DOCSLIB.ORG

War, Clausewitz, and the Trinity

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
War, Clausewitz, and the Trinity University of Warwick institutional repository: http://go.warwick.ac.uk/wrap A Thesis Submitted for the Degree of PhD at the University of Warwick http://go.warwick.ac.uk/wrap/2048 This thesis is made available online and is protected by original copyright. Please scroll down to view the document itself. Please refer to the repository record for this item for information to help you to cite it. Our policy information is available from the repository home page. War, Clausewitz, and the Trinity Thomas Waldman Thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of PhD Department of Politics and International Studies University of Warwick June 2009 Table of Contents 1. Introduction 8 2. Theoretical Foundations 48 3. Context and Circumstance 98 4. Policy: War as an Instrument 150 5. Chance: The Realm of Uncertainty 210 6. Passion: The Blind Natural Force 275 7. Interactions: The Trinity as a Unity 337 8. Conclusion and Reflections 365 APPENDIX I - Alternative Translations of the Trinity 382 APPENDIX II - Military Historical Overview 385 Bibliography 389 For my Dad Frederick Waldman 1922-1996 Acknowledgements Acknowledgements This thesis would not have been possible without the kind help, support, and patience of all my family, friends, and colleagues. I would like to express my deepest gratitude to everyone who has, in one way or another, supported me throughout this time. If I have not mentioned you below, you know who you are! In particular I would like to thank: Janie, Jack, and Dan the Man; Anne, Phil, and Williamus; Ruth and Jessica Townend, Claire Taylor, Cameron Christie, Jessie Scott, Nick Turner, Ben Collard, Ben McGregor, James Buffoni, Nick Corney, Sam Fletcher, John Roberts, and Tom Fisher…and not to forget Pep, RIP. A huge debt of gratitude is owed to Mr Jackson. Your inspirational, engaging, and informed teaching first sparked my interest in history, war, and international politics. I hope you approve of the present ‘essay’! Thanks to all my fellow ‘PhDers’, but two friends deserve special mention: Ben Richardson and Andy Mumford. I am extremely grateful to my ‘technical advisor’, Steve Clarke – I can’t begin to imagine how much time you saved me with your knowledge of macros, styles, and master-documents! Paul and Jo Snell, I have benefited immensely from your ever-constructive criticisms, comments, and sage advice over the years. Duncan Kelly, thank you for your sagacious guidance and kind support. Kevin Murphy, I am immensely grateful for your generous hospitality during my time at Penn State University. Andy Snell, thank you so much for your stoic toleration of my endless concerns and worries, which I hope did not mar too many treks in the Lakes and elsewhere. You, Dave, and Matt – as surrogate brothers – have persisted nobly in ensuring I retained a healthy sense of ‘perspective’! Acknowledgements I have been so lucky to have such a wonderful supervisor in Professor Caroline Kennedy-Pipe. Without your encouragement and belief in me, I doubt whether I would have had the courage to undertake this thesis. Not only have you been a superb mentor, but also a great friend and true inspiration. In your approach to supervision, I cannot help but be reminded of Clausewitz’s observation that ‘ a wise teacher guides and stimulates a young man’s intellectual development, but is careful not to lead him by the hand for the rest of his life.’ My brother Matt – I can’t thank you enough for all your encouragement and wise direction. Your two years work with Oxfam in Afghanistan has contributed inestimably to the promotion of sensible policies towards that poor country. I couldn’t have bigger footsteps to fill, so thanks for the ‘piggy-backs’ you’ve given me from time to time! Finally, Mum – who has had to endure more discussions about war than any parent should ever have to – I always admire your courage, generosity, and joie de vivre . Without your unstinting love and support (both moral and financial I admit!) I simply would never have completed this thesis. I hope Dad would be proud. Declaration Declaration I hereby declare that this thesis has not already been accepted in substance for any degree, and is not currently submitted in candidature for any other degree. It is the result of my own independent investigation, and all authorities and sources which have been consulted are acknowledged in the Bibliography. Signed ……………………… Thomas Waldman Date ……………… Abstract Abstract Today, the ideas of Carl von Clausewitz are employed almost ubiquitously in strategic studies, military history, and defence literature, sometimes at length, at others only in passing. Certain of his central insights have suffered distorting representations in recent years. This study is an attempt to analyse Clausewitz’s central theoretical device for understanding war – the ‘remarkable trinity’ of politics, chance, and passion. It aims to present a more accurate conception and one which is truer to Clausewitz’s intentions. It seeks to achieve this through an in-depth analysis and reinterpretation of the text of On War and Clausewitz’s other writings, conducted through the prism of the trinity and in the light of contemporary research on war. It draws on and synthesises many excellent existing studies, but argues that there is room for further clarification. It presents fresh perspectives into certain aspects of Clausewitz’s thought and emphasises elements of his theory that have been neglected. The interpretation is founded on three central approaches which place Clausewitz in historical context, considers critiques of his ideas, and recognises that the trinity cannot be understood in isolation, but rests upon ideas found in Clausewitz’s wider work. The trinity is a uniquely powerful framework for understanding the phenomenon of war. It cannot hope to answer all the strategic problems we face today – that was simply not what Clausewitz intended – but rather constitutes a mental guide for anyone interested in the subject, from commanders to university students. It focuses attention on the central underlying forces of war in their endlessly complex interaction. Once allowances are made for abstruse terminology and irregularities given the unfinished nature of On War , it is hoped that this thesis will underscore the timelessness of the trinity. Introduction CHAPTER ONE Introduction Writing in the early nineteenth century, Carl von Clausewitz (1780-1831), a Prussian general, produced what is perhaps the most famous book on the nature and theory of war. Indeed, Bernard Brodie wrote that his masterpiece On War , ‘is not simply the greatest but the only true great book on war.’ 1 Harry Summers wrote that in ‘military science…On War is still the seminal work.’ 2 Christopher Coker describes Clausewitz as ‘the greatest phenomenologist of war.’ 3 His book is ‘often mentioned, occasionally quoted, but little read.’ 4 We might also add to that list, frequently misunderstood: a fact that has engendered ‘misinterpretations of enormous consequence.’ 5 Studies employing or drawing upon purportedly Clausewitzian insights, that demonstrate little evidence of deep familiarity with the text, continue to proliferate. Clausewitz is mentioned almost ubiquitously in strategic studies and military historical literature and often in an extremely instrumental fashion. His ideas are utilised in a very selective and cursory manner, so that he appears everywhere but often only in passing. The real Clausewitz is often lost in a mass of fleeting references, most of which are misleading or do not fully convey the complexity of his arguments. Many modern popular works on war deploy supposedly Clausewitzian ideas which are almost unrecognisable to anyone with a moderate acquaintance with his work, or which present such crude, often derivative, representations as to appear almost satirical. Most striking is the disproportion between the towering status of his name and how little he appears to have been read in any great depth. As is often the fate of great works, they are scavenged for ideas to lend gravitas to spuriously related arguments. 1 Bernard Brodie, ‘The Continuing Relevance of On War ’, in Carl von Clausewitz, On War , trans. and ed. Michael Howard and Peter Paret (New York: Everyman’s Library, 1993), p. 58. 2 Harry Summers, On Strategy: The Vietnam War in Context (Honolulu: University Press of the Pacific, 2003), p. 4. 3 Christopher Coker, Waging War Without Warriors? The Changing Culture of Military Conflict (London: Lynne Rienner, 2002), p. 54. 4 Christopher Bellamy, Knights in White Armour: The New Art of War and Peace (London: Pimlico, 1998), p. 25. This is a quote which itself is often mentioned, but one suspects, rarely acted upon. 5 Beatrice Heuser, Reading Clausewitz (London: Pimlico, 2002), p. x. 8 Introduction It has been written that, in order to avoid such endless misunderstanding, On War ‘has to be studied repeatedly, seriously, and in depth.’ 6 The irony that this was written by one of Clausewitz’s most mistaken interpreters should not detract from the wisdom of the injunction. 7 Most crucially, Clausewitz must be studied in context; as Peter Paret notes: ‘Every theory that outlasts its creator tends to be reinterpreted unhistorically…Clausewitz’s writings have suffered the attendant distortions more than most.’ 8 Also, Azar Gat has stressed that the ‘obscurity of Clausewitz’s text has continually left room for conflicting and unhistorical interpretations.’ 9 Of course, secondary interpretations are inevitably subjective, however this does not prevent us from recognising where some are clearly superior to others. The prominent sources of forgivable misinterpretations are well-known: the unfinished text, the inherent difficulty of some of the ideas, the use of outdated concepts, and problems associated with translation. The only means of overcoming these potential interpretative pitfalls is through a detailed reading of On War and Clausewitz’s wider work, attempting to understanding the man himself, and situating his ideas in the time they were written, as well as drawing upon a range of secondary analyses, which are themselves based on rigorous research.
Load more

Recommended publications
  • Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujibur Rahman Science and Technology
    Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujibur Rahman Science and Technology University, Gopalganj Department of International Relations Syllabus for Bachelor of Social Science (Hons) Session: 2015- 2016 to 2018- 2019 1st Year 1st Semester, Examination-2016 Course Course Title Contact hours per week Credits No. IR 101 Introduction to International Relations 3 3 IR 102 History of International Relations 3 3 IR 103 Ideas and Issues in Political Science 3 3 IR 104 Contemporary Global Issues 3 3 IR 105 Principles of Economics 3 3 IR 106 Bangabandhu in International Relations 3 3 IR 119 Viva Voce 2 Total Credits 20 1st Year 2nd Semester, Examination-2016 Course No. Course Title Contact hours per week Credits IR 151 History of Bangladesh 3 3 IR 152 Ideologies in World Affair 3 3 IR 153 International Institutions 3 3 IR 154 Fundamentals of Sociology 3 3 IR 155 The Economy of Bangladesh 3 3 IR 156 Academic English Writing 2 2 IR 169 Viva Voce 2 Total Credits 19 2nd Year 1st Semester, Examination-2017 Course No. Course Title Contact hours per week Credits IR 201 Major Political Ideas of the West and the Orient 3 3 IR 202 Media and Mass Communication 3 3 IR 203 Refugees, Migrants and the Displaced 3 3 IR 204 Theories of International Relations 3 3 IR 205 Politics and Government in Bangladesh 3 3 IR 229 Viva Voce 2 Total Credits 17 2nd Year 2nd Semester, Examination-2017 Course No. Course Title Contact hours per week Credits IR 251 International Political Economy 3 3 IR 252 Media Maneuvering and World Politics 3 3 IR 253 Theories and Problems of Ethnicity and 3 3 Nationalism IR 254 International Law 3 3 IR 255 Jurisprudence 2 2 IR 279 Viva Voce 2 Total Credits 16 3rd Year 1st Semester, Examination-2018 Course No.
    [Show full text]
  • LBF Gentz 12369 00Front.Indd
    The Origin and Principles of the American Revolution, Compared with the Origin and Principles of the French Revolution Friedrich Gentz The Origin and Principles of the American Revolution, Compared with the Origin and Principles of the French Revolution Friedrich Gentz Translated by John Quincy Adams Edited and with an Introduction by Peter Koslowski Liberty Fund, Inc. Indianapolis This book is published by Liberty Fund, Inc., a foundation established to encourage study of the ideal of a society of free and responsible individuals. The cuneiform inscription that serves as our logo and as the design motif for our endpapers is the earliest- known written appearance of the word “freedom” (amagi), or “liberty.” It is taken from a clay document written about 2300 b.c. in the Sumerian city- state of Lagash. Introduction, editorial additions, and index © 2010 by Liberty Fund, Inc. All rights reserved Printed in the United States of America C 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 P 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Library of Congress Cataloging- in- Publication Data Gentz, Friedrich von, 1764–1832. [Ursprung und die Grundsätze der Amerikanischen Revolution, verglichen mit dem Ursprunge und den Grundsätzen der Französischen. English.] The origin and principles of the American Revolution, compared with the origin and principles of the French Revolution / Friedrich Gentz; translated by John Quincy Adams; edited and with an introduction by Peter Koslowski. p. cm. “Translation of Der Ursprung und die Grundsätze der Amerikanischen Revolution, verglichen mit dem Ursprung und den Grundsätzen der Französischen. Reprinted with minor corrections from the 1800 edition published by A.
    [Show full text]
  • Why Is There No Reactionary International Theory? Authors
    This is a pre-copyedited, author-produced version of an article accepted for publication in International Studies Quarterly following peer review. The version of record Joseph MacKay, Christopher David LaRoche, Why Is There No Reactionary International Theory?, International Studies Quarterly, Volume 62, Issue 2, June 2018, Pages 234–244, https://doi.org/10.1093/isq/ sqx083 https://academic.oup.com/journals/pages/access_purchase/rights_and_permissions/self_archiving_policy_f (Publisher journal website 15/5/2019) Why Is There No Reactionary International Theory? Authors: Joseph MacKay ([email protected]) Postdoctoral Research Fellow Harriman Institute Columbia University Christopher David LaRoche Doctoral Candidate Political Science University of Toronto Abstract: Why is there no reactionary international theory? International Relations has long drawn on a range of traditions in political thought. However, no current or recent major IR- theoretic school is expressly reactionary. This is surprising both because reaction was once common in IR, and is now common in world politics. We define reaction as a form of political nostalgia: a belief the past was better than the present and likely future, generally accompanied by a desire to recover that prior condition. The current lack of reactionary IR impacts the field’s capacity to make sense both of its own history and of reactionary practice in the world. In this exploratory account, we provide a definition of reaction, then show no current school of IR theory falls within it—but that it nonetheless once deeply shaped the field. We survey reactionary ideas in the history of political thought, finding a cogent and persistent tradition. We then explore the impact of reactionary ideas on the practice of world politics, identifying two distinct varieties of reactionary state and illustrating them empirically.
    [Show full text]
  • The 'Ignominious Fall of the European Commonwealth': Gentz
    The ‘Ignominious Fall of the European Commonwealth’ : Gentz, Hauterive, and the Armed Neutrality of 1800 Isaac Nakhimovsky Introduction The status of neutral commerce during times of war was one of the questions addressed by a major Anglo-French debate about the character of the European state system that took place around 1800.1 These debates took place in anticipation of a general peace settlement, which became particularly acute following Napoleon’s success in driving the Habsburgs out of Italy and Russia’s growing estrangement from its allies in the Second Coalition against France. In debating the shape of this coming settlement, both sides presented competing accounts of what had happened to the previous European states system, or, in eighteenth-century terms, the European Republic. The question on the surface of this debate was how to assign responsibility for what one of the chief participants, Friedrich von Gentz, later called “the ignominious fall of the European Commonwealth” in the wake of the French Revolution.2 This was inevitably a rather polemical discussion, but as this article aims to show, underlying it was a clash between important models of the European states system. Moreover, each of these models had a well-developed historiographical dimension. At the core of the contest was the question of how the development of the European states system had been impacted by the rise of 1 Important discussions of these debates include F.H. Hinsley, Power and the Pursuit of Peace: Theory and Practice in the History of Relations Between States (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1963), pp. 186–94; Murray Forsyth, “The Old European States-System: Gentz vs.
    [Show full text]
  • Edmund Burke's German Readers at the End of Enlightenment, 1790-1815 Jonathan Allen Green Trinity Hall, University of Cambridg
    Edmund Burke’s German Readers at the End of Enlightenment, 1790-1815 Jonathan Allen Green Trinity Hall, University of Cambridge September 2017 This dissertation is submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. Declaration This dissertation is the result of my own work and includes nothing which is the outcome of work done in collaborations except as declared in the Declaration and specified in the text. All translations, unless otherwise noted or published in anthologies, are my own. It is not substantially the same as any that I have submitted, or, is being concurrently submitted for a degree or diploma or other qualification at the University of Cambridge or any other University of similar institution except as declared in the Declaration and specified in the text. I further state that no substantial part of my dissertation has already been submitted, or, is being concurrently submitted for any such degree, diploma or other qualification at the University of Cambridge or any other University or similar institution except as declared in the Declaration and specified in the text. It does not exceed the prescribed word limit for the Faculty of History Degree Committee (80,000 words). Statement of Word Count: This dissertation comprises 79,363 words. 1 Acknowledgements Writing this dissertation was a challenge, and I am immensely grateful to the many friends and colleagues who helped me see it to completion. Thanks first of all are due to William O’Reilly, who supervised the start of this research during my MPhil in Political Thought and Intellectual History (2012-2013), and Christopher Meckstroth, who subsequently oversaw my work on this thesis.
    [Show full text]
  • Faculty of Philosophy the American Philosophical
    RUPRECHT-KARLS-UNIVERSITÄT HEIDELBERG FACULTY OF PHILOSOPHY THE AMERICAN PHILOSOPHICAL FOUNDATIONS OF THE CHILEAN FREE MARKET REVOLUTION BY AXEL KAISER BARENTS- VON HOHENHAGEN A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY ADVISOR: FIRST ADVISOR: KATJA PATZEL-MATTERN SECOND ADVISOR: MARTIN THUNERT HEIDELBERG, GERMANY JULY 25, 2014 Acknowledgments This work would not have been possible without the vital support provided by generous people and institutions. I want to thank the Friedrich Nauman Stiftung für die Freiheit for granting me a scholarship financed with means of the Bundesministerium für Bildung und Forschung. I thank my research assistants Juan Lagos and Eduardo Gomien for their valuable contributions to my investigation and Nicolás Ibañez and Dag von Appen for having encouraged me to go on with the project. I also thank my supervisor Professor Katja Patzel-Mattern for her permanent feedback and supervision and Miriam Rabinovich for making sure this work is written in proper English. Last but not least, I thank Luana Hoffmann for her kind and generous support during these last three years. 1 Contents Introduction..........................................................................................................................................4 Chapter I: Beliefs and economic change...........................................................................................19 Economists and the importance of ideas........................................................................................19
    [Show full text]
  • Chris Brown International Relations and International Political Theory
    Chris Brown International relations and international political theory Book section Original citation: Originally published in Brown, C; Eckersley, R, The Oxford Handbook of International Political Theory. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 2018, pp. 48-59. © 2018 Oxford University Press This version available at: http://eprints.lse.ac.uk/87676/ Available in LSE Research Online: April 2018 LSE has developed LSE Research Online so that users may access research output of the School. Copyright © and Moral Rights for the papers on this site are retained by the individual authors and/or other copyright owners. Users may download and/or print one copy of any article(s) in LSE Research Online to facilitate their private study or for non-commercial research. You may not engage in further distribution of the material or use it for any profit-making activities or any commercial gain. You may freely distribute the URL (http://eprints.lse.ac.uk) of the LSE Research Online website. This document is the author’s submitted version of the book section. There may be differences between this version and the published version. You are advised to consult the publisher’s version if you wish to cite from it. For: Oxford Handbook of International Political Theory Part I. History, Traditions and Perspectives Chapter 3: International Relations and International Political Theory Chris Brown, Emeritus Professor of International Relations, London School of Economics [email protected] Introduction The modern idea that International Relations Theory (IR Theory) could be, and should be, distinguished from International Political Theory (IPT) would have been confusing to most of the founders of the discipline or field of International Relations and indeed to their pre-disciplinary forebears.
    [Show full text]
  • Paper Title (Use Style: Paper Title)
    Advances in Social Science, Education and Humanities Research, volume 360 European Multilingualism: Shaping Sustainable Educational and Social Environment (EMSSESE 2019) Constructing the Official Patriotic Myth in Multiethnic and Multilingual society: The Case of Habsburg Monarchy, 1805-1832 German Ragozin* Roman Boldyrev World History department World History department Northern (Arctic) Federal University Northern (Arctic) Federal University Arkhangelsk, Russia Arkhangelsk, Russia ORCID: 0000-0002-8695-4096 ORCID: 0000-0003-4262-7285 [email protected] [email protected] Abstract. The paper deals with the issues of Central and Eastern Europe and Balkans appear to be a constructing a supranational identity in the Austrian special case for study: from the late medieval period they Empire. Originally being a reaction to revolutionary became a subject to processes of emergence, expansion, ideas transferred from France throughout Europe, and disintegration of major political entities including conservative ideology appeared to influence the political several numerous communities. Existence of these empires development of Austria until the downfall of Habsburg ended after World War I with the establishment of states monarchy in 1918. The early Austrian conservatism based on the ethnocratic principle, which faces a problem referred to a significant patriotic myth, based on the of ethnic minorities remaining on the top of the agenda for loyalty towards the ruling dynasty and their empire, politicians and researchers. represented as the “family of peoples”. The What generally remains underexplored is the issues of philosophical, political and historical works published by supranational identities in political units based on the Friedrich von Gentz, Adam von Müller Nitterdorf and consolidation of various ethnic communities via political Joseph von Hormayr turned into a base for “Dynastic and historical myths.
    [Show full text]
  • The Concert of Europe As Self-Enforcing Equilibrium
    UC San Diego UC San Diego Previously Published Works Title Territory and commitment: The concert of Europe as self-enforcing equilibrium Permalink https://escholarship.org/uc/item/4b86z2wj Journal Security Studies, 14(4) ISSN 0963-6412 Author Slantchev, BL Publication Date 2005-07-01 DOI 10.1080/09636410500468792 Peer reviewed eScholarship.org Powered by the California Digital Library University of California Security Studies 14, no. 4 (October–December 2005): 565–606 Copyright © Taylor & Francis Inc. DOI: 10.1080/09636410500468792 Territory and Commitment: The Concert of Europe as Self-Enforcing Equilibrium BRANISLAV L. SLANTCHEV The pattern of cooperative behavior seen in the Concert of Europe during the first half of the nineteenth century resulted from a com- mitment to uphold the settlement, which hinged on the credibility of enforcement threats and a distribution of benefits commensu- rate with military capabilities. The equilibrium was self-enforcing because the powers that could oppose an alteration of the system had incentives to do so, and the powers that could upset it did not have incentives to do so. This behavior is markedly different from eighteenth-century practices, although no change in state prefer- ences is necessary to explain the change in behavior. Why does peace occur? For all the work on the causes of war, very little has been done on the causes of peace. Studying periods of peace, however, can be particularly useful in examining the consequences of structural change, especially following major wars. When players do not change themselves but do change their behavior, we must carefully examine the environment in which strategic interaction takes place, for variations in structure can explain different behavior when actors are very much the same.1 The fifty-odd years after the Napoleonic wars, usually referred to as the “Concert of Europe,” have been either lauded for their stable peace or denounced for their reactionary anti-liberalism.2 Several arguments have Branislav L.
    [Show full text]
  • The University of Chicago Censorship, Secrets
    THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO CENSORSHIP, SECRETS, CORRESPONDENCES, AND FREEDOM: THE LITERARY PUBLIC IN THE VIENNESE BIEDERMEIER A DISSERTATION SUBMITTED TO THE FACULTY OF THE DIVISION OF THE HUMANITIES IN CANDIDACY FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY DEPARTMENT OF GERMANIC STUDIES BY TAMARA KAMATOVIC CHICAGO, ILLINOIS AUGUST 2020 For Mathilda Ildikó Acknowledgments My introduction to German literature was through Bertolt Brecht’s dramas and poems. His poem “An die Nachgeborenen” is one of the reasons I decided to spend more time reading German, in particular the last verses: Ach, wir Die wir den Boden bereiten wollten für Freundlichkeit Konnten selber nicht freundlich sein. Ihr aber, wenn es so weit sein wird Dass der Mensch dem Menschen ein Helfer ist Gedenkt unserer Mit Nachsicht.1 These lines were written in the hope that future generations would understand that relations of friendship are founded on acts of solidarity. I have been fortunate to have many friends during my time as a graduate student at the University of Chicago, and this dissertation would not have been possible without them. I would like to begin by thanking my committee: David Wellbery, Thomas Pavel, and John Boyer. David Wellbery has been a magnanimous reader and a patient and generous listener. His graduate student seminars and advising formed the ground from which this dissertation and many other ideas have sprung. In other words, he has laid a coherent foundation for reading that has brought me closer to understanding what is important in a literary text, and he has given me a sense of how to take these texts apart and put them back together.
    [Show full text]
  • The Question of Realism: an Historian’S View
    Copyrighted Material C H A P T E R O N E The Question of Realism: An Historian’s View Different countries want different things; sometimes those desires conflict; how then do those conflicts get worked out? The basic insight that lies at the heart of the realist approach to international politics is that the way those conflicts run their course is heavily conditioned by power realities. In a world where war cannot be ruled out if conflicts are not settled peacefully, rational states are bound to be concerned with the structure of power in the sense not just of the distribution of military capabilities both actual and potential, but also of the whole web of relationships that would affect what would happen if war actu­ ally broke out. But rational states not only adjust their policies to such power realities. If the structure of power is of such fundamental impor­ tance, it stands to reason that states might well try to alter it to their advantage. That striving for power political advantage in turn might well come to dominate the system. The fact that states live in an anar­ chic system—that is, a system not governed by supranational author- ity—can therefore have a profound impact on state behavior, and some of the most central problems of international relations theory thus have to do with the importance of such “systemic” or “structural” effects in international political life. It is commonly assumed that this concern for power, and especially this striving for power political advantage, puts states at odds with each other—that the struggle for power is a major source of conflict in and of itself.
    [Show full text]
  • Let Us Now Praise Great Men Bringing the Statesman Back In
    Let Us Now Praise Daniel L. Byman and Great Men Kenneth M. Pollack Let Us Now Praise Great Men Bringing the Statesman Back In In January 1762, Prus- sia hovered on the brink of disaster. Despite the masterful generalship of Fred- erick the Great, the combined forces of France, Austria, and Russia had gradually worn down the Prussian army in six years of constant warfare. Aus- trian armies had marched deep into Saxony and Silesia, and the Russians had even sacked Berlin. Frederick’s defeat appeared imminent, and the enemy co- alition intended to partition Prussia to reduce it to the status of a middle Ger- man state no more powerful than Bavaria or Saxony. And then a miracle occurred. The Prusso-phobic Czarina Elizabeth unexpectedly died, only to be succeeded by her son Peter, who idolized the soldier-king. Immediately Peter made peace with Frederick and ordered home the Russian armies. This rever- sal paralyzed the French and Austrians and allowed Frederick to rally his forces. Although Peter was soon ousted by his wife, Catherine, the allied ar- mies never regained their advantage. In the end, Frederick held them off and kept Prussia intact.1 Frederick’s triumph in the Seven Years’ War was essential to Prussia’s even- tual uniªcation of Germany and all that followed from it. Conceiving of Euro- pean history today without this victory is impossible. It is equally impossible to conceive of Prussian victory in 1763 without the death of Elizabeth and Pe- ter’s adoration of Frederick. In the words of Christopher Duffy, “It is curious to reºect that if one lady had lived for a very few weeks longer, historians would by now have analyzed in most convincing detail the reasons for a collapse as ‘inevitable’ as that which overtook the Sweden of Charles XII.”2 In short, had it not been for the idiosyncrasies of one man and one woman, European history would look very, very different.
    [Show full text]