Wilmer, AL 36587 (706-291-2065) (334-649-9040) Adams-Massey Co. Barbaree Well Drilling 309 N Park Street 1116 Talbotton Rd. Carrollton, GA 30117 Columbus, GA 31904 (404-832-3132) (706-568-0192) AL Little Drilling Mack Beasley Water Well Service 7036 County Road 217 Rt. 3, Box 976 Hillsboro, AL 35643 Jay, FL 32565 (205-974-8996) (904-675-6577) Alabama Power Co. Black Belt Drilling P.O. Box 2641 Rt. 1, Box 311 Birmingham, AL 35291 Forkland, AL 36740 (205-250-1642) (334-289-0399) Allen And Willis Drilling Co. Blair Drilling Rt. 1, Box 52 103 Salter Street Faunsdale, AL 36738 Evergreen, AL 36401 (334-628-6398) (334-578-2352) Alms Pump Service, Inc. Ralph Bland Drilling 201 E Michigan Road Rt. 2, Box 94-B Foley, AL 36535 Empire, AL 35063 (334-943-1249 or -1250) (205-648-5292) Anderson Drilling Co. Braden Pump And Well Service, Inc. Rt. 3, Box 65 ARCHIVE17170 County Cove Grove Hill, AL 36451 Saucier, MS 39574 (334-275-8726) (601-832-1261) Anderson Engineering Consultants Bradley Drilling 10205 Rockwood Road 1501 N Kirk Street Little Rock, AR 72204 Pensacola, FL 32505 (501-455-4545) (904-432-2496)

H-1 Brady Well And Pump Works Eddie W. Colvard Rt. 3, Box 99 Rt. 1, Box 452 Selma, AL 36701 Pisgah, AL 35765 (334-874-6801) (205-451-3720) Branton Brothers Well Drilling D And H Well Co. Rt. 8, Box 200 8630 Howells Ferry Road Dothan, AL 36301 Semmes, AL 36575 (334-677-5489) (334-649-6912 or -1793) C And C Drilling Dan Gary Well Drilling Rt. 5, Box 667 Rt. 1, Box 164 Jasper, AL 35501 Geneva, AL 36340 (205-387-7006) (334-684-3203) Campbell Well Drilling Co. Dawes Well Service 111 W Pine Street Rt. 2, Box 279 Scottsboro, AL 35768 Mobile, AL 36609 (205-574-2352) (334-666-3733) Carr’s Well Service David Malchow Rt. 1, Box 150 P.O. Box 1086 Buckatunna, MS 39322 Anniston, AL 36202 (601-648-2537) (205-831-5888) Cason Drilling Company David Mills Well Drilling 456 Sunny Eve Road Rt. 3, Box 111 Anniston, AL 36201 Pikeville, TN 37367 (205-831-2137) (615-881-3273) Champion Well Drilling Co. Densmore Drilling P.O. Box 565 3029 Nixon Road Tyson Street Bessemer, AL 35020 Thomasville, AL 36784 (205-428-7241) (334-636-2374) Dependable Drilling Co. Champion Well And Pump, Inc. 744 Date Circle 818 Veterans Memorial Parkway Bessemer, AL 35023 Lanett, AL 36836 (205-491-9627) (334-576-2571) Diamond “B” Well Drilling Clyde’s Well Service P.O. Box 653 Rt. 3, Box 518 Jay, FL 32565 Jay, FL 32565 (904-675-6403) (904-675-6230) Dingler Drilling Co. Coast Water Well Service 916 Terry Rd. 6601 Baker Road Anniston, AL 36201 Ocean Springs, MS 39564 (205-237-1177) (601-875-0260) Diversiﬁed Drilling Corp. Coffey Well Service P.O. Box 290699 Rt. 3, Box 458 ARCHIVETampa, FL 33687-0699 Jay, FL 32565 (813-988-1132) (904-675-6676) Dixie Drilling Corp. Coley Well Drilling 1940 Pinson Valley Parkway Rt. 3, Box 50 Birmingham, AL 35217 Forkland, AL 36470 (205-849-5411) (334-289-1868)

H-2 Dixie Well Boring Geotechnical Engineering, Inc. 1254 Bartley Road 904 Butler Drive La Grange, GA 30240 Mobile, AL 36693 (706-884-5756) (334-666-7197) Hawley Dodson and Son J. R. Goodwin Well Drilling P.O. Box 585 P.O. Box 745 Fayetteville, TN 37334 Weaver, AL 36277 (615-433-4201) (205-820-2258) Don Harvard Gothard And Sons Contractors, Inc. #5 Cross Creek Estates Rt. 3, Box 400-A Alpine, AL 35014 Montgomery, AL 36108 (205-249-9008) (334-263-2258) Thomas Clayton Duncan Drilling Co. Graves Well Drilling Rt. 3, Box 482 P.O. Drawer 168 Jasper, AL 35501 Sylacauga, AL 35150 (205-387-2318) (205-249-4371) Environmental Monitoring and Testing Corporation Grifﬁn Well Co. P.O. Box 750 Rt. 1, Box 148-A New Ellenton, SC 29809 Wilmer, AL 36587 (803-652-2718) (334-649-2888) Envirotech Drilling Co., Inc. Tom Grifﬁth Water Well And Conductor Service, Inc. 419 Pecan Boulevard 320 Mayson St. Wiggins, MS 39577 Columbia, MS 39429 (601-928-2181) (601-736-6347) Fair Park Equipment Co. Griner Drilling Service Rt. 8, Box 14 P.O. Drawer 825 Talladega, AL 35160 Columbia, MS 39429 (205-362-7019) (601-736-6347) Feltman Drilling Co. Hacoda Drilling Co. Rt. 1, Box 232 Rt. 2, Box 10 Carbon Hill, AL 35549 Florala, AL 36442 (205-622-3563) (334-858-6294) Finch Well Co. Hammett Drilling Co., Inc. Box 230, Avenue D Rt. 2, Box 203 Mobile, AL 36608 Andalusia, AL 36420 (334-633-4006) (334-222-3562) French Well Drilling Howard Hale Well Boring And Drilling 205 S 9th Street P.O. Box 935 Gadsen, AL 35901 La Grange, GA 30241 (205-547-8375) (706-882-1510) Fryfogle Water Well Service Hancock And Chestnut Drilling, Inc. Rt. 8, Box 3 Rt. 2, Box 317 Lucedale, MS 39452 ARCHIVEFort Payne, AL 35967 (601-947-3262) (205-523-3386) Dan Gary Well Drilling Hanners and Davis Drilling Rt. 1, Box 164 Rt. 2, Box 227 Geneva, AL 36340 Lineville, AL 36266 (334-684-3203) (205-396-5382)

H-3 Heart Of Dixie Well Drilling Jackson Drilling Co. Rt. 2, Box 14C Rt. 2, Box 385 Alpine, AL 35014 Haleyville, AL 35565 (205-268-2006) (205-486-5452) Helms Brothers Well Boring And Drilling Co. Knox Drilling Co. Rt. 2, Box 535 P.O. Box 83 Villa Rica, GA 30160 Haleyville, AL 35565 (404-459-3807) (205-486-3128) Herndon Well And Supply Co., Inc. Law Engineering, Inc. P.O. Box 37 P.O. Box 10244 Shannon, MS 38868 Birmingham, AL 35202 (601-767-9777) (205-252-9901) Hicks Drilling Co. Layne-Central Co. Rt. 1, Box 276 P.O. Box 17700 Mount Hope, AL 35651 Pensacola, FL 32522-7700 (205-974-6283) (904-432-5101) Hinton Well Service, Inc. R. E. Mabry Well And Pump Service #6 Rodgers Place Rt. 3, Box 286 Pensacola, FL 32506 Culberth, GA 31740 (904-453-3834) (912-732-5007) J. R. Hughes Well Drilling McCormack Drilling Co. Rt. 2, Box 36 Rt. 3, Box 770 New Brockton, AL 36351 Leighton, AL 35646 (334-347-7303 or 894-2380) (205-446-5625) John D. Hughes Wells And Pumps, Inc. McDonald-Hill, Inc. 820 Ouida Street P.O. Box 1510 Enterprise, AL 36330 1020 Grand Ave. (334-347-9757) Meridian, MS 39302 (601-693-3401) Ruben Hughes Water Well Co. Rt. 1, Box 310 Michael Drilling Co. Geneva, AL 36340 Rt.4, Box 220 (334-684-9814) Rogersville, AL 35652 (205-247-5531) Hughes Well Drilling Rt. 1, Box 331 Mid-South Drilling Co. Chancellor, AL 36316 Rt. 1, Box 36-F (334-347-9758 or -1147) Carrollton, AL 35447 (205-367-8496) Humphrey Well Drilling Rt. 3, Box 263 Miller Drilling Co., Inc. Boaz, AL 35957 P.O. Box 113 (205-593-8801) Hazel Green, AL 35750 (205-828-4438) Hurley Drilling 8737 Camp Piers Road James Mills Well And Water Supply Bessemer, AL 35023 ARCHIVERt. 3, Box 105 (205-436-4177) Pikeville, TN 37367 (615-881-3364) Hurst Well Drilling Rt. 3, Box 102-A Mizell Drilling Service Lineville, AL 36266 Rt. 2, Box 830 (205-488-5547) Trinity, AL 35673 (205-355-0684)

H-4 Morphis Brothers, Inc. Pioneer Drilling And Testing P.O. Box 169 Rt. 2, Box 260 Trout, LA 71371 Berry, AL 35546 (318-992-6195) (205-339-9997) Mutts Well Drilling Pope Engineering And Testing Rt. 9, Box 325 2463 Eslava Creek Parkway Athens, AL 35611 Mobile, AL 36606 (205-232-2855) (334-471-3458) Nautilus Water Systems, Inc. Prime Pump And Well P.O. Box 359 P.O. Box 219 Lynn Haven, FL 32444 Dahlonega, GA 30533 (904-265-3881) (706-864-6396) Odom Well Drilling Vertice Allen Powell Well Drilling Co. Rt. 4, Box 81 P.O. Box 87 Jacksonville, AL 36265 Uriah, AL 36480 (205-820-2590) (334-862-2500) Otwell Wells J. M. Presley, Jr. Rt. 1, Box 140 Rt. 4, Box 165 Ranburne, AL 36237 Enterprise, AL 36330 (205-568-3792) (334-347-2829) Owens Well Drilling W. Presnall, Inc. Rt. 2, Box 230-A Rt. 1, Box 418 Fort Payne, AL 35967 Grove Hill, AL 36451 (205-657-3395) (334-246-4055) Pate’s Drilling And Well Service Radford And Son Rt. 2, Box 55 Rt. 2, Box 87 Castleberry, AL 36432 Selma, AL 36701 (334-966-2184) (334-872-1651) Jimmy D. Peek Drilling Rafter 5 Service Co. Rt. 1, Box 228-B P.O. Box 114 Pisgah, AL 35765 Aliceville, AL 35442 (205-451-7211) (205-373-8428) Robert L. Peek W. H. Richey Rt. 2 Rt. 7, Box 522 Pisgah, AL 35765 Russellville, AL 35653 (205-451-3546) (205-332-0688) J. V. Peel Drilling Thomas Rossi Rt. 1, Box 635 Rt. 2, Box 331-A Maylene, AL 35114 Sulligent, AL 35586 (205-426-3606) (205-698-8757) Pensacola Testing Labs Rowe Drilling Co. 217 E Brent Lane P.O. Box 1363 Pensacola, FL 32503 ARCHIVETallahassee, FL 32302 (904-477-5100) (904-576-1271) Pierce Drilling Co. Rutherford Well Boring P.O. Box 32-A Rt. 1, Box 1236 Agricola, MS 39452 Clanton, AL 35045 (601-947-4548) (205-755-2525)

H-5 Johnny M. Sanford H. T. Sparks Rt. 5, Box 609-A Rt. 2, Box 40 Anniston, AL 36201 Holly Pond, AL 35983 (205-831-8753) (205-796-5182) Ronnie Sapp Plumbing And Well Drilling Co. Stovall Well Drilling P.O. Box 243 Rt. 1, Box 132 MacClenny, FL 32063 Carbon Hill, AL 35549 (904-259-6934) (205-924-8638) Scott Engineered Pump Services Stringer And Son P.O. Box 37100 Rt. 2, Box 426 Pensacola, FL 32506 Lucedale, MS 39452 (904-479-2285) (601-947-8092) Segars Drilling Co. Tanner Well Drilling Rt. 6, Box 384 Rt. 2, Box 288 Albertville, AL 35950 Pisgah, AL 35765 (205-878-8813) (205-657-3149) Selvage Drilling Co. Terry Drilling Co. Rt. 3, Box 278 Rt. 8, Box 28 Scottsboro, AL 35768 Meridian, MS 39305 (205-728-4388) (601-482-6412) Shuniak Well Drilling Terry’s Well Service 8860 Mudd Street 5001 Chimes Way Ohatchee, AL 36271 Pensacola, FL 32505 (205-892-0364) (904-432-6508) Simmons Well Drilling Thomason Well Drilling Rt. 3, Box 105 713 Edge Street Boaz, AL 35957 Fort Walton Beach, FL 32548 (205-593-3435) (904-862-4613) Sisson Enterprises, Inc. Thompson’s Well Pump And Drilling Co. Rt. 1, Box 474 5276 Kings Hwy Caryville, FL 32427 Douglasville, GA 30135 (904-535-2416) (404-942-1829) Donald Smith Co., Inc. Tri-State Drilling Services Rt. 3, Box 1 504 Dusy Street Headland, AL 36345 Dothan, AL 36301 (334-693-2969) (334-792-3605) Larry Smith Troy E. Byrd Pump Company Rt. 2, Box 4-A P.O. Box 371 Headland, AL 36345 Atmore, AL 36504 (334-794-5825) (334-368-4584) Smitherman Concrete Products, Inc. Uriah Drilling Co. Rt. 2, Box 167 P.O. Box 116 Maplesville, AL 36750ARCHIVEUriah, AL 36480 (334-366-2637) (334-862-2258) Southern Earth Sciences, Inc. Vickery Well Drilling Co. P.O. Box 160745 P.O. Box 839 Mobile, AL 36616 Double Springs, AL 35553 (334-344-7711) (205-489-5563)

H-6 Weldon Drilling Co. Rt. 1, Box 330 Tallassee, AL 36078 (334-541-3615) Well Technologies, Inc. P.O. Drawer 6129 Destin, FL 32541 (904-654-2700) White Hardware And Pump Co. Rt. 1, Box 15 Perdido, AL 36562 (334-937-9384) White Well Co. 4607 Dauphin Island Pkwy. Mobile, AL 36605 (334-479-8718) Windham Pump And Supply 5800 Muldoon Road Pensacola, FL 32506 (904-445-2281) Wiregrass Well Drilling Rt. 3, Box 309 Dothan, AL 36301 (334-793-2796)

ARCHIVE

H-7 Appendix I: Laboratories That Test Water And Wastewater (Compiled By ADEM, November 1993)

For toll-free (800) numbers, dial 1, then the 800 number. This list is not in any way an endorsement of these companies.

Auburn Area Guardian Systems, Inc. 305 Ashville Road Environmental Resource Analysts P.O. Box 190 601 County Road 57 Leeds, AL 35094 Notasulga, AL 36866 (205-879-1850) (334-257-4706) Available tests: 1-5* Available tests: 2,3,4* Newton Engineering Benchmark Engineering P.O. Box 20589 Auburn Industrial Park Birmingham, AL 35216 1550 Pumphrey Avenue (205-780-1253) Auburn, AL 36830 Available tests: 1,2,5* (334-821-9250) Available tests: 1-5* Perc Engineering Co., Inc. P.O. Box 1712 Paul B. Krebs & Assoc., Inc. Jasper, AL 35502 1925 E University Drive (205-384-5553) Auburn, AL 36830 Available tests: 1,2,5* (334-821-8500) Available tests: 1,2,5* Stillbrook Environmental Testing Laboratory, Inc. 305 Crawford Street Birmingham Area Fairﬁeld, AL 35064 (205-788-1750) Compliance Modeling Corp. Available tests: 1,2,5* P.O.Box 7949 Midﬁeld, AL 35228 TCE Inc. (205-744-5287) 1075 113th Street South Available tests: 1* Birmingham, AL 35294 (205-934-7475) Deep South Laboratory Available tests: 1,2,5* 2809 Central Birmingham, AL 35209 Decatur Area (205-870-3830) Available tests: 1,2,5* Mid South Testing Inc. 2220 Beltline Road SW ECI (EnviroEngineering & Consulting, Inc.) Decatur, AL 35601 1815 11th Avenue S Suite 205 (205-350-0846) Birmingham, AL 35205 Available tests: 1-5* (205-933-1815) Available tests: call Southeastern Aquatic Labs P.O. Box 1184 Environmental Service Labs. Decatur, AL 35602 P.O. Box 170205 ARCHIVE(205-350-5603) Birmingham, AL 35217 Available tests: 3,4* (205-841-7771) Available tests: 1,2,5*

I-1 Huntsville Area TTL, Inc. 4250 Lomac Street Bio-Chem Analysts Inc. Montgomery, AL 36106 4949 N Memorial Pkwy NE (334-244-0766) Huntsville, AL 35810 Available tests: 1-5* (205-859-2161) Available tests: 1,2,5* Tuscaloosa Area Southeastern Analytical Services TTL, Inc. 1004 Oster Drive Suite 1 3516 Greensboro Avenue Huntsville, AL 35816 P.O. Drawer 1128 (205-536-8110) Tuscaloosa, AL 35403 Available tests: 1-5* (205-345-0816) Technical Micronics Control Inc. Available tests: 1-5* 210 Wynn Drive NW Huntsville, AL 35807 Other Alabama Labs (205-837-4430) PBR Electronics, Inc. Available tests: 1,2,5* P.O. Box 1039 Athens, AL 35611 Mobile Area (205-232-7753 or 539-1745) Chatham Testing & Inspection Available tests: 2* P.O. Box 9092 Mobile, AL 36609 Out-of-State Labs (334-666-4900) Aro, Inc. Available tests: 1-5* Laboratory Division Dowling Environmental Services, Inc. P.O. Box 884 P.O. Box 66003 Tullahoma, TN 37338 Mobile, AL 36660 (615-455-6400) (334-476-2010) Available tests: 1-5* Available tests: 1-5* ATEC Associates, Inc. TAI 1300 Williams Drive Suite A 1717 Old Shell Road Marietta, GA 30066-6299 Mobile, AL 36604 (404-472-9456) (334-479-0394) Available tests: 1,2,5* Available tests: 1-5* Biological Monitoring, Inc. TET, Inc. P.O. Box 184 P. O. Drawer 9637 Blacksburg, VA 24060 Mobile, AL 36691 (703-953-2821) (334-666-2443) Available tests: 1-5* Available tests: 1,2,5* Bionomics Laboratory, Inc. Atlanta Division Montgomery Area 2264 NW Parkway Suite F CH2M Hill Marietta, GA 30067 2567 Fairlane Drive (404-984-8070) P.O. Box 230548 Available tests: 1,2,5* Montgomery, AL 36123-0548ARCHIVE Bionomics Laboratory, Inc. (334-271-1444) 4310 East Anderson Road Available tests: 1-5* Orlando, FL 32812 Christian, Carmichael & Associates Inc. (407-851-2560) P.O. Box 3218 Available tests: 1,2,5* Montgomery, AL 36109 (334-260-9174) Available tests: 5*

I-2 Chemlabs, Inc. National Environmental Testing, Inc. P. O. Box 1711 NET Gulf Coast Inc. Brentwood, TN 37027 Gulfport Division (615-373-9992) 15199 Community Road Available tests: 1,2,5* Gulfport, MS 35903 (601-863-3036) Comu-Chem Available tests: 1,2,5* #5 Triangle Drive Research Triangle Park Savannah CAB & Environmental Services, Inc. Durham, NC 27709 P.O. Box 13548 (800-334-8525) Savannah, GA 31416-0548 Available tests: 1,2* (912-354-7858) Available tests: 1-5* Eckenfelder Inc. 227 French Landing Drive Specialized Assays, Inc. Nashville, TN 37228 300 12th Avenue S (615-255-2288) Nashville, TN 37203 Available tests: 1-5* (615-726-0177) Available tests: 1,2,5* Eco-logic Laboratories Corp. 11 Havandale Boulevard Technical Laboratories Inc. Auburndale, FL 33823 515 Cherokee Boulevard (813-965-9000) Chattanooga, TN 37405 Available tests: 3,4* (615-265-4533) Available tests: 1,2,5* Georgia Chemical & Testing Inc. P.O. Box 789 Buchanan, GA 30113 (404-646-3855) Available tests: 1,2,5*

*Available tests include the following: 1. Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectroscopy, GC-MS Capability 2. Standard Analysis 3. Acute Bio Assay (24 hour) 4. Chronic Bio Assay (96 hour) 5. Groundwater Sampling ARCHIVE

I-3 Appendix J: Tank Tightness Testing Companies (Compiled by ADEM, October 1993) For toll-free (800) numbers, dial 1, then the 800 number. This list is not in any way an endorsement of these companies and shall in no way establish liability or responsibility in regards to their services.

Anniston Area Dothan Area L. A. Bell Company, Inc. Hugh Peacock Construction Company 127 Alabama Highway 204 Rt. 2, Box 88A-1 Wellington, AL 36279 Midland City, AL 36350 Attn: Louis Bell Attn: Hugh Peacock (205-892-0376) (334-983-5476 or 790-3653) Test Equipment: Acutest Leak Computer Tank Test Test Equipment: Horner Ezy Chek II System Ken’s Sales and Service Shaddix & Company, Inc. Rt. 3, Box 321 AC 1110 Maxanna Drive Ashford, AL 36312 Anniston, AL 36206 Attn: Belinda Steadham Attn: Jim Shaddix (334-899-5745) (205-820-0853) Test Equipment: Horner Ezy Chek II Test Equipment: Horner Ezy Chek II Mobile Area Birmingham Area Mike Hoffman’s Equipment Service, Inc. Charter South, Inc. 4109 Halls Mill Road 215 Distribution Drive Mobile, AL 36693 Birmingham, AL 35209 Attn: Wayne Epperson Attn: Jeff S. McLeod (334-666-8994) (205-941-1173) Test Equipment: Acutest Leak Computer Tank Test Test Equipment: Tanknology Vacutest System System Metro Service & Equipment Co., Inc. Southern Tank Testing and Management Services, Inc. P. O. Box 59 (1305 Decatur Hwy) Route 2, Box 137-B Fultondale, AL 35068 Wilmer, AL 36587 Attn: J. B., Arthur, or Sue West Attn: Woodie W. Thornton (205-841-8325) (334-649-1607 or 947-7206) Test Equipment: Horner Ezy Chek II Test Equipment: USTest

Professional Service Industries, Inc. Montgomery Area 2217 Tenth Court S Birmingham, AL 35205 Advanced Testing and Construction Attn: Michael N. Howard 2671 Dutch Island Circle (205-933-0400) Autaugaville, AL 36003 Test Equipment: Soiltest Tegrity Tester Attn: Charles D. Brown (334-365-8525) Turley Equipment Company, Inc. Test Equipment: Heath Petro Tite II 2401 Finley BoulevardARCHIVE Birmingham, AL 35234 Hill Testing Company Attn: James E. “Ed” Leathers P.O. Box 3361 (205-322-7373) Montgomery, AL 36109 Test Equipment: Heath Petro Tite II System Attn: James W. Mills (334-244-6997) Test Equipment: Acutest Leak Computer Tank Test System

J-1 Pump Repairs Other Alabama Locations P. O. Box 250182 Cahaba Valley Wells, Inc. dba, Cahaba Valley Montgomery, AL 36125-0182 P.O. Box 2429 Attn: Norman Mitchell 440 Broad Street (334-281-1258) Selma, AL 36702-2429 Test Equipment: Soiltest, Ainlay Tank ‘Tegrity Tester Attn: Pettus Suttle Rayco, Inc. (334-872-7832) 385 Gunn Road Test Equipment: Acutest Leak Computer Tank Test Montgomery, AL 36117 System Attn: Ray Thibeault Carter, Darnell and Grubbs Engineers, Inc. (334-272-5524) P. O. Box 278 Test Equipment: Ainlay ‘Tegrity Test, Acurite 1840 U. S. Hwy 29 N Pipeline Test Andalusia, AL 36420 Tuscaloosa Area Attn: Robert M. Shepard (334-222-9431) Precision TankTesters, Inc. Test Equipment: Heath Petro Tite II with Automatic 5690 Highway 43 N Standpipe Leveler and DTS-2000 Northport, AL 35476 Attn: Sybil Crowder Collier Oil Company, Inc. (205-333-1955) P. O. Box 429 Test Equipment: Horner Ezy Chek II Ozark, AL 36361 Attn: John Collier, Steve Czarnecki (334-774-6718) Test Equipment: Horner Ezy Chek II Petro-Spec, Computer Tank Testing P. O. Box 666 Atmore, AL 36504-0666 Attn: Steve White (334-368-9020, 205-454-3317 (cellular), or 800-476-9020) Test Equipment: Petro Tite II Computerized Tester Precision Tank and Line Testing Route 2, Box 127 Lineville, AL 36266 Attn: Jimmy S. Jordan (205-396-5530) Test Equipment: Acutest Leak Computer Tank Test System Robert Hughes Company P. O. Box 215 Kellyton, AL 35089 Attn: Robert L. Hughes (205-329-2670) ARCHIVETest Equipment: Horner Ezy Chek II

J-2 Out-Of-State Locations AAA Tank Testers, Inc. 1000 Circle 75 Parkway Suite 150 Atlanta, GA 30339 Attn: Edd Price (404-952-2219) Test Equipment: Heath Petro Tite II, Horner Ezy Chek II Advanced Tank Certification, Inc. 211 Center Park Drive Suite 3020 Knoxville, TN 37922 Attn: Michael Wood (615-675-6777 or 800-365-8378) Test Equipment: Advanced Tank Certification Microtector Leak Test System, Model II B Hughes, Inc. P. O. Box 2305 Laurel, MS 39440 Attn: William W. Upton (601-649-8811) Test Equipment: Acutest Leak Computer Tank Test System Leak Detection Systems, Inc. 152 King Street Cohasset, MA 02025 Attn: Jeff Riotte (617-383-2305) Test Equipment: Tank Auditor, RTD V.2.16 Tankfax Testing Systems P. O. Box 358 Griffin, GA 30224 Attn: Bruce Comer (404-228-3887) Test Equipment: Acutest Leak Computer Tank Test System The Fuel Oil Polishing Company P.O. Box 6261 Gulfport, MS 39506 Attn: S.K. Karnes (601-863-7817 or 800-869-0857) Test Equipment: A.E.S.ARCHIVE System II

J-3 Appendix K: Cathodic Protection (Tank And Pipe Corrosion Protection) Consultants (Compiled By ADEM, February 1992) For toll-free (800) numbers, dial 1, then the 800 number. This list is not in any way an endorsement of these companies and shall in no way establish liability or responsibility in regards to their services. Other companies in and near Alabama provide this service.

Anniston Area Edward G. Peattie, Jr. 1601 North Pebble Beach Boulevard Mr. Louis Bell Sun City Center L. A. Bell Company, Inc. Ruskin, FL 33573-5021 P.O. Box 127 (813-634-8207) Wellington, AL 36279 (205-892-0376) George M. Jeffares Plantation Pipeline Co. Birmingham Area P. O. Box 18616 Atlanta, GA 30326 Fred J. Osborne, P.E. (404-261-2137) Osborne Engineering, Inc. 1801 First Avenue S Suite 333 Harco Corporation Birmingham, AL 35233 James T. Larry, S. E. Regional Manager of (205-250-8034) Fred Thomas Motika 2567 Park Central Boulevard Florence Area Decatur, GA 30035 (404-981-3150) Steve Maddox-Stanley M. Cothran S. M. Cothran & Assoc., Inc. Harvey Glenn Dudman 919 E. Avalon Avenue Suite B 1132 Winged Foot Circle W Muscle Shoals, AL 35661 Winter Springs, FL 32708 (205-386-7622) (305-365-3309) John L. Piazza, II Out-Of-State Locations 3240 Paces Mill Road Alfred F. Dimon Atlanta, GA 30076 2413 Unity Tree Drive (404-952-6336) Edgewater, FL 32032 Johnny O. Oates (904-428-8626) 2107 Tudor Castle Circle Charles Richard Northrup Decatur, GA 30035 168 Lakeshore Drive W (404-981-4416) Palm Harbor, FL 33563 Joseph B. Prime, Jr. (813-937-7215) 8380 SW 153 Street Corrpro Companies Miami, FL 33157 Mike Davis (305-235-8991) P.O. Drawer 360516 ARCHIVE Joseph Frank Fogel Decatur, GA 30036-0516 Southern Cathodic Protection (404-593-9593) P. O. Box 767415 Earl C. McIntire Roswell, GA 30076-7415 4851 Cold Spring Drive (404-993-1273) Atlanta, GA 30360 (404-451-2446)

K-1 Norton Corrosion Limited, Inc. Kim Karmil, Sales Coordinator 22327-89th Avenue SE Woodinville, WA 98072 (206-483-1616 or 800-426-3111) Robert P. Brown R. P. Brown and Associates P. O. Box 545 Keystone Heights, FL 32656 (904-473-4344) Southern Cathodic Protection 100 Rialto Place Suite 700 Melbourne, FL 32901 (407-724-8001) SEI Environmental Services Arthur L. Sisson Rt. 1, Box 474 Caryville, FL 32427 (800-327-1261 or 904-535-2416) Tank Testers, Inc. W. David Taylor, President P. O. Box 850240 Yukon, OK 73085-0240 (405-350-6840) Ted William Gibson Classic City Mech., Inc. P. O. Box 180 Winterville, GA 30683 (706-742-8041 or 706-742-8258) Thomas L. Lewicki 4508 Crestbrook Drive Panama City, FL 32404 (904-769-0926) U.S. Tank Protectors, Inc. Lou Koszewski, President 4250 Saratoga Suite L-310 Downers Grove, IL 60515 (312-719-9754) ARCHIVE

K-2 Appendix L: Approved Response Action Contractors For Alabama Tank Trust Fund (Compiled By ADEM, October 1993) For toll-free (800) numbers, dial 1, then the 800 number. The following ﬁrms have been approved as response action contractors under the provisions of the Alabama Underground Storage Tank Trust Fund Act, Sections 22-35-1 through 22-35-13, Code of Alabama 1975. “The appearance of a contractor on this list is not in any way an endorsement of these companies nor shall it in any way establish liability or responsibility on the part of ADEM in regards to services provided by the contractor or circumstances which may occur as a result of such services.” Rule 335-6-16-.15(4), ADEM Administrative Code.

Birmingham Area Mary E. Moran, C.P.G., P.G. Vice President Steven K. Osborn Gallet & Associates, Inc. American Environmental Engineering 320 Beacon Parkway West P.O. Box 10 Birmingham, AL 35209 Leeds, AL 35094 (205-742-1289) (800-238-8744) James C. Pegues, Jr., P.E. C. Randal French Professional Services Manager ATEC Environmental Consultants Ground Engineering and Testing Service, Inc. 143 Business Center Drive 4764 First Avenue N Birmingham, AL 35244 Birmingham, AL 35222 (205-733-8775) (205-591-4340) Walt Henley Bill Simmons Benchmark Engineering Groundwater Technology Riverchase Ofﬁce Plaza 2433 First Avenue S Building 3, Suite 208 Irondale, AL 35210 Birmingham, AL 35244 (205-956-6633) (205-988-8303) Bill Garvin Sam Bhate, General Manager Hazclean Environmental Consultants, Inc. Bhate Environmental, Inc. #10 Old Montgomery Highway Suite 200 5217 5th Avenue South Birmingham, AL 35209 Birmingham, AL 35312-3515 (205-870-1982) (205-591-7062) Daryl Kirby Edward Gasper Law Engineering Coastal Remediation Company P.O. Box 10244 2101 Sixth Avenue N 11th Floor 800 Concourse Parkway Birmingham, AL 35203 Birmingham, AL 35244 (205-581-1824) (205-733-7600) Thomas Douglas, President Bob Etheridge Douglas Engineering Company, Inc. Met-Pro Environmental, Inc. 1106 Ford Avenue Chase Commerce Park P.O. Box 170519 ARCHIVE3825 Lorna Road Suite 220 Birmingham, AL 35217 Birmingham, AL 35244 (205-849-8371) (205-985-5156) Frank Nowicki J. M. Hillman Environmental Management & Engineering PRe, Inc. 437 Industrial Lane P.O. Box 170115 Birmingham, AL 35219 Birmingham, AL 35217 (205-939-0700) (205-942-6293)

L-1 James Savidge Mobile Area PSI Professional Services Ind. Frank McFadden 3721 35th Court N Alabama Environmental Services, Inc. Birmingham, AL 35234 5616 Three Notch Road (205-849-5447) Mobile, AL 36619 (334-666-8185) Michael N. Howard PSI Les Porterﬁeld Professional Services Ind. BCM Converse, Inc. 2217 10th Court S 108 St. Anthony Street Birmingham, AL 35205 P.O. Box 1784 (205-933-0400) Mobile, AL 36633 (334-433-3981) J. Scott Qualls Qualls Environmental Services—Advanced Mike Piznar Wastewater Technologies, Inc. ERM-Southeast, Inc. 1524 Alford Avenue 1110 Montlimar Drive Suite 560 Birmingham, AL 35226 Mobile, AL 36609 (205-823-1506) (334-380-0046) Al Bondurant John Child RUST Environmental and Infrastructure H20 Environmental, Inc. (Formerly Zimmerman Environmental 2866 Dauphin Street Suite N Consultants, Inc.) Mobile, AL 36606 265 Riverchase Pkwy E Suite 107 (334-471-1377) Birmingham, AL 35244 Ben Dismukes (205-988-5330) P.E. LaMoreaus & Associates, Inc. Two Ofﬁce Park Suite 104 Huntsville Area Mobile, AL 36609 Craig Toon (334-342-8714) ATEC Environmental Consultants Michael Pauley 1214 Buford Street NW Riedel-Peterson Environmental Services Huntsville, AL 35801-5701 3536 Desirrah Drive (205-539-6754) Mobile, AL 36618-1196 William McIntosh (334-479-6500) Ebasco Services, Inc. James E. Laier 4960 Corporate Drive, Suite 140 Southern Earth Sciences, Inc. Huntsville, AL 35805 762 Downtowner Loop W Suite 100 (205-830-4100) P.O. Box 160745 Richard G. Grace, P.E., or Mobile, AL 36609 Robert L. Higgs (800-476-5770) (334-344-7771) Ogden Environmental and Energy Services Co. Emery E. Baya, P.E. (Formerly The EDGE Group) Vice President, Environmental Services, or 2904 Westcorp Boulevard Suite 204 E. Fletcher Thompson Huntsville, AL 35805 Thompson Engineering Testing, Inc. (205-539-3016) 3707 Cottage Hill Road ARCHIVEP.O. Drawer 9637 Kirk Kreamer Ground Engineering & Testing Mobile, AL 36691 4814 Commercial Drive NW (334-666-2443) Huntsville, AL 35816 R. Bradford Jackson (205-837-8882) Volkert Environmental Group, Inc. 3809 Moffett Road Mobile, Al 36618 (334-342-1070)

L-2 Rodney Hames Tuscaloosa Area Woodward-Clyde Consultants 1015 Montlimar Drive Suite A-100 James W. LaMoreaux Mobile, AL 36609 P. E. LaMoreaux and Assiociates, Inc. (334-342-7222) P.O. Box 2310 Tuscaloosa, AL 35403 Montgomery Area (205-752-5543) Ken McGraw, P.E. Robert T. Wood BCM Converse, Inc. Tom Joiner & Associates, Inc. The Courtyard Suite 24 P.O. Box 030710 Montgomery, AL 36117 Tuscaloosa, AL 35403-0710 (334-271-3344) (205-345-0816) Steve Gelman, P.E. Other Alabama Locations Manager, Industrial Process Division Eric Carson CH2M Hill P.O. Box 230548 Benchmark Engineering Montgomery, AL 36123-0548 1550 Pumphrey Avenue (334-271-1444) Auburn, AL 36830 (334-821-9250) Jerry Gilbert Construction Testing & Engineering, Inc. Paul E. Darnell, P.E., or 2821 Chesnut Street Bob Carter Montgomery, AL 36107 Carter, Darnell & Grubbs Engineers, Inc. (334-834-4719) P.O. Box 278 Andulusia, AL 36420 Ollen Gray (334-222-9431) Environmental Materials Consultants 2027 Chesnut Street Mark Peterson Montgomery, AL 36106 ENSR Consulting and Engineering (334-265-4000) 102 S Court Street Florence, AL 35630 George T. Goodwyn (205-740-8240) Goodwyn, Mills & Cawood, Inc.-TTL, Inc. Post Ofﬁce Box 3605 Grady R. Harman Montgomery, AL 36109-0605 The Harman Service Group, Inc. (334-271-3200) 301 9th Avenue SW LaFayette, AL 36862 Janet L. Lanier (334-864-9135) International Technology Corporation 380 Mendel Parkway V. A. Lane, President Montgomery, AL 36117 Mid South Testing, Inc. (334-244-4465) 2220 Beltline Road SW Decatur, AL 35601 Kenneth D. Christian (205-350-0846) The CWA Group, Inc. P.O. Box 8188 James R. Brannon Montgomery, AL 36110 Polyengineering, Inc.-Spectrum Environmental (334-264-4544) Post Ofﬁce Box 837 Dothan, AL 36302 Ashley Cousins ARCHIVE(334-793-4700) TTL, Inc. 4250 Lomac Street Tim Frinak or Montgomery, AL 36106-2886 James Davis (334-244-0766) Roy R. Weston, Inc. 1635 Pumphrey Avenue Auburn, AL 36830-4303 (334-826-6100)

L-3 Williams Environmental Services, Inc. Robert E. Helton 1530 Alabama Street Delta Environmental Consultants, Inc. Auburn, AL 36830 20 Technology Parkway Suite 160 (334-821-9250) Norcross, GA 30092-2929 (404-409-0454) Out of State Kevin White Ronald R. Potts Dupont Environmental ABB Environmental Services, Inc. 500 West Dutton’s Mill Road Suite 102 2571 Executive Center Circle E Suite 100 Aston, PA 19014 Tallahassee, FL 32301 (215-497-7000) (904-656-1293) Ron King, Regional Director James D. Kuemmel Joan G. Hutton, Geologist Applied Earth Sciences EA Engineering, Science, and Technology, Inc. 115 James Drive W #120 1900 Lake Park Drive Suite 350 St. Rose, LA 70087 Smyrna, GA 30080 (800-229-9568) (404-438-9894) Lewis R. Martin Brian Irsch Associated Environmental, Inc. ETC 88 Mansell Court Environmental Consulting & Technology, Inc. Roswell, GA 30076 P.O. Box 20866 (404-552-8288) Tampa, FL 33622-0866 (813-289-9338) Kurt R. Bastel, P.E. Camp, Dresser & McKee, Inc. Richard J. Rudy, P.G. 2100 Riveredge Parkway Suite 400 Regional Ofﬁce Manager Atlanta, GA 30328 Ecology and Environment, Inc. (404-952-8643) 1203 Governor’s Square Boulevard Tallahassee, FL 32301 Daniel Arner (904-877-1978) Cherokee Groundwater Consultants 4182 S University Drive Robert H. Young, P.G. Davie, FL 33328 EMCON Southeast (904-656-3660) 8021 Phillips Highway Suite 12 Jacksonville, FL 32256 Cyrus Markle (904-636-9360) Coastal Remediation Company P.O. Box 1871 Richard J. Alario Roanoke, VA 24008 ENCOR (800-776-5733) 12021 Lakeland Park Boulevard Baton Rouge, LA 70809 Pini H. Haroz (504-756-2555) Conversion Technology, Inc. 3300 Holcomb Bridge Suite 250 Thomas N. Sargent, P.E. Norcross, GA 30092 Engineering-Science, Inc. (404-263-6330) 57 Executive Park South NE Suite 590 Atlanta, GA 30329 William G. Smith, P.G. (404-325-0770) Dames and Moore, Inc. Six Piedmont Center ARCHIVESuite 500 Engineering-Science, Inc. 3525 Piedmont Road 9906 Gulf Freeway Suite 102 Atlanta, GA 30305 Houston, TX 77034 (404-262-2915) (713-943-5432)

L-4 J. Richard Rhudy Jeff Novak Environmental Corporation of America First Environment 1050 Crown Pointe Parkway Suite 295 1000 Cobb Place Boulevard Suite 200 Atlanta, GA 30338 Kennesaw, GA 30144 (404-551-0000) (404-424-3344) Todd L. Sacks Steve Caretsky Environmental Petroleum and Remediation First Environment Services, Inc. 90 Riverdale Road 6555 NW 9th Avenue Suite 201 Riverdale, NJ 07457 Ft. Lauderdale, FL 33309 (201-616-9700) (303-772-6091) Jay McAlister David Parenton First Environment Environmental Protection Systems 2650 W Courtney-Campbell Causeway 5901-A Peachtree-Dunwoody Suite 550 Tampa, FL 33607 Atlanta, GA 30328 (813-287-8821) (404-391-0123) Paul Mulrenin ERM-Southeast, Inc. First Environment 300 Chastain Center Boulevard Suite 375 119 Market Ridge Drive Suite D Kennesaw, GA 30144 Jackson, MS 39213 (404-590-8383) (601-957-8967) John M. Hines, P.G. Robert D. Tolbert ERM-Southeast, Inc. Florida Groundwater Services 215 Centerview Drive Suite 110 308 South Boulevard P.O. Box 881 Tampa, FL 33606 Brentwood, TN 37027 (813-254-8202) (615-373-3350) Ted E. Dove, CHMM Michael J. Geden, P.G., Dept. Manager G & E Engineering, Inc. Environmental Science and Engineering, Inc. (ESE) P.O. Box 45212 P.O. Box 1703 Dept. 186 Gainesville, FL 32602-1703 Baton Rouge, LA 70895 (904-332-3318) (504-292-9007) William Smith John M. Wilson, CPG, or Environmental Science and Engineering, Inc. (ESE) Berny D. Ilgner 2044 S Sherwood Forest Boulevard Suite 138 Geraghty & Miller, Inc. Baton Rouge, LA 70816 97 Midway Lane (504-291-0360) Oak Ridge, TN 37830 (615-481-7128) Joseph T. Surowiec Environmental Science and Engineering, Inc. (ESE) Doyle Traxler 1351 Dividend Drive Suite G Groundwater Technology, Inc. Marietta, GA 30067 7140 N 9th Avenue (404-955-2180) Pensacola, FL 32504 (904-478-7128) Bradford J. Radloff Environpact, Inc. Roger Nordlinger 1627 East 8th Street ARCHIVEGroundwater Technology, Inc. Jacksonville, FL 32206-5407 1281 Kennestone Circle NW Suite 100 (904-354-6755) Marietta, GA 30066 (404-499-9000) Allan J Lehocky Environpact, Inc. One Marcus Drive Suite 401 Greenville, SC 29615 (803-676-9191)

L-5 Steven B. McCoy Kati Blalock UST Program Manager IWMS Halliburton NUS Corporation International Waste Management Systems 800 Oak Ridge Turnpike 200 Tech Center Drive Suite 202 Jackson Plaza C-200 Knoxville, TN 37912 Oak Ridge, TN 37830 (615-689-1395) (615-483-9900) William J. Jones George Smith Jones Environmental, Inc./Southern Halliburton NUS Corporation Earth Sciences, Inc. 1305 Paul Russell Road 4100 Meadow Lane Tallassee, FL 32301 Bossier City, LA 71111 (904-656-5458) (318-747-7265) Richard Nugent Kaiser Engineers, Inc. Halliburton NUS Corporation 9300 Lee Highway 2075 W Park Boulevard Suite E Fairfax, VA 22031 Stone Mountain, GA 30087 Tony Gilley, P.E. (404-413-0965) Kemron Environmental Services Adrian Kent 2987 Clairmont Road Suite 150 Handex of Florida Atlanta, GA 30329 P.O. Box 1579 (404-636-0928) Mt. Dora, AL 32757 James R. Wallace, Chief Engineer (904-735-1800) Senior Vice President Michael Jones Law Environmental, Inc. Handex of the Carolinas 112 Townpark Drive 3600-G Woodpark Boulevard Kennesaw, GA 30144-5599 Charlotte, NC 28206 (404-421-3400) (704-598-7900) Greg Mooney Fred A Sequitti, Vice President Metcalf and Eddy HSW Environmental Consultants, Inc. 1201 Peachtree Street NE 5020 Gunn Highway Suite 250 400 Colony Square Suite 1101 Tampa, FL 33624 Atlanta, GA 30361 (813-968-7722) (404-881-8010) Gene Briggs Martin Will Carlton Hughes Environmental Engineering OHM Remediation Services P.O. Box 2305 5335 Triangle Parkway Suite 450 Laurel, MS 39442 Norcross, GA 30092 (601-649-5555) Kenneth M. Davis International Technology Corporation Pensacola Environmental Services 1150 Bear Creek Road 7200 Sharp Reef Suite 8 Kingston, TN 37763 Pensacola, FL 32507 (615-482-9707) (904-492-9051) John Rachal David B. Twedell International Technology Corp. PSI 1150 LeBlanc Road ARCHIVEProfessional Services Industries Port Allen, LA 70767 1675 Lee Road (800-321-5479) Winter Park, FL 32789 (407-645-1328) Skip Wrightson International Technology Corp. 312 Director’s Drive Knoxville, TN 37923 (615-690-3211)

L-6 John H. Koon, Ph.D., P.E., Manager, or Williams Environmental Services, Inc. Adrian Kent (404-351-5608) 2076 W Park Place Post, Buckley, Schuh & Jernigan Stone Mountain, GA 30087 2416 Hillsboro Road (404-498-2020) Nashville, TN 37212 James N. Dodson (615-383-7275) Woodward-Clyde Consultants C. Michael Gross 3676 Hartﬁeld Road Groundwater Services Manager Tallahassee, FL 32303 Riedel-Peterson Environmental Services (904-574-3197) 14101 Old Gentilly Road Martin L. Schmidt, Ph.D. New Orleans, LA 70129 Woodward-Clyde Consultants (504-254-3600) 32111 Aurora Road J. Kelly Williamson Solon, OH 44139 AQUATERRA (216-349-2708) 3903 Volunteer Drive Suite 4 Andrew Eversull Chattanooga, TN 37416 Woodward-Clyde Consultants (615-499-6111) 460 Briarwood Drive Suite 520 Will Lucas Jackson, MS 39203 SWL Environmental Services (601-957-7666) 8601 Dunwoody Place Suite 600 Phillip Zimmerman Atlanta, GA 30350 Zimmerman Environmental Consultants, Inc. (404-552-0058) P.O. Box 14364 Anton Plaines Baton Rouge, LA 70898-4364 Terra Vac (504-923-3266) 4897-H W Waters Avenue Tampa, FL 33634 (813-885-5374) Keithley T. Wilkins ViroGroup 717 S Palafox Street Pensacola, FL 32501 (904-434-1011)

ARCHIVE

L-7 Appendix M: Water Quality Videos Available From The ACES Media Library Nature’s Way The Biology Of Water (Lesson 3): 11 minutes, color, 1989. Water Environment Federation The River of Life Narrated by a dinosaur, Nature’s Way discusses water 17 minutes, color, 1991. Chariot Productions pollution and puriﬁcation and how nature and wastewater Lesson 3 describes the hydrologic cycle in which fresh treatment plants use natural processes to purify contaminat- water is derived from saltwater and stresses the importance of ed water. Student booklet and teacher’s guide available. fresh water to life. It examines different sources of pollutants Grades 6-12. and their effects on the water supply, for example, industrial emissions and acid rain. Teacher’s guide available. Grades 7- H2O—Saving Water, The Conservation Video 12. 8 minutes, color, 1989. Water Environment Federation Narrated by a dinosaur, H2O—Saving Water empha- The Biology Of Water (Lesson 4): sizes the importance of water conservation and how conser- Mud And Salt vation relates to water cycling, water pollution, and pollution 17 minutes, color, 1991. Chariot Productions prevention. Student booklet and teacher’s guide available. Lesson 4 examines the estuary: an ecosystem consisting Grades 5-9. of a mixture of fresh and saltwater. Illustrates real examples of different types of estuaries and shows their rich bio- H2O—The Wastewater Treatment Video logical diversity. Also stresses their susceptibility to pollutants, 12 minutes, color, 1989. Water Environment Federation for example, Chesapeake Bay. Teacher’s guide available. Narrated by a dinosaur, H2O—Wastewater Treatment Grades 7-12. describes the water cycle, water movement, water pollution and how the wastewater treatment process works. Student Groundwater And Agricultural Chemicals: booklet and teacher’s guide available. Grades 5-9. Understanding The Issues 17:40 minutes, color, 1988. American Soybean Associ- H2O—The Surface Water Video ation and National Corn Growers Association 9 minutes, color, 1989. Water Environment Federation Narrated by Hugh Downs, this video features farmers, re- Narrated by a dinosaur, H2O—Surface Water describes searchers, and environmental experts discussing groundwater the water cycle and how it interacts with surface waters, dif- issues: how contaminants enter groundwater supplies; how ferent types of point and nonpoint source pollution, and you can take simple, inexpensive steps to assure a safe, un- what can be done to prevent and clean up polluted water. Stu- contaminated water supply for the future. dent booklet and teacher’s guide available. Grades 5-9. Acid Rain: The Invisible Threat H2O—The Groundwater Video 20 minutes, color, 1992. Scott Resources 9 minutes, color, 1989. Water Environment Federation Acid Rain discusses the phenomenon of acid rain by Narrated by a dinosaur, H2O—Groundwater defines emphasizing 3 basic areas: (1) its causes—fossil fuels and groundwater and aquifers, discusses some major sources of gasoline engine emissions; (2) its effects on the environ- groundwater pollution, and stresses the importance of pro- ment—dying forests and ﬁsh due to the toxicity of water; and tecting groundwater and methods to eliminate groundwater (3) clearing the air—cleaner burning of coal and control of contamination. Student booklet and teacher’s guide avail- auto emissions. Teacher’s guide available. Grades 7-12. able. Grades 5-9. When The River Runs Dry The Biology Of Water (Lesson 1): 20 minutes, color, 1990. Freshwater Foundation Water—A Miraculous Substance This video examines the effects of drought on the Mis- 20 minutes, color, 1991. Chariot Productions sissippi River, particularly at its source in the state of Min- Lesson 1 describes the chemical properties of water and nesota. The video is presented in a simulated TV news-doc- its importance to all life processes. It discusses its effects on umentary format and stresses the importance of the cells and aquatic life, and the climatic effect of water. Mississippi River as a hydrologic system in having wide-rang- Teacher’s guide available. Grades 7-12. ing effects in such areas as transportation, power, agriculture, ARCHIVEetc. Teacher’s guide available. Grades 7-12. The Biology Of Water (Lesson 2): The Ocean Realm What Do You Know About H2O? 20 minutes, color, 1991. Chariot Productions 22 minutes, color, 1989. American Water Works Associ- Lesson 2 examines saltwater ecology. It describes the ation ecosystem contained in the ocean and the cycle of food pro- Narrated by Frank Field, this video discusses the amount duction and consumption. It illustrates examples of different of the world’s water available for use as fresh water. It is pre- sea organisms and their role in the food chain. Teacher’s sented in a question and answer format and quizzes the view- guide available. Grades 7-12. er about our daily use of water and stresses the hazards of pollution and the necessity for conservation. All ages.

M-1 Waterhog Haven NSF International 10 minutes, color, 1991. American Water Works Associ- 15 minutes, color. NSF International ation The role of the National Sanitation Foundation in eval- This is a visual representation of the ways in which we uating products for public health, safety, and environmental waste water. Presented with amusing characters in a mime for- standards is explained. Adult consumers. mat. Audience: young children. Nitrogen Efficiency: Benefiting The Crop And Water: Gift Of Life The Environment 50 minutes, color, 1990. The Nature Company 9:07 minutes, color. Dow Elanco and Company Narrated by Gregory Peck, this video portrays the qual- This video explains the use of nitrogen fertilizer and ities of water using beautiful scenes from nature and spec- outlines the best management practices to increase nutrient tacular cinematography. Booklet with colorful photographs utilization to benefit higher yields and the environment. Di- available. All ages. rected toward corn production, it promotes “N-Serve,” a nitrification inhibitor, to reduce nitrate leaching into the ground- Down The Drain water. 30 minutes, color, 1991. Children’s Television Work- shop Alabama’s Wellhead Protection Program A 3-2-1 Contact presentation about water as a valuable 23 minutes, color, 1991. Alabama Department of Envi- resource and the need to conserve it. Highlights the special at- ronmental Management and The Geological Survey of tributes of water and presents the information in a manner un- Alabama derstandable to younger children. This video presents the program developed to protect wellheads in Alabama in an attempt to preserve high quality Big Fears, Little Risks groundwater. The step-by-step actions and procedures that 30 minutes, color, 1989. American Council on Science municipalities may follow in developing a local wellhead and Health protection program are covered. Local officials Narrated by Walter Cronkite, this video examines the effects of synthetic chemicals on the environment and our The Wealth In Wetlands health. By interviewing leading scientists, this video pre- 23 minutes, color, 1991. National Association of Con- sents the view that there are actually few risks associated with servation Districts trace amounts of these chemicals and that risks of cancer and This video emphasizes the importance of wetlands and other diseases are attributable to many other lifestyle factors. the need for their preservation. It includes a series of inter- Grades 8 to adults. views with five different farmers and their recognition of the value of wetlands. It also illustrates methods to reclaim Private Wells: Protecting Your Water Quality losses of previous wetland areas. 13 minutes, color, 1990. Environmental Management Services Clean Water, Clear Choices A Central Minnesota Water Quality Project. This video 15 minutes, color, 1991. National Association of Con- shows the importance of wells and groundwater for water conservation Districts sumption in which they become contaminated. It demon- This video looks at Nonpoint Source Pollution, which ac- strates different types of wells, proper placement and con- counts for half of all water pollution. It explains how rainwater struction, and testing for water quality. Grades 8 to adults. runoff carries pollutants to water sources and is a problem in both rural and urban areas. Clean Water, Clear Choices out- Your Drinking Water: Is It Safe? lines programs, under the auspices of the EPA, underway to 40 minutes, color, 1989. Ohio State University and the help solve nonpoint source pollution. Ohio Cooperative Extension Service Directed mainly to owners of private wells, this infor- Gone With The Waste mative video describes ways in which water may become con- 16:32 minutes, color. Environmental Protection Agency’s taminated by bacteria, nitrates, lead, etc., and how soil types Department of Solid Waste affect groundwater. It instructs the viewer on which tests Targeted towards the southeastern states, this video looks should be performed for testing water quality, how to properly at the problem of management of solid waste. The EPA rec- collect a water sample, where to get it tested, and what to do ommends 4 steps towards solving this problem: (1) source re- to handle contaminationARCHIVE problems. duction, (2) recycling, (3) incineration, and (4) landfills. Always Pure, Never Runs Dry Running Water: From Rain To River To Ocean 17 minutes, color, 1981. National Television News 20 minutes, color, 1988. Scott Resources This video describes the amount of water consumption This video discusses the water cycle and the types of for various uses, where and how we obtain our water, and runoff: laminar flow, turbulent flow, jet-shooting flow, and the proper management of our water supply. All ages velocity of flow in these different types. It presents a geologic view of the various forces that shape and form our rivers. Teacher’s guide available. Grades 6-12.

M-2 Your Septic System: A Guide For Homeowners Facing Facts II: Supporting A Growing System 11 minutes, color, 1990. Northern Virginia Planning 12 minutes, color, 1991. IMC Fertilizer, Inc. District Commission This video examines production agriculture. It discuss- This video describes a septic system: the septic tank, the es goals for yields and using commercial fertilizers effi- distribution box, and the drain ﬁeld trenches and the need to ciently to improve the quality and safety of food products. It routinely pump the system. It lists ways to properly maintain also discusses how plants remove nutrients from the soil a septic tank system. and how fertilizers help replenish these elements to insure desirable future crop production. Running Water: Erosion, Deposition, And Transportation Production Agriculture: 20 minutes, color, 1988. Scott Resources Feeding People, Protecting The Environment This video illustrates how running water can carry erod- 15:26 minutes, color, 1991. Potash and Phosphate In- ed material and the effect of this load, and the composition of stitute and Foundation for Agronomic Research the underlying bedrock, on geologic features. It discusses ero- This video discusses the decrease in farms, the increase sion, floodplains, meandering streams, the formation of in population, and the need for farmers to maximize food pro- oxbow lakes and deltas, and the contribution of glaciers to- duction. It also covers protecting the environment with prop- wards present-day river formation. Teacher’s guide avail- er soil management and judicious use of fertilizer and pesti- able. Grades 6-12. cides while achieving adequate food production.

Getting Out From Under Water Quality: The Challenge Is Crystal Clear 19:20 minutes, color, 1991. Lawrence Productions 10 minutes, color, 1990. Extension System—USDA Water This video presents underground storage tank alternatives Quality Initiative Team for small towns. It discusses corrosion and leaks, particular- This video explains the focus of the Extension System in ly with aging tanks, and their effects on groundwater supplies. its aim to provide educational assistance for one of its national It also covers governmental regulations dealing with storage initiatives—water quality. Some of the projects underway tank removal, replacement, and monitoring for leaks. in cooperation with the USDA and state cooperative extension programs are covered. The video explains why water is one of The Care And Feeding Of Your Septic Tank the nation’s most valuable resources and how the Extension 16:13 minutes, color, 1991. Full Spectrum Video System plays a major role in protecting this resource by This video discusses the design features for septic sys- providing education, technical assistance, research, and data- tems, a sewage disposal system for suburbs and rural areas— base development. areas which do not have city sewer systems. It discusses the importance of soil evaluation for proper installation and the Land And Water 201 need to inspect and routinely pump septic tanks for prevention 18:57 minutes, color, 1989. Information Services, Divi- of groundwater contamination. sion of Agriculture, Forestry and Veterinary Medicine, Mississippi State University Drinking Water: Quality On Tap This video introduces Land and Water 201, a cooperative, 27:24 minutes, color, 1991. Comet Communications multi-agency program formed in 1984, with the aim of as- with the League of Women Voter Education Fund sisting the people in the 201 counties of the Tennessee Valley This production defines quality drinking water as: water region in appropriate soil and water conservation practices. that is pure enough to sustain life and health with the fewest The seven states in the Tennessee valley, the EPA, the USDA, harmful impurities possible. It discusses sources of fresh and the TVA work together with the objectives of improving water—and potential contaminants of these sources, the water quality, reducing soil erosion, and increasing farm in- treatment and delivery of water, and the importance of groups come. Interviews with farmers, park administrators, etc., in the and individuals to take action to conserve and protect water area are presented, along with practices implemented in con- supplies. junction with Land and Water 201, to help solve their particular problems. How To Fill And Seal A Well 20 minutes, color, 1991. Wisconsin Department of Nat- Environmental Safeguards In ural Resources Commercial Fertilizer Operations This video looks at the importance of aquifers as a 21 minutes, color, 1990. University of Arizona, College source of groundwater. ARCHIVEThe proper abandonment of wells of Agriculture no longer in use is one method that can help prevent ground- Synthetic pesticides and fertilizers have had a tremendous water contamination. Three types of wells: driven, dug, and impact on agricultural production. This video, which is pre- drilled wells, are illustrated, along with the appropriate meth- sented by the Tennessee Valley Authority’s Environmental ods of filling and sealing each of them when abandoned. Program in cooperation with the California Fertilizer Asso- ciation, is directed towards the commercial fertilizer industry with the intention of demonstrating appropriate design features of a typical fertilizer production facility. Topics discussed include: proper types of storage tanks, suitable loading and spill clean-up facilities, and fire control techniques.

M-3 Tennessee Nonpoint Source Pollution 9:20 minutes, color. The Tennessee Conservation League This video looks at Tennessee’s nonpoint source pollution which occurs when rainwater runoff carries pollutants from a variety of sources and which poses a threat to the environment and water quality. The viewer is made aware of the activities that contribute pollutants to the states’waters and the best management practices to prevent undesirable results.

Every Time It Rains (Kentucky Nonpoint Source Pollution) 15 minutes, color. Center for Mathematics, Science and Environmental Education, Western Kentucky University This video looks at the water cycle and how water moves through watersheds. Focusing on the state of Kentucky, it discusses the many diverse features of watersheds and suggests best management practices for each of Kentucky’s watersheds to help reduce possible pollutants.

Low-Pressure Pipe Septic System 10 minutes, color, 1993. University of Tennessee Exten- sion Service. This video addresses the need for wastewater treatment. It refers to city sewer systems, water contaminants, and the operation of municipal wastewater treatment plants, but most of the discussion is about single-household septic systems. The conventional septic system and the alternative low-pressure pipe system are covered in detail. It also discusses design features, inspection, and maintenance requirements for the alternative system.

Is The Water Safe To Drink? (The Good News About Drinking Water) 30 minutes, color, 1993. American Water Works Associ- ation. Narrated by Linda Benzel, this video covers the primary concerns with drinking water in the U.S. and Canada. Topics discussed include water purity and pollution, water uses and treatment needs, treatment by-products, corrosion products such as lead, risks associated with chemicals and other pollutants, chlorination and disinfectant alternatives, EPA and water utility roles in providing safe drinking water, distribution systems, and individual activities to prevent contamination of drinking water.

Water Quality And Nonpoint Source Pollution 11 minutes, color, 1994. Alabama Cooperative Extension System. This video details the importance of water and its quality to individuals from all walks of life around the nation and, especially, to Alabama residents. Nonpoint source polution is explained in great detail.ARCHIVE Various sources of nonpoint pollution are discussed with past, present, and future implica- tions and regulations to decrease further pollution. Limited use of animation improves the usefulness of this video for applications with younger audiences. Youth to adult audience.

M-4 Glossary Of Water Quality And Water Resource Conservation Terms abandoned well - An unused well. An easy route for di- (VOCs), radon, and other dissolved gases move from rect contamination of groundwater. water to air. absorption - To take up or receive as the movement of aerobic - Living or occurring only under the presence of a chemical into a plant. oxygen. absorption system - A subsurface leaching system in aesthetic - Refers to water characteristics such as taste, which wastewater is piped to an underground field and odor, color, and appearance that reduce the quality of allowed to seep down through the soil. drinking water but do not necessarily result in adverse health effects. accelerated erosion - A rapid type of soil erosion that is induced by human activities, in contrast to the rela- agricultural land - Land in farms regularly used for tively slow processes of geological erosion. agricultural production. The term includes all land devoted to crop or livestock enterprises; for example, the acceptable daily intake - The daily dose of a sub- farmstead lands, drainage and irrigation ditches, water stance that a person can ingest over a lifetime without supply, cropland, and grazing land of every kind in suffering any adverse health effects. Used to set drink- farms. ing water standards. agronomic practices - The soil and crop activities em- acid rain - Rain with a higher than normal acid range ployed in the production of farm crops, such as select- (pH lower than 5.6). Caused by the release of oxides of ing seed, seedbed preparation, fertilizing, liming, ma- sulfur and nitrogen into the atmosphere. Can accelerate nuring, seeding, cultivation, harvesting, curing, crop corrosion and make lakes devoid of fish. sequence, crop rotations, cover crops, strip-cropping, action level - The concentration of lead or copper in pasture development, etc. water specified by the U.S. EPA as being acceptable for algae - Simple rootless microscopic plants that grow in long-term consumption. The action level for copper is bodies of water in relative proportion to the amount 1.3 milligrams per liter and the action level for lead is of nutrients available. Certain types of algae, particularly 0.015 milligrams per liter. If concentrations in pubic blue-green forms, can grow so profusely as to become water facilities exceed these action levels, then the util- nuisances in nutrient-rich lakes. ities must alter their treatment until copper and lead concentrations fall below the action levels. algal bloom - A sudden excessive growth of algae that can affect water quality adversely. The large floating activated alumina - An adsorption medium that reduces masses are called blooms. These blooms are character- the concentration of fluoride, arsenic, lead, selenium, and istic of what is called a eutrophic lake. chromium in water. Activated alumina is formed when aluminum hydroxide is dehydrated at a high temperature American Rule - A groundwater doctrine which holds and then ground and screened. Now used in home water that an overlying property owner has the right to use treatment devices. only a reasonable amount of groundwater. activated carbon - An adsorption medium that re- ammonification - The process by which the bacteria of duces the concentration of some organic chemicals, decay convert complex nitrogenous compounds occur- radon, odor, tastes, and smells in water. Now used in ring in animal carcasses and the excretions of animals, home water treatment devices. as well as the dead bodies of plants, into relatively simple ammonia (NH ). activated sludge - The solid organic waste that has 3 been intensively aerated and “seeded” with bacteria ammonium fixation - The adsorption or absorption + (in a secondary or tertiary sewage-treatment process) to of ammonium ions (NH4 ) by the mineral or organic promote rapid bacterial decomposition. fractions of the soil in a manner that they are relatively ARCHIVEinsoluble in water and relatively unexchangeable by adsorption - To gather a gas, liquid, or dissolved sub- the usual methods of cation exchange. stance on a surface, such as adhesion of ions from an aqueous solution to mineral surfaces in soil. anaerobic - Able to live or occur in oxygen-free conditions. aeration - A water treatment process that brings air into intimate contact with water, usually by spraying water animal unit - A measure of livestock numbers based on into air or by bubbling air through water. Aeration in- the equivalent of a mature cow (approximately 1,000 creases the rate at which volatile organic chemicals pounds live weight). Animal units can be calculated

Glossary-1 by multiplying slaughter and feeder cattle by 1.0, mature aquifer, perched - A region in the normally unsaturat- dairy cattle by 1.4, swine over 55 pounds by 0.4, sheep ed zone of soil that may be locally saturated with water by 0.1, horses by 2, turkeys by 0.18, and chickens by because it overlies a low-permeability unit. 0.01. aquifer, semiconfined - An aquifer confined by a low- anion - A negatively charged ion such as chloride (Cl-), permeability layer that permits water to slowly flow - - fluoride (Fl ) or nitrate (NO3 ). See also cation. through it. Also known as a leaky artesian or leaky confined aquifer. anion exchange - A water treatment process in which objectionable anions such as nitrate are removed from aquifer, unconfined - An aquifer in which there is no water and replaced with less objectionable anions such confining beds between the zone of saturation and the as chloride. See also cation exchange. surface. These aquifers have a water table and are usually found close to the surface. anti-backflow (anti-backsiphoning) device - A check valve or other mechanical device to prevent unwanted aquifuge - An absolutely impermeable unit that will nei- reverse flow of liquids back down a water supply pipe ther store nor transmit water. into a well. aquitard - A low-permeability layer of rock or clay application rate - Rate that material is applied to a which can store water but transmits it very slowly from given area. one aquifer to another. aquatic life - All the living forms in water, ranging arid - A term applied to regions or climates that lack from bacteria to fish and rooted plants. Also included in sufficient moisture for crop production without irriga- this group are insect larva and zooplankton. tion. The limits of precipitation vary considerably according to temperature conditions, with an upper annual aquiclude - A low-permeability unit that forms either limit for cool regions of 10 inches or less and for trop- the upper or lower boundary of a groundwater flow ical regions as much as 15 to 20 inches. system. available nutrient - That portion of any element or aquifer - A subterranean layer of porous water-bearing compound in the soil that readily can be absorbed and rock, gravel, or sand capable of storing and conveying assimilated by growing plants. water to wells and streams. available water-holding capacity (soils) - The capac- aquifer, aeolian - Aquifer in which groundwater is ity to store water available for use by plants, usually ex- held in materials that were transported and deposited by pressed in linear depths of water per unit depth of soil. wind. Commonly defined as the difference between the per- aquifer, alluvial - Aquifer in which groundwater is centage of soil water at field capacity and the percentage held in sediments deposited by flowing water in rivers at wilting point. This difference, multiplied by the bulk and streams along channels and floodplains, usually density and divided by 100, gives a value in surface shallow and unconfined. inches of water per inch depth of soil. See field capacity. aquifer, anisotropic - Aquifer in which the magnitude of hydraulic conductivity varies with direction. backflow - The unwanted reverse flow of liquids in a piping system. aquifer, artesian - An aquifer in which groundwater is held under pressure by a confining layer or layers of back pressure - The pressure that builds up on the rock, forcing water to rise in wells above the top of the treated side of a reverse osmosis membrane as the treat- aquifer. ed water storage tank fills. See also reverse osmosis. aquifer, confined - An aquifer overlaid by impermeable backsiphonage - Backflow caused by formation of a layers of rock or soil, which prevent free movement of vacuum in a water supply pipe. air and water. Same as an artesian aquifer. ARCHIVEbackwash - To subject a filter, filter element, or filter aquifer, isotropic - An aquifer in which the magni- bed to water flow in a direction opposite to the ser- tude of hydraulic conductivity is equal in all direc- vice flow. Backwashing reconditions the filter and flush- tions. es solid materials that have accumulated. A special solution is sometimes used to regenerate a filter medium. aquifer, lacustrine - An aquifer in which groundwater See also regeneration. is found in materials deposited in a lake environment. bacteria - Single-cell, microscopic organisms which often consume the organic constituents of sewage.

Glossary-2 bacteria, coliform - A type of bacteria found in the di- carbon absorption - A process employed in water gestive system and waste of humans and warm-blooded treatment by which dissolved organic compounds are re- animals. They do not cause diseases, but their pres- moved as they pass through a tower, column, or filter ence in water indicates that other disease-causing bac- packed with small particles of carbon. teria may be present as well. carcinogen - A cancer-causing chemical. baseflow - The groundwater contribution to stream carcinogenic - Capable of causing cancer in humans flow. and animals. best management practice (BMP) - A technique that cartridge sediment filter - A mechanical filter that is determined to be the most effective, practical means uses a cartridge made of paper, cellulose, polypropylene of preventing or reducing pollutants from nonpoint sheets, cloth, ceramic, or string to separate particles sources in order to achieve water quality goals. from water. The replaceable cartridge is inserted in a bioaccumulation - Build-up of toxic substances in fish housing that is usually plastic. Most common filter el- flesh. Toxic effects may be passed on to humans eating ement in home water treatment devices. the flesh. casing - Steel or plastic pipe installed while drilling a biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) - The amount well to prevent collapse of the well bore hole and en- of dissolved oxygen required to oxidize the readily de- trance of contaminants and to allow placement of a composable organic material. Any organic material pump or pumping equipment. added to water increases the BOD, making this value a cation - A positively charged ion such as calcium direct indicator of the level of biodegradable organics in (Ca2+), magnesium (Mg2+), or sodium (Na+). See also a given sample of polluted water. anion. bio-fouling - The colonization of a treatment device or cation exchange - A water treatment process in which water distribution system by microorganisms. Bio-foul- objectionable cations such as calcium are replaced with ing results in a film composed of bacteria, other mi- sodium or hydrogen. See also hardness and softening. croorganisms, and slimes produced by the microorganisms. It can result in malfunction or failure of a cation exchange capacity (CEC) - The ability of a treatment device, odors, discolored water, and corrosion. particular rock, soil, or other material to absorb cations. biomonitor - A biological monitor that detects very channelization - The process by which a natural stream small levels of pollutants in the environment. is converted into a ditch for flood control or other reasons. Subsequent environmental damage may be se- birm - A manufactured oxidizing material made of a vere. light silicon dioxide with a manganese dioxide coating. Birm is used to reduce the concentration of iron and check dam - Small dam constructed in a gully or other manganese in water. small watercourse to decrease the stream-flow velocity, minimize channel scour, and promote deposition of blue baby syndrome (methemoglobinemia) - A con- sediment. dition that causes a baby to turn blue because of oxygen starvation. It is caused by excessive nitrate in water chemical feed pump - A mechanical device that intro- and can result in death if not treated. duces chemicals into a water system at a rate proportional to the water flow. Now available for home water braided stream - a stream flowing in several dividing treatment. and reuniting channels. chemical pretreatment - A drinking water treatment buffer strips - Strips of grass or other erosion-resisting process that relies on alum or other chemicals to form vegetation between or below cultivated strips or fields. clumps of impurities, or “floc.” Most of the floc settle canopy - The cover of leaves and branches formed by out of the water; what remains can be removed through the tops or crowns of ARCHIVEplants. filtration. capillary forces - The forces acting on soil moisture in chemical treatment - Treatment that inactivates, the unsaturated zone, attributable to molecular attraction changes the chemical form of, or reduces the concen- between soil particles and water. tration of a drinking water contaminant by the addition of a solid, liquid, or gas. capillary fringe - The zone immediately above the water table, between the saturated and unsaturated chemicals, inorganic (IOCs) - Drinking water conta- zones where pore spaces are partly filled with water. minants that may occur naturally in the earth or are Water can be drawn upward by capillary attraction. caused by mining, industry, or agriculture. Examples in-

Glossary-3 clude arsenic, barium, fluoride, mercury, nitrate, and se- clear water - A term used to differentiate between lenium. water containing dissolved iron (clear water) and water containing oxidized, or particulate iron. chemicals, synthetic organic (SOCs) - Drinking water contaminants that are man-made, carbon-containing climate - The sum total of all atmospheric or meteoro- chemicals, such as pesticides. logical influences, principally temperature, moisture, wind, pressure, and evaporation, which combine to chemicals, volatile organic (VOCs) - Organic conta- characterize a region and give it individuality by influ- minants in drinking water that readily volatilize, or encing the nature of its land forms, soils, vegetation, and travel from the water into the air. Most are industrial land use. chemicals and solvents, many petroleum-based products. coliform bacteria - A group of rod-shaped bacteria chiseling - Breaking or loosening the soil, without in- commonly found in the soil and intestines of higher an- version, with a chisel cultivator or chisel plow. Increases imals, including humans. Since humans typically dis- infiltration and reduces erosion in contrast to soil in- charge from 100 to 400 billion coliform organisms per version. day, in water it is indicative of potential fecal contami- chlorinated hydrocarbon - A “family” of nondegrad- nation. able or slowly degradable chemicals including pesticides coliform, fecal - Coliform bacteria entirely of fecal such as DDT, dieldrin, and toxaphene. They have long origin, Escherichia coli (E. coli) is a specific indicator of persistence in the environment, undergo biological fecal pollution. There is difficulty in determining fecal magnification in the food chain, and may have a harm- coliforms to the exclusion of soil coliforms, and for ful effect on nontarget organisms such as fish and birds. that reason, the entire coliform group is commonly chlorination - The addition of chlorine to water to de- used as an indicator of fecal pollution. stroy bacteria. compaction - To unite firmly; the act or process of chlorination, shock - The addition, usually only once or becoming compact, usually applied in geology to the twice, of a strong chlorine solution (200 to 400 parts per changing of loose sediments into hard, firm rock. With million) to disinfect new water systems. respect to construction work with soils, engineering compaction is any process by which the soil grains are chlorination, simple - The continuous addition of just rearranged to decrease void space and bring them into enough chlorine (approximately 1 to 2 parts per million) closer contact with one another, thereby increasing the to adequately disinfect water and leave a small residual weight of solid material per cubic foot. of chlorine. compost - Partially decomposed organic matter (plant or chlorination, super - The continuous addition of high animal wastes, garbage) that can be used as a soil con- doses of chlorine (in the range of 5 to 10 parts per mil- ditioner and fertilizer. lion) to disinfect water and leave a high residual of chlorine. concentration - The ratio of the amount of one substance in another substance. For example, in seawater, chlorine - A widely used disinfectant and oxidizing the concentration of chlorine is approximately 19,000 agent available in gaseous, liquid, or solid form. The milligrams of chlorine per liter of water. chemical symbol for chlorine is “Cl.” condensation - The process that occurs when an air chlorine demand - The amount of chlorine that can be mass is saturated and water droplets form around par- consumed or “used up” by organic matter (such as ticles or on surfaces. plant material), microorganisms, iron, and other oxi- dizable substances in untreated water. The chlorine de- cone of depression - The drawdown potentiometric mand is calculated by subtracting the free chlorine surface surrounding a well or well field. residual from the amount of chlorine added to the un- confining bed - A body of material of low water con- treated water. See also free chlorine residual. ARCHIVEductivity located adjacent to one or more aquifers. It chlororganics - Potentially toxic organic compounds may be above or below the aquifer. that form in water treated with chlorine. Common ex- conservation - The protection, improvement, and use of amples are chloroform and carbon tetrachloride. natural resources according to principles that will assure clean tillage - Cultivation of a field so as to cover all their highest economic or social benefits. plant residues and to prevent the growth of all vegetation conservation district - A public organization created except the particular crop desired. under state enabling law as a special-purpose district to develop and carry out a program of soil, water, and re-

Glossary-4 lated resource conservation, use, and development with- corrosion - A natural process of chemical/electrical in its boundaries; usually a subdivision of state gov- degradation that occurs when metals are in contact ernment with a local governing body and always with with water. The dissolving or wearing away of metals. limited authorities. Often called a soil conservation cover crop - A close-growing crop grown primarily for district or a soil and water conservation district. the purpose of protecting and improving soil between conservation plan for farm, ranch, or nonagricul- periods of regular crop production or between trees tural land unit - The properly recorded decisions of the and vines in orchards and vineyards. cooperating landowner or operator on how he plans, cover, ground - Any vegetation producing a protecting within practical limits, to use his land in an operating mat on or just above the soil surface. In forestry, low- unit within its capability and to treat it according to its growing shrubs, vines, and herbaceous plants under needs for maintenance or improvement of the soil, the trees. water, and plant resources. cover, vegetative - All plants of all sizes and species conservation tillage - Sometimes called minimum or re- found on an area, irrespective of whether they have duced tillage, this is a method of cultivating farmland forage or other value. Same as plant cover. with less soil disturbance to reduce erosion. Must have 30 percent residue cover on the surface after all tillage cropland - Land used primarily for the production of operations to meet USDA’s current definition that qual- adapted cultivated, close-growing, fruit or nut crops ifies producers for certain programs. for harvest, alone or in association with sod crops. constructed wetland - An engineered, marsh-like area crop residue - The portion of a plant or crop left in the where especially established organisms and plants feed field after harvest. on the organics and nutrients in wastewater. This process crop residue management - Use of that portion of uses the physical, chemical, and biological processes in the plant or crop left in the field after harvest for pro- nature to treat wastewater. tection or improvement of the soil. contact time - The amount of time that water is in crop rotation - The growing of different crops in re- contact with treatment medium or chemical. curring succession on the same land. contaminant - Any physical, chemical, biological, or ra- cryptosporidiosis - An often severe diarrheal illness that diological substance or matter in water. is caused by ingestion of the Cryptosporidium parvum contaminant removal capacity - The percent reduction oocyst. It is particularly dangerous to the elderly, chil- in a contaminant between untreated and treated water dren, acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS) pa- and the total amount of contaminant a device can re- tients, or others with low immunity. See also move before servicing is needed. Cryptosporidium parvum (C. parvum). contamination - Any degradation of natural water Cryptosporidium parvum (C. parvum) - A parasitic quality caused by human activities. protozoan. The environmentally persistent oocyst formed during one stage of the parasite’s life cycle contour - (1) An imaginary line on the surface of the ranges in diameter from 4 to 6 microns and, when in- earth connecting points of the same elevation. (2) A line gested, may cause cryptosporidiosis. Cryptosporidium drawn on a map connecting points of the same elevation. parvum resists chlorine disinfection and must be recontour farming - Conducting field operations, such as moved from water via filtration methods, distillation, or plowing, planting, cultivating, and harvesting, on the boiling. contour. An effective technique for reducing erosion. cyst - A dormant stage in the life cycle of some parasites contour furrows - Furrows plowed approximately on in which a resistant shell is formed around the parasite. the contour on pasture or rangeland to prevent soil loss debris - A term applied to the loose material arising and increase infiltration. Also, furrows laid out ap- from the disintegration of rocks and vegetative materi- proximately on the contourARCHIVE for irrigation purposes. al; transportable by streams, ice, or floods. contour stripcropping - Layout of crops in compara- debris dam - A barrier built across a stream channel to tively narrow strips in which the farming operations retain rock, sand, gravel, silt, or other material. are performed approximately on the contour. Usually strips of grass, close-growing crops, or fallow are al- dechlorination - The removal of excess chlorine from ternated with those in cultivated crops. a treated water supply, usually with activated carbon or a chemical process.

Glossary-5 deep-well injection - Pumping wastewater into a deep fluencing the erodibility of soils. Generally speaking, the subterranean aquifer or other formation below ground. more easily dispersed the soil, the more erodible it is. degradation - To wear down by erosion, especially disposal field - Area used for spreading liquid effluent through stream action. Also, lowering the quality of for separation of wastes from water, degradation of water or some other resource. impurities, and improvement of drainage waters. Same as infiltration field. depression storage - Water from precipitation that collects in puddles at the land surface. distillation - A water treatment process in which water is boiled and the resulting steam is collected and cooled denitrification - The biochemical decomposition of in a separate chamber. Distillation disinfects water, re- ammonia compounds, nitrates, or nitrites to gaseous duces the concentration of toxic metals, and removes nitrogen, either as molecular nitrogen or as an oxide of some organic contaminants. nitrogen. distilled water - Water that has been purified via evap- deposit - Material left in a new position by a natural oration followed by condensation. Distilled water con- transporting agent, such as water, wind, ice, or gravity, tains minute amounts of dissolved solids. or by the activity of man. diversion terrace - Diversions, which differ from ter- deposition - The accumulation of material dropped races in that they consist of individually designed chan- because of a slackening movement of the transporting nels across a hillside, may be used to protect bottomland agent—water or wind. from hillside runoff or may be needed above a terrace desalinization - The removal of salt from seawater in system for protection against runoff from an unter- order to make it usable to humans, crops, and wildlife. raced area. They may also divert water out of active gullies, protect farm buildings from runoff, reduce the desilting area - An area of grass, shrubs, or other veg- number of waterways, and they are sometimes used in etation used for inducing deposition of silt and other de- connection with stripcropping to shorten the length of bris from flowing water, located above a stock tank, slope so that the strips can effectively control erosion. pond, field, or other area needing protection from sed- See terrace. iment accumulation. See filter strip. DPD (diethyl phenylene diamine) colorimetric test - detention dam - A dam constructed for the purpose of A water test for detecting the presence of free chlorine temporary storage of streamflow or surface runoff and residual in water. for releasing the stored water at controlled rates. drainage - The removal of excess surface water or dew point - The temperature of a given air mass at groundwater from land by means of surface or subsur- which condensation will begin. face drains. diatomaceous earth - A powdery material composed of drainage basin - The land area from which surface the skeletal remains of sea organisms called diatoms. runoff drains into a stream system. Same as watershed. Diatomaceous earth, mined from deposits on dry land, is a common filter aid in precoat filters for home water drainage divide - A boundary line along a topograph- treatment. ically high area that separates two adjacent drainage basins. dioxin - An extremely toxic group of chlorine containing aromatic chemicals suspected of causing cancer, drawdown - A lowering of the water table of an un- birth defects and miscarriages. Found as an impurity in confined aquifer or the potentiometric surface of a con- certain herbicides and in wastewaters from the bleach- fined aquifer caused by pumping of groundwater from ing of paper pulp with chlorine compounds. wells. discharge - The flow of surface water in a stream or drilled wells - Wells not dug or driven including those canal or the outflow of groundwater from a flowing constructed by a combination of jetting or driving. artesian well, ditch, orARCHIVE spring. These wells are normally 4 to 8 inches in diameter. disinfection - The process of destroying harmful mi- drinking water standards - Two categories of conta- croorganisms in water. The most common method of minants (primary and secondary) for which EPA has es- disinfection for water supplies is chlorination. tablished permissible levels in drinking water. dispersion, soil - The breaking down of soil aggre- driven wells - Wells constructed by driving assembled gates into individual particles, resulting in single-grain lengths of pipe into the ground with percussion equip- structure. Ease of dispersion is an important factor in- ment or by hand. These wells are usually small in di-

Glossary-6 ameter (2 inches or less), less than 50 feet deep, and can erosion, accelerated - Erosion much more rapid than be installed in areas of relatively loose soils, such as normal, natural, or geologic erosion, primarily as a re- sand. sult of the influence or activities of man or, in some cases, of other animals or natural catastrophes that ex- drop-inlet spillway - Overall structure in which the pose base surfaces; for example, fires. water drops through a vertical riser connected to a discharge conduit. erosion, geological - The normal or natural erosion caused by geological processes acting over long geo- drop spillway - Overall structure in which the water logic periods and resulting in the wearing away of drops over a vertical wall onto an apron at a lower ele- mountains, the building of floodplains, coastal plains, vation. etc. Same as natural erosion. duckfoot - An implement with horizontally spreading, erosion, gully - The erosion process whereby water V-shaped tillage blades or sweeps which are normally accumulates in narrow channels and, over short periods, adjusted to provide shallow cultivation without turning removes the soil from this narrow area to considerable over the surface soil or burying surface crop residues. depth, ranging from 1 to 2 feet to as much as 75 to 100 duff - The more or less firm organic layer on top of min- feet. eral soil, consisting of fallen vegetative matter in the erosion, natural - Wearing away of the earth’s sur- process of decomposition, including everything from face by water, ice, or other natural agents under natural pure humus below to the litter on the surface. Duff is a environmental conditions of climate, vegetation, etc., general, nonspecific term more commonly associated undisturbed by human activities. Same as geological with perennial crops. erosion. dug wells - Large diameter wells, usually 30 inches or erosion, normal - The gradual erosion of land used by more in diameter, and often constructed by hand. man that does not greatly exceed natural erosion. See dynamic equilibrium - A condition in which the natural erosion. amount of recharge to an aquifer equals the amount of erosion, rill - An erosion process in which numerous natural discharge. small channels only several inches deep are formed; oc- effluent - Treated or untreated wastewater discharged curs mainly on recently cultivated soils. See rill. into the environment; wastewater flowing from a septic erosion, sheet - The removal of a fairly uniform layer of tank into the soil absorption bed. soil from the land surface by runoff water. ecology - The study of the interrelationships that occur erosion, splash - The spattering of small soil particles between organisms and their environment. caused by the impact of raindrops on bare soils. The English Rule - A groundwater doctrine that holds that loosened and spattered particles may or may not be property owners have the right of absolute ownership of subsequently removed by surface runoff. the groundwater beneath their land. erosive - Refers to wind or water having sufficient ve- environment - The sum total of all the external condi- locity to cause erosion. Not to be confused with erodi- tions that may act upon an organism or community to ble as a quality of soil. influence its development or existence. euphotic zone - The open-water zone of the ocean, epilimnion - The upper stratum of a lake that is char- characterized by sufficient sunlight penetration to sup- acterized by a temperature gradient of less that 1¡C port photosynthesis; located just above the bathyal zone per meter of depth. (that part between 100 and 1,000 fathoms deep; one fathom is 6 feet). equilibrium - The state in which the action of multiple forces produces a steady balance, resulting in no change eutrophication - The process of accelerated aging of over time. When a chemical reaction can proceed in two lakes whereby aquatic plants are abundant and waters directions, equilibriumARCHIVE is reached when the rate of re- are deficient in oxygen. The process is usually caused by action is equal for both directions. excess nutrients and sediments brought into the lake. erosion - (1) The wearing away of the land surface by evaporation - The process by which water changes running water, wind, ice, or other geological agents, in- from liquid to the vapor state. Caused by the sun warm- cluding such processes as gravitational creep. (2) ing water surfaces. Detachment and movement of soil or rock fragments by evapotranspiration - The sum of evaporation and tran- water, wind, ice, or gravity. spiration.

Glossary-7 fallow - Allowing cropland to lie idle, either tilled or un- filter element - A rigid structure that supports the sep- tilled, during the whole or greater portion of the grow- tum in a precoat filter. See also precoat filter and sep- ing season. tum. farm management - The organization and administra- filter medium - The permeable substance or material in tion of farm resources, including land, labor, crops, a filtering device that separates contaminants from livestock, and equipment. water. farm operator - A person who operates a farm either by filter strip - Strip of permanent vegetation above farm performing the labor himself or directly supervising ponds, diversion terraces, and other structures to re- it. tard flow of runoff water, causing deposition of transported material, thereby reducing sediment flow. See de- fecal - Of, pertaining to, or being feces; the waste mat- silting area. ter discharged through the anus. filtration - The process of separating contaminants fertility, soil - The quality of a soil that enables it to pro- from water by passing water through a porous medium. vide nutrients in adequate amounts and in proper bal- Also the process of separating contaminants by passing ance for the growth of specified plants when other water through a vegetated medium such as a filter strip growth factors, such as light, moisture, temperature, or wetland area. and the physical condition of the soil, are favorable. flocculation - The water treatment process where sus- fertilizer - Any organic or inorganic material of natur- pended matter that causes turbidity is removed by al or synthetic origin that is added to a soil to supply el- chemical treatment (usually with alum), which causes ements essential to plant growth. individual particles to stick together forming larger ag- field blank - A water-quality sample where highly pu- gregates or “floc” which settle to the bottom and may be rified water is run through the field sampling procedure filtered. and sent to a laboratory to detect if any contamination of flow rate capacity - The rate of water flow through a the samples is occurring during the sampling process. treatment device measured in gallons per minute or field capacity (field moisture capacity) - The amount gallons per day. of soil water remaining in a soil after the free water has flume - An open conduit on a prepared grade, trestle, or been allowed to drain away for a day or two if the root bridge for the purpose of carrying water across creeks, zone has been previously saturated. It is the greatest gullies, ravines, or other obstructions. It may also apply amount of water that the soil will hold under conditions to an entire canal where it is elevated above natural of free drainage, usually expressed as a percentage of the ground for its entire length. Sometimes used in reference oven-dry weight of soil or other convenient unit. to calibrated devices used to measure the flow of water field stripcropping - A system of stripcropping in in open conduits. which crops are grown in parallel strips laid out across fluoridation - The addition of fluorides to public drink- the general slope but which do not follow the contour. ing water to reduce the incidence of tooth decay. The Strips of grass or close-growing crops are alternated with practicality of this process is under debate. strips of cultivated crops. free chlorine residual - Chlorine that remains in water Filox - A manufactured resin introduced in oxidizing fil- after the chlorine demand is satisfied. The presence of a ters in recent years. residual indicates sufficient chlorine was added to dis- filter - To remove contaminants from water through infect the water. A residual of 0.1 to 0.2 milligrams filtration. A treatment device for carrying out the process per liter of free chlorine should be measurable at the tap of filtration. A filter consists of a filter medium and from a public water system disinfected with chlorine. suitable hardware for positioning and supporting the fil- furrow dams - Small earth dams used to impound ter medium in the path of the water. See also filter water in furrows. medium. ARCHIVE Giardia lamblia (G. lamblia) - A parasitic protozoan. filter aid - A filter medium used in precoat filters. The cyst formed during one stage of the parasite’s life Common filter aids are diatomaceous earth and per- cycle ranges in diameter form 7 to 10 microns and lite. See also diatomaceous earth and precoat filter. may cause giardiasis in humans. Giardia lamblia can be filter cake - A densely packed layer of filter medium removed from drinking water via filtration methods, and suspended solids that develops on the surface of a distillation, boiling, and ozonation. See also cyst and gi- filter medium. See also filter medium. ardiasis.

Glossary-8 giardiasis - A disease, often characterized by diarrhea, as a rill is of lesser depth and would be smoothed by or- that is caused by the presence of Giardia lamblia cysts dinary farm tillage. See erosion; rill. in the intestinal tract. See also Giardia lamblia (G. gully control plantings - The planting of forage, lamblia). legume, or woody plant seeds, seedlings, cuttings, or grade - (1) The slope of a road, channel, or natural transplants in gullies to establish or reestablish a vege- ground. (2) The finished surface of a canal bed, roadbed, tative cover adequate to control runoff and erosion and top of embankment, or bottom of excavation; any sur- incidentally produce useful products. face prepared for the support of construction like paving hardness - A measure of the amount of calcium, mag- or laying a conduit. (3) To finish the surface of a canal nesium, and iron dissolved in water. High hardness bed, roadbed, top of embankment, or bottom of exca- prevents soap suds from forming and results in mineral vation. deposits in water heaters and other appliances. grade stabilization structure - A structure for the hazardous materials - Substances that are flamma- purpose of stabilizing the grade of a gully or other wa- ble, corrosive, toxic, reactive, or explosive when mixed tercourse, thereby preventing further headcutting or with other materials. lowering of the channel grade. hazardous waste - Any flammable, corrosive, explosive, gradient - Change of elevation, velocity, pressure, or or toxic waste which is considered to be a present or po- other characteristics per unit length; slope. tential danger to humans, other animals, or plants. grain - A unit of measure equal to 1.43 x 10-4 pound or health advisory level - A non-regulatory, health-based 0.0648 gram. reference level of chemical traces (usually in parts per grains per gallon (gpg) - The weight of a substance, in billion) in drinking water at which there are no ad- grains, in 1 gallon of water. Commonly, grains of min- verse health risks when ingested over various periods of erals per gallon of water is used as a measure of hard- time. These advisories include a large margin of safety. ness. One grain per gallon is equal to 17.1 milligrams herbicide - A chemical substance used for killing per liter (mg/L). plants, especially weeds. grassed waterway - A natural or constructed waterway, humidity, absolute - The amount of moisture in the air usually broad and shallow, covered with erosion-resis- as expressed by the number of grams of water per cubic tant grasses, used to conduct surface water from crop- meter of air. land. humidity, relative - The ratio of the absolute humidity groundwater - Water that gathers below the surface of to the saturation humidity for an air mass. the earth in pores, voids, and fractures within soil and rock. Aquifers are formed when rainwater seeps into the humus - That more or less stable fraction of the soil or- ground and is held in layers of sand, gravel, and porous ganic matter remaining after the major portion of added rocks in sufficient quantity that it can be pumped for use. plant and animal residues have decomposed; usually amorphous and dark colored. groundwater mining - The practice of withdrawing groundwater at rates in excess of the natural recharge. hydraulic conductivity - The rate at which water can move through a permeable medium. grout - Slurry of cement or clay used to seal the space between the outside of the well casing and the bore hydrocarbon - A compound containing only carbon hole or to seal an abandoned well. and hydrogen. grout curtain - An underground wall designed to stop hydrodynamic dispersion - The process by which a groundwater flow; created by injecting grout into the solute or contaminant is diluted as it moves through an ground which subsequently hardens to become imper- aquifer. meable. ARCHIVEhydrogeology - The study of the interrelationships of gully - A channel or miniature valley cut by concen- geologic materials and processes with water, especially trated runoff, but through which water commonly flows groundwater. only during and immediately after heavy rains or during hydrology - The study of the occurrence, distribution, the melting of snow. A gully may be dendritic or and chemistry of all waters of the earth. branching or it may be linear, rather long, narrow, and uniform width. The distinction between gully and rill is hydrologic cycle - The cyclical process of water’s one of depth. A gully is sufficiently deep that it would movement from the atmosphere, its inflow and tem- not be obliterated by normal tillage operations, where- porary storage on and in land, and its outflow to the

Glossary-9 oceans. The cycle consists of three principal phases: pre- discolor beverages, and result in red-brown sediment in cipitation, runoff into surface waters or groundwater, and dispensed water. The chemical symbol is “Fe.” evaporation and/or transpiration into the air. iron bacteria - Bacteria that use iron as a source of en- hydrophyte - A type of plant that grows with the root ergy. Iron bacteria oxidize iron and form a slime that can system submerged in standing water. accumulate in water systems and plug wells, water treatment devices, and water distribution lines. Their hypolimnion - The bottom layer of water in a lake presence can also result in discolored, or “rusty,” water. characterized by a temperature gradient of less than 1¡C per meter of depth. karst - The type of geologic terrain underlain by carbonate rocks where significant solution of the rock has impoundment - Generally an artificial collection or occurred due to flowing groundwater. storage of water, as a reservoir, pit, dugout, sump, etc. See reservoir. land capability class - One of the eight classes of land in the land capability classification of the Natural infiltration - The flow of a liquid into a substance Resources Conservation Service. The classes are dis- through pores or other openings. The flow of water tinguished according to the risk of land damage or the downward into and through the upper soil layers. difficulty of land use. infiltration rate - A soil characteristic determining or land leveling - Process of shaping the land surface for describing the maximum rate at which water can enter better movement of water and machinery over the land. the soil under specified conditions, including the pres- Also called land forming, land shaping, or land grading. ence of an excess of water. land treatment - Process of putting wastewater or influent - Wastewater flowing into a treatment plant or other waste products onto land for the purpose of bio- septic system. degradation or removing of pollutants. inorganic - Refers to naturally occurring or synthetic landfill - A natural or created depression in the earth’s chemicals such as salts, metals, and minerals. Inorganics surface used for disposal or burial of various types of may or may not contain carbon. waste. The area is then covered by a layer of soil. integrated pest management (IPM) - A method of landfill, sanitary - A specially designed landfill with pest management that judiciously employs chemical, bi- sanitary precautions and leachate prevention and treat- ological, and other methods (cultural), depending on the ment. specific problem; the use of chemicals is minimized to avoid environmental damage. leachate - Liquid that leaks out of degraded soluble waste material from a landfill or septic system. intensive cropping - Maximum use of the land by means of frequent succession of harvested crops. leachate collection system - A system installed in conjunction with a landfill liner to capture leachate that may interception - The process by which precipitation is be generated from the landfill. captured on the surfaces of vegetation before it reaches the land surface. leaching - The downward movement by water of dissolved or suspended minerals, fertilizers, ag chemi- interflow - Lateral movement of water through the un- cals, and other substances through the soil. saturated zone of soil immediately after a precipitation event. Also called throughflow. levee - A dike composed of earth, stone, or concrete that is erected along the margin of a river or other stream for interstitial water - Water in the vadose zone above the purpose of flood control. the water table. Also called soil water. limnetic zone - The region of open water in a lake, be- ion - An atom or molecule that has a positive or negative yond the littoral zone, down to the maximum depth at electric charge. which there is sufficient sunlight for photosynthesis. ion exchange - A waterARCHIVE treatment process in which This depth varies with the turbidity of the water. unwanted ions in water are replaced with less objec- liner - A low-permeability material, such as clay or tionable ones. plastic sheeting, that is put beneath a landfill in order to iron - A metallic element often found in water supplies capture any leachate generated so as to help prevent that occurs in natural deposits in rocks and soil. It may groundwater contamination. also leach from pipes. Concentrations greater than 0.3 liter - A unit of metric measurement for volume; rough- milligram per liter may give water a bitter, metallic ly equivalent to 1 quart or 0.25 gallon. taste, cause brown-orange stains on fixtures and laundry,

Glossary-10 littoral zone - The shallow, marginal region of a lake which retains suspended solids that are too large to characterized by rooted vegetation. pass through the pore structure of the medium. loading rate - Rate at which pollutants accumulate in methemoglobin - A brownish compound of oxygen soil or surface waters. Also the rate of application of ef- and hemoglobin, formed in the blood, which reduces the fluent or waste material to land or water. oxygen carrying capacity of the blood. This compound may result from the interaction of nitrite nitrogen with lysimeter - A field device containing a soil column hemoglobin. and vegetation; used for measuring actual evapotranspiration. methemoglobinemia - The blood disease associated with the formation of methemoglobin. Can be life lysimeter, collection - A device installed in the unsat- threatening if not treated. urated zone in soil to collect a water-quality sample by having the water drain downward by gravity into a microbically unsafe water - Water that is known to collection pit. contain disease-causing bacteria, viruses, or other microbiological agents; shows a positive test for an indi- lysimeter, suction - A device for withdrawing pore cator organism (coliform bacteria); or has been deter- water samples from the unsaturated zone by applying mined to be unsafe by an appropriate health or tension to a porous ceramic cup. regulatory agency. macronutrient - Mineral nutrient used by organisms micrograms per liter (ug/L) - The weight of a sub- such as plants in relatively large quantities (nitrogen, stance measured in micrograms contained in 1 liter. It is phosphorus, potassium, calcium). equivalent to a concentration of 1 part per billion in macropores - The large spaces that occur between in- water. dividual soil particles. Usually result from some sort of micron - (same as micrometer) A linear measurement physical disturbance and may accelerate leaching. one millionth of a meter or 0.00003937 inch. manure - The excreta of animals, with or without the micronutrient - A mineral nutrient required by organ- admixture of bedding or litter, in varying stages of de- isms such as plants only in minute quantities (for ex- composition. ample, zinc, copper, and iron). Maximum Contaminant Level (MCL) - Maximum microorganism - (same as microbe) A simple organism permissible level of a contaminant in drinking water with microscopic dimensions. based on the maximum contaminant level goal and taking health risks and economic and technical considera- milligrams per liter (mg/L) - The weight of a sub- tions into account. The level is also known as a prima- stance measured in milligrams contained in 1 liter. It is ry drinking water standard and must be met at the tap for equivalent to a concentration of 1 part per million in public drinking water facilities. water. Maximum Contaminant Level Goal (MCLG) - A minimum tillage - That least amount of soil disturbance nonenforceable health-based goal set for a substance in required to create the proper soil condition for seed drinking water. Precedes establishment of a Maximum germination, plant establishment, and prevention of Contaminant Level. competitive growth. mechanical filtration - A water treatment process used molecule - The smallest part of a substance capable of primarily to remove sediment, iron, manganese, or sul- independent existence while retaining all of the prop- fur particles. Particles are physically trapped as water erties of the substance. Molecules may be one atom moves through a filter medium. Mechanical filtration de- or more than one atom. vices include cartridge sediment filters, media filters, mulch - A natural or artificial layer of plant residue or multimedia filters, and precoat filters. other materials such as sand or paper on the soil surface. mechanical practices - Soil and water conservation ARCHIVEmultimedia filter - A mechanical filter that consists of practices that primarily change the surface of the land or a tank, several layers of different filter media, a support that store, convey, regulate, or dispose of runoff water system, and an underdrain. Untreated water flows without excessive erosion. through the media layers; suspended solids are retained media filter - A mechanical filter that consists of a in the layers. tank, a single filter medium, a support system, and an mutual-prescription doctrine - A groundwater doctrine underdrain. Untreated water flows through the medium, stating that in the event of an overdraft of a groundwater aquifer, the available groundwater will be appor-

Glossary-11 tioned among all the users in amounts proportional to no-tillage - A method of planting crops that involves no their individual pumping rates. seedbed preparation other than opening the soil for the purpose of placing the seed at the intended depth. This National Primary Drinking Water Regulations usually involves opening a small slit or punching a (NPDWRs) - These regulations, developed by the U.S. hole into the soil. There is usually no cultivation during EPA, were designed to keep drinking water clean and crop production. Chemical weed control is normally protect the public from waterborne disease. These reg- used. Also referred to as slot planting or zero tillage. ulations define either a Maximum Contaminant Level or a treatment technique requirement to control the pres- nutrients - Compounds, minerals, or elements needed ence of contaminants in drinking water. by living organisms to carry on their functions. Nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, and other elements, for example, natural resource - Any component of the natural en- are required for plant growth. vironment, such as soil, water, rangeland, forest, wildlife, minerals, that humans can use to promote observation well - A nonpumping well used to ob- their welfare. serve the elevation of the water table or the potentiometric surface of a confined aquifer. neritic zone - The relatively warm, nutrient-rich, shallow water zone of the ocean that overlies the conti- off-line - Describes a home water treatment device that nental shelf; valuable in terms of fish production. is not connected to the water distribution system. Untreated water is added to the device manually. A neutralization - The addition of an acid to a base or a countertop distiller is an example. base to an acid to produce a neutral solution. Generally, neutral solutions are considered to have a pH of 7. See oligotrophic lake - A nutrient-poor lake characterized also pH. by sparse vegetation and low production of plankton and fish. Commonly found as deep mountainous lakes with nitrate - A highly oxidized anionic (NO -) form of ni- 3 sandy or gravelly bottoms at northern latitudes. trogen which is highly mobile in soil because of its water solubility and negative charge; a common com- oocyst - One stage in the life cycle of a large class of ponent of nitrogen fertilizers and a breakdown product parasites. of organic matter decomposition. Nitrate when reduced organic chemicals - Term refers to all chemical sub- to nitrite can cause methemoglobinemia in infants. A stances containing carbon. Hydrocarbons and their de- primary drinking water standard of 10 milligrams per rivatives such as paint thinner, most pesticides, and liter has been set by the EPA. gasoline belong to this group of chemicals. nitrate bacteria - Bacteria that have the ability to con- osmosis - Diffusion of a solvent such as water through vert nitrites into nitrates; essential bacteria in the cycling a semipermeable membrane; the membrane allows the of nitrogen. solvent to pass but not most dissolved substances. See - nitrite - A less oxidized anionic (NO2 ) form of nitrogen reverse osmosis (RO). which is toxic when ingested by humans and most osmotic pressure - When two solutions of differing mammals. It can cause methemoglobinemia and is sus- concentrations are separated by a semipermeable mem- pected of interacting with other chemicals in the body to brane (one permeable to water but not most dissolved form N-nitroso compounds, several of which are po- solids), the excess pressure applied to the higher-con- tential human carcinogens. A primary drinking water centration side to prevent water from moving across the standard has been set at 1 milligram per liter by the membrane. See also osmosis and reverse osmosis EPA. (RO). nitrate dumping - An event that occurs when sulfate overdraft - The process of removing more water from ions displace nitrate ions on an anion exchange resin. a supply than can be regularly replenished by precipi- This may result in a nitrate concentration in treated tation. water that is greater than that in untreated water. ARCHIVEovergrazing - Grazing so heavy that it impairs future nitrification - The biological oxidation of ammonium forage production and causes deterioration through salts to nitrites and the further oxidation of nitrites to ni- damage to plants or soil or both. trates; essential steps in the cycling of nitrogen. overland flow - The flow of water over a land surface nonpoint source pollution - Pollution that cannot be at- due to direct precipitation; occurs when the precipitation tributed to a specific point of entry into air or water. It is rate exceeds the infiltration capacity of the soil or de- the contamination of a widespread area from polluted pression storage is full. stormwater.

Glossary-12 oxidation - The process of removing one or more elec- from 1 to 14; neutral is pH 7.0, values below 7.0 are trons from an atom, ion, or molecule. Also referred to as acidic, values above 7.0 are alkaline. the chemical union of oxygen with metals or organic phosphates - Compounds used to tie up, or render in- compounds. The former process is an important factor active, metals or minerals in water. Phosphate use is in soil formation and corrosion; the latter process per- banned in some states. The chemical symbol for phos- mits the release of energy from cellular fuels (sugars and phate is “PO 3-.” See also algal bloom. fats). 4 photosynthesis - The process occurring in green plants oxidizing agent - Any chemical capable of oxidizing by which solar energy is utilized in the conversion of another substance. Oxygen, chlorine, and iodine are carbon dioxide and water into sugar. examples used in home water treatment. phreatic zone - The zone below the ground surface in ozone - A highly reactive gaseous form of pure oxygen, which all the pore spaces are filled with water. Also which contains three oxygen atoms instead of the more called saturated zone. common diatomic molecule of standard oxygen, and found in the upper atmosphere at elevations of about 20 phreatophyte - A type of plant that typically has a miles. Upper atmospheric ozone is critical in filtering ul- high rate of transpiration by virtue of a taproot extend- traviolet radiation from the sun, but ozone is considered ing to the water table. Examples include willow, cot- an air pollutant when produced by the interaction of sun- tonwood, saltgrass, and mesquite. light and hydrocarbons from internal combustion en- physical treatment - A water treatment process that re- gines at low elevations. Also, a chemical sometimes moves contaminants from water without the addition of used to disinfect drinking water. chemicals. parts per billion (ppb) - A measurement of concen- picocurie (pCi) - A unit of measure used to express ra- tration of 1 unit of material dispersed in 1 billion units dioactivity. of another. piezometer - A nonpumping well, generally of small di- parts per million (ppm) - A measurement of concen- ameter, that is used to measure the elevation of the tration of 1 unit of material dispersed in 1 million units water table or piezometric surface in a confined aquifer. of another. A piezometer generally has a short well screen through pathogen - A disease-causing agent such as a bacterium which water can enter. or a virus. piezometer nest - A set of two or more piezometers set percent recovery - A term used to describe the amount close to each other but screened to different depths. of water flowing into a reverse osmosis treatment device plankton - Tiny plants (algae) and animals (protozoa, that ultimately exits the device as treated water. See small crustaceans, fish embryos, insect larvae) that live also reverse osmosis (RO). in aquatic environments and are moved about by water percent rejection - A term used to describe the amount currents and wave action. of a specific contaminant or total dissolved solids that a plant nutrients - The elements or groups of elements reverse osmosis treatment device removes from water. taken in by a plant which are essential to its growth and See also reverse osmosis (RO). used in elaboration of its food and tissues. Includes percolation - Downward flow of water through pores or nutrients obtained from fertilizer ingredients. spaces in rock or soil. plant residue - See crop residue; humus. percolation test - A measure of the rate of water move- plow layer - The soil ordinarily moved in tillage; equiv- ment into soil. alent to surface soil. A 7-inch plow layer is equivalent to permeability - The capacity of a porous rock, sedi- about 2 million pounds or 1,000 tons of soil. ment, or soil to transmit water. ARCHIVEplow-plant - Plowing and planting a crop in one oper- pesticide - The general term applied to chemical sub- ation, with no additional seedbed preparation. stances used to control plant or animal pests; to in- point of entry - A term that describes a device that clude weeds, insects, fungi, mites, algae, rodents, and treats all water entering a household. other undesirable agents. point of use - A term that describes a device that treats pH - A numerical measure of acidity used to distinguish water at a single tap or multiple taps but not water for alkaline, neutral, and acidic water. The pH scale is the entire household.

Glossary-13 pollutant, water - Any substance suspended or dis- water distribution system. A pour-through countertop fil- solved in water which builds up in sufficient quantity to ter is not a pressure filter. impair its usefulness. primary drinking water standards - Drinking water pollution, nonpoint source - Pollution arising from standards set by the U.S. Environmental Protection an ill-defined and diffuse source, such as runoff from Agency for municipal water treatment facilities to reg- cultivated fields, grazing land, or urban areas. ulate levels of drinking water contaminants that affect human health. pollution, point source - Pollution that is discharged from an extremely restricted area or “point,” such as a primary sewage treatment - A rudimentary sewage smoke stack or sewage discharge pipe, etc. treatment that removes a substantial amount of the settleable solids and about 90 percent of the biological oxy- pollution, water - Any change in the character of water gen demand (BOD). adversely affecting its usefulness. A polluted state is not an absolute condition but a matter of degree. prior-appropriation doctrine - A doctrine stating that the right to use water is separate from other property polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB) - A hazardous envi- rights and that the first person to withdraw and use the ronmental pollutant that has various industrial applica- water holds the senior right. The doctrine has been ap- tions and tends to accumulate in animal tissues. plied to both ground and surface water. porosity - The degree to which the total volume of profundal zone - The bottom zone of a lake, which ex- soil, gravel, sediment, or rock is permeated with pores tends from the lake bottom upward to the limnetic or cavities through which water or air can move. zone; characterized by insufficient sunlight for photo- posttreatment - Installing a device after the primary synthesis. treatment in a home water treatment system. An exam- public trust doctrine - A legal theory holding that ple of posttreatment would be removing any lingering certain lands and waters in the public domain are held in chlorine taste or smell after chlorination. trust for use by the entire populace. The basic principle potable - Water of suitable quality for drinking without is that private rights to use water may be limited by the harmful effects. need to preserve environmental, scenic, recreational, or scientific areas that benefit all. It is especially ap- potassium permanganate - A dry, purplish solid used plicable to navigable waters. as an oxidizing agent in water treatment. The chemical symbol for potassium permanganate is “KMnO4.” See pumping cone - The area around a discharging well also oxidation. where the water level in the aquifer drops in the shape of a cone due to pumping. Also called cone of depression. potentiometric surface - The level to which water will rise in tightly cased wells. The water table is a quadrillion - The number 1 followed by 15 zeros. particular potentiometric surface for an unconfined quantification limit - The lower limit to the range in aquifer. which the concentration of a solute can be determined precipitation - Water deposited on the earth as hail, by a particular analytical instrument. mist, rain, sleet, or snow. radionuclides - Radioactive chemicals that usually precoat filter - A mechanical filter that consists of a fil- occur naturally, such as radium. Man-made radionu- ter tank, powdered filter aid, and a porous membrane clides may also contaminate water supplies, as a result called the septum. Untreated water mixes with the filter of fallout from the use of nuclear weapons or acciden- and forms a filter cake that coats the septum. The filter tal discharge from nuclear power plants. cake traps suspended solids. See also filter aid and radon - A colorless, odorless gas that is a natural by- septum. product of uranium decay and dissolves in groundwater. preferential treatment - An event that occurs when un- Radon is a health risk when inhaled. While it can enter treated water containsARCHIVE several contaminants that are the home environment by escaping from dispensed removable by a treatment device, but the device prefers groundwater, it is a more serious danger when it enters one over another. For example, an anion exchange unit the home as a gas through cracks in the foundation. prefers sulfate ions over nitrate ions, so sulfate ions rainfall intensity - The rate at which rain is falling at are removed more readily when both ions are present in any given instant, commonly expressed in inches per untreated water. hour. pressure filter - A filter such as a cartridge sediment filter or media filter that is installed in a pressurized home

Glossary-14 range of tolerance - The tolerance range of a species process of osmosis. In reverse osmosis, water flows for certain factors in its environment such as moisture, through a semipermeable membrane from a more con- temperature, radiation, micronutrients, oxygen, and centrated solution to a more dilute solution. See also os- pollutants. mosis. rapid infiltration - Land application technique in which rill - A small, intermittent water course with steep wastewater is applied to land and is allowed to percolate sides, usually only a few inches deep and, hence, no ob- through the soil and enter the groundwater, thereby stacle to tillage operations. treating the wastewater. riparian doctrine - A water-use doctrine whose basic reasonable use doctrine - A water-use doctrine whose premise is that water in its natural state, a watercourse, basic premise is that water from a watercourse may be can be used only on that land through which it flows. used for any purpose so long as quality and quantity of Has been more loosely interpreted to mean that adjacent flow are adequate for other downstream users. property owners have first right to withdraw the water. recharge - The addition of water to a surface water or risk estimate - The concentration of chemical esti- groundwater system by natural or artificial processes. mated to cause an “acceptable level” of risk. Used to set drinking water standards. recharge area - An area in which there is downward movement of water into an aquifer. rotation pasture - A cultivated area used as a pasture 1 or more years as part of a crop rotation sequence. recharge basin - A basin or pit excavated to accelerate groundwater recharge over what it would be naturally. row crop - A crop planted in rows, normally to allow cultivation between rows during the growing season. recharge boundary - An aquifer boundary such as a lake or stream that adds water to an aquifer. runoff - Direct or indirect flow of water which is not absorbed by soil, evaporated, or transpired by plants but recharge well - A well specifically designed so that which finds its way into streams or surface flow. It in- water can be pumped into an aquifer in order to recharge cludes overland flow, return flow, interflow, and base- the groundwater reservoir. flow. regeneration - A maintenance process that restores safe yield - The amount of groundwater which can be the contaminant removal capacity of filter media. continually produced from an aquifer, economically, Regeneration may involve using a concentrated solution and legally without having adverse effect on the ground- that is passed through the treatment device to remove water resource or surrounding environment. contained contaminants and restore the contaminant removal capacity. salinity - The concentration of dissolved salts in water. reservoir - Impounded body of water or controlled salinization - The accumulation of salts on land which lake in which water is collected or stored. renders it unsuitable for crop production. An adverse effect of irrigating land which has poor drainage, low resin - A petrochemical shaped into small beads that ex- rainfall or high evaporation with water containing exchanges unwanted ions in water with less objectionable cessive levels of dissolved salts. ions. The exchange occurs in an ion exchange device such as a water softener or anion exchange unit. salt-water intrusion - Movement of saline water into an aquifer or a saturated area previously containing fresh resin tank - The main component of a water softener or water. Generally occurs in coastal areas when fresh demineralizer unit that contains the ion exchange resin. water has been withdrawn more rapidly than it can be Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA) - recharged. Also called saline or salt-water encroach- Under terms of this act the EPA was given full author- ment. ity to control pollution by solid waste. Amendments in- sand - Soil material that contains 85 percent or more of cluded control of pollution from liquid wastes. ARCHIVEsand. return flow - That portion of irrigation water that flows saturated zone - A portion of the soil profile where all back into a stream from which it was pumped. This pores are filled with water. Aquifers are located in this water generally contains a higher concentration of salts, zone. There may be multiple saturated zones at different especially in arid climates, than the originally pumped soil depths separated by layers of clay or rock. water, due to accelerated evapotranspiration losses. secondary drinking water standards - See secondary reverse osmosis (RO) - A process that uses applied standards. pressure to reverse the flow of water in the natural

Glossary-15 secondary sewage treatment - A more advanced type sheet flow - Water, usually storm runoff, flowing in a of sewage treatment than primary treatment that in- thin layer over the ground surface. Same as overland volves both mechanical and biological (bacterial ac- flow. tion) phases; although superior to primary treatment, sewage - The solid human waste and human-generated much of the phosphates and nitrates remain in the ef- wastes that are normally discharged into wastewater fluent. transported through sewers. secondary standards - These drinking water stan- sewer - An artificial conduit, usually underground, for dards, sometimes called Secondary Maximum carrying off wastewater and refuse, as in a town or Contaminant Levels (SMCLs), address taste, odor, city. color, and other aesthetic aspects of drinking water that do not present health risks. These guidelines are rec- sewer, combined - A sewer system that does not sepa- ommended as reasonable goals, but federal law does not rate storm sewer conduits from sanitary sewer con- require water systems to comply with them; however, duits. All water in the system flows to a wastewater some states do choose to enforce them. treatment plant. Such systems are subject to overflow during high stormwater runoff events. scum - Fats, oils, and other light-weight solids that float on the surface of wastewater in septic tanks. sewer, sanitary - A sewer system that carries only sewage waste to a wastewater treatment plant. If a san- sediment - Solid material, both mineral and organic, that itary sewer is part of a combined system, stormwater is in suspension, is being transported, or has been may be mixed with sewage water causing overflows moved from its site of origin by air, water, gravity, or ice or lack of adequate treatment during high runoff situa- and has come to rest on the earth’s surface either above tions. or below water level. sewer, storm - A sewer system that transports storm and sediment discharge - The quantity of sediment, mea- surface runoff, in most cases directly to a receiving sured in dry weight or by volume, transported through water body (river, lake, stream) without treatment. a stream cross-section in a given time. Sediment dis- However, if a storm sewer is part of a combined system, charge consists of both suspended load and bedload. stormwater and sewage are transported in a single pipe. sediment yield - The quantity of sediment arriving at a siltation - The filling up of a stream or reservoir with specific location. water-borne sediment. sedimentation - The movement of sediment. The ad- sinkhole - A depression in the landscape, commonly dition of soils to lakes which is part of the natural where limestone has been dissolved in karst terrain. aging process. Also the drinking water treatment process of letting heavy particles in raw water settle out into slope - Degree of deviation of a surface from the hori- holding ponds or basins before filtration. zontal, usually expressed in percent or degrees. seepage - Percolation of water through the soil from un- sludge - Solids removed from wastewater or raw water lined canals, ditches, watercourses, or water storage in the process of treatment; the heavy, partially de- facilities. composed solids found in the bottom of a septic tank. septic tank - Part of a conventional septic system in soda ash - The most common name for sodium car- which all of the wastewaters from the home should bonate, a chemical compound used to raise the pH of flow. acidic water to prevent corrosion. The chemical symbol for soda ash is “Na CO .” See also corrosion. septum - A porous membrane in a precoat filter that can 2 3 be fabric, bronze, stainless steel, or a wire-wrapped sodium hydroxide - (called caustic or lye) A white cylinder. The septum supports the filter aid. See also solid that is used to raise the pH of acidic water in precoat filter. order to prevent corrosion. Sodium hydroxide is a hazardous chemical and must be handled and stored with sequestering agent - AARCHIVE chemical that “ties up” or com- care. The chemical symbol for sodium hydroxide is bines with objectionable substances in water, thus min- “NaOH.” See also corrosion. imizing their negative impact on water quality. softening - The process of exchanging calcium and service flow rate - The volume of water that flows magnesium ions in water for sodium or potassium ions through a specific area of a household water distribution to prevent hardness. See also cation exchange and system per minute, per hour, or per day. hardness.

Glossary-16 soil-conserving crops - Crops that prevent or retard ero- stabilization - The controlled decomposition of or- sion and maintain or replenish rather than deplete soil ganic material in wastewater. Usually accomplished organic matter. by heat or raising pH above 12 for a period of time. soil erosion - The detachment and movement of soil stabilized grade - The slope of a channel at which from the land surface by wind or water. See erosion. neither erosion nor deposition occurs. soil management - The sum total of all tillage opera- storm hydrograph - A graph of the discharge of a tions, cropping practices, fertilizer, lime, and other stream over the time period when, in addition to direct treatments conducted on, or applied to, a soil for the pro- precipitation, overland flow, interflow, and return flow duction of plants. are adding to the flow of the stream. The stream flow will peak owing to these additional flow elements. soil organic matter - The organic fraction of the soil that includes plant and animal residues at various stages strip-cropping - An agricultural practice in which an of decomposition, cells and tissues of soil organisms, open row crop (corn, cotton, potatoes) is alternated and substances synthesized by the soil population. with strips of a cover crop (alfalfa, clover, grass) to Commonly determined as the amount of organic mate- minimize soil erosion. rial contained in a soil sample passed through a 2-mil- stubble - The basal portion of plants remaining after the limeter sieve. top portion has been harvested; also, the portion of the soil profile - A cross-sectional view of a particular soil plants, principally grasses, remaining after grazing is type in which the characteristic layers or horizons are completed. well represented. stubble mulch - The stubble of crops or crop residues soil structure - The combination or arrangement of left essentially in place on the land as a surface cover primary soil particles into secondary particles, units, or during fallow and the growing of a succeeding crop. peds. The secondary units are characterized and classi- submersible pump - A pump that allows the motor to fied on the basis of size, shape, and degree of distinct- be submerged in a well below the water surface. This ness into classes, types, and grades, respectively. A type of pump is required if water must be lifted more soil with good structure has a spongy or crumbly qual- than 25 feet. Also called a deep-well pump. ity with an abundance of pores through which water and oxygen can move. subsoiling - The tillage of subsurface soil, without inversion, for the purpose of breaking up dense layers that soil texture - The relative proportions of the various size restrict water movement and root penetration. particles in a soil. The four categories of particles ranging from smallest to largest are clay, silt, sand, and suction pump - A pump that allows the motor to remain gravel. Textural classes may be modified by the addition above the surface of the water. Water is sucked through of suitable adjectives when coarse fragments are present a pipe lowered into the water. Not effective at depths in substantial amounts; for example, gravelly silt loam. greater than 25 feet. Also called a shallow-well pump. Sand, loamy sand, and sandy loam are further subdi- summer fallow - The tillage of uncropped land during vided on the basis of the proportions of the various the summer in order to control weeds and conserve sand separates present. moisture in the soil for the growth of a later crop. spring, contact - Type of spring that forms at a litho- Superfund Act (CERCLA) - The act that provided a logic contact where a unit of more permeable material fund to the EPA for the purpose of cleaning up ex- overlies less permeable or impermeable material. tremely hazardous waste sites. spring, depression - Type of spring that forms when the surface water - Water located on the land surface in- water table reaches a land surface because of a change cluding lakes, rivers, streams, and oceans. in topography. suspended solids - Small particles of solid pollutants in spring, fault - A spring created by the movement of two ARCHIVEsewage that cause cloudiness; can generally be removed rock units on a fault, allowing water to reach the surface. by flocculation with subsequent mechanical filtration. spring, fracture - A spring created by fracturing or synergistic pollutant effect - A condition in which jointing of the rock of a confined aquifer. the toxic effect of two or more pollutants (copper, zinc, spring, sinkhole - A spring created by groundwater heat) is much greater than the sum of the effects of flowing from a sinkhole in karst terrain. the pollutants when operating individually.

Glossary-17 terrace - An embankment or combination of an em- toxic - Harmful to human or animal life. Toxic sub- bankment and channel constructed across a slope to stances can cause health effects through chronic (long- control erosion by diverting or storing surface runoff in- term) consumption of small amounts. Exposure to high stead of permitting it to flow uninterrupted down the concentrations may cause immediate (acute) health ef- slope. Terraces or terrace systems may be classified fects. by their alignment, gradient, outlet, and cross-section. toxicity - A quantitative measure of health injury caused Alignment is parallel or non-parallel. Gradient may be by a particular chemical through exposure by eating, level, uniformly graded, or variably graded. Grade is breathing, drinking, or absorption through the skin. often incorporated to permit paralleling the terraces. Outlets may be soil infiltration only, vegetated water- Toxic Substances Control Act (TSCA) - This act ways, tile outlets, or combinations of these. Cross-sec- makes it mandatory for a company to notify the EPA 90 tions may be narrow base, broad base, bench, steep days in advance of its intention to manufacture a new backslope, flat channel, or channel. chemical. If the potential toxic effects and environmental danger is too great, the EPA will not give the terrace interval - Distance measured either vertically or company permission to produce the chemical. horizontally between corresponding points on two adjacent terraces. transpiration - The process by which water passes as vapor from organisms, especially plants, through mem- tertiary sewage treatment - The most advanced type of branes or pores to the atmosphere. sewage treatment, which not only removes the BOD and the solids, but also most of the phosphorus, nitrates, and transportation - The movement of detached soil ma- other chemicals. Also called advance sewage treat- terial across the land surface or through the air. May be ment. accomplished by running water, wind, or gravity. Soil erosion. thermocline - The middle layer of water in a lake in summer characterized by a temperature gradient of transverse dispersion - The dispersion of a solute or more than 1¡C per meter of depth. contaminant in a direction perpendicular to the direction of groundwater flow. throughflow - Lateral movement of water through soil. Also called interflow. treatment technique requirement - This requirement is set for contaminants in drinking water that are difficult tillage - The operation of implements through the soil to or costly to measure and is used instead of Maximum prepare seedbeds and root beds. Contaminant Level (MCL). Under this requirement, time of concentration - The time it takes for water to specific water treatment practices, such as filtration or flow from the most distant part of the drainage basin corrosion control, may be required. (watershed) to the measuring point. trihalomethanes (THMs) - Disinfection by-products total acidity of water - Since carbon dioxide is an formed when chlorine reacts with organic matter during acid, water containing salts and carbon dioxide is said to disinfection of drinking water. They are known car- have acidity if its pH is below 8.3. The milliequivalents cinogens. per liter of standard base (reported as calcium carbonate turbidity - A measure of the cloudiness in water caused equivalent), required to raise water from its initial pH to by suspended material. It can interfere with disinfection pH 8.3 is equivalent to its total acidity. of drinking water by shielding microorganisms, thus al- total alkalinity - The total concentration of bases in lowing live pathogens to enter a water system. water expressed in milligrams per liter of calcium car- ultraviolet (UV) light - Radiation ranging from 60 to bonate equivalent. Measured by titrating a water sample 390 nanometers in wavelength. Ultraviolet light has a with standard acid from its initial pH to pH 4.5. Waters shorter wavelength than visible light and a longer wave- with pH below 4.5 have no alkalinity. length than X rays. At wavelengths between 200 and total dissolved solidsARCHIVE (TDS) - The total residue, ex- 300 nanometers, it has a strong germicidal ability and is pressed in milligrams per liter, remaining after evapo- used to disinfect drinking water. Most UV lamps used in ration of a water sample first filtered to remove sus- home water treatment produce light in the range of pended matter. An indicator of dissolved salts or salinity. 260 nanometers. total solids - The weight, in milligrams per liter, of undergrazing - An intensity of grazing in which the the residue remaining after evaporation to dryness of an forage available for consumption under a system of unfiltered sample. An indicator of total nonvolatile con- conservation pasture management is not used to best ad- taminants. vantage. Contrast with overgrazing.

Glossary-18 universal soil loss equation - An equation used for the sediment detention (does not refer to legal control or design of water erosion control systems: A = RKLSCP water rights as defined). wherein A = average annual soil loss in tons per acre per water density - The standard of 1 gram per cubic cen- year; R = rainfall factor; K = soil erodibility factor; L = timeter for comparing other substances. Water is most length of slope; S = percent of slope; C = cropping dense at 39¡F and expands (becomes less dense) at and management factor; and P = conservation practice both higher and lower temperatures. factor. (T = soil loss tolerance value that has been assigned each soil, expressed T/A/Year.) water, fossil - Groundwater that was buried at the same time as the original sediment which holds the water. unloading - The process by which contaminants are released from a treatment device into treated water. water, juvenile - Water entering the hydrologic cycle for Unloading occurs when a device is allowed to operate the first time. beyond the point of breakthrough and may result in water, phreatic - Water in the zone of saturation. higher contaminant concentration in treated water than in untreated water. Especially important in ion ex- water quality criteria - The chemical, physical, and bi- change and adsorption processes. ological properties of water that affects its suitability for a particular purpose. unsaturated zone - A portion of the soil profile which contains both water and air. The zone between the land water, raw - Untreated surface or groundwater. surface and the water table. These soil formations do not water renewal - The amount of water required to re- yield usable amounts of free-flowing water. Also called place or to replenish surface water or groundwater vol- zone of aeration and vadose zone. ume during a given time interval. vadose zone - The unsaturated zone of aeration in a soil, water system, community - A public water system where pore spaces are only partially filled with water. that has at least 15 service connections for year-round virus - One of a group of microscopic, self-reproducing residents or that serves at least 25 year-round residents. organisms that infect humans, animals, and plants with water system, large - A drinking water system that disease. Viruses range from about 0.01 to 0.4 microns in serves more than 10,000 people. diameter. water system, public - A system that has 15 or more volatile organic chemicals (VOCs) - Organic chemicals service connections or that regularly serves at least 25 that will form a gas when they come in contact with air. people a day for at least 60 days each year. Public wastewater - Used water from sewage treatment plants, water systems are divided into two categories: com- septic systems, or industrial processing. munity water systems and noncommunity water systems. wastewater treatment - The process of removing pollutants from used water. water system, medium - A drinking water system that serves 3,301 to 10,000 people. wastewater treatment, primary - The process of physically removing sand, grit, and larger solids from wastewater system, noncommunity - A public water system water. that does not meet the definition of a community water system. Noncommunity water systems can be either wastewater treatment, secondary - The process of transient noncommunity water systems or nontransient biologically removing contaminants that are dissolved noncommunity water systems. in wastewater. water system, noncommunity, nontransient - This wastewater treatment, tertiary - The process of chem- public water system serves the same 25 or more people ically removing or filtering more suspended solids, or- a day for at least 6 months a year. Examples include ganic matter, nitrogen, phosphorus, heavy metals, or schools, factories, and other work places that have their bacteria from wastewater. ARCHIVEown drinking water supply. water, connate - Water below the land surface that water system, noncommunity, transient - This public has been out of contact with the atmosphere for an ap- water system typically serves travelers and others who preciable part of a geologic age. are “passing through” or staying temporarily at locations water control (soil and water conservation) - The such as highway rest stops, restaurants, and public physical control of water by such measures as conser- parks. These systems serve at least 25 people a day vation practices on the land, channel improvements, for at least 60 days a year, but typically do not serve the and installation of structures for water retardation and same people each day.

Glossary-19 water system, small - A drinking water system that land species for wildlife food or cover, stream and serves fewer than 3,300 people. other banks with woodland cover, etc. It also includes farmland and other lands on which woody vegetation is water system, very small - Generally defined as a to be established and maintained. drinking water system that serves fewer than 500 people. Winters doctrine - A United States doctrine holding water system, very large - Generally defined as a that when Indian reservations were established, the water system that serves more than 50,000 people. federal government also reserved the water rights nec- watershed - The total area drained by a particular essary to make the land productive. stream; may range from a few square miles in the case woodland management - The management of wood- of a small stream to thousands of square miles in the lands and plantations that have passed the establishment case of the Mississippi River. Same as drainage basin. stage, including all measures designed to improve the water table - The surface of an unconfined groundwa- quality and quantity of woodland growing stock and to ter body defining the top of the saturated zone. maintain litter and herbaceous ground cover for soil, water, and other resource conservation. Some of these weed - A plant out of place. measures are planting, improvement cutting, thinning, well cap (seal) - A device used to cover the top of a well pruning, slash disposal, and protection from fire and casing pipe. grazing. wellhead protection area - The surface and subsurface xerophyte - A desert plant capable of existing by virtue area surrounding a water well or wellfield supplying a of a shallow and extensive root system in an area of public water system. minimal water. well screen - A device fitted to the bottom of the well xeriscaping - The use of drought-tolerant landscaping casing which allows water to enter the well freely but plants that do not require supplemental watering. prevents the entrance of coarse sand. Generally, the plants selected are native to the area in which they are used. wheel-track planting - Plowing and planting in separate operations with the seed planted in the wheel tracks. zeolite - A synthetic resin that is a crystalline formulation of aluminates and silicates. Depending on how it is wilting point - The soil-moisture content below which prepared, zeolite can be used as an oxidizing agent or plants are unable to withdraw soil moisture. ion exchange resin. woodland - Any land used primarily for growing trees zone of influence - The area of an aquifer that is af- and shrubs. Woodland includes, in addition to what is fected by a pumping well or the area in which ground- ordinarily termed “forest” or “forest plantations,” shel- water is actually flowing toward a well. terbelts, windbreaks, wide hedgerows containing wood- zooplankton - Minute animals (protozoans, crustaceans, fish embryos, insect larvae) that live in a lake, stream, or ocean and are moved aimlessly by water currents and wave action. ARCHIVE

Glossary-20