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1 'Peace for Our Time': the European Quest for Peace

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1 'Peace for Our Time': the European Quest for Peace Notes 1 ‘Peace for Our Time’: The European Quest for Peace 1. https://www.gov.uk/government/history/10-downing-street#number-10-at- war. Benjamin Disraeli upon returning from the Congress of Berlin in 1878 used the same phrase, which echoes the verse in The Book of Common Prayer ‘Give peace in our time, O Lord’. 2. Cf. Sheehan 2008. 3. Cf. http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/peace/laureates/2012/ 4. Ash 2005, 199. 5. Hansen and Jonsson 2011; 2012. 6. Bhambra 2009. 7. Kaelble 2001; Kaelble and Kirsch 2007. 8. Gollwitzer 1951 distinguishes between inclusive and exclusive views. The distinction is not always helpful, though, as much depends on the thresh- old and perspective one adopts: exclusiveness and inclusiveness are often ambivalent. 9. On the latter see Shore 2000; Sassatelli 2009. 10. The literature on European identity is endless. For a brief overview, see Wintle 2013. 11. ‘Indeed, drawing distinctions among and between themselves have been one of the defining obsessions of the inhabitants of the continent.’ Judt 2011, 46. 12. For discussions of such representations of European history see Huistra, Molema and Wirt 2014; Leggewie 2011. 13. Delanty 2013 is actually one of the most interesting histories that take the diversity of the continent as a constituent element of its identity seriously. 14. Alesina et al. 2003 publish indices for ethnic, linguistic and religious fractionalization for about 190 countries. These indices can only be used with caution, though. In particular, the index on religion is highly ques- tionable, as the text shows a little reflection on the definition of religion and on how religious diversity was measured – different denominations were apparently treated as different religions. See also Kymlicka and He 2005. 15. The Indian constitution recognizes 22 official languages. The actual num- ber of literary languages in India, however, is much higher. Lewis 2009 counts 438 living languages. The Indian census recognized 1,652 different languages in India (including languages not native to the subcontinent) in 1961; the 1991 census limits the amount at a total of 122 languages and 234 ‘mother tongues’ of at least 10,000 speakers. http://www.censusindia .gov.in/Census_Data_2001/Census_Data_Online/Language/Statement1.htm. The EU currently recognizes 35 official languages; there are not many languages that do not benefit from official recognition. 16. For an overview see Prügl and Thiel 2009. 17. Mamdani 2001. 206 Notes 207 18. Kymlicka and He 2005. An interesting comparative study of premodern soci- eties around the Indian Ocean based on Cantor’s set theory in Chaudhuri 1990. See also Burbank and Cooper 2010. 19. Stepan 2011. 20. The Malaysian government launched a very successful campaign to promote itself as multicultural and diverse under the slogan ‘Malaysia, truly Asia’ in 1999. 21. The issue is not that straightforward, though, and is disputed by, among others, Bruce 1996. 22. For a recent, albeit controversial, assessment see Gregory 2012. 23. Maleševica´ 2012; Reynolds 2011; Wolff 1994. 24. Gat 2013. 25. Perhaps with the significant, but partial, exception of Jews, though Judaism was increasingly – but not exclusively – defined in racial terms. Compare Boyarin 2009. 26. In this respect, see especially the work of Mann 2005; Ther 2011; Wimmer 2002; 2012 and 2013. 27. Labrie 2011; Mergel 2009. See also Kraus and Sciortino 2014. 28. Compare Burbank and Cooper 2010, which emphasizes the homogeniz- ing politics of Europe in comparison with non-European empires. See also Boyarin 2009. 29. Weitz 2005: 20; Nirenberg 1996: 1–17 and 241–245. 30. Habermas and Derrida 2003, 293, quoted in Bhambra 2009, 3. Delanty 2013 makes this representation of cosmopolitan Europe the core of his long-term narrative. 31. Cf. Bhambra 2009. On the cooperation and peace-building features of EU Foreign Policy see Keukeleire and Delreux 2014, especially chapter 6. 32. E.g. Milward 1992. See also Moravcsik 1998 and Collins 2013. 33. A state of the art in Nexon 2009, chapter 8. 34. Burbank and Cooper 2010, 182. 35. Dickinson 2008. See also Ther 2004. 36. Cf. Semmel 1993; Fitzpatrick 2012. 2 Peace in Christendom? 1. Dante, Monarchy, edited by Prue Shaw, Cambridge University Press, 1996, 26. 2. Swedberg 1994. 3. Dussel 2000, 465. 4. Sen 2005. 5. Brague 1992. 6. Wickham 2009, 563. On the legal changes more below. 7. Brown 2013, 408–433. 8. Wulfstan of York, The Institutes of Polity, ca. 1010, quoted in Smith 2005, 250. For a broader discussion, see ibidem 217–252. 9. Vian 2004. 10. Barbero 2004; Lieberman 2013, 43–87. 11. Barbero 2004. 12. Reuter 1992. 208 Notes 13. Fischer 1957, 46. 14. Hay 1968, 25, erroneously identifies the author as Isidorus Pacensis (Bishop Isidore of Beja). The document has been edited and translated by J. Eduardo Lopez Pereira, Continuatio Isidoriana Hispana Cronica Mozarabe de 754, León, 2009. English translation by Wolf 1990 (passage 145). 15. Heather 2010. 16. Gollwitzer 1951, 31. 17. Siedentop 2014, 151–162 and ff. See more detailed in Bellomo 1995; Lesaffer 2012; Povolo 2013; Schröder 2013; Stein 1999. 18. Rietbergen 1989, 138. 19. William of Malmesbury, Chronicle of the Kings of England, translated by Rev. John Sharpe, edited by J. A. Giles, London: George Bell and Sons, 1904, 360 (orig. Gesta regum Anglorum, 1126, quoted in Den Boer 1993, 28). Hay 1968 gives a more ample discussion of the meaning of Europe for the Middle Ages. 20. Rietbergen 1998, 138. For a reassessment of the significance of the European– Islamic opposition, see Rich 1999. 21. Yapp 1992, 134–155. 22. Balzaretti 1992. 23. Bartlett 1994. 24. Especially Delanty 2013 and in a different (more sophisticated) way Brague 1992. 25. Similarly Crom 2009, 86. I use the term ‘Cathars’ as a generic term. According to Moore 2012, no such sect existed and the Cathars were an invention of contemporary elites. 26. Hrabanus Maurus, Expositio in Epistolam I ad Corinthios, 2 quoted in Smith 2005, 231. An overview in Lieberman 2013, 43–87 (‘Word and sword in the making of Christian Europe’). 27. For a brief but brilliant presentation see Berend 2013, 1–13. Compare Nirenberg 1996. 28. Kater 2006, 20–25. For an extensive analysis of Augustinus’ conception of peace, see Budzik 1988. 29. Boyarin 2009, 6. 30. Smith 2005, 217–230. 31. Moore 2007; 2012; Landes, Gow and Van Meter 2003. 32. Crouzet 1990. 33. Nirenberg 1996, 18–40. 34. Delanty 2013, 35. 35. Virk 2014 gives an extensive list of authors and figures. 36. An example would be the great Muslim mapmaker Muhammad al-Idrisi at the court of King Roger II of Sicily in Palermo. See Rich 1999, 441; Wintle 2008, 29–30. 37. Abu-Lughod 1989. For the idea of a ‘cosmopolitan Christian Europe of the twelfth and thirteenth centuries’, see for example Smith 2005. 38. Cf. Helfers 2005, who emphasizes the heterogeneity of medieval and early modern culture (in reality limited to the borderlands though) in his intro- duction, but admits that Europe did not share today’s multiculturalism as ‘as an ideological stance [valuing] just this diversity and the tentativeness that comes from valuing it’ (7). 39. Brown 2013, 383–404. Notes 209 40. Rietbergen 1998, 136–142. 41. Höfert 2007. 42. Hay 1968, 58–61. 43. Rietbergen 1998, 139–140. On Marsiglio, see Nederman 1995. For a broader situation, see Nederman 2000. 44. Geyer 2003, 129–139. 45. Quoted in Höfert 2007, 216. 46. Höfert 2007. 47. Al-Azmeh 2007, 351–352. 48. Beaune 1994, 35–56 (includes a French translation of Podiebrad’s Tractatus). 49. For example, Philpott 2001. Compare Beaulac 2004 (the whole book is a devastating critique on the sovereignty ‘myth of Westphalia’); Osiander 2001 and Nexon 2009, chapter 8. 50. For example Loriaux 2008, 138–147. 51. Middell and Naumann 2010. On the issue of corporate sovereignty, see Stern 2011. In contrast to the Hanseatic League or monastic military orders, corporations did associate with states. 52. Loriaux 2008, 138–147 (especially 146); Balibar 2001, 22. 53. Justus Lipsius, Six Books of Politickes or Civil Doctrine, done into English by William Iones, London, 1594, Book IV, 3 quoted in Tuck 1988, 21–22. 54. John Locke, Epistola de tolerantia: A letter concerning toleration (1689), 64 f, quoted and translated by Oberman 2010, 16. See also Marshall 2006. More in general Louthan, Cohenand & Szabo 2001; Ragnow and Phillips Jr. 2011; Grell and Scribner 2002. 55. Beneke 2008; Pellegrino 2013. 56. Kaplan 2007, chapter 8. 57. Bély 2007, 248–255; von Greyerz 2008; Nexon 2009; Schilling 2007. 58. Wangerman 2011, 209–218. 59. Kaplan 2007; Onnekink 2009. 60. Van Rooden 1996. 61. Jacobs 2009 (in contrast to the more conventional, romanticized view in Shorto 2004). Elsewhere the picture is mixed: in Southeast-Asian Dutch colonies, Catholics were not tolerated – they were suspected of being allies of the Portuguese or Spanish – but Jews and dissenters usually were. In the Dutch Republic itself Jews enjoyed a relatively privileged position. 62. Kooi 2012. 63. See Muchembled 2006–2007. 64. Bély 2007, 481. 65. Mémoires sur le grand projet de Henri le Grand pour établir en Europe une police générale, un arbitrage permanent, une protection réciproque entre les souverains chrétiens, 1638, in Mémoires, Vil. III, 168–169 (quoted in Spector 2011, 45). The context of Sully’s plan is analyzed in Bély 2007, 103–130; Roberts 2013 (who, however, seems unaware of Sully’s peace plan). 66. Gollwitzer 1952, 44–45. 67. Emeric Crucé, The New Cyneas, ed. and trans. by Thomas Willing Balch, Philadelphia: Allen, Lane and Scott, 1909, xv (orig. Nouveau Cynée ou Discours d’Estat représentant les occasions et moyens d’establir une paix générale et la liberté de commerce pour tout le monde, 1623, 57).
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