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“Lifting As We Climb”: the Emergence of an African-Canadian Civil Society in Southern Ontario (1840-1901) by Lorene Bridgen

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“Lifting As We Climb”: the Emergence of an African-Canadian Civil Society in Southern Ontario (1840-1901) by Lorene Bridgen “Lifting As We Climb”: The Emergence of an African-Canadian Civil Society in Southern Ontario (1840-1901) by Lorene Bridgen A thesis presented to the University of Waterloo in fulfillment of the thesis requirement for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in History Waterloo, Ontario, Canada, 2016 © Lorene Bridgen 2016 Author’s Declaration I hereby declare that I am the sole author of this thesis. This is a true copy of the thesis, including any required final revisions, as accepted by my examiners. I understand that my thesis may be made electronically available to the public. ii Abstract This dissertation examines Black civil society organizations that brought the African- Canadian community closer to their rights as citizens of Canada West from 1840-1901. Past scholars have applied the concept of civil society to White organizations, but the following considers civil society organizations in the context of African-Canadian life. Through a broader discussion of multiple Black cultural organizations, including literary societies, fraternal orders, religious societies, and etiquette groups, “Lifting As We Climb” highlights the community’s training of future activists and the application of the lessons learned within the walls of these groups to “mainstream” society. During the nineteenth century African Canadians experienced the harsh realities that accompanied their newfound freedom in Canada West, particularly from racist Whites. In response, the Black community utilized African-Canadian cultural organizations to create change. “Lifting As We Climb” argues that, while African-Canadian citizens came together through organizational work, for the common and overarching reason of equality, their fight against injustice resulted in the emergence of a Black civil society. Within Black civil society, participants of any “gender,” “class,” or religion had a voice. Through these organizations, African Canadians gained the confidence to the challenge the status quo, but also realized that there would be sacrifices to be made, particularly in terms of their previous political allegiances. This was a change they were willing to make. African-Canadian groups also understood the significant role of children, recognizing that there would be no progress without the next generation, which is why many Black activists invested substantial time and energy into working with children: they wanted to ensure that their work would continue. This dissertation brings to light the numerous contributions of unknown, and well-known, Black activists and organizations, and demonstrates that both leaders and followers could make a difference. iii Acknowledgements The title of this work, “Lifting As We Climb,” not only summarizes the collective action of African Canadians during the nineteenth century, it also represents my journey. Throughout this entire process I have considered myself truly blessed as a result of the amazing support system that has surrounded and guided me along the way. Any positive thoughts or words of encouragement raised me up toward my final goal. Endless gratitude goes to my supervisor, James Walker. Having the opportunity to learn what I am sure is only a fraction of his extensive knowledge will be a memory I will value forever. From the very beginning his words (especially emails) of encouragement have navigated me through this challenging process. As one of the foremost experts in African-Canadian history, his words of wisdom, criticism, and feedback have been invaluable. This work is the result of his influence. A great deal of thanks goes to my other committee members. From the beginning of the writing process Julia Roberts has helped me to further develop my thoughts and argument. Her insightful criticism and advice improved this work at every stage. Adam Crerar also deserves equal appreciation. His feedback and support improved the quality of this dissertation, particularly toward the end of this process. Each went above and beyond their role and made me a better scholar. I am also grateful to my external examiner Jan Noel and internal external, Jennifer Harris, for their valuable comments. Special thanks go to the University of Waterloo which provided the necessary funding for research trips and conferences which enhanced my dissertation. Also, the staff of the Archives of Ontario and Library and Archives Canada provided me with the resources which constitute a great deal of this work’s content. A sincere thank you to each institution. Bryan and Shannon Prince are, without a doubt, the most generous people I met on my journey. Each time I entered iv the Buxton National Historic Site and Museum I was welcomed with a smile and a hug. They treated me like family and I will be forever grateful to them. The staff at Amherstburg’s Marsh Collection and the North American Black Historical Museum, now the Amherstburg Freedom Museum, offered continuous assistance, particularly the former museum curator, Ken Stanton. Those at the Chatham-Kent Black Historical Society/Museum (Black Mecca Museum), in particular, Blair Newby and Gwen Robinson, were an invaluable help while searching through the museum’s countless binders of information. The librarians and staff of the Windsor Public Library also provided helpful assistance during the days and nights that I looked through microfilm and microfiche. In the early days of my research, Brother Clayton Talbert of the American Star Lodge No. 4 welcomed me into the world of Masonic History, even being kind enough to lend his personal documents. I will always remember our meetings at Tim Hortons. I am also grateful to Dr. Christina Simmons, who even after I completed my Master’s research, provided me with valuable guidance. Of all the people to influence “Lifting As We Climb” I owe the largest debt of gratitude to someone I will never meet. Historian and activist, Alvin McCurdy, had an enthusiasm and thirst for knowledge that has aided numerous scholars over the decades. I count myself lucky to have accessed this part of his life. His research collection at the Archives of Ontario is the foundation upon which this dissertation stands. I am deeply thankful for the wonderful students, faculty, and staff of the Tri-University History program. Along the way I have met the most amazing group of people who I will consider family for the rest of my life, particularly Kristin and Matt Hall, Ryan and Rachel Kirkby, Carla Marano and Craig Capacchione, Mark Sweeney and Adrienne MacDonald, Jill Campbell-Miller and David Miller, Allan Downey, and Jonathan and Kata Crossen. This process can be incredibly isolating, but knowing that they were all a drive, phone call, or email v away, gave me the motivation that I needed. Forming these friendships will continue to be my most treasured memory of this experience. During my time at Waterloo I also had the pleasure of knowing Donna Hayes who continuously offered support and guidance throughout this process. Her assistance will always be appreciated. Toward the end of my journey Aaron Ducker also proved to be extremely helpful in Donna’s absence. I thank them both. To my mother Ruth and father Sam who, from a very early age, taught me the importance of hard work and perseverance. Without your belief in me, I would not be the person I am today. Thanks also to my sister Jodi, brother Kevin, and sister-in-law Jenn who often provided me with much-needed distractions from my research. I will be forever indebted to each of you. To the rest of my family, particularly my aunt Marlene, I appreciate your enthusiasm for my project and guidance along the way. Also, Marie, your gentle words have put me at ease a number of times. Finally, Brian, you are my best friend, partner, and cheerleader. Your amazing ability to make me laugh and smile has pushed me through tough times. I honestly do not know how I would have finished this task without your love and support. vi Dedication To Brian: During the highs and lows you remained a constant source of strength, always pushing me forward. vii Table of Contents Author’s Declaration……………………………………………………………………………...ii Abstract…………………………………………………………………………………………...iii Acknowledgements……………………………………………………………………………….iv Dedication………………………………………………………………………………………..vii Table of Contents………………………………………………………………………………..viii Introduction: Civil Society: The Space In Between………………………………………………1 Chapter One: “I’ll Find a Way or Make One”: Creating a Classroom for Activism…………….43 Chapter Two: The Ties That Bind (And Separate): Challenges to and Competing Visions Within Black Civil Society……………………………………………………………………..100 Chapter Three: Setting A Standard: Membership and Leadership……………………………..148 Chapter Four: Merging Identities………………………………………………………………188 Chapter Five: “Intelligent parents will raise up intelligent children:” Youth Involvement……227 Conclusion: Moving Forward………………………………………………………………….269 Bibliography……………………………………………………………………………………281 viii Introduction: Civil Society: The Space In Between “Lifting As We Climb,” the motto for the Frederic [sic] Douglass Self-Improvement Club, encapsulates the feelings and intentions of a majority of African Canadians during the nineteenth century. It was the Black community’s hope that while active and successful African Canadians were thriving in nineteenth-century Canada West (Ontario), these same individuals (and groups) would simultaneously aid their fellow community members in their struggles against poverty, illiteracy, and racism. Essentially, their mission was to assist others while they helped
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